Academic Writing

Academic writing
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Introduction
The structure of an academic text
o paragraphs and topic sentences
o Signposting and transitions
 introductory sentence stems
 concluding sentence stems
 transition sentence stems and words
 repeating key terms
Academic writing conventions
o audience
o disciplinary conventions
o acknowledging sources
o technical language and jargon
o defining terms
o active and passive voice
o use of first person
o fair critique
o assertive writing
o direct quotes
o word choice
o verb tense
o redundant writing
o acronyms

Introduction
Academic writing takes a variety of forms ranging from research proposals and grant applications, journal
articles, theses, published books and book chapters, conference papers and other presentations. This
resource will focus on the basic writing conventions that cross different kinds of academic texts.
In a way, academic writing is like a conversation. When contributing to a good conversation, the aim is to
articulate a specific idea, or to report a specific piece of information about the subject of discussion in order
to further the understanding of all participants. Effective academic writing, like good conversation, depends
upon participants making relevant, direct, concise and respectful contributions.
This can be accomplished by attending to writing structure and academic convention.
A good structure is accomplished by providing:
 an introduction with a clear statement of the idea that will be contributed to the discussion;
 an introduction that provides a clear statement of the order of the points to be discussed as part of
the development of this idea;
 evidence, reasoned debate, data or reflective commentary to support your point;
 opening and closing paragraphs, and first and last sentences within paragraphs, which carry the
main points;
 signposting and transition sentences that lead the reader from idea to idea;
 consistent topic order and phrasing that lead the reader from point to point.
This resource will outline the structural aspects of academic writing. It will also discuss some basic
academic writing conventions to assist you to achieve a direct and assertive style of writing.
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The structure of an academic text
In order to ensure the reader can follow the key idea within a typically lengthy and complex text, academic
writers clearly articulate the central point or finding in the first page or two of their writing. The content in
the main body then relates directly to this central point. Diversions from the key point are avoided.
Evidence that will support the main idea is organised into unified sections, which are then discussed in a
logical order in the main body. The most important information is always presented first, followed by the

next most important, and so on to the least important. Each section is summarised in a key point, which is
often stated in the introduction.
Each segment of evidence is then taken up in turn in a separate section in the main body of the text in the
order in which it was introduced. Within each section, the main point is introduced and concluded in turn in
the first and last sentences and paragraphs of the section.
Introductions and conclusions of all kinds can be thought about as 'power positions' because they carry the
main points. Power positions include the main introduction and conclusion, and the introductions and
conclusions within the sections and sub-sections of a document, including the first and last sentences of
paragraphs. When constructing a text, it is important to avoid delaying the main point beyond the
introductory section, or trailing off at the end of a section without drawing together the main message of
that section.
This way of structuring an academic text is represented below.
Introduction
Statement of the overall main point or take home message (in addition to rationale, justification,
contextualisation, key definitions)
Introduction of main content areas that will support the main message
– Content 1
– Content 2
– Content 3
Section 1, Content area 1
First paragraph provides the main idea of content area 1
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 1
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 1 and links to content area 2
Section 2, Content area 2
First paragraph states the main point of content area 2
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 2
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 2 and links to content area 3
Section 3, Content area 3
First paragraph states the main point of content area 3
Main body comprises evidence, data, reflective commentary for content area 3
Last sentence provides summary statement for content area 3
Conclusion
First sentences summarise main points 1, 2, and 3
Main body of conclusion comprises discussion of implications of conclusions 1, 2 and 3
Last sentence provides summative statement of the implications of the main point or take home message.
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Paragraphs and topic sentences
Blocks of text within the sections and sub-sections of the main body of the text are called paragraphs. A
paragraph has one main point. In order to avoid losing or confusing the main point of the paragraph, you
can provide an overview sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. This is called a topic sentence. This
sentence is followed with further explication of the topic of the paragraph. In effect the topic sentence
creates a sense of expectation which is fulfilled in the main body of the paragraph. The direction of well
written papers can then be gleaned from reading the first sentence of each paragraph.
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Signposting and transition sentences
Academic writing is much like leading the reader through a maze by signposting which direction will be
taken at the beginning of new turns in the discussion, and summarising what has been covered at the end of
a section of writing. For the most part, signposting sentences and transition sentences appear at the
beginning and ending of texts, or of the sections within them. Their function is to signal a shift in the
direction of ideas, to establish logical connections and conclusions, or the relationships between ideas.
Signposting and transition sentences come in several forms. Introductory signposting sentences indicate
what you are doing, why you are doing it, and how you are going to go about doing it. Introductory
signposting phrases should be few, and located within introductions, introductory paragraphs, or perhaps
the first and last sentences of paragraphs.

Signposting sentences provided at the end of paragraphs and sections aim to draw together the main ideas
or conclusions, and to highlight the significance or relevance of the preceding discussion. Concluding
signposting sentences should be more numerous than introductory signposting sentences because they
provide direction, and give the text a critical, assertive tone.
'Transition' sentences and phrases are a mixture of introductory and concluding signposting sentences.
Transitions usually involve summarising or pointing to the main point or topic of a particular section of
writing, and then signalling a new topic of discussion.
Examples of different kinds of signposting and transition sentences are provided below.
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Introductory signposting sentence stems
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The central argument for the development of …. is…
The debate surrounding … within this research is grounded in the field of … According to one
perspective, …
My research contributes to knowledge about …, and specifically … through an in-depth study of
...
This study does not attempt to justify a connection between … and … Instead it investigates …
However, this raises debates regarding the perceived benefits and disadvantages of …
This research seeks to investigate exactly what ... means to …
A great deal of … is tied to the issue of … This research will attempt to clarify these links by ...
It is contented that …
The study demonstrates that this construction of …
The thesis draws on the view that …
This thesis does not draw conclusions about the benefits or otherwise of re-constructing … The
purpose of focussing on … is to examine the presumption that …
To understand the role of … in forming … this study aims to provide an understanding of the
factors that contribute to …
This dissertation grounds the rhetoric of … It provides detailed interpretations of …
This dissertation throws light on information not available elsewhere on … It makes a contribution
to the conversation about …by illuminating the way …
In this dissertation, attention is directed to …
This next section will examine some of the difficulties associated with …
This chapter sets out to investigate the … and its links with ... It closely examines the … In
addition, the thesis also investigates the notion that …
The final section provides a general discussion of … The section concludes with coverage of …
The last part of the section reveals that …
The current debate about … is outlined demonstrating that ...
In this section the aspects of … are considered separately to highlight their relationship to …
The three following sections review insights from selected authors about the value of ... in order to
highlight …
The next section highlights the literature relevant to the concept of … in order to show that …

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Concluding signposting sentence stems
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From the above discussion on … it follows that ... This adds to my proposition that …
Current literature often presumes …
It rapidly becomes clear that the study of ... is intimately bound up in …
This brief overview of … shows the overall direction of …
The influence of … is highlighted here. It reinforces the proposition made in …
As the statement above indicates, …
Again it is evident that …
For this reason, it can be said that …
Thus, there is a strong argument for …
The understandings generated from this review of the literature on … show that….
In this context, then …

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Consideration of the underlying factors demonstrate that ...
My investigation shows that …
This research sought to establish…
The issues raised from this review of literature establish that ...
This review of research into … reveals that …
Given the observed trends of … it can be concluded that ...
Inherent in this conception is the understanding that ...
Implicit in this definition is the understanding that …
Based essentially on the argument that ... outlined above, I maintain that …
Although different authors have put different emphases into their descriptions of … there is
general agreement that ...
Throughout the literature … It is generally claimed that ...
The strength of such an approach is that …
This chapter commenced with an exploration of ... It reveals that …
While we now know a great deal about ... little research has been done on … This raises the
question ...
This chapter has highlighted … It is evident that … However, the nature of … from the
perspective of ... has not been explored.
This chapter brings to light two integral concepts related to … This needs now to be researched
more actively in the setting of … to explore the question of whether ...

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Transition sentence stems
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Whilst this study focussed explicitly on…., it is recognised that ….
To appreciate the …. , it is worth visiting briefly the model of ….
Before the discussion on the significance of … can be extended, the theoretical grounds for ...
requires explanation.
Before going on to explore further the issues of …., the working definitions for ... require
clarification.
Before going on to look at … it is important to consider ….
The applicability of this concept to … has not previously been considered. Therefore, … the three
subsections below investigate literature on … specific to the question of ….
Authors considered in the following section have been more explicit about … than those above
who focus purely upon ...
In contrast to those authors whose paramount concern is ... the field of ... takes the perspective that
...
Research discussed in the following section, takes the question of … further. This work suggests
that ...
However, not all authors agree that … Some describe a different approach in which …

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Transition words
 Show order/sequence: first, then, next, finally, secondly, thirdly, began, ended
 Show time: soon, then, finally, previously, later, last, meanwhile, earlier, at the same time,
subsequently, following on from, when, immediately, upon, since
 Add some ideas: again, and, besides, therefore, also, additionally, indeed, moreover, another, as
well, likewise, furthermore, finally, next
 Show cause and effect: thus, hence, therefore, consequently, so, because, since, then, finally,
accordingly, for these reasons, as a result, on that account
 Indicate a summary: in brief, finally, in conclusion, to conclude, lastly, in summary, on the whole,
to sum up, in fact, indeed, in other words
 Contrast ideas: however, nevertheless, yet, and yet, but, still, on the other hand, otherwise,
conversely, in spite of, by contrast, despite, although, though, even so, on the contrary,
notwithstanding, a different view

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Compare ideas: similarly, likewise, correspondingly, both equally, equally important, in the same
way, in the same manner, each
Illustrate: for example, for instance, to illustrate, by way of illustration, to be specific, in
particular, in other words
Concede: naturally, granted, of course, to be sure, although, despite, in spite of, for all, while,
notwithstanding

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Repeating key terms
In addition to the use of clear, well appointed signposting and transition sentences, a smooth transition of
ideas can be accomplished by repeating key terms.
Vague, dense writing is improved by replacing terms like 'it', 'they' and 'which' with specific key terms.
For example, compare the first paragraph below with the improved version that follows:
Ethics refers to a system of moral principles for judging whether a particular action is right or
wrong, as well as a set of rules of conduct for a specific class of actors or actions. It provides
professionals with a set of standards to guide decision making. However, it is not something that
can be ensured by the provision of a code alone.
In this paragraph, the first sentence introduces two different but related meanings for the subject of the
paragraph, ethics, moral principles and rules of conduct. However, the use of the term 'it' in the beginning
of the second and third sentences, makes it unclear which of these meanings of ethics is being referred to in
the those sentences.
In the following paragraph, 'it' has been replaced with 'professional code of conduct' and 'ethical action' to
signal precisely what is being referred to in the sentence.
Ethics refers to a system of moral principles for judging whether a particular action is right or
wrong, as well as a set of rules of conduct for a specific class of actors or actions. Codes of
conduct provide professionals with a set of rules to guide decision making. However, ethical
action is not something that can be assured by the provision of a code alone.
Here it becomes clear that it is professional codes of conduct that provide a limited guide for ethical action.
Writing clarity can also be improved by using the same key term rather than several different words to
describe the same phenomena.
For example, compare the first paragraph below with the improved version that follows:
This study will examine industrialisation processes in China from the late 1900s to the present.
While growing structural differentiation was evident in the early part of the century, agrarian
economies also continued to flourish. In the past 50 years, the move toward revolutionised means
of production has continued unchecked.
In this paragraph, 'industrialisation processes', 'structural differentiation' and 'revolutionised means of
production' are used to describe the same phenomenon, although this is not immediately clear to the reader.
In the next paragraph, these terms are replaced with one term expressed as 'industrialisation' or 'industrial
economy':
This study will examine industrialisation processes in China from the late 1900’s to the present.
While industrialisation was evident in the early part of the century, agrarian economies also
continued to flourish. In the past 50 years, the move toward an industrial economy has continued
unchecked.
The use of the same key term in this paragraph enables the significance of the key point to emerge clearly −
that in the past 50 years industry has become the dominant economic form in China.
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Academic writing conventions
Audience
In addition to a well devised structure, the persuasiveness and clarity of academic writing can be improved
by carefully considering the expectations and knowledge of the audience of the text.
Academic writing, like all good writing, should be tailored to a specific audience. The audience the text is
intended to reach determines what is emphasised and included, how much detail is required, and the writing
style that will be adopted.

For the most part, academics write for academic audiences. This is because research must first be tested and
refined within its relevant field of expertise before it can be publicly disseminated. In this way, processes of
academic peer review aim to protect the public from faulty or misleading information.
Academic audiences differ widely, and it is important to consider the background knowledge of a specific
academic audience within the writing process. Some academic audiences are highly specialised, others are
more generalist, and some are comprised of researchers from a variety of different disciplinary
backgrounds.
Journal articles are written with the concerns and expertise of the journal readership in mind. For this
reason, journal articles often presume a more specialised audience than other kinds of academic writing.
This can explain the oblique references made within many journals to debates and perspectives that would
only be familiar to other experts in the journal's field of interest.
Scholarly books, on the other hand, are often targeted to wider public or novice audiences and will not
assume an extensive background knowledge in the subject area.
Conference audiences vary widely. Some are attended by researchers from different backgrounds, in which
case, papers and presentations must explain core premises explicitly. Others attract more specialist
audiences and presenters do not need to provide the same level of background explanation they would for
mixed audiences.
Internal research proposals, like those written for conferral of candidature, aim to fulfil the expected
requirements of the degree, and are written largely for the supervisor and other academics within the
School. Research proposals aim to ensure that those involved in the research are clear about the research
aims and objectives, and to demonstrate that the research can be completed within the given time frame and
resource limitations. The content of the research proposal then reflects these objectives.
Theses are written for examination by examiners with extensive knowledge in some aspect of the field of
study. They are also written for publication in specialist journals. PhD and Masters theses therefore tend to
adopt specialised language. However, even though the examiner or journal reviewer will be expert in some
aspect of the study, it is important to explain the ideas of author's cited, and any concepts and terms used in
the thesis explicitly so that your meaning of the term is clear.
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Disciplinary conventions
The structure and presentation of academic writing, as well as the point of view adopted by the writer,
varies considerably depending upon the disciplinary background of the audience it is written for. Different
disciplinary conventions apply to questions such as whether and how often to use the first person pronoun,
passive or active voice, or references to the researcher in the singular or plural ('I', 'we').
Words and phrases can also mean different things within different disciplines, and the meaning of
commonly accepted terms are sometimes contested within a discipline. For example, 'post modern' is used
to refer to a style of architecture and design within architecture, and a time period or field of social thought
within the humanities. The use of terms like 'power', 'class', 'culture' and 'identity' are theorised in different
and contested ways within the social sciences and humanities and therefore require careful use, whereas
they may be used without attracting comment in another discipline area.
The style and structure of academic texts also varies between disciplines. For example, in areas like
psychology or health sciences a 'report style' of writing is frequently adopted in which sections on 'method',
'measures', 'results', 'discussion' are expected. In other areas, texts are organised around conceptual,
historical, policy, or other groupings of ideas.
There is no 'correct' set of academic writing rules, rather different conventions apply to different disciplines
and fields or methodologies within disciplines. As a general rule of thumb, it is best to stay within the broad
conventions of the field within which you are writing. Choose a group of writers, journals or books that are
closest to your own perspective and adopt the same writing conventions they use.
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Acknowledging sources
Different fields of study also adopt different referencing systems. For more information about referencing
styles and ethics, please go to: Learning and Teaching Unit referencing resource.
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Technical language and jargon
Like the specialist languages adopted in other professions, technical, theoretical and other academic jargon
is designed to convey agreed meaning for a group of scholarly experts. It is appropriate for you to use

specialist language within your field, but it is best to avoid such language when writing for non academic or
general audiences.
Specialist terms must be used accurately. Philosophical, sociological and other specialist dictionaries are
the best places to confirm the meaning of terms. As a general rule, avoid using terms whose meaning you
are unsure of.
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Defining terms
Any term that is contested or not commonly known within the field within which you are writing requires a
definition.
Define any term whose meaning:
 varies or is contested,
 is more precise in your usage than in the general or specialist dictionary,
 is not the same as the meaning provided in the common or specialist dictionary,
 does not appear in a common or specialist dictionary.
The first time the term is used, it should be defined precisely and concisely, and then used in this exact
sense throughout the text. Provide references where necessary.
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Active and passive voice
Active voice places the actor of the sentence in the subject − the part of the sentence in front of the verb.
For example: ‘management implemented the policy’; or ‘the results confirm an increase in violence’.
Passive voice places the actor of the sentence in the predicate (the part of the sentence behind the verb), or
leaves it out altogether. For example: ‘the policy was implemented by management’, ‘the policy was
implemented’; or ‘an increase in violence is confirmed by the results’, ‘an increase in violence is
confirmed’.
Preference is for the active voice because it is more direct, concise and accurate. However, there are times
when the passive voice makes more sense. Instances where passive voice is deemed more appropriate than
active voice may include:
 for tact and diplomacy (where it would be inappropriate to mention the actor);
 if the actor is unimportant or unknown;
 to add variety to the writing;
 in methods and results sections where the action is more important than the actor, for example:
‘stress reactions were monitored in group de-briefing sessions’ rather than ‘I monitored stress
reactions in group de-briefing sessions’;
 to emphasise part of the sentence, for example: ‘a reform agenda emerged from the change of
government’ emphasises the agenda, whereas ‘change of government led to a reform agenda’
emphasises the change of government.
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Use of first person
There are no clearly defined rules about how to use the first person ('I', 'we', 'me', 'us', 'my' and 'our').
Whether or not you use the first person will depend upon the writing context and your purpose in the
writing. The sciences traditionally avoid the first person because it can introduce a subjective or personal
tone to the writing. In the humanities and social sciences, the first person is more acceptable, perhaps
because these disciplines are underpinned by methodologies which question, in various ways, the
possibility of value free science. These divisions are changing however, and the sciences are adopting the
first person more often.
The first person is useful to provide clear attribution for an idea or comment, and to distinguish the writer's
voice from the views of others. For example, using the phrase 'In this paper I will show ... ' is a good way to
signal the contribution the writer will make to the broader field. Using the first person is also a good way to
convey your passion and involvement in the topic, and to establish a connection with an audience. For this
reason, the first person is often adopted within oral forums.
On the other hand, inappropriate use of the first person can undermine your writing by implying that the
point being made is only the writer's opinion, rather than an objective or widely agreed upon observation.
Compare for example: 'I believe there is a discrepancy between practice and policy claims', with 'This study
suggests there is a discrepancy between practice and policy claims'.

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Personal experience
Although sharing personal experience on its own will not be enough to persuade readers of your point of
view, it is sometimes useful and appropriate.
Sharing personal information is relevant when your experience is part of the research data. You might
explore your own experience in order to understand a specific phenomena, or because the way you engaged
with your research participants revealed something about the specific phenomena or context your study
aims to explore.
Often it is helpful to share anecdotes from your personal experience to highlight the problem the research is
concerned with, to establish your credibility with the subject matter (if you have a background in the area
for example), or to provide an example to support a key idea.
As a general rule, refer to personal experience only when it supports the development of the main ideas.
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Fair critique
When critiquing the work of others, some general rules apply:
 Provide accurate and balanced summaries of the work of others. (Do not assume the reader is
familiar with the work referred to).
 Represent the work of others fairly.
 Reference accurately, including page numbers for ideas that are not part of the central argument or
findings.
 Acknowledge points of agreement and indebtedness.
 Back-up critiques with thorough explanation and substantiation.
 Critique the general structure of a claim, not minor points.
 Do not overplay or underplay the significance of your own or others’ work.
 Avoid fallacious argumentation.

Fallacies in arguments
Adapted from Thornless and Thornless 1980, in Hart, C. 1988. Doing a literature review, Sage, Thousand
Oates.
 Implied definition − referring to something without clearly defining it.
 Illegitimate definitions − closing down alternatives by giving a restrictive definition.
 Changing meanings − defining something as A, then using A in a different way.
 Emotional language − using value loaded or ethically loaded terms.
 Use of all rather than some − using bland generalization to incorporate all variables and thereby
minimize contradictory examples.
 Ignoring alternatives − giving one interpretation or example as if all others could be treated or
categorized in the same way.
 Selected instances − picking out unusual or unrepresentative examples.
 Forced analogy − using and analogy without recognizing the applicability of other contradictory
analogies.
 Similarity − claiming there is no real difference between two things even when there is.
 Mere analogy − use of analogy with no resources to examples from the real world.
 False credentials − exaggerating your credentials or experience to convince others of your
authority.
 Technical language − deliberate use of jargon intended to impress the reader and/or hide the lack
of a foundation to an argument.
 Special pleading − claiming a special case to raise your argument above other similar positions,
often associated with emotive language.
 Playing on the reader − telling readers what they want to hear rather than challenging their
thinking and assumptions.
 Claiming prejudice − attributing prejudice to an opponent in order to discredit them.
 Appealing to others for authority − claiming some other in authority has made the same argument
as yourself in order to strengthen your own position.
 False context − giving examples out of context or using nothing but hypothetical scenarios.

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Extremities − ignoring centre ground position by focusing only on the extreme ends of spectrum
of alternatives.
Tautology − use of language structures to get acceptance of your argument from others, often in
the form of ‘too much of X is a bad’ therefore X itself is good.

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Assertive writing
An assertive tone is preferable to an ambivalent or uncertain tone, and can be accomplished by making
direct statements.
For example: ‘This study shows that …’, ‘In section 2, I assess …’ rather than: 'This study might show that
…’, ‘In section 2, I will try to assess …’.
One way of achieving an assertive stance when discussing the ideas of others is to foreground your own
point of view, and to use the ideas and statements of others to support it.
For example, compare the first paragraph below with the improved version that follows:
Despite decades of research, some authors still claim that the burden of family care is not well
understood. Hoenig and Hamilton (1966) first described carer’s subjective perception of caring,
and objective factors like the social and economic costs of caring to the carer. Yamashita (1998)
comments that only a few studies consider the health of the family unit, the strengths that families
bring to caring, and the family caregiver’s expertise as manager of their relatives care.
In this paragraph, the first sentence foregrounds 'some authors', the second 'Hoenig and Hamilton', and the
third 'Yamashita'. The author's voice is drowned out by the claims of other writers. This makes it difficult to
determine the main point of the paragraph.
In the next paragraph, the writer's voice is given priority and the literature is used to support it:
Despite decades of research, the burden of family care is still not well understood. Most studies
have focused upon the carer’s subjective perception of caring, and objective factors like the social
and economic costs of caring to the carer (see for example, Hoenig and Hamilton, 1966). Little
attention has been given to the health of the family unit, the strengths that families bring to caring,
and the family caregiver’s expertise as manager of their relatives care (Yamashita, 1988).
In this paragraph, the author's voice and the main point of the paragraph is strengthened by making direct
claims that are then supported by the views of others.
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Direct quotes
In general, the ideas of others should be paraphrased in your own words and followed with reference
details. Direct quotes should be used sparingly.
The use of direct quotes is appropriate when:
 it encapsulates the key point of a chapter or article, in which case the quote appears below the title;
 the author uses particularly distinctive or vivid language which would be lost if paraphrased;
 the quote is needed to provide a direct and clear exemplification of specific ideas;
 the discussion deconstructs, critiques or analyses the language of others.
When a direct quote is provided:
 keep length to a minimum without misrepresenting the author;
 always follow or precede the quote with an assessment of its significance in your own words.
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Word choice
Academic writing, unlike literary writing which aims to evoke images, feelings and sympathies, aims to
convey ideas concisely, simply, directly and accurately. It is important then to use language that conveys
ideas, rather than language that might distract from the key ideas. The emphasis should be upon the ideas,
not the personality of the writer.
Some general rules can be used to accomplish this:
 Avoid slang, clichés and colloquialisms.
 Avoid a chatty, anecdotal tone (find alternatives to 'you', 'one', 'the reader' and 'people').
 Avoid phrases based on value judgements ‘it is obvious’, ‘it is welcome’, ‘it is a fact’, ‘normally’
and ‘everyone can see’.
 Avoid unnecessary or imprecise words: ‘very’, ‘fantastic’, ‘crucial’, ‘etc’, ‘so on’, 'important' and
'interesting'.

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Replace over used phrases like ‘played a role in …’ and ‘led to …’ with descriptive verbs like
accelerated, energised, influenced, affected, shaped, contributed to.
Avoid long-windedness by careful choice of words. For example, 'under circumstances in which'
could be replaced with 'if' or 'when'.
Use non-sexist language. (Write in the plural rather than using ‘he or she’).
Avoid racist, homophobic, or otherwise offensive language and commentary.

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Verb tense
Past tense is used to report methods and results (because they describe what was done and what was found).
For example: ‘we interviewed’, ‘interviews were conducted’.
Present tense is used to describe how data are presented and to report on figures and tables (because this is
still true). For example: ‘data are summarised as mean + SD’, or ‘Figure 1 shows …’.
Past tense is used to refer to past research: 'Harrison and Quah (1990) found that in current architectural
approaches, the strong image of high tech buildings relies on a clear bright efficient look' … and 'In a
recent report, Harrison and Quah (1990) determined that good design and detailing act as the first line of
defence against weathering'.
Present tense is used to indicate consensus with an author: 'Sharplin (1985) states that environmental
assessment basically requires two activities'. Present perfect tense is used to indicate ambivalence about an
author’s viewpoint: 'Sharplin (1985) has stated that environmental assessment basically requires two
activities'.
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Redundant writing
Good writing avoids redundancy. Redundant writing is any writing that:
 does not convey new information;
 makes statements of the obvious;
 repeats information that has already been provided;
 over uses words or phrases in a way that does not facilitate meaning.
A common example of redundancy within research writing is signalling that literature reviews, research
designs, limitations, and definitions will be provided later in the discussion. This is redundant writing
because it is taken for granted that these elements will form part of a research thesis or research proposal.
Examples of redundant writing:
 An overview of the approach and assumptions are given and the significance of this study is
explained.
 The limitations of the study are described, and the use of important terms in this dissertation are
established.
Sentences of this kind can be deleted because they do not provide the reader with new information.
Another common example of redundancy within research writing is chapter reviews that do not provide
information about what will be covered in the chapter.
For example:
Chapter two will provide an overview and analysis of literature and research about nursing care. I
will identify aspects of care, and then the beginnings of a theoretical framework that will inform
this study. I will then contextualize this study by providing an overview of definitions of care
within the nursing literature.
This paragraph signals that a literature review, a theoretical framing, and a definition will be provided in
chapter two without providing detail about the fields of research that will be reviewed, or the theory and
definition that will actually be used.
The paragraph could be rewritten to provide more specific information.
For example:
Chapter two outlines theoretical conceptualisations of ‘care’ within nursing literature informed by
feminist psychology and the philosophy of ethics. The chapter suggests that nursing needs to
consider whether continuing attempts to define, measure and describe care are necessary. It
suggests instead, that Wittgenstein’s (1958) notion of family resemblance satisfactorily resolves
many of the definitional issues of care and caring within nursing.

This paragraph is better than the one above because it informs the reader of the fields of literature to be
reviewed, and of the perspective that will be developed in the chapter.
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Acronyms
An acronym is a shortened form of a word or words that typically consists only of the first letter of each
word. Acronyms should be used only for terms whose initialised form is commonly known or used, or for a
term that will be used frequently throughout the entirety of the text.
Acronyms that consist of more than one capital letter are written without full stops (for example, USA).
The full name is provided the first time the term is used, followed by the acronym in brackets. The term is
then referred to in the initialised form thereafter.

Developing a thesis publication plan
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Introduction
Planning process
o Clarify goals
o Thesis publication plan
o Research potential journals
o Link titles to journals
o Rank the journals - status and 'impact factor'
Submission process
o Steps in publication
o If you are successful
o If you are unsuccessful
o Reasons journals reject submissions
o Managing discouragement
Ethical issues in publishing
o Data fabrication, falsification, plagiarism
o Confidentiality
o Sending the same article to two or more journals
o Redundant publication
o Text recycling
o Copyright infringements
 Do I need to obtain permission from the publisher if a section of my thesis has
been published and I want to submit my thesis on an online repository?
 Should I make my work publicly available to an online repository if I want to
publish from it later?
o Misleading ascription of authorship
o Acknowledgements
Publishing the thesis as a book
References

Introduction
Research and scholarship aims to contribute to the resolution of questions or problems of importance to the
broader community. Making one's work publicly available is then an integral part of scholarship.
Peer review describes the process by which scholarly work is subject to assessment by experts in the field
in order to screen, select, rank or measure performance. Peer review is involved to different degrees in the
allocation of research grants, the selection of academic staff and of material for publication, the
examination of research theses, as well as the measurement of the research performance of teams and
organisations.

Although not without its flaws and critics, the peer review process aims for confidentiality and impartiality.
Ethical peer review:
 is confidential (reviewers may not discuss the review process or outcomes);
 uses set criteria in its assessments;
 draws on recognised experts;
 is free from conflicts of interest (personal prejudice, affiliations, financial remuneration, or other
consideration that might bias responses against the review criteria);
 disallows reviewers taking advantage of information gleaned in the review process;
 disallows rejection of research simply because it challenges existing paradigms.
This resource steps through the process for publishing in peer reviewed journals, and outlines ethical
conduct within that process.
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Planning process
Clarify goals
The first step in the publication process is to clarify your goals. Your goals will change as your research
progresses. There are a number of ways in which graduate work can be published. All UniSA students can
choose to submit the thesis to the Australian Digital Thesis Program which is an online thesis repository
accessible to a worldwide audience. Sections of theses are also published in academic or professional
journals or conference proceedings, and some one day become books, although usually in a significantly
revised form.
Possible publishing goals include:
 sound out early ideas within a friendly but critical forum
 attend a postgraduate conference
 attend an academic conference
 present a paper at a conference
 have a paper published within the conference proceedings
 write a journal paper
 submit a journal paper for review
 publish a journal paper
 write a chapter for an edited volume
 submit the thesis to an online repository.
Ultimately your aim is to produce a quality piece of research writing that reaches its target audience, and is
well received by that audience. Although rejections can be difficult, they are often an important element in
eventual success.
Dissemination of research conclusions within public forums beyond the scholarly community should not
occur until after the research has been peer reviewed. This is to protect the public from potentially
misleading information. If the research has not been subject to peer review and you wish to discuss your
findings within a public forum, it is important to clarify that the research is 'in progress' or 'yet to be
finalised'.
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Thesis publication plan
A thesis publication plan is a document that links specific elements of the thesis with specific journals.
Under each chapter or section title, the plan lists the names of specific journals or conferences that will be
targeted for review and publication. The plan also includes other important information about the journal's
requirements such as deadlines and word limits.
Benefits of a clear publication plan during candidature
 critical, expert, independent feedback (that supervisors may not have thought of);
 improves quality and research integrity;
 provides reassurance of 'newness' and 'originality';
 ensures writing is targeted to appropriate academic audiences;
 provides deadlines;
 reserves best/substantive work for quality journals/publications;
 provides experience in receiving critical feedback;

 provides reassurance that the work is fit for public dissemination;
 builds confidence.
Potential problems
 too much pressure to publish too early can drain motivation
 becoming discouraged by a rejection
 the thesis does not emerge in publishable portions
 publications are tangential to the thesis and do not advance the thesis
 academic misconduct.
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Research potential journals
The first step in the peer review process is to locate potential journals. At this stage the aim is to develop a
list of journals with accompanying information and research profiles. In researching journals the aim is to
locate a journal and a readership that would be interested in your work.
There are a number of strategies for finding appropriate journals:
 check where other writers close to your area are publishing;
 check the reference lists in chapters, books and articles that are critical to your topic to see where
other authors are publishing;
 ask your supervisor, colleagues, peers;
 search periodicals, serials and other library data bases
 search the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) Web of knowledge journal citation reports;
 do a 'google scholar' search using key words.
When thinking about potential journals look for a fit between your work and the journal in terms of:
 broad area of academic interest;
 specific academic field;
 methods/methodology;
 cultural/policy contexts.
Having composed a list of possible publishers, the next step is to research them in more detail. This will
involve visiting the web site and reading back copies of the journal. You can type your key search words
into the search option on the journal home page. In many cases just skimming the contents pages will
provide enough information to decide whether the journal is relevant or not. If the contents look promising,
you can read selected papers in more depth.
In researching the journal the following factors are important:
 status within the field (readership, distribution, academic versus professional)
 topical debates, subject areas, key questions
 how 'problem' areas are framed
 methodological perspectives
 methods
 commonly published authors
 reviewers
 upcoming special editions or calls for papers
 independent peer review
 the editorial board
 impact factor
 whether open access (more widely cited).
The aim is to determine whether your work, or some part of it, fits, or can be made to fit, the journal's
interests. In the beginning of the research process, familiarising yourself with relevant journals can be
enormously helpful in defining your field/s of literature, the central questions underpinning the research,
and how you wish to frame the problem area. It can also help to guide your reading.
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Link titles to journals
When you have located a small pool of potential journals and the thesis has begun to develop, you can
begin to think about publishing a paper, and, depending upon the amount of publishable material, about
which parts of the thesis you want to publish in which journals. Ideally the publication process will support

and complement the thesis writing process by providing deadlines and critical feedback on chapters as you
go. However, this is not always possible. Do not worry if the material does not fall out as discrete
publishable papers. This does not mean your work is inferior in any way.
While you may choose to publish something which will not go into the thesis, it is important not to get too
sidetracked from the thesis.
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Rank journals from most to least appropriate
Once you have listed specific journals under specific content areas, ideally with clear titles, it is possible to
rank the journals from most to least desirable, or in the order in which you will target them.
Factors to consider when ranking journals:
 respectability, status
 scholarly reputation of contributors and reviewers
 ISI 'impact factor' (average frequency with which the articles in the journal are cited in a given
year or time period)
 distribution and readership
 fit with content area
 quality of feedback.
What is a 'high status' publication?
Journal articles are generally considered more prestigious in the social sciences than book chapters,
conference papers or papers published in conference proceedings, although there would be exceptions.
Contributors to edited books are usually invited and are not subject to formal peer review. There are many
more opportunities to present at a conference than to be published in a journal. Conferences in the social
sciences and humanities aim to enable wide participation. Journals are more competitive than edited
collections and conferences because they have large numbers of submissions and accept fewer papers for
publication. Many journals publish only a small percent of papers they receive.
Some edited books are well regarded, particularly in the humanities. This is usually because the
contributors are well respected in their fields and the book is timely and widely distributed, or because
there are fewer journals in the area.
Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA)
Excellence in Research for Australia (ERA) provides evaluations of research at a discipline level according
to research quality and activity. Evaluations are based on a combination of indicators developed on the
basis of expert review and advice from the higher education sector. ERA provides research journal rankings
for all discipline clusters and conference rankings for selected disciplines. Each journal is ranked and listed
in one of four tiers: A+, A, B and C.
Impact factor
The impact factor is another way of assessing journal quality. The impact factor refers to the average
frequency with which the articles in the journal are cited in a given year or time period. It is important to
remember that the impact factor of a journal in one field relative to a journal in another field is meaningless
because of different citation practices, circulation and field sizes. However, journals with a high impact
factor within a discipline area are usually considered more prestigious than those lower down the list within
the same discipline area. However this is not always the case. There are some well respected journals that
are not ranked on impact factor lists, or which are ranked lower on the list, but are held in high esteem and
are difficult to get into.
Why 'impact factor' does not always reflect quality:
 some journals are more well known or more widely distributed than others, but not necessarily of
higher quality;
 languages other than English, and non Western countries are excluded from the list;
 applied aspects of subjects are often excluded (for example marketing communications and public
relations);
 impact factor is measured within a short temporal window (two to three years) excluding
consideration of long term significance;
 authors often cite themselves (so not reflective of 'impact');
 some journals adopt practices to increase their impact factor which are not reflective of quality
(for example, publishing more review articles which generally receive at least one citation
following publication).

Notwithstanding the usefulness of measures of 'impact factor', it can say more about popularity than
prestige. The impact factor does not quantify the impact of publications within a field of scholarship across
time, nor can it quantify the impact of scholarship on people's lives, or on the future.
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Submission process
The final step in the planning process is to contact the editor. You may wish to forward an abstract to see if
the journal would be interested in your paper before submitting the entire draft. When preparing drafts be
sure to adhere to the writing guidelines stipulated on the journal web site. These usually ask for three or
more hard copies of the article, a cover page including the author's name/s, contact details, the title of the
article, and the name and contact details of the author designated to deal with correspondence (for articles
with more than one author). You might also be asked to supply brief biographies for the author/s.

Steps in the submission process:
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editor acknowledges receipt of manuscript;
editor reads manuscript and decides whether to send it out for review;
manuscript goes out for review (two to three reviewers);
reviewer's forward comments to editor (comments cover weaknesses in the paper, suggestions for
improvement, and the reviewers opinion about whether the paper is worthy of publication in the
journal);
editor considers reviewers' comments and makes a decision (takes from three to 18 months);
editors decision (reject, resubmit or accept);
reviewers' comments forwarded to author;
author and editor negotiate changes, usually over email;
copy editor reads for technical, stylistic, spelling, grammatical errors;
author asked to proof final text, contents pages, abstract, author biographies;
copyright contract forwarded to author for signing;
editor forwards copy of journal edition to author upon publication.

After submission
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Do not harass the publisher.
Expect at least 3 months to elapse before you hear from them.
Contact the editor to confirm receipt of the article after one month.
Use the tracking service if there is one.
Contact the publisher again after 6 months, (or within specified turnaround time) if you have still
not heard from them.

If you are successful:
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Give yourself a pat on the back - you've done it!
Attend to any revisions promptly and precisely.
Consider feedback carefully and decide what you agree with and what you do not agree with.
Outline the changes made in reply emails.
If you disregarded any suggestions, state this clearly and explain why.
Attend to requests of the copy editor promptly and precisely (content pages, name spelling,
punctuation, grammar).
Carefully read any copyright contracts you are asked to sign.
Ensure the contract enables you to reproduce the work for examination purposes and to submit to
an online thesis repository.

If you are unsuccessful:
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Give yourself time to digest the reviewers' feedback (the advice may seem more reasonable with
time).
Carefully consider the reviewers' feedback.
Talk about your decision with your supervisor, peers, colleagues.
Rewrite the paper and resubmit to another journal.

Reasons journals reject submissions:

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not relevant to the context (local concerns not explained to a wider context);
not relevant to the readership/key concerns of the journal;
not new/original enough;
weaknesses within the paper (methodology, argument, findings);
a good paper, but not as good as others that were received;
methodological/theoretical conflict with the reviewers, editor and journal readership;
academic misconduct.

Managing discouragement
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Remember many journals accept only a small percentage of what they receive.
Even famous, distinguished scholars experience rejection.
Publishing in quality journals is often a slow process.
Have a backup strategy (another journal to send the paper to).
Give yourself time to recover from disappointment - it's normal.
Move on to the next step in your publication plan.
You are one step closer to achieving your goal.

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Ethical issues in publishing
For the most part, academic readers assume that work offered for publication is new, original, and accurate,
unless they are advised otherwise by the author in the text.
Unethical publishing practices:
 failure to acknowledge sources (see referencing ethics);
 fraud (data fabrication, data falsification, data plagiarism);
 misdemeanours (data manipulation, data exclusion, suppression of inconvenient facts);
 failure to maintain confidentiality of sources;
 failure to honour publishers' conditions during the review process (sending the paper to more than
one journal);
 duplication, redundant publication, data slicing, data augmentation;
 text recycling;
 failure to honour copyright contracts
 misleading ascription of authorship
 improper acknowledgements.
Academic misconduct
Academic misconduct, whether inadvertent or deliberate, includes the following:
 presentation or collection of data with respect to laboratory work, field trips or other work that has
been copied, falsified or in other ways obtained improperly;
 inclusion of material in individual work that has involved significant assistance from another
person, where such assistance is not expressly permitted by the other person;
 breaches of ethical protocols, including the Joint NHMRC/AVCC Statement and Guidelines on
Research Practice known as the Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research.
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Data fabrication, falsification, plagiarism
Research is an original investigation to obtain knowledge or insight. Data integrity is part of the bed rock
upon which ethical research rests. Without it we could not come to meaningful conclusions or conduct
meaningful research programs. It is a serious breach of research ethics to invent, miscalculate, or plagiarise
data (claim someone else's data as one's own). It is unethical to alter, exclude or suppress data or findings.
All data of relevance to the research conclusions must be honestly reported.
Data fraud and misdemeanours are likely to be discovered given that researchers are working on similar
research problems within limited fields and will quickly query discrepant findings. In order to enable
research findings to be checked against the data a number of laws and regulations have been formulated.
The Freedom of Information Act, the Privacy Act and the Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct of
Research. These laws require researchers to keep raw data in secure conditions for a period of five to
fifteen years following research and publication.

Data fraud and misdemeanours can be avoided by being as scrupulous and transparent as possible about
your research design and data analysis procedures.
Do not fabricate, falsify, or plagiarise data. Report all data relevant to the research conclusions.
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Confidentiality
It is important to obtain written consent from research participants before publishing the results of data
analysis. In most cases consent forms also promise to protect the identity of the participants. This must be
scrupulously adhered to within any publications arising from the research. All traces of information that
could reveal the identity of the source must be removed in publications.
Honor commitments regarding confidentiality.

Sending the same article to two or more journals
A journal paper may only be submitted to one journal at a time. When a journal has declined to publish a
paper, the author may then send it to another journal. While this can extend the publication process
considerably, and is sometimes frustrating for authors, it serves to prevent duplication, dishonesty and
wasted resources. Journal space is extremely limited, and duplication of the same publication prevents new
work from being published. It takes staff within editorial offices of journals considerable time and effort to
select reviewers and to manage the review process, and reviewers volunteer valuable time to support the
peer review process. By sending the same paper to several journals you are wasting the time of the editor
and the reviewers and undermining the peer review process. Since many fields are comprised of relatively
few experts, it is likely that a paper sent to two or more journals will be sent to the same reviewer. In other
words, you can easily be found out. This can lead to a seriously damaged scholarly reputation, as well as
disqualification from the journal/s in future.
There is one instance where it is ok to submit the same paper to two journals. That is when a previously
published article in one language is translated into a second language and submitted to a second journal.
Do not submit or publish the same article to more than one journal.
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Redundant publication
In addition to the problem of publishing the same paper twice, there is the associated unethical practice of
duplicating key findings, or of 'redundant publication' (Roig, 2006). Redundant publication refers to
submitting the same data or substantive ideas to more than one journal without disclosing this to the journal
or the reader. Sections of text may be reproduced word for word, the same idea may be published more
than once using a different wording, or within a different context, or narrow slices of data may be separated
out from the core findings and published separately. Data slicing involves the separate publication of
segments of data taken from the same sample, giving the misleading impression that the data came from
different samples. Data augmentation is another unethical practice. Data augmentation consists of
publishing the results of a study in a journal, and subsequently gathering additional data and publishing that
data in a second journal as though it were from another independent study.
These practices misrepresent or magnify results and can thereby lead to false conclusions. In each case, the
findings are reproduced unnecessarily and aim to serve the career aspirations of the researcher rather than
the research aims of the scholarly community. In order to ensure selection according to merit, it is
important that a researcher's publication list reflects actual research achievements.
The best way to avoid duplication is to report findings which make more sense when combined in the same
paper (especially when the data sets come from the same sample), and to clearly indicate to editors and
readers that the ideas or data have been previously published.
It is not considered redundant publication when key findings are discussed within a conference and
published within a conference proceedings, and then significantly expanded and reworded and sent to a
journal later on. Exceptions can also be made to allow for the duplication of findings or text within
anthologies and other collections.
Do not recycle your own data or substantive ideas without disclosure in the text.
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Text recycling
Text recycling is a form of intellectual laziness that involves reproducing sections of your own text from
previous publications. This represents a violation of copyright, and can be avoided by scrupulously

referring readers to the source of any borrowed text either with direct quotes or by paraphrasing just as you
would for any other work.
Do not recycle your own previous writing.

Copyright infringements
When you sign a copyright agreement, you are transferring ownership of the material over to the publisher.
This means it is no longer yours to copy for public dissemination unless you have permission from the
copyright holder. In addition to being unethical, publishing the same paper, or sections of the same paper,
redundant publication, and data slicing are also an infringement of copyright and are unlawful.
Do I need to obtain permission from the publisher if a section of my thesis has been published and I
want to submit my thesis to an online repository?
Yes, if:
 you have signed copyright in the material to the publisher without an agreement to deposit the
work in an institutional repository;
 and you are reproducing the substance of the work, whether verbatim or not.
Publishing often involves signing over copyright to the publisher. In exchange for bearing the cost of
publishing your work, the publisher asks to be given control over where and how the work is printed in
future, including uploading on the internet. For the most part this is in order to secure any financial gains
flowing from the work. At UniSA online theses are available for open viewing on the Australian Digital
Theses (ADT) program, as well as Arrow@UniSA.
In publicly disseminating your work (including submitting it to an online thesis repository) you must get
permission from the copyright owner. It is a good idea to discuss this with the publisher at the time of
publication. Many contracts allow authors to deposit theses in online repositories, others do not. Read
copyright contracts carefully and do not sign away anything you do not have to. Always keep a copy for
your records.
If you want to copy less than the whole work, like a section or a paragraph, you need to determine whether
it is a 'substantive' section. Generally speaking this judgement is determined not by the amount of text
reproduced, but by its centrality to the overall work. If you are unsure, check with the copyright owner and
secure their permission before reprinting.
Permissions are sought in writing. Email is fine.
The Copyright Act permits 'fair dealing for the purpose of research or study'. You do not need to obtain
permission from publishers to copy published work in your thesis for supervisors and examiners, but check
your copyright agreement before distributing to be sure.
Should I make my work publicly available on an online repository if I want to publish from it later?
It is a good idea to submit your work to an online thesis repository. Not only will the work be more
accessible, online repositories offer safe, long term storage, and they make plagiarism more difficult.
Plagiarism from an unpublished thesis sitting on a dusty shelf is much less likely to be noticed than
plagiarism from a publicly available thesis.
At the same time, if a journal deems that the work has already been disseminated to its target audience, they
will probably not want to publish it. In most cases, merely submitting a thesis to an online repository will
not be considered dissemination to a target audience. However this could change as online repositories
become more popular.
It is a good idea to check any prior publication guidelines on journal web sites before submitting your
thesis. Note carefully the publishers stipulations and consider how wide the dissemination of your work is
likely to be before you submit to the public domain. While all UniSA theses on the ADT program are given
open access, the Arrow@UniSA repository allows author's to nominate what level of access they prefer.
The author can also choose to withdraw the work from either site at any time.
Of course, this applies not only to online thesis repositories, but to the public dissemination of your work at
conferences and other professional forums. It is wise to develop a publication plan early in your
candidature and to reserve your substantive findings for targeted, quality publications.
Journals may request that the online thesis depository accesses the work from a link to their web site, or
that the thesis version uses a different format from the journal formatting of the work. The journal may also
ask that the thesis be taken offline.
Do not publicly disseminate work without the permission of the copyright holder.
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Misleading ascription of authorship

Authorship can become unclear when several researchers are involved in the same project. Authorship is
defined by the Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research (2007) as 'substantial
contributions in some combination' of the following:
 'conception and design of the project
 analysis and interpretation of research data
 drafting significant parts of the work or critically revising it so as to contribute to the
interpretation'.
The Code notes that 'the right to authorship is not tied to position or profession and does not depend on
whether the contribution was paid for or voluntary. It is not enough to have provided materials or routine
technical support, or to have made the measurements on which the publication is based. Substantial
intellectual involvement is required'.
Authorship of any publications emerging from the research should be discussed, decisions documented at
the beginning of the research project, and submitted to the school of the senior author. All authors must
accept or decline authorship in writing. Authors may not be included as authors unless they fulfil the
requirements stipulated above. Authorship should be periodically reviewed to reflect developments in the
research process.
Do not claim authorship unless you have had substantial intellectual involvement.

Acknowledgements
All sources of support, both financial and in-kind, must be disclosed within publications to ensure proper
acknowledgement, and to avoid potential conflicts of interest. If an individual's name is included in the
acknowledgments, the person's consent must be obtained in writing.
Acknowledge all sources of support, both financial and in-kind, and obtain consent before acknowledging
individuals.
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Publishing the thesis as a book
Publishing the thesis as a book is a good idea when:
 the thesis is suited to book form rather than a series of journal articles (more true for narrative
based writing as opposed to primary research with single conclusions);
 you have 12 months to rewrite the thesis for a new audience (theses are rarely published without
substantial rewriting);
 it is important for your career (sometimes journal publications will get you there faster);
 you have an interested audience.
Publishers' considerations
 Marketability is critical in publishers' decisions about which manuscripts to publish.
 Publishers want to know who will buy the book. Will it be used as an undergraduate or
postgraduate text book within set courses?
 Reviewer's comments are important.
 Publishers may ask for money to publish the manuscript.
If you decide to go ahead, prepare a book proposal.
 Publishers' web sites have instructions for submitting a book proposal, or you can write to them
and they will post their guidelines.
 Book proposals are anywhere from 1000 to 4000 words in length.
 Book proposals include a general rationale, expected audience, review of competing titles, table of
contents, a copy of your curriculum vitae, and one or more sample chapters.
 Do not send the whole thesis to the publisher!
 Do your research, spend time on the plan, and get feedback before submitting.
If accepted ...
 Follow the reviewers' guidelines.
 Write for a broad audience. Readers, unlike examiners, are not judging your ability to do research.
They want to know your central conclusions.
 Cut out long footnotes or endnotes, methodological descriptions, and literature reviews.
 Cut out long introductions, conclusions, linking sections describing what you will do or have
done.

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Do not mention that the book was once a thesis in the acknowledgements or elsewhere in the
book. This is not necessary and could undermine its status in some people's minds.

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References
Australian Government, National Health and Medical Research Council and Australian Research Council
2007, Australian code for the responsible conduct of research, AGPS, Canberra, viewed February 2008.
Roig, Miguel 2006, Avoiding plagiarism, self-plagiarism, and other questionable writing practices: A
guide to ethical writing, viewed February 2008.

Thesis styles, structures and elements in
the research introduction
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Introduction
Thesis styles
o 'Hypothesis testing' or question/answer style
o 'Descriptive' or argument syle
Thesis structures
Writing the thesis introduction
o The 'problem'
o The 'field' of the research
o The 'gap' in the literature
o The 'question' or 'argument'
o The methodology and method
o Definitions
o The chapter outline

Introduction
Although every thesis and journal article is unique, all academic writing aims to persuade the reader of an
idea. This central claim is otherwise referred to as the ‘thesis’; hence a research thesis is the development of
one central claim within either a research degree thesis, a book, chapter of a book, conference paper or
journal article. This idea is the ‘significant original contribution to knowledge, and/or to the application of
knowledge within the field of study’ referred to in research degree requirements.
This resource will focus on the different styles and structures of research theses and journal articles, and on
the elements within the research introduction.
The introduction is the first of five major steps that form the story line of research writing. These steps
carry the thread within a large or complex academic text. The five writing steps that will be considered in
this resource include:
 Step 1: introduction
 Step 2: literature review
 Step 3: method and methodology
 Step 4: results/evidence
 Step 5: discussion and conclusion
These steps can occur within a variety of thesis styles and structures. Some of the more salient of these are
listed below.
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Thesis styles

There are two readily observable thesis styles or structures, each of which represents a mode of critique or
method of persuasion common within academic writing. Mike Metcalf (2002:6-7) defines these two thesis
styles as ‘hypothesis testing’ and ‘descriptive’.

‘Hypothesis testing’ or question/answer style
‘The cops discover who did it’ (Metcalfe, 2002:6-7).
‘Hypotheses testing’ theses open with a question or hypothesis and end with an answer. The thesis tells a
story about how the question was investigated or answered. The conclusion, answer, or main point is not
presented until the end (though it does appear in the abstract). The first step of the thesis story line is the
literature review and the statement of the hypothesis/question. The question appears in the introduction.
The second step of the story line is the method. The method explains how the question will be answered.
The third step in the story line is the results section which summarises the evidence that was gathered to
answer the question. The last step in the story line is the answer to the question. This appears in the opening
paragraph of the discussion or conclusion chapter.

‘Descriptive’ or argument style
‘The lawyers convince a jury’ (Metcalfe, 2002:6-7).
The descriptive thesis provides a statement of the main proposition or argument of the thesis in the
introduction and abstract. The story line is structured around this central argument. Each chapter and
section works to support the main proposition by developing one aspect of it and providing specific
substantiation for it (reasoned debate, evidence, presentation of data, reflective commentary and practice in
the art studio). Although descriptive or argument style theses and research articles do not traditionally pose
questions or hypotheses, they may include a statement of the research objective or aim within the
introduction.
There are no set rules about what thesis writing style you should choose, but being clear about the style you
are aiming for can be useful in the writing process.
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Thesis structures
From Paltridge, B ‘Thesis and dissertation writing: An examination of published articles and actual practice’, in English for Specific Purposes.

1. Traditional: Simple
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Introduction
Literature Review
Materials and Methods
Results
Discussion
Conclusions

2. Traditional: Complex
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Introduction
Review of the literature
Background theory
General Methods
Study 1
o Introduction
o Methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Study 2
o Introduction
o Methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Study 3 etc
o Introduction
o Methods
o Results

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o Discussion and conclusion
Conclusions

3. Topic-based (for literature/theory research)
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Introduction
Topic 1
Topic 2
Topic 3 etc
Conclusions

4. Compilation of Research Articles
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Introduction
Background to the Study
Research Article 1
o Introduction
o Literature review
o Materials and methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Research article 2
o Introduction
o Literature review
o Materials and methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Research article 3 etc
o Introduction
o Literature review
o Materials and methods
o Results
o Discussion and conclusion
Discussion and Conclusions

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Writing the introduction
Whichever style or structure you choose, the first step of the research story line is to persuade the reader
that the question or argument posed in the thesis is justified and ‘significant’. This is typically
accomplished in the following ways:
1. outline an unresolved issue or problem to be addressed in the research;
2. describe the field/s of literature that address the problem;
3. establish a ‘gap’ in the field/s of literature;
4. pose a research question, aim or objective, or an 'argument'.
The thesis introduction also includes:
 a summary of the research design;
 definitions of key terms used throughout the thesis;
 an outline of the main points within the middle chapters of the thesis.
Depending on how much writing is required to establish the 'gap' in the field, the literature review can be
included in the introduction, or be given a separate chapter of its own. Or you might include parts of the
literature review within each of the middle chapters of the thesis. The same goes for the research design. It
can be incorporated in the introduction, form a separate chapter, or be included within each of the middle
chapters. If you choose to write a separate chapter, or to include the literature review and research design
within the middle chapters, be sure to provide a summary of the overarching contribution the thesis aims to
make to a body of literature and a summary of the research design in the main introduction of the thesis.
You can then refer the reader, in brackets at the end of the relevant sentence, to the appropriate chapter/s
for more detail.
The introduction then comprises the following elements:

1. problem statement or research justification,
2. full literature review or summary of the literature review,
3. statement of the aims/objective/hypotheses OR statement of the argument,
4. full description of the research design or summary of the key features of the research design,
5. key definitions as they arise,
6. chapter outline.
These elements are often intermingled within everyday research writing, and they often appear in a
different order. It is important to include all of the elements outlined above in the introduction to
your thesis, and to roughly follow the suggested order. This will help to ensure that the problem statement,
literature gap, aim or argument, and research methodology/method flow logically one upon the other. You
can also use these six elements as temporary headings to help you to structure your thesis or journal article
introduction in the drafting process, and then remove the headings later.

Transforming the research proposal into the thesis introduction
You will notice that the steps and elements above also appear in the research proposal. Both the thesis
introduction and the research proposal aim to provide a justification for the research. For this reason, you
can reformat the research proposal into a first rough draft of the thesis introduction. It will of course be
necessary to delete the time line, table of contents and appendices, and perhaps to move much of the detail
of the literature review and the research design to separate chapters within the thesis. But you can use your
problem formulation, key definitions, important background information, and the summary of the 'gap' in
the literature that your research will fill, and a summary of the research design. You can also include the
statement of the aims or objectives from your research proposal in your thesis introduction. Note that in a
well written research proposal the summary of the literature review and of the research design would
be located in the opening paragraphs of those sections in the research proposal, or within the opening and
closing paragraphs of sections within those sections. These might be used as summaries in the draft thesis
introduction.
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The ‘problem statement’
Like the research proposal, thesis writing opens with an unresolved problem or paradox, or an explanation
of something important that we need to know. Most commonly, theses and journal articles open by
outlining a worrying, or outright negative situation, condition or event. More rarely a desirable, but
not fully realised situation or outcome is described. This is done in order to grab the reader’s attention,
establish the significance of the research, and signal the literature/s that the research will contribute to. In
some theses, this is accomplished in a few sentences or paragraphs. In others it may take several pages.
Common introductory 'problem statement' strategies that establish a relationship with the reader:
 relevant background material
 an interesting fact or statistic
 a quotation (appropriate and explained in text)
 a concession (recognise an opinion/approach different to your own)
 a paradox
 a short anecdote or narrative
 a question or several questions (that you will proceed to answer)
 an analogy
 an important definition (examine its complexities).
Whichever approach is adopted, the problem should be explained in a way that shows that it matters to
people in everyday life, to the things people care about, or to issues we consider important in some way. If
possible the problem statement is supported by references to indicate that there is wide agreement that the
problem exists.
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The ‘field’ of the research
A ‘field of literature’ refers to a body of work united around a shared set of questions, concerns, theoretical
assumptions or debates. For example: 'environmental psychology’, ‘early childhood education’, ‘tourist
studies’, ‘sociology of aging’. It is important to clearly signal the 'field/s of literature' that the research aims
to contribute to in the early pages of the thesis. In the introduction of the thesis signal the field of research
when you begin to discuss the literature. You can do this for instance by using some derivation of

the sentence stem, 'Recent research in the field of ... has focused upon ...' in the early part of the
introduction.
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The 'gap' in the literature’
The statement of the problem is followed by a statement of the 'gap' in the field/s of literature which the
research aims to address. More information about how to write the literature review can be found in the
topic on the literature review in this series of resources.
The 'gap' could refer to an unresolved question, a paradox, a missing piece of information, a theoretical
inconsistency or to some other weakness within existing understandings of the phenomenon under study.
Writing about the gap in the literature is often referred to as the 'literature review', although 'literature
review' is also used to refer more generally to writing that critically engages with the ideas of others. When
we talk about the literature review in this series of resources we are referring specifically to that part of the
thesis or journal article whose task is to outline the 'gap' in the literature and the significance of the
research.
The thesis introduction includes either a full discussion of the literature and the contribution the research
will make to the literature, or, if a longer literature review chapter or chapters is included inthe thesis, the
introduction provides a summary of the main points of those chapters. Where the introduction provides a
summary of longer literature review chapters, include:
 reference to the field/s to which the research will contribute;
 summary of major areas of interest within the field (optional);
 major conclusions of the literature on the topic so far (what is known);
 a gap or unresolved issue within the literature (what remains unknown or contested);
 a statement of the research aims or objectives (linked directly to the gap).
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The ‘question’ or ‘argument’
The outline of the gap in the literature is typically followed immediately by a statement of the aim/objective
or question, or by a statement of the argument, depending upon which thesis style you will adopt.
If you adopt the question/answer style, the question or aim appears in the introduction, but the answer to
the question is not provided until the conclusion of the thesis or article. The answer or central findings are
also provided in the abstract.
In descriptive or argument style theses and articles, the main idea, central thesis or argument is provided in
the opening page or pages of the introduction, as well as in the abstract.

Framing the question, aim or objective
In question/answer style academic writing, the 'question' can be framed as a direct question, a hypothesis,
or as an objective or aim. When writing about the research objective, remember you are aiming to produce
knowledge, so the question, objective or aim should be framed in a way that points to the kind of
knowledge the research will generate.
When writing the research question, remember that the question aims to enable the reader to read the data
in a directed manner, and to anticipate the answer as either generally affirmative or negative. For this
reason, try to frame your question as precisely as possible. Avoid producing more than one central question
or research objective.
Example question/objective framing
Question/objective: This study aims to determine whether the inclusion of feminist theory in the curriculum
in South Australian primary schools reduced sexist behaviour in the schoolyard.
Not: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of feminist theory in the curriculum in South
Australian primary schools (vague, expected answer unclear).
Answer/conclusion: Sexist behaviour is being reported and observed in rates which have no relation to the
level of inclusion of feminist theories into the curriculum design. Formal education has a very tenuous
influence on informal behaviour patterns of school children.

Framing the ‘argument’
The central claim or ‘argument’ in a descriptive style thesis should have surprise value or be insightful or
risky in some way (Metcalf, 2002:5). This is often achieved by preceding the statement of the argument
with statements that ‘set the scene’.
Example argument

Not: ‘the sky is blue’.
Argument: ‘the sky was red in the early stages of the earth’s development’ (Metcalf, 2002:5).
Example: Setting the scene for the argument
Bacchi, C 1999, Women, policy and politics, SAGE Publications, London.

'Policy issues are often written about as though there were only one possible interpretation of the issue at
stake. We are not encouraged to reflect upon the ways in which issues take shape (provides a common
sense take on the subject to set the scene for the argument). In contrast, the approach developed in this
book takes as its starting point that it makes no sense to consider the ‘objects’ or targets of policy as
existing independently of the way they are spoken about or represented, either in political debate or in
policy proposals. Any description of an issue or a ‘problem’ is an interpretation, and interpretations
involve judgment and choices' (statement of argument).
The sentence opener 'I argue ...' is often used to signal the central idea of a thesis or article. For this reason,
using the phrase 'I argue ...' to introduce ideas that are not central to the thesis can mislead the reader. This
can be avoided by using this phrase only when signalling the central thesis.
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Methodology and method, or research design
Information about the methodology and the method, or the research design, follows the statement of the
aim/objective or the argument. This section within the introduction includes information about:
 any research phases, and relationship between phases,
 the methods adopted (including sample and selection processes),
 how the data will be analyed,
 introduction to the theory or philosophy underpinning the research aims (where applicable).
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Definitions
Introductions of theses and journal articles also provide definitions for unclear or contested terms. In
general, we assume that the meaning of words complies with their dictionary definitions. Sometimes
however words are not in the dictionary, or their use within a particular context is different from the
dictionary usage, or the word can be used in a number of different ways. When the meaning of a term is
unclear or contested, it is defined the first time it is used. This often occurs in the introduction of the thesis,
though other terms can be defined as they arise in the flow of the writing. Technical, theoretical or other
terms can be defined by referring to a previously published definition. Aim to provide a precise,
unambiguous definition, and to use the term as it is defined throughout. Try to avoid unnecessarily long
definitions that break the flow of the story line.
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The chapter outline
The chapter outline is often the last section of the thesis introduction, and usually follows after the
description of the research design. In journal articles, you will often notice that the outline of the paper is
also the last element of the introductory paragraphs.
The chapter outline within a research thesis aims to summarise the main ideas from each of the middle
chapters of the thesis, and to show how they link with the main argument or research objective.
Introductory and concluding chapters do not need to be summarised because they are themselves summary
chapters. For the other chapters, the objective is to integrate the summaries into the flow of the writing, to
avoid repetition of content, and to be clear about how each chapter supports the key objectives of the
research.
You can write the chapter outline by re reading each of the middle chapters and noting down the key points
in a few sentences on a separate piece of paper. Then go back to the introduction and incorporate your
summary in the introduction. Be sure to make a note of the main sub headings or themes discussed in each
chapter, but try to be as concise as possible. Each chapter is discussed in the order in which it appears in the
thesis.
A chapter outline that reads like a list can be avoided by replacing the sentence opener 'Chapter such and
such ...' with the main points within that chapter and then following with 'see chapter 3', perhaps in brackets
at the end of the sentence. This is often done when summarising literature review and research design
chapters. The content of these chapters often does not require inclusion in the chapter outline because it has
already been discussed in the opening pages.

Since the middle chapters need to be written before the chapter outline, it is usually the last section of the
introduction to be completed. However, it is a good idea to write the chapter summaries and include them
in the introduction as you write them even though they will probably change as the focus becomes clearer.
The introduction acts like a map of the thesis. By travelling back and forward between the chapters and the
summary of the chapters in the introduction, you can ensure that the map provides an accurate reflection of
the territory or main body of the thesis.
The chapter summaries should also flow naturally from the problem, the literature review and the statement
of the method in the thesis introduction. It is helpful to read your draft introduction through as you
periodically include the chapter summaries to ensure that the ideas in the thesis flow. Weak links in the
chain of ideas will be easier to detect after writing the middle thesis chapters when you will come to the
introduction with a fresh eye. If the ideas within the introduction do not follow logically, it could mean that
either the introduction or the ideas within the chapters need some redrafting.
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In summary
After reading an introduction, the reader should know:
 what problem, issue or controversy the research relates to;
 what bodies of literature and fields of practice the research relates to;
 why the research is significant;
 for question/answer theses, the central question, hypothesis or research objective;
 for descriptive theses, the central argument, idea, or theory (your ‘thesis’);
 the definitions of any key terms;
 the rationale underpinning the method (methodology);
 how the answer or evidence was attained (research methods);
 the chapter contents, and how each chapter supports the thesis objective or argument.
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A note on 'background' chapters
Background chapters are chapters that occur between the introduction and the middle chapters of the thesis.
Their purpose is to provide information the reader needs in order to follow the story line–information that
does not sensibly fit within any of the other chapters. You might need a background chapter if your work
spans two or more fields of literature or disciplines of which your readers would not be familiar.
Background chapters should be provided only when absolutely necessary, and are best kept as concise as
possible in order to prevent breaking up the story line of the central thesis.
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References
Crasswell, G 2005, Writing for academic success: A postgraduate guide, Sage, London. p201
Metcalf, M 2002, How to critique articles.
Partridge, B ‘Thesis and dissertation writing: An examination of published articles and actual practice’, in
English for Specific Purposes.
Taylor, G 1989 The student’s writing guide for the arts and social sciences, Cambridge University Press.
Writing Lab, Purdue University:
Zeigler, M 2000, Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second edition, McGraw Hill, New
York.

Literature review: Writing about the
'gap' in the literature
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Introduction
Where to discuss literature in the thesis or journal article
Getting to know your 'field'
The 'moves' in the literature review
The structure of a literature review chapter

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Example introduction section in a literature review chapter
Sentence stems

Introduction
This topic within the series of resources on thesis and journal article writing in the social sciences,
humanities and business focuses on the literature review, and specifically writing about the 'gap' in the
literature. Writing about the gap in the literature is often referred to as the 'literature review', although
'literature review' is also used to refer more generally to writing that critically engages with the ideas of
others, which of course happens throughout the thesis or journal article. When we talk about the literature
review in this resource we are referring specifically to that part of the thesis or journal article whose task is
to outline the 'gap' in the literature and the significance of the research.
The literature review is the second of five steps in the research story line considered in this series of
resources. The five steps are:
 Step 1: introduction
 Step 2: literature review
 Step 3: method and methodology
 Step 4: results/evidence
 Step 5: discussion and conclusion
The statement of the 'gap' in the field/s of literature follows after the 'problem statement', and is part of the
general justification for the research.
The 'gap' could refer to an unresolved question, a paradox, a missing piece of information, a theoretical
inconsistency or to some other area of uncertainty within existing understandings of the phenomenon under
study.
The task of the literature review within research writing is to:
 take the reader from the broad topic to the research questions;
 define the field/s of the research;
 introduce and explain findings and theories that support the research;
 draw together main conclusions of literature relevant to the topic;
 highlight gaps or unresolved issues within the literature;
 establish what is original, new or 'significant' about the research.
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Where to discuss literature in the thesis or journal
article
In a research thesis, every chapter refers to the work of other scholars, although for different purposes. As a
simple rule of thumb, decisions about where to discuss literature should be made on the basis of the
function of the chapter or section.
In the literature review chapter/s or section/s, discuss literature that demonstrates what is known about the
problem area, the relevant fields of knowledge that pertain to it, the significance of your research, and what
it will contribute to the field─the 'gap' in the literature.
In the methods and methodology chapter/s or section/s, discuss literature about methods and the
methodological approach to elaborate the research design for your research question.
In the results chapter/s or section/s, discuss literature in order to compare and contrast your results with past
findings, or to highlight the significance or limitations of the results.
In the discussion or conclusion chapter/s or section/s, discuss literature that shows the broader significance
of the results, or to signal further questions or issues raised by the results.
While theses and research proposals provide space for a longer literature review, this is not possible and is
not expected within a journal article that reports research findings. This is because there is simply not
enough space within a 5000 to 7000 word research paper for a long literature review. In journal articles, the
contibution the research will make to the field of research is usually summarised within a few sentences or
paragraphs and included within the opening sections of the article.
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Getting to know your 'field'

The 'field' of research refers to the discipline, sub-discipline or multi-discipline area within which the
research is situated. Examples of disciplines are psychology, sociology, history, geography, women's
studies, media studies, area studies, education and so on. The field of research is a globally recognised body
of academic scholarship rooted in specific disciplines, with a shared set of questions or concerns, as well
as perhaps similar approaches to and theories about those questions and concerns. The literature review is
grounded in a field of research and scholarship. Although you may refer to literature from more than one
field area, typically you would only aim to contribute new knowledge to one field area.
It is important therefore to distinguish between fields of literature that are outside your own, and the field of
research to which you will contribute. The field you will contribute to is your audience. Your examiner will
be drawn from this field. If you publish, it will be in journals that publish research and scholarship of
interest to this field. If your contribution involves drawing upon insights from a field or fields outside your
own, this would need to be made clear in the literature review.
Literature reviews provide some outline of the field's major foci, contexts of research, significant
achievements, theoretical perspectives, ongoing debates or schisms, and pressing concerns, as well as
discussing the research in the immediate topic area and the gap the research will contribute to. The central
concerns that unite a field of literature are not always stated explicitly within a journal paper or book. The
underlying question or concern within environmental psychology for example might be something like:
‘how do human beings engage with the environment?’ or ‘how does the brain process environmental
information?’ The underlying question within early childhood education might be something like: ‘how do
children learn’ or ‘how can we maximize children’s learning?’ There are usually different points of view
about the answers to the questions at the centre of a field of research and a variety of methodological
approaches may have been taken in answering them, giving rise to different kinds of answers. Different
theories also give rise to different points of view within a field. Getting to know the unerlying questions
and approaches within your field area will give your literature review added depth and breadth, and will
greatly facilitate your ability to communicate influentially within your field. It takes time to get to know a
field of research that is new to you, so it is important to be patient and to work steadily.
One way to familiarise yourself with a new field of inquiry is to read review articles or books, although it is
important to read these critically since reviews, like other published academic writing, presents the author's
perspective on the state of play within the field of research, and there may be disagreement about the
author's perspective.
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The 'moves' within the literature review
Swales, J., 1984, Research into the structure of introductions to journal articles and its application to the teaching of academic writing, in Ray
Williams, John Swales and John Kirkman, (eds.), Common Ground shared interests in ESP and communication studies, ELT Documents 117,
Pergamon Press.

The literature review can be thought of as containing the following 'moves' or conceptual steps. These are:
1. Establish a research territory
Introduce and review items of previous research in the area.
↓
2. Establish a niche
Indicate a gap in the previous research by raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in
some way.
↓
3. Occupy the niche
Outline the purpose or state the nature of the present research.
Within the literature review, each move takes up a different amount of space. Introducing and reviewing
items of previous research takes up the greatest part of the literature review. Statements that establish the
niche and occupy the niche typically occur in the first and last paragraphs and sections of the literature
review section or chapter, as well as in the first and last sentences of paragraphs and sections within the
review. These are 'power positions' within an academic text.
For this reason, the structure of the literature review is sometimes referred to as an 'upside-down triangle'.
This is because the discussion moves from broad summaries of the field of literature and narrows
progressively to the focus of the research. Accepted findings are presented first, at the base of the triangle,
or the beginning of the chapter or section, with unresolved problems being raised until the discussion
gradually narrows down to the statement of the research question or aim. At the beginning of the literature
review, or the base of the triangle, general trends within the literature are summarised. As you get towards

the end of the review, the discussion narrows down to discuss more recent trends, and specific research
studies that are closer to your own topic of research. The literature review section or chapter then closes
with the statement of the question, aim or significance of the research thesis, the end point of the triangle.
In some ways the literature review is like telling a story about your field of research, its key findings, major
turns, and areas of uncertainty. You can imagine that you are telling this story to frame the contribution you
wish to make to the field's history of inquiry, positioning your own research at the centre of the story by
highlighting what you aim to discover or illuminate in your study.
One misconception about literature review writing is that we should only write about literature directly
relevant to the topic of the research. This can lead to research writing in which the general findings and
concerns of the field within which the research is situated are not introduced. This kind of literature review
is limited to a smaller pool of studies that are very similar to the topic of the research. In effect, the review
is missing the broad part of the triangle, and provides only the pointy part of the triangle, that is, those
studies of immediate relevance to the research topic and a statement of the gap and aims.
While this might be acceptable in some circumstances, it can give the reader the impression that the author
does not understand or share the broader or underpinning concerns of the field of literature within which
the research is situated. It suggests poor linkage between the research and the deeper questions or concerns
of the field, potentially missing important links between the research and these deeper questions or theories,
and perhaps thereby underselling the significance of the research topic. For this reason it is important to
identify and get to know your field of inquiry.
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The structure of a literature review chapter
For longer literature review chapters:
 Remind the reader of the problem in the opening sentences of the introductory paragraph.
 Introduce what will be discussed, or state the main point of the chapter.
 Divide the literature into chronological, conceptual, thematic or other groupings.
 Introduce these groupings in the opening paragraphs.
 Give reasons for choice of themes (unless this is obvious).
 Provide headings that describe the content within each major section (and correspond to the
themes introduced in the introduction).
 Take up each grouping in turn, and in the order it was introduced within the main body of the
review.
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Example introduction section in a literature review
chapter
Ekins, R 1997, Male femaling, Routledge, London.

Paragraph 1 As I have intimated in Chapter 1, crossdressing and sex-changing in contemporary advanced
industrialised societies are variously considered as
shocking: a media spectacle of prurient and endless
fascination; a medical problem to be understood, managed
and treated …
Paragraph 2 Each aspect has generated its own literature in
terms of curiosity and sensationalism in the popular press
(references), specialist texts on ‘transvestism’,
‘transsexuality’ and ‘gender dysphoria’ in the
psychiatric-psychological-medical arena (references), and
in terms of world-wide information networks for crossdressers and sex changers themselves (references).
Infrequently, social scientists have attended to the area,
most typically from the specialist standpoints of
ethnomethodology, the sociology of deviance, the
medicalisation of gender roles, or feminism. Studies such

States 'the problem' the research is
concerned about.
Provides a description of the literatures and
discipline areas that have addressed the
problem.
Signals the field area (sub-fields within
sociology and women's studies) that the
research is grounded in.
Highlights a 'gap' in these literatures (the
erotic), and draws attention to the disparate
nature of literatures on the topic.
Explains central concern of the field, and

as these have invariably underplayed the erotic, in both its
subjective and social features. Only Lewins (1995) and the
occasional serious piece of journalism in the quality press
have attempted to bridge the gap between the disparate and
discrete literatures.
Paragraph 3 A widespread questioning of gender role
stereotypes has led many commentators to touch on
‘transsexuals’ and ‘transvestites’ as part of a general
consideration of contemporary gender options. These
writers suggest that cross-dressers and sex-changers may
have a lot to teach us all about the most fundamental
questions of our natures, as being variously sexed and
gendered. … Such studies, for the most part, however,
remain at the level of textual analysis and evidence a lack of
intimate and wide-ranging knowledge of the experiences of
cross-dressers and sex-changers themselves.
Paragraph 4 What remains to be addressed, then, is a
consideration of cross-dressing and sex-changing from the
standpoint of a systematic and empirical exploration of the
interrelations between sex, sexuality and gender. …
Paragraph 6 Arguably, the reason for the neglect is that the
literature lacks a serious non-medicalised treatment of
cross-dressers and sex-changers based on extensive and
first-hand knowledge of informants, considered as equals
and co-workers, as they relate over time and place with
their families, friends and associates in the full range of
domestic, leisure, work, medical and sub cultural settings. It
is the purpose of this study to rectify this gap in the
literature.
Paragraph 7 It is instructive to distinguish the grounded
theory approach from others used in the psychiatric and
social scientific literature. The following review will serve
as both a summary of the cognate work and an introduction
to the research methodology which generated this study.

the reason for this concern.
Points to a 'gap' within this literature arising
from methodological approaches to the
question to date─lack of attention to lived
experience.
Points to a 'gap' or 'establishes a niche'─the
need for a systematic, empirical exploration
that includes sex, gender, sexuality.
Restates the gap in the literature the study
will address, and signals the appropriateness
of the method to address this gap.
Outlines what will be covered in the chapter.

Sentence stems
One way to ensure that your literature review is moving in the right direction is to check your sentence
stems. Some of the typical sentence stem for each of the different moves within the literature review are
reproduced below.

Establish a research territory
1. Introduce and review items of previous research in the area:
 The increasing interest in … by (field of scholarship) has heightened the need for …
 Of particular interest to (field of scholarship) is …
 Recently, there has been growing interest in the field of … in …
 The development of … has led … to the hope that …
 … has become a favourite topic of analysis in the field/s of …
 The study of … has become an important aspect of …
 A central issue in (field of scholarship) is …
 The … has been extensively studied in recent years.
 Many recent studies have focused on …
As the review narrows you might expect sentence stems that refer to a narrower range of studies which
press more directly on the topic of the research.
 Of those studies which have looked directly at ... the focus has been on ...
 The study by .... showed that ...

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The methodology adopted in these studies led to more consideration given to ... than to ...

Establish a niche
2. Indicate a gap in the previous research by raising a question about it, or extending previous knowledge in
some way:
 However, little information/attention/work/data/research …
 However, few studies/investigations/researchers/attempts …
 The research has tended to focus on …, rather than on …
 These studies have emphasised …, as opposed to …
 Although considerable research has been devoted to …, rather less attention has been paid to …
 The previous research … has concentrated on …
 Most studies have been content to …
 So far, investigations have been confined to …
Occupy the niche
3. Outline purposes or stating the nature of the present research:
 The purpose of this research project is to …
 The purpose of this investigation is to …
 The aim of this research project is to …
 This study is designed to …
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Useful questions when reading texts for the literature review:
 What is the stated aim, purpose or argument of the text?
 What are the central findings?
 What does the work contribute to our understanding of the problem space?
 What aspect of my topic or problem space is spoken about in the article?
 What position is taken (theoretical, methodological, epistemological, underlying assumptions)?
 How does the text compare with other perspectives/findings on the topic or problem space?
 What broad areas of agreement are there among texts on the topic or problem space?
 What broad areas of disagreement, if any, are there among texts on the topic or problem space?
 What research directions does the emerging work in the field suggest?
 What further research is required to contribute to filling the gaps in research knowledge (to
improve scholarly understanding of my ‘problem’ space)?

Writing about method and methodology
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Introduction
Placement of method and methodology in the thesis or journal article
o When one study determines the next
How much to write?
Structuring the content within the research design chapter or section
Writing an introduction to the research design
o Link the question and the methods/methodology
Writing the main body of the research design
o The two step writerly pattern
o Sentence stems
o Point of view and tense

Introduction
This topic within the series of resources on thesis and journal article writing in the social sciences,
humanities and business focuses on writing about the research design, or the method and the methodology
used in the research. This is the third of the five key steps that hold the story line within theses and journal
articles. These steps are:
 Step 1: introduction
 Step 2: literature review

 Step 3: method and methodology
 Step 4: results/evidence
 Step 5: discussion and conclusion
The method and methodology or the third step of the thesis or journal article story line, explains how you
will answer the question, or how you arrived at your conclusions. Regardless of the style and structure of
thesis, within this section of the thesis or journal article you must explain:
1. why this approach was chosen for your research;
2. what you did to achieve the research aims, or to reach your conclusions.
For more support in understanding the different philosophical approaches that underpin the methodological
rationale, please refer to the Social philosophy of research online resources.
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Placement of method/methodology in the thesis or
journal article
Options include:
1. covered in the introduction, and not discussed in detail elsewhere;
2. a separate chapter or chapters, following the literature review;
3. a brief section immediately before the results and discussion within the middle chapters.

When one study determines the next
When all experiments or studies are designed in advance, you can either provide an overview in the study
design section or chapter and follow with results chapter/s or sections, or you can combine them within
separate sections and chapters.
When one study or experiment must be conducted before the next study or experiment can be designed
results are reported in chapters or sections that include methods. There may not be a separate study design
section preceding the results, or if there is, it might be dedicated to more theoretical and conceptual aspects
of the research design. The technical aspects of the method, the sample and mode of data analysis would
be incorporated within separate results chapters or sections. You can adopt some combination of a four part
pattern in the results chapter/s or section/s including the following elements: question/aims (possibly also
literature review), overview of the experiments or study (methods, sampling, data analysis), results, and
discussion, conclusion. The first question in the first chapter or section is the question of the thesis or
journal article. Each results chapter or section after that opens with the question posed to answer the next
step toward the final answer of the thesis. Each answer then leads to the next question and to a repeat of
some combination of the four part pattern.
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How much to write
While there is no simple rule of thumb to say how much to write, or which of the options above to choose,
some suggestions are provided below.
 When the method, methodology or model is simple, well known or uncontroversial it is not
usually necessary to add extensive detail. You might consider covering the method within the
introductory chapter of the thesis, or within short methods sections within the middle chapters of
the thesis.
 When the method, methodology or model is less straightforward, requires more detail to explain,
or is more open to question, you might consider dedicating a separate chapter or chapters to a
discussion of method and methodology.
 When the method, methodology or model is unique, highly detailed, or your study design is likely
to raise significant questions that could affect how your findings and assertions are read, provide
enough descriptive information and explanation to justify and clarify your research design and its
underpinning rationale.
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Structuring the content within the research design
section

As for the research proposal, there is a general pattern to the content, and to the structure of the content
within most theses and journal papers. The following elements can readily be detected, often in the
following order:
 general introduction (provides a concise statement of the theoretical approach, research phases,
and relationship between research phases, where applicable, and the methods, and approach to
data analysis that will be adopted for each data type);
 discussion of theory or philosophy (where applicable);
 introduction to the methods (including sample, selection and recording processes);
 explanation of the approach to data analysis.
A good way to introduce phased research, or research which involves two or more studies, is to discuss
each phase or study under a separate heading in chronological or logical order. You can then discuss the
theory, where relevant, the methods, and the approach to data analysis for each phase or study.
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Writing an introduction to the research design
The introduction of the research design section ideally provides an overview of the research design. This
overview should include the theory, methods, and the approach to data analysis adopted in the research.
This enables the reader to understand the overall research rationale before being presented with detail about
different elements within it.
If the research has more than one phase or study, these should also be introduced, along with the methods
and perhaps the data analysis approach to be taken in each phase or study. It is also important to briefly
describe the relationship, if any, between the phases or studies in the introduction to the research design.

Link the question and methods/methodology
A good way to communicate your research rationale clearly is to write one or more opening sentences that
restate the key elements within your statement of the research aim, question or focus, and to link this with
concise statements of the method or methodology within the same sentence. The aim or focus should reflect
the 'gap' highlighted in the final paragraphs of the literature review chapter or section of the thesis or
journal article.
For example, you might try using the following sentence structure: ‘In order to investigate … research
question/focus … this study undertook … methods/methodology.
Phrases like 'in order to determine ...', 'to verify whether ...', 'to test the assumption that ...', and 'to discover
if ... ' can also be placed before the research focus.
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Writing the main body of the research design
Further detail about the methodology, methods and data analysis can then be provided in the main body of
the research design section within the introduction, or within the chapters or sections of the thesis or journal
article. If the research is phased or has separate studies, these can be used as major sub headings (unless
you are providing a full overview within the introduction). Within each sub section, the content order
would move from theoretical, to method, to data analysis.
The method content of the research design section includes all the information necessary for the reader to
understand how the data was generated.
For qualitative research this might include information about:
 pilot project and results;
 research participants/organisations/texts;
 the criteria used to determine the sources of information selected (how sample selected, size,
location, generalisability, criteria for inclusions and exclusions);
 the means by which information sources will be negotiated and accessed;
 the means by which data will be collected and recorded;
 how the data will be analysed once it is collected (including the kinds of information or questions
that will inform the coding of interview transcripts and policy analysis);
 how the validity, reliability, and rigor of the knowledge will be assured.
For quantitative research this might include information about:
 independent, dependent and confounding variables;
 study setting – naturalistic or contrived;

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pilot projects and results;
sample (size, location, what unit of analysis, how selected, criteria for inclusions and exclusions);
means by which data will be collected and recorded;
means by which information sources will be negotiated and accessed;
equipment, techniques, measures, measurement scales, materials used;
time horizon – snapshot, longitudinal, retrospective, multiple points in time;
means by which data will be analysed (surveys, questionnaires, statistical tests, equations and
mathematical models);
 how the validity, reliability, and rigor of the knowledge will be assured.
The methods chapter or section does not include results (unless they were obtained to shape some aspect of
the method, and are more relevant to the methods section than the results section).
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The two step writerly pattern within the main body of the research design
section
If you look closely, you will see that the main body of well written research design sections has a two step
writerly pattern. Although these steps are typically blended within the general discussion of the research
design, it is useful to consider them in their distinctive forms.
The first step describes the approach, in detail, and concisely. Typically this step takes up most of the
content of the research design section.
The second step explains why the approach, and the details within the approach, were chosen. The second
step in the pattern explains how the approach enables an exploration of the research aim, focus or question.
For example: step one, 'Grounded theory involves ... (references)'; step two, 'Grounded theory was
chosen for this study because ...'.
Try to avoid overly long, or generalised text-book-like descriptions of the nature or value of a particular
methodology, method, or approach to data analysis. The research design section should continually draw
the discussion back to a description of the current research rationale and research aims.
A researcher might write an overly general description of research methods or methodology as a result of
the mistaken belief that the research design outlines the advantages of the chosen approach for researchers
in general. It can also happen when the author is unfamiliar with the approach, particularly when the
approach is complex or highly theoretical. This is because we often write as a way of learning more about a
particular aproach or theory. While this is an effective strategy for thoroughly understanding a particular
approach, and is not at all the 'wrong' way of doing things, second and third drafts are nevertheless
probably going to be necessary to explain how and why the approach is used in your research.
It may be helpful to remember that the same research question can be investigated from a number of
different philosophical and methodological angles, using different methods and research designs, and that
there may be little consensus about what constitutes the 'best' approach within your field. What is important
in the research design is not so much to justify one approach over others, say by listing its positive benefits,
but to explain why you chose the approach you did, and what the adopted appraoch aims to reveal, or how
you wish your findings to be read.
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Sentence stems
The key conceptual sentence stem in the research design section, in its simplest form, might then be
expressed in the form: 'x methodology, method or approach to data analysis was chosen for this study
because ...'. The because part of the sentence refers back to the research aims in some way, and regularly
appears throughout the research design section of the thesis or journal article.
Possible sentence stems:
Methodology/philosophy:
 The methodological assumption underpinning this research is ... . Hence the research aims to ... .
 X theoretical approach assumes that ... . This idea informs ... (aspect of the research).
 Theoretical approach x is used in this research because it enables an exploration of ... (aspects of
the research focus).
 X's idea that ... illuminates ... (aspect of the research).
 X theory provides a framework to deconstruct and understand ... (aspect of the research focus).
 The research will employ x theory to analyse ... (aspect of research focus).

Methods/methodology:
 Action research was adopted for this study because ...
 This case study was chosen because ...
 Data was collected through interviews with ... . The list of persons to be interviewed was selected
on the basis of ... (fit with research focus).
 X statistical test was used to examine ... (aspect of research focus).
 A group parallel randomised control design was chosen specifically to provide ... (evidence
pertaining to research focus).
Data analysis:
 The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to test the hypothesis that .... .
 The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to determine whether a relationship exists between ...
variable x and ... variable y.
 The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to determine whether ... (research phenomenon) ...
supports the theoretical/popular/policy assumption that ... .
 The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to provide a rich description of ... (research context) ...
in order to test the validity of the theoretical/popular/policy assumption that ... .
 The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to reflect upon the meaning of ... (research phenomena)
... within ... (social context of research) ... in order to understand whether ... (research focus).
 The ... (research data set) ... was analysed to reflect on the critical differences between the
meaning of ... (research phenomena x and research phenomena y) ... in order to understand
whether ... (research focus).
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Point of view and tense
When writing up the research design, the point of view adopted is that of the study rather than the
researcher, especially for theses following the question/answer style, (‘The study design comprises … ’,
‘The sample population was drawn from …’) and, less commonly, the researcher (‘When sensitive issues
arose, I … ’).
Use of an appropriate tense when writing about methods and methodology can be confusing for both native
and non-native speakers alike, however there are some simple rules you can follow:
 Use past tense verb to report methods because these were conducted in the past (for example:
‘interviews were conducted’, ‘surveys were distributed’).
 Use present tense to refer to published papers or books, this is because the ideas expressed exist in
the present, and this is what you are referring to, even though the text referred to was published in
the past.

Writing up the evidence/data
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Introduction
Developing a structure for the results or argumentation thesis chapters
o Mind mapping
Placement of results or argument substantiation
o When one study determines the next
Content of the introduction
The main body
Summarising and synthesising data
Explaining how a result is significant
Figures, tables and graphs

Introduction
This topic within this series of resources focuses on writing up the evidence or data in question/answer
style academic writing, and in providing substantiation and explication for your argument in the middle
chapters of the descriptive style thesis or main body of a journal article. This is the fourth of the five key
steps that hold the story line within theses and journal articles.
The steps are:

 Step 1: introduction (research justification)
 Step 2: literature review
 Step 3: method and methodology
 Step 4: results/evidence
 Step 5: discussion and conclusion
The fourth step in the story line presents the results that will answer the question or provides further
argumentation to support the central thesis. Here you are telling the reader what you found, or what led you
to your conclusions or argument. This is supported by summaries of data and perhaps illustrations of
instances of data to exemplify your key points.
Before considering the key principles to guide results writing, it is important to be clear about the
difference between results and data. Data is the raw material produced by your method, and your initial
treatment of that data, such as for example interview text, groupings of text around key words, and numbers
or summaries of numbers in tables, graphs and charts. Results are the inferences you draw from the data
and from your treatment of the data. Results refer the reader to what the data tells us about the question
posed in the topic area. Data is the body of evidence that supports the result.
It is also useful to be clear about the difference between results and conclusions. Results provide the
smaller elements that will go together to make up the conclusion. The conclusion provides the overall
answer to the question or aim posed in the introduction. Within question/answer style theses it is important
not to reveal the conclusion until the final chapter.

Key principles
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Report only results or evidence pertinent to the research question or argument.
Provide a statement of the main result/s or argument in the introduction.
Name the themes or section topics in the chapter or section in the introduction.
Give reasons for choice of themes (unless obvious).
Remind the reader of the methodological rationale underpinning the result in the introductory
paragraph of the chapter (optional). This reminds the reader how you want the results or evidence
to be read.
Refer to themes in the same order throughout the chapter.
Report results or evidence in order of importance or persuasiveness (most important first), or
chronologically (for staged experiments), or in order of question asked (for survey research).
Report all results or evidence pertinent to the question or argument (not just those that support the
hypothesis).
Lead with the result or sub-argument and follow with data.
Use raw data to exemplify larger points explained in the text.
Ensure that the discussion of results is lengthier than presentation of data within the text.
Present complex data within figures or tables. If it can be explained just as well in the text, do not
provide a figure or table.
Always provide precise measurements.

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Placement of results or argument substantiation within
the thesis
There are two basic placements for writing about evidence and argument substantiation with the thesis. The
first is within a separate chapter or chapters devoted solely to this purpose which follows the methods,
literature review or introductory chapter/s of the thesis. The second option is to report results separately
within chapters that include some combination of literature review, methods, results and discussion. This
style is obviously more typical for the question/answer style of thesis discussed in the topic on thesis
structures and styles in this resource.
For a journal paper the same principle applies. Results are either reported after a major methods section, or
they are included with methods under two or more major headings.

When one study determines the next
Results are reported together with the method in a chapter or section when one study or experiment must be
conducted before the next study or experiment can be designed. When all experiments or studies are

designed in advance, an overview can be provided in the study design section or chapter of thesis or journal
article. Results chapters or sections can then simply supply the results that answer the question in the order
of most to least important.
When one experiment, study or research phase determines the next however, there may not be a
separate study design section preceding the results, or if there is, it might be dedicated to more theoretical
and conceptual aspects of the research design. The technical aspects of the method, the sample and mode of
data analysis would be incorporated within separate results chapters or sections. When one study
determines the next you can adopt some combination of a four part pattern in the results chapter/s or
section/s including the following elements: question/aims (possibly also literature review), overview of the
experiments or study (methods, sampling, data analysis), results, and discussion, conclusion.
In studies in which one experiment or study determines the next, the first question in the first chapter or
section is the question of the thesis or journal article. Each results chapter or section after that opens with
the question posed to answer the next step toward the final answer of the thesis. Each answer then leads to
the next question and to a repeat of some combination of the four part pattern.
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Developing a structure for the results or middle thesis
chapters
One of the most difficult aspects of thesis writing can be determining the structure of the results or of the
main points that will underpin the separation of the middle chapters in the thesis. Decisions will need to be
made about how many chapters will be devoted to results or to supportive argumentation, and, if there will
be more than one chapter, what element of the results or evidence will be provided in each chapter or
within each results section within each chapter.
While it is sometimes appropriate to divide up chapters according to data set, nominating a chapter for
qualitative data and one for quantitative data for instance, this might not always be appropriate. This is
because key results might not line up neatly against different data sets. In other words, different data sets
might produce the same result or the same set of results. Organising chapters by data set in this
instance could lead to an unecessarily repetitive thesis in which the same results are reported with reference
to different data sets across two or more chapters. Ideally chapters are structured by result or body of
evidence, not by data set, and would move from least to most important finding against the research
question or aim.
Determining which results or points of evidence will be reported is done ultimately by reference to the
literature in the field. Data analysis, in its simplest formulation, involves reading data to find trends,
patterns, striking phenomena or fulfilled predictions that are new to the field of scholarship you are writing
within. There is little point in reporting results that are already well established and uncontroversial within
the field, although of course it is often important to repeat studies to test existing findings. In essence, when
you are reading data to determine which key result will be reported, you are contrasting what is known
about the subject area with your data set to see what you have found that is interesting and new for your
field. Referencing within results chapters typically involves comparing the findings with existing findings
and commenting on the extent to which they confirm or diverge from existing findings and presuppositions.
In order to do this, it will be helpful to stay abreast of literature in the topic area.
It can happen that an unanticipated result emerges in the course of the research that is more interesting or
'new' than the result originally anticipated by the question framed at the outset of your research. In this
instance, you would report the more interesting finding and simply reframe the literature review and
question or aim so that it leads up to this finding.
While it is not important to report findings in your data set that are already well established, you must
report all findings and evidence that pertain to the question posed in the introduction of the thesis. It is
unethical to ommit, understate or inaccurately report evidence that relates to the question.
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Mind mapping
Mind mapping can be a useful tool for figuring out the structure of your results chapters. Mind mapping
cannot be done until you have analysed the data. First you would analyse your data to find out what it is
telling you in relation to your question, and in relation to your field of scholarship. As you analyse, it is
important to write. At this stage, you should write down the important points, and indeed anything that
comes to mind that seems like it might be important, noting which points emerge most strongly and which

appear to be marginal. If a clear structure does not immediately emerge within the data analysis process,
just keep writing without worrying too much about how the results will eventually be structured.
When you have a substantial body of writing, you can then look to see relationships, areas of overlap, and
distinctive ideas or themes within what you have written. This is essentially what mind mapping is. The
mind map looks like a series of linked or unlinked points tied to a central or overarching thesis statement.
The map can be constantly worked and reworked until you arrive at a fixed structure.
It is important to ensure that the map is based on statements that answer a key question or support a central
argument. In order to ensure this, write your question or argument (or your nearest approximation of your
question or argument at the stage of writing) at the top of the mind map. Under this question or statement
write the key results or ideas that answer or support it. Keep checking back and forth to see that the results
and statements on the page are closely linked to the big idea or central question at the top. Remember that
both the question and the argument can be adjusted in this process. The key is that they are tied together,
and that the question or argument will be of interest to the field of scholarship.
Another tip for developing the chapter structure is to try summarising your own writing. Pretend your job is
simply to concisely report the main points in your own text as you would when reading any other text for
your research. Once you have done this you will be able to see which points are connected and which are
distinctive.
Try to keep the key points to less than six. If you have too many points, look for a higher order label in
which two or more topics can be grouped, or draw links between them. Then redraw the map with a
composite statement divided by smaller sub topics (these then become the sections within a chapter). Keep
going until a clear structure begins to emerge.
The statements that finally emerge can then be referred to when composing the chapter headings. The
chapter headings should use some of the key terms in these statements since they are designed to point
directly to the distinctive content of the chapter.
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Content of the results introduction
The introduction of a results chapter within a thesis contains two key elements:
1. a statement of the main finding or idea/sub-argument that will be reported or developed within the
chapter;
2. a brief chapter outline or description of the themes or content that will be covered in the chapter.
Sometimes results or middle thesis chapters also refer back to the methodological framing of their results in
the introduction to remind the reader how they want the result to be read.
Introductions of middle chapters in descriptive theses, like the main introduction of the thesis, provide a
statement of the argument. This argument is essentially a sub-point or assertion that in some way supports
the overarching argument of the thesis. As for the presentation of the thesis argument in the main
introduction, the sub-arguments of middle chapters can be made more compelling by preceding them with a
contrastive point of view. This strategy highlights the significance or newness of the finding or argument.
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The main body of the results or middle chapters or
sections
Within the main body of the results chapters or sections within the thesis, lead with the result or main point
and follow with support and exemplification from the data. The first paragraphs within sections, or the first
sentences within paragraphs should be used to present the results that make up the overall finding reported
in that chapter. The remainder of the section or paragraph would then contain information about the data set
or examples from the data set. It is also common to discuss the overall result and to follow with an
explanation of any exceptions, exclusions or qualifications to the result, or to discuss the extent to which
this result was expected or compares with other studies in the topic area. Alternatively, an example may be
provided that is typical of the point being made which provides further detail and explanation of the main
point.
In descriptive theses, the same rule applies. Ensure that paragraphs have clear topic sentences which state
the key point of the section.
In the writing process you will often find that the main idea does not appear until the end of a piece of
writing. This is because we tend to write our way toward the main idea, clarifying our thoughts as we

reflect upon and write about the data. The reader should not however have to wait until the end of the
chapter or section to find out the main point. Redrafting then often involves dragging summative statements
forward and placing them at the beginning of paragraphs and sections, and then checking that the
information supplied in that section works to support the idea or result in the opening sentence.
The same structural principle applies for journal articles, except that, because of their shorter length, it is
not always necessary to provide a summary of the main result or argument in the introduction to the results
or middle section of the paper. For question/answer style journal articles, the main aim or question is
provided in the opening of the paper and the overall finding is not presented until the conclusion paragraph
or section. The result and the overall conclusion is also provided in the abstract For descriptive style journal
articles, the argument appears in the abstract and in the introduction of the paper, and the main body
provides evidence and further explication to support the main argument which is briefly restated in the
conclusion of the paper.
Regardless of whether you are writing a chapter for a thesis or a journal article for publication, the
discussion of the results and of the data should take up more room than the data itself. The text should not
be too heavily weighted towards data, say in the form of interview quotes or figures and tables, with little
supporting commentary.
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Summarising and synthesising data
One way to ensure you are summarising, synthesising and interpreting data within the main body of the
chapter, rather than simply reporting it, is to go through your text and check that you have provided the
result first and followed with a description of data that supports it. Try to avoid writing a results section that
reads like a long list of figures and tables, or quotes from research subjects, with little story line to explain
them.
In the first example below, data is reported without a result statement. In the second example, a result
statement precedes the data.

Poor example of results statement
Zeiger, M 2000, Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second ed, New York, McGraw-Hill, pp. 154-175.

In the 20 control subjects, the mean resting blood pressure was 85+5 (SD) mmHg. In comparison, in the 30
tennis players, the mean resting blood pressure was 94+3 mmHg (unclear what point we are to draw from
the data, whether the data are similar or different).

Better example of results statement
The mean resting blood pressure was 10% higher in the 30 tennis players than in the 20 control subjects. In
the 20 control subjects, the mean resting blood pressure was 85+5 (SD) mmHg. In comparison, in the 30
tennis players, the mean resting blood pressure was 94+3 mmHg (provides clear and precise statement of
the magnitude of the difference).
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Explaining how a result is significant
Instead of stating that a result is significant, show the significance of the result. For example: instead of
saying 'Results for the distance travelled were highly significant', try 'While the average distance travelled
is five kilometres, the sample population travelled on average 10 kilometres further. This is explained by ...'
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Figures, tables and graphs
Zeiger, M 2000, Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second ed, New York, McGraw-Hill, pp. 154-175.

Figures, tables and graphs:
 are necessary only when they provide information that expands upon, or cannot be explained in
the text;
 should contain sufficient information to enable them to stand alone;
 are always discussed in the text;
 use titles to describe core content, (name of variables, type of analysis);
 are clearly and consistently labelled and numbered;
 are listed at the beginning of the thesis;
 list one column of data per heading;
 should be uncluttered.

Refer to figures and tables in the flow of the discussion. Avoid using a figure or table title as a topic
sentence. Instead, cite tables and figures in brackets after relevant results statements.

Poor example
‘A summary of renal function data is presented in Fig. 2’.

Better example
‘Renal function data showed that …. (Figure 2)’.

The discussion and conclusion
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Introduction
Difference between discussion and conclusion
The research implications
Linking the introduction and the conclusion
Writing recommendtions
Going out with a 'bang'

Introduction
This topic within this series of resources on thesis and journal article writing in the social sciences,
humanities and business focuses on the discussion and conclusion. This is the last of the five key steps
within theses and journal articles.
The key steps are:
 Step 1: introduction
 Step 2: literature review
 Step 3: method and methodology
 Step 4: results/evidence
 Step 5: discussion and conclusion
The final step in the story line is to provide the answer to the question, or to summarise the argument and
the main evidence used to support it (depending on which of the thesis styles you will adopt). This is
followed by a discussion of the significance of the research and the implications that arise from the
research.
The goal of the conclusion is to highlight the importance of the argument, to draw together the discussion
into a final point, and to leave a lasting impression on the reader. In the same way that the paper opens with
a statement of a problem that is of broad concern, it should close with commentary that highlights the take
home message. The aim in the conclusion is to make this message as clear and accessible as possible.
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The difference between discussions and conclusions
Some papers have separate discussion and conclusion sections. The difference between the discussion and
conclusion is one of inference. The discussion section discusses actual results. Conclusions are more
speculative in tone, exploring the possible implications of the results. In many qualitative papers, results or
findings are difficult to disentangle from the discussion and are combined within the main body of the
article.
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Research implications
The implications of the research and the proposals flowing from the research might be discussed in relation
to one or more of the following:
 the community in the 'real world';
 policy development (government, organisational);
 professional practice (as an academic or other profession – teacher, engineer, manager etc);
 contribution to academic debates;
 social or political action and research.

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Linking the introduction and conclusion
Try reading the introduction and the conclusion one after another. They should flow. The conclusion brings
the reader back to the opening questions, bringing them to a close. If you have used examples, metaphors or
other illustration to highlight the problem or significance of the research, you might return to the same
device in the conclusion.
You can avoid repeating information that has already been provided by drawing the findings together into
an overall point that has not been made yet. The sum may be a more powerful conveyor of meaning than
the parts.
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Writing 'recommendations'
Conclusions offer solutions to issues and suggest courses of action flowing from the research. However, the
aim of research is primarily to produce knowledge, not law, policy or a set of recommendations. We cannot
ultimately control how our ideas are interpreted or implemented in the world. By maintaining a scholarly
tone and exploring the possible implications of your ideas in broad terms, you can avoid dating your
research unnecessarily, or limiting the reader's imagination to a specific set of outcomes.
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Going out with a bang
Use the last paragraph or sentence of the paper to provide closure to its overall questions. Pay attention to
this paragraph and sentence; try to go out with a bang.

Abstract writing: Purposes, conventions
and types
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What is an abstract?
Purpose of writing abstracts
Conventions of writing abstracts
Further considerations
o Key words
o Author details
Types of abstracts
o Informative
o Descriptive
o Executive summary
Examples
How to write an abstract

What is an abstract?
An abstract is a brief overview, not an evaluative summary, of a longer piece of writing. There are different
kinds of abstracts which contain different information. Social science and scientific abstracts contain a
statement of the research problem or purpose, statement of the gap in the literature (for theses), the method
and methodology, the findings and the conclusions. Humanities abstracts contain a description of the
problem, statement of the gap in the literature (for theses), the main position or 'argument' and an overview
of the contents.
The purpose and conventions of abstract writing, and the elements related to the specific types of abstracts
are discussed in more detail below.
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Purpose of writing abstracts

Abstracts are found in a number of different places, including:
 electronic databases
 preceding a journal article
 preceding a thesis or research paper
 in conference programs
There are two main purposes for abstracts.

Screening documents
The main purpose of abstracts is to enable readers to decide whether to read the longer document.
Similarly, abstracts for conference papers enable decisions about which sessions to attend. This is actually
the second level of screening – the first being the title. The abstract provides further information about the
problem or aim, the methodology, findings and conclusions. It provides a framework and prepares the
reader to read or listen to the paper more closely. One important aspect of abstract writing is therefore to
ensure that the abstract provides an accurate description of the paper and does not leave anything important
out.

Indexing information
The other main purpose of abstracts is to provide key words for information searches. Librarians, and other
information managers, use abstracts and the key words contained within them to develop indexing systems.
Researchers use key words within online data bases to retrieve relevant information. This prevents searches
of full texts, which would be too broad to be useful, and titles alone, which often do not provide enough
information. Another important consideration in abstract writing is therefore to ensure that the abstract
includes the key words that are applicable to the field or topic area.
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Conventions of writing abstracts
‘Good’ abstracts conform to the following basic rules.

Within the word limit
It is important to conform to the word limit. Word limits are designed to ensure a concise and disciplined
approach to writing. They enable readers, publishers, conference organisers and information indexers to
access and use the information quickly and economically.

Correct structure and sequence
The abstract should have a clear structure with each sentence or part of a sentence designed to explain an
aspect of the longer paper in the order in which that element appears in the longer version. More important
information is provided before less important information. Depending on the type of abstract, this will
usually include the problem statement, gap in the literature (for theses), purpose, methods, results and
conclusions.

No information not contained in the longer paper
An abstract is a summary of the longer paper and does not introduce new information or tangents.

No definitions
Definitions of key terms can be provided in the introduction of the longer work.

Well written
Check that:
 information is linked together with transition words (therefore, in particular);
 writing is free from spelling and grammatical errors;
 the writing flows and does not distract the reader from the meaning.

No references
Abstracts do not usually contain references. This is because the abstract aims to distil the unique
contribution the current paper makes to a broader field of writing.
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Further Considerations
Key words

Conferences and journals often ask for a list of key words. Key words are designed to describe the topics
and audiences that will be interested in the longer paper. The key words in the abstract will determine who
is likely to access the abstract when they conduct a literature search. The more thoughtful your key words,
the more likely that your article or conference presentation will be found in key word search and therefore
be read.
Some tips for writing key words:
 Think about the key words that best describe your main message.
 Think about the kinds of key words used by your target audience. These can often be found by
checking relevant journals and conference sites in your field. Use the same key words used by
other authors in the field.
 Check that at least some of these key words are included in the heading and within the abstract.
 Use your best key words to open sentences.
 Use two key words together, or a phrase. Most searches use two words.
 Use synonyms where possible (heart disease, cardiovascular disease) to encompass different
search options.
 Try to avoid over repeating the same key words in the abstract, unless key words are repeated to
links sentences and ideas.
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Author details
Sometimes authors are asked to provide specific biographic details. This is often the name and institution to
which you belong, but it can include information about your research background. Your research
background includes the discipline area or areas, and the fields of scholarship within which your research is
situated, as well as the topic areas you have researched within them. Try to describe your research area as
accurately as possible in order not to misrepresent your research history.
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Types of abstracts
Academic abstracts generally fall into three categories:
 Informative abstract
 Descriptive abstract
 Executive summary
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Informative abstract
The informative abstract is most common. It is used within the social sciences and the sciences. This kind
of abstract describes what happened during the research process. It is also more likely to speak about ‘the
research’ rather than ‘the paper’.
Although short and written to a word limit, informative abstract are longer than the descriptive abstracts
described below. Informative abstracts contain specific information about the research and, in effect, the
abstract becomes a summary of the key information from each section of the longer paper.
Upon reading an informative abstract we should know why the research was conducted, what it set out to
do, how it was done, what the main findings were, and what we can conclude from this.
The key elements of an informative abstract are:
 reason for writing
 gap in the literature (essential for theses, optional or often omitted in journal articles)
 research question/aim
 method and methodology
 findings/results
 conclusions or implications
Sometimes, informative abstracts are divided into subheadings for each of these elements, or broken into
two or more smaller paragraphs with transition words to signify the move between elements.
The elements of an informative abstract are described below. Each is written in a particular tense.
Reason for writing/problem
 This is a brief sentence or two that establishes the reason for the research, and why the research is
important. The research problem can take a variety of forms depending on the nature of the paper.

These include: a problem, controversy, issue, or unresolved question within the literature. The
research problem is written in the past tense or present perfect tense (the past in relation to the
present, such as ‘have been’) to indicate something that was identified as an issue or ongoing
question.
Literature review
 This part of the abstract is essential in a thesis, but is often not included in a journal article because
of limited space. In a thesis the examiner expects to see the research clearly situated within the
field of literature. The literature review element within thesis abstracts indicates the field of
scholarship or research that the thesis will contribute to (different from the field/s that the thesis
will draw upon). The literature review element within the abstract summarises a gap in knowledge
within the field by briefly summarising what has been done to date in the topic area within the
field.

Question/aim
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The question or aim explains the precise focus that was investigated. It might also be phrased as
an objective or hypothesis. The question or aim is also often encompassed within the problem
statement. The question or aim arises from the review of the literature in the longer paper. It
indicates exactly what precise aspect of a broader problem area and field of literature the research
contributes to.

Methodology


This includes reference to the specific methods, models, approach or type of evidence used. The
methodology is written in the past tense, to indicate what was done and why it was done. It should
include critical information including the nature and size of the sample.

Results
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The key results or findings are then summarized in order of greatest importance. This may include
statistics or other numeric terms, although these should be kept brief and be self-explanatory.
Results are also discussed in the past tense.

Conclusions
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In this part of the abstract, one or two of the key implications of the research are summarized.
Conclusions pertain to the contribution of the research to the field, or to the kinds of changes that
are suggested by the findings. The conclusions are written in the present tense to indicate their
current relevance. Tentative verbs and modal auxiliaries (for example, could, may) are also
applicable in this section.

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Descriptive abstract
Descriptive abstracts are used for papers in which a main proposition or argument, typically stated in the
opening sections of the paper, is substantiated by reasoned debate, evidence, presentation of data, or
reflective commentary, including commentary related to practical work. Descriptive abstracts are
commonly found in the humanities disciplines. The descriptive abstract describes the main proposition or
finding of the paper, and the main themes or bodies of evidence provided in the paper. In this sense it acts
like a preview of the main event. It should relate directly to the information that is in the longer paper or
presentation, and is more likely to speak about ‘the paper’ or 'the thesis/exegesis' rather than ‘the research’.
In journal articles, descriptive abstracts are short, sometimes under 100 words. Descriptive abstracts usually
contain the following elements.
 topic/background (optional)
 problem statement or purpose
 gap in the literature (essential for theses, optional or often omitted in journal articles)
 main proposition, finding or focus
 overview of contents (essential for theses, optional for journal articles)
 implications (essential for theses, optional for journal articles).
Each of the these elements has a particular function and is written in the present or future tense in terms of:
 what is in the paper/presentation/thesis/exegesis
 what will be argued or demonstrated in the paper/presentation/thesis/exegesis.
The purpose of each element within an informative abstract is as follows.

The topic
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The topic tells the reader what the paper is about. If the word limit is tight, this can be omitted.

The problem statement or purpose


This is essential. The research problem can take a variety of forms depending on the nature of the
paper. These include: a problem, controversy, issue, or unresolved question within the literature.
Literature review
 This part of the abstract is essential in a thesis, but is often not included in a journal article because
of limited space. In a thesis the examiner expects to see the research clearly situated within the
field of literature. The literature review element within thesis abstracts indicates the field of
scholarship or research that the thesis will contribute to (different from the field/s that the thesis
will draw upon). The literature review element within the abstract summarises a gap in knowledge
within the field by briefly summarising what has been done to date in the topic area within the
field.

Main point
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The main point or argument of the paper, thesis, or exegesis must be provided in the abstract. This
is the take home message or central argument of the paper or thesis/exegesis.

Overview of the contents
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In journal articles, an overview of contents can also be provided if there is space within the word
limit. In a thesis or exegesis it would be expected. This might include the methodology and/or the
key themes within the longer paper or thesis (often describes key points or arguments within the
chapters of the main body). Themes should be listed in the order in which they will appear in the
presentation, paper, thesis or exegesis.
Implications
 The final part of the abstract, optional in journal papers but recommended in theses and exegeses,
summarises the key implications of the argument, discussion or art work. The implications should
tie back to the central aims and focus of the thesis, and refer back to the field of literture or
practice within which the work is situated.
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Executive summary
Although an Executive summary is similar to an abstract in that they both summarise a longer paper, there
are some key differences. An Executive summary:
 is written primarily as a stand-alone document and can be quite long – up to 10% of the wordlength of the longer paper;
 starts with the key findings of the research, which are then expanded upon;
 often uses dot points for emphasis and brevity;
 provides relatively brief coverage of the purpose, research problem and methodology used;
 has a strong focus on the recommendations and their justification;
 must accurately reflect what is in the report (the recommendations are sometimes word for word
from the report);
 is targeted at people who are likely to implement the recommendations.
One of the key differences is the focus on recommendations. In research abstracts, recommendations are
rarely made, or if they are, they are implicit rather than explicit. Recommendations are not made in
academic abstracts because academics operate in a discursive environment, where debates, discussions and
dialogue are meant to precede the implementation of any new research findings. The conceptual nature of
much academic writing also means that recommendations arising from the findings are widespread and not
easily or usefully encapsulated in regard to a single setting. This is quite different to the environment in
which managers operate, where quick decisions and decisive actions are required in relation to specific
issues.
Executive summaries are used mainly when a research report has been developed for an industry partner, a
government department or an organisation that has participated in the research. In such cases the research
report and executive summary are written for policy makers within non-academic organisations, while
abstracts, research papers and articles are written for the academic community.
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Examples of descriptive and informative abstracts
Informative abstract (biomedical sciences) journal article
From Zeigler, M. Essentials of writing biomedical research papers, Second edition. McGraw Hill: New
York. 271-272.
To determine whether lesions of the nucleus tractus solitarium alter pulmonary artery pressures and
pulmonary lymph flow without altering the systemic circulation (reason for writing and question), we
measured pressures and lymph flow in 6 halothane-anesthetised sheep in which we created lesions of the
nucleus by bilateral thermo coagulation (experiment done). We found that pulmonary artery pressure role
to 150% of baseline and remained elevated for the 3-h duration of the experiment. Pulmonary lymph flow
doubled within 2 h. Systemic and left atrial pressures did not change. Sham nucleus tractus solitarium
lesions and lesions lateral to the nucleus produced no changes (results - from variables that changed, to
variables that did not change to control). These experiments demonstrate that lesions of the nucleus tractus
solitarium alter pulmonary artery pressures and pulmonary lymph flow independently of the effects on the
systemic circulation (answer to the question).
NB: Details for question and answer are presented in the same order: that is, pulmonary artery pressures,
pulmonary lymph flow, systemic circulatory variables.

Descriptive abstract (higher education) journal article
Abstract for a published journal paper: Barnacle, R and R. Usher, 2003, 'Assessing the quality of research
training: The case of part-time candidates in full-time professional work', Higher Education Research and
Development, vol. 22, no. 3, November 2003.
Intrinsic to the Australian Federal Government's Research Training Scheme (RTS) is a perception that the
quality of research degree graduates is in question; in particular, that they lack a skill set that would enable
them after graduating to make a greater contribution to the knowledge economy, the information-rich
workplace and to national innovation. However, little or no concrete evidence has ever been given to
support these claims. Furthermore, no substantive distinction is made between different categories of
research degree candidates – for example, between those who are undertaking their research full-time and
those who are already full-time professional workers and are undertaking their research degree in a parttime mode (problem statement or purpose). We argue that making this distinction and exploring its impact
is vital (main point) and report on a study that examines the role and relevance of research degrees to
professionals and the workplace. This provides an evidence-based contribution to questions regarding the
quality and attributes of research degree graduates and the synergies between their development in the
workplace and the research program (overview of contents).
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How to write an abstract
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Abstracts are usually written after the longer paper is complete, but it is often useful to start
putting the elements together earlier on for theses. This is because the abstract can help you to
'map' the overall thesis and check that the key steps in the story line hold together.
The first step in abstract writing is to re-read the longer paper or the sections in the thesis or
exegesis, perhaps highlighting the relevant information.
Next write a sentence or two (for journal papers), or a short paragraph (for theses), for each of the
key elements within the abstract.
Check that each sentence or short paragraph summarises the key element and does not leave
anything important out.
Then put the sentences together and work towards a unified abstract in which the elements flow
naturally from one to the other. Pay particular attention to key words and transitions to ensure the
ideas flow from sentence to sentence.
The last step is to edit the abstract and to check that it fits within the word limit.