Acute Hepatitis
Content
ACUTE HEPATITIS
Hepatitis Acute parenchymal liver damage can be caused by many
agents .
implies inflammation of the liver characterized by the presence
of inflammatory cells in the tissue of the liver. The condition can be self-limiting, healing on its own, or can progress to scarring of the liver. Hepatitis is acute when it lasts less than six months and chronic when it persists longer. A group of viruses known as the hepatitis viruses cause most cases of liver damage worldwide. Hepatitis can also be due to toxins (alcohol), other infections or from autoimmune process. It may run a subclinical course when the affected person may not feel ill. The patient becomes unwell and symptomatic when the disease impairs liver functions.
Causes
Acute Viral hepatitis: Hepatitis A ,E (more than 95% of viral cause),B,C Herpes simplex, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr, yellow fever virus.
Non viral infection: toxoplasma, Leptospira, Q fever. Alcohol . Toxins: Amanita toxin in mushrooms, carbon tetrachloride, Drugs: Paracetamol Auto immune conditions Metabolic diseases, e.g., Wilson's disease
Chronic Viral hepatitis: Hepatitis B with or without hepatitis D,
hepatitis C (neither hepatitis A nor hepatitis E causes chronic hepatitis) Autoimmune: Autoimmune hepatitis Drugs: methyldopa, nitrofurantoin, isoniazid, ketoconazole Heredity: Wilson's disease, alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency . Others Inflammatory bowel disease – ulcerative colitis - Alcohol
Symptoms Acute Clinically, the course of acute hepatitis varies widely from mild
symptoms requiring no treatment to fulminant hepatic failure . Acute viral hepatitis is more likely to be asymptomatic in younger people. Symptomatic individuals may present after convalescent stage of 7 to 10 days, with the total illness lasting 2 to 6 weeks. Initial features are of nonspecific flu-like symptoms, common to almost all acute viral infections and may include malaise, muscle and joint aches, fever, nausea or vomiting, diarrhea, and headache. More specific symptoms, which can be present in acute hepatitis from any cause, are: profound loss of appetite, aversion to smoking among smokers, dark urine, yellowing of the eyes and skin (i.e., jaundice) and abdominal discomfort. Physical findings are usually minimal, apart from jaundice (33%) and tender hepatomegaly (10%). There can be occasional lymphadenopathy (5%) or splenomegaly (5%).
Symptoms of chronic hepatitis: Patients may be asymptomatic or complain of non-
specific symptoms, particularly fatigue. Specific symptoms include: right hypochondrial pain due to liver distension abdominal distension due to ascites ankle swelling due to fluid retention haematemesis and melaena from gastrointestinal haemorrhage pruritus (itching )due to cholestasis . breast swelling (gynaecomastia), loss of libido and amenorrhoea due to endocrine dysfunction . confusion and drowsiness due to neuropsychiatric complications.
Hepatitis A virus (HAV)
is a picornavirus,. It replicates in the liver, is excreted in bile
and is then excreted in the faeces of infected persons for about 2 weeks before the onset of clinical illness and for up to 7 days after. The disease is maximally infectious just before the onset of jaundice. HAV particles can be demonstrated in the faeces by electron microscopy. Epidemiology :Hepatitis A is the most common type of viral hepatitis occurring world-wide, often in epidemics. The disease is commonly seen in children and young adults. Spread of infection is mainly by the faeco-oral route and arises from the ingestion of contaminated food or water . Overcrowding and poor sanitation facilitate spread. There is no carrier state.
Investigations : Liver biochemistry. A raised serum AST or ALT, which can sometimes be very
high, precedes the jaundice. In the icteric stage the serum bilirubin reflects the level of jaundice. Serum AST reaches a maximum 1-2 days after the appearance of jaundice, and may rise above 500 IU/L, the aminotransferases may remain elevated for some weeks and occasionally for up to 6 months. Haematological tests There is leucopenia with a relative lymphocytosis. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is raised. Viral markers: antibodies to HAV IgG antibodies are common in the general population over the age of 50 years, but an antiHAV IgM means an acute infection. In areas of high prevalence most children have antibodies by the age of 3 years following asymptomatic infection.
Course and prognosis : The prognosis is excellent, with most patients making a
complete recovery. The mortality in young adults is 0.1% but it increases with age. Death is due to fulminant hepatic necrosis. HAV hepatitis never progresses to chronic liver disease.
Treatment There is no specific treatment, and rest and dietary
measures are unhelpful. Corticosteroids have no benefit. Admission to hospital is not usually necessary
Hepatitis E Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an RNA virus , which causes a
hepatitis clinically very similar to hepatitis A. It is enterally transmitted, usually by contaminated water. Epidemics have been seen in many developing countries. It has a mortality from fulminant hepatic failure of 1-2% which rises to 20% in pregnant women. There is no carrier state and it does not progress to chronic liver disease. An ELISA for IgG and IgM anti-HEV is available for diagnosis. HEV RNA can be detected in the serum or stools by PCR (polymerase chain reaction). Prevention and control depend on good sanitation and hygiene.
Hepatitis B. Epidemiology The hepatitis B virus is present world-wide with an
estimated 300 million carriers. The UK and the USA have a low carrier rate (0.5%), but it rises to 10-15% in parts of Africa, the Middle and the Far East. Spread of this virus is either by the intravenous route (e.g. by transfusion of infected blood or blood products, or by contaminated needles used by drug addicts, tattooists or acupuncturists), or by close personal contact, such as during sexual intercourse, particularly in male homosexuals. The virus can be found in semen and saliva. Vertical transmission from mother to child during parturition or soon after birth is the usual means of transmission world-wide.
Hepatitis B virus (HBV)
The complete infective virion or Dane particle is a
tiny particle comprising an inner core or nucleocapsid , surrounded by an outer envelope of surface protein (HBsAg). This surface coat is produced in excess by the infected hepatocytes and can exist in serum and body fluid.
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) genome.
HBV proteins
Significance
Core:
Protein of core particle; kinase activity (role in replication?)
Pre-core (HBeAg) : Pre-core/core cleaves to HBeAg; good marker of active
replication. Surface (HBsAg) :
Pre-S2 : Pre-S1
Envelope protein of HBV; basis of current vaccine
HBV binding and entry into hepatocytes
Polymerase :Viral replication X protein :Transcriptional and transactivator activity.
Significnace of viral markers in hepatitis B Antigens HBsAg :Acute or chronic infection HBeAg :Acute hepatitis B Persistence implies: continued infectious state ,increased severity of disease HBV DNA : Implies viral replication Found in serum and liver Antibodies Anti-HBs :Immunity to HBV; previous exposure ;vaccination Anti-HBe :Seroconversion Anti-HBc : IgM Acute hepatitis B (high titre) . IgG Past exposure to hepatitis B .
Clinical course of acquired HBV infection in adults
Chronic asymptomatic subjects with HBV : Following an acute HBV infection which may be
subclinical, approximately 1-10% of patients will not clear the virus and most will become carriers of HBsAg.
Asymptomatic carriers are usually discovered incidentally
on blood tests, such as when they are screened for donating blood for transfusion .
They have no evidence of active liver disease. Most remain HBsAg-positive, but do not develop active
liver disease; there is an annual spontaneous clearance rate of HBsAg of 1-2%. These patients need to be followed up.
Chronic HBV infection goes through a replicative and
an integrated phase. In the former there is active viral replication with hepatic inflammation and the patient is highly infectious with HBeAg and HBV DNA positivity. At some stage the viral genome becomes integrated into the host DNA and the viral genes are then transcribed along with those of the host. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) develops in patients with this late-stage disease, but the mechanism is still unclear. Integration of the viral DNA with the host-cell chromosomal DNA does appear to have a major role in carcinogenesis.
Clinical features and investigations Chronic hepatitis is more frequent in men and it is
often not preceded by an acute attack. The condition may be asymptomatic or may present as a mild, slowly progressive hepatitis; 50% present with established chronic liver disease. Investigations show a moderate rise in aminotransferases and a slightly raised ALP. The serum bilirubin is often normal. HBsAg and HBV DNA are found in the serum, usually with HBe antigen.
Treatment
Patients with HBsAg, HBeAg and HBV DNA in the
serum with abnormal serum aminotransferases and chronic hepatitis on liver biopsy should be treated. Patients with normal aminotransferases and those with decompensated liver disease should not be treated with interferon. The of aim of treatment is the seroconversion of HBeAg (when present) and the reduction of HBV DNA to undetectable levels by PCR. In addition normalization of the serum ALT level and histological improvement in inflammation and fibrosis reflects a good response.
Antiviral agents Interferon, lamivudine, adefovir, entecavir and tenofovir are
the most commonly used drugs . Response to therapy is judged by the HBV DNA level. Pegylated α-2a interferon (180 μg once a week subcutaneously) gives response rates of 25–45% after 12 months of treatment. Side-effects of treatment are many, with an acute flu-like illness occurring 6-8 hours after the first injection. This usually disappears after subsequent injections, but malaise, headaches and myalgia, are common and depression, diarrhoea, reversible hair loss and bone marrow depression and infection may occur. The platelet count should be monitored. These drug reactions occur in up to 30% of patients. patients with concomitant HIV infection have a poor response. Patients with decompensated liver disease often have severe sideeffects and should not be routinely treated with this drug.
Lamivudine 100 mg/day can be given orally and
is well-tolerated. It appears more effective than interferon. The duration of all treatment, and which combination of antivirals is optimal, is still being assessed. Currently, treatment is with alphainterferon , lamivudine (12 months)
Hepatitis D
This is caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV or delta virus). It is an incomplete RNA particle enclosed in a shell of HBsAg.
It is unable to replicate on its own but is activated by the presence of HBV. It is particularly seen in intravenous drug abusers but can affect all risk groups for HBV infection. Hepatitis D viral infection can occur either as a co-infection with HBV or as a superinfection in an HBsAg-positive patient.. Diagnosis is confirmed by finding serum IgM anti-delta. Superinfection results in an acute flare-up of previously quiescent chronic HBV infection. A rise in serum AST or ALT may indication of infection. Fulminant hepatitis can follow both types of infection but is more common after co-infection.
Hepatitis C
Clinical features
Most acute infections are asymptomatic with about 10% of patients having a mild flu-like illness with jaundice and a rise in serum aminotransferases. Most patients will not be diagnosed until they present, years later, with evidence of abnormal transferase values at health checks or with chronic liver disease. Diagnosis. HCV RNA can be detected 1 or 2 weeks after infection. Anti-HCV is usually positive 6 weeks from infection. Treatment Interferon has been used in acute cases to prevent chronic disease. Needlestick injuries must be followed and treated early if there is evidence of HCV viraemia. Course At least 85% of patients go on to develop chronic liver disease . Cirrhosis develops in about 15-20% within 10-30 years and of these patients between 7% and 15% will develop hepatocellular carcinoma. The course is adversely affected by alcohol consumption, which should be discouraged.
Chronic hepatitis C Clinical features Patients with chronic hepatitis C infection are usually
asymptomatic, the disease being discovered only following a routine biochemical test when mild elevations in the aminotransferases (usually ALT) are noticed (50%). The elevation in ALT may be minimal and fluctuating, and some patients have a persistently normal ALT (25%) - the disease being detected by checking HCV antibodies (e.g. in blood donors). Those with severe inflammation may have fatigue. A few patients present with the symptoms and signs found in cirrhosis.
Diagnosis This is made by finding HCV antibody in the serum
using third-generation ELISA-3 tests. HCV RNA should be assayed using quantitative HCV-RNA PCR. Liver biopsy is indicated if active treatment is being considered. The changes on liver biopsy are highly variable. Sometimes only minimal inflammation is detected, but in most cases the features of CH are present. Lymphoid follicles are often present in the portal tracts, and fatty change is frequently seen.
Treatment is appropriate for patients with chronic hepatitis on liver
histology who have HCV RNA in their serum and who have raised serum aminotransferases for more than 6 months. Patients with persistently normal aminotransferases are also treated if they have abnormal histology. The presence of cirrhosis is not a contraindication, but therapeutic responses are less likely. Patients with decompensated cirrhosis should be considered for transplantation. The aim of treatment is to eliminate the HCV RNA from the serum in order to: stop the progression of active liver disease prevent the development of hepatocellular carcinoma.
Antiviral agents Current treatment is combination therapy with PEG-
IFN α2a – 180 μg/week) and ribavirin (1000-1200 mg/day for genotype 1, 800 mg/day for genotype 2 or 3); in divided doses for 12 months for genotype 1, and 6 months for other genotypes. Ribavirin is usually well tolerated but side-effects include a dose-related haemolysis, pruritus and nasal congestion. Pregnancy should be avoided as it is teratogenic.
AUTOIMMUNE HEPATITIS
This condition occurs most frequently in women.
In type I there is an association with other
autoimmune diseases (e.g. pernicious anaemia, thyroiditis and Coombs'-positive haemolytic anaemia).
Pathogenesis The cause is unknown. It is proposed, in a genetically predisposed person,
that an environmental agent causes an autoimmune process to develop against liver antigens, producing a progressive necroinflammatory process which results in fibrosis and cirrhosis. In vitro observations have shown that there is a defect of suppressor (regulatory) T cells which may be primary or secondary. However, no clear mechanism causing the inflammation has been found.
Clinical features
There are two peaks in presentation. In the peri- and
postmenopausal group, patients may be asymptomatic or present with fatigue, the disease being discovered by abnormalities in liver biochemistry or because of signs of chronic liver disease on routine examination. In the teens and early twenties the disease (often type II) presents as an acute hepatitis with jaundice and very high aminotransferases, which do not improve with time. This age group often has clinical features of cirrhosis with hepatosplenomegaly, cutaneous striae, acne, hirsuties, bruises and, sometimes, ascites. An ill patient can also have features of an autoimmune disease with a fever, migratory polyarthritis, glomerulonephritis, pleurisy, pulmonary infiltration or fibrosing alveolitis.
Investigations
Liver biochemistry
The serum aminotransferases are high, with lesser
elevations in the ALP and bilirubin. The serum γ-globulins are high, frequently twice normal, particularly the IgG. The biochemical pattern is the same with all three types. Haematology A mild normochromic normocytic anaemia with thrombocytopenia and leucopoenia is present, even before portal hypertension and splenomegaly. The prothrombin time is often high.
Autoantibodies Three types of autoimmune hepatitis have been
recognized: Type I with antibodies:
(a) antinuclear (ANA). (b) anti-smooth muscle (SMA).
Type II with antibodies: anti-liver/kidney microsomal
(anti-LKM). The main target is cytochrome ,on liver cell plasma membranes. Type III with soluble liver antigen (SLA), this group behaves as type I. Type II occurs most frequently in girls and young women.
Treatment
Prednisolone 30 mg is given daily for 2 weeks,
followed by a slow reduction and then a maintenance dose of 10-15 mg daily. Azathioprine should be added, 1-2 mg/kg daily, as a steroid-sparing agent and in some patients as sole long-term maintenance therapy. Course and prognosis :Steroid and azathioprine therapy induce remission in over 80% of cases. The length of treatment is lifelong in most cases. Liver transplantation is performed if treatment fails, although the disease may recur.
Hepatitis Acute parenchymal liver damage can be caused by many
agents .
implies inflammation of the liver characterized by the presence
of inflammatory cells in the tissue of the liver. The condition can be self-limiting, healing on its own, or can progress to scarring of the liver. Hepatitis is acute when it lasts less than six months and chronic when it persists longer. A group of viruses known as the hepatitis viruses cause most cases of liver damage worldwide. Hepatitis can also be due to toxins (alcohol), other infections or from autoimmune process. It may run a subclinical course when the affected person may not feel ill. The patient becomes unwell and symptomatic when the disease impairs liver functions.
Causes
Acute Viral hepatitis: Hepatitis A ,E (more than 95% of viral cause),B,C Herpes simplex, Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr, yellow fever virus.
Non viral infection: toxoplasma, Leptospira, Q fever. Alcohol . Toxins: Amanita toxin in mushrooms, carbon tetrachloride, Drugs: Paracetamol Auto immune conditions Metabolic diseases, e.g., Wilson's disease
Chronic Viral hepatitis: Hepatitis B with or without hepatitis D,
hepatitis C (neither hepatitis A nor hepatitis E causes chronic hepatitis) Autoimmune: Autoimmune hepatitis Drugs: methyldopa, nitrofurantoin, isoniazid, ketoconazole Heredity: Wilson's disease, alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency . Others Inflammatory bowel disease – ulcerative colitis - Alcohol
Symptoms Acute Clinically, the course of acute hepatitis varies widely from mild
symptoms requiring no treatment to fulminant hepatic failure . Acute viral hepatitis is more likely to be asymptomatic in younger people. Symptomatic individuals may present after convalescent stage of 7 to 10 days, with the total illness lasting 2 to 6 weeks. Initial features are of nonspecific flu-like symptoms, common to almost all acute viral infections and may include malaise, muscle and joint aches, fever, nausea or vomiting, diarrhea, and headache. More specific symptoms, which can be present in acute hepatitis from any cause, are: profound loss of appetite, aversion to smoking among smokers, dark urine, yellowing of the eyes and skin (i.e., jaundice) and abdominal discomfort. Physical findings are usually minimal, apart from jaundice (33%) and tender hepatomegaly (10%). There can be occasional lymphadenopathy (5%) or splenomegaly (5%).
Symptoms of chronic hepatitis: Patients may be asymptomatic or complain of non-
specific symptoms, particularly fatigue. Specific symptoms include: right hypochondrial pain due to liver distension abdominal distension due to ascites ankle swelling due to fluid retention haematemesis and melaena from gastrointestinal haemorrhage pruritus (itching )due to cholestasis . breast swelling (gynaecomastia), loss of libido and amenorrhoea due to endocrine dysfunction . confusion and drowsiness due to neuropsychiatric complications.
Hepatitis A virus (HAV)
is a picornavirus,. It replicates in the liver, is excreted in bile
and is then excreted in the faeces of infected persons for about 2 weeks before the onset of clinical illness and for up to 7 days after. The disease is maximally infectious just before the onset of jaundice. HAV particles can be demonstrated in the faeces by electron microscopy. Epidemiology :Hepatitis A is the most common type of viral hepatitis occurring world-wide, often in epidemics. The disease is commonly seen in children and young adults. Spread of infection is mainly by the faeco-oral route and arises from the ingestion of contaminated food or water . Overcrowding and poor sanitation facilitate spread. There is no carrier state.
Investigations : Liver biochemistry. A raised serum AST or ALT, which can sometimes be very
high, precedes the jaundice. In the icteric stage the serum bilirubin reflects the level of jaundice. Serum AST reaches a maximum 1-2 days after the appearance of jaundice, and may rise above 500 IU/L, the aminotransferases may remain elevated for some weeks and occasionally for up to 6 months. Haematological tests There is leucopenia with a relative lymphocytosis. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is raised. Viral markers: antibodies to HAV IgG antibodies are common in the general population over the age of 50 years, but an antiHAV IgM means an acute infection. In areas of high prevalence most children have antibodies by the age of 3 years following asymptomatic infection.
Course and prognosis : The prognosis is excellent, with most patients making a
complete recovery. The mortality in young adults is 0.1% but it increases with age. Death is due to fulminant hepatic necrosis. HAV hepatitis never progresses to chronic liver disease.
Treatment There is no specific treatment, and rest and dietary
measures are unhelpful. Corticosteroids have no benefit. Admission to hospital is not usually necessary
Hepatitis E Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an RNA virus , which causes a
hepatitis clinically very similar to hepatitis A. It is enterally transmitted, usually by contaminated water. Epidemics have been seen in many developing countries. It has a mortality from fulminant hepatic failure of 1-2% which rises to 20% in pregnant women. There is no carrier state and it does not progress to chronic liver disease. An ELISA for IgG and IgM anti-HEV is available for diagnosis. HEV RNA can be detected in the serum or stools by PCR (polymerase chain reaction). Prevention and control depend on good sanitation and hygiene.
Hepatitis B. Epidemiology The hepatitis B virus is present world-wide with an
estimated 300 million carriers. The UK and the USA have a low carrier rate (0.5%), but it rises to 10-15% in parts of Africa, the Middle and the Far East. Spread of this virus is either by the intravenous route (e.g. by transfusion of infected blood or blood products, or by contaminated needles used by drug addicts, tattooists or acupuncturists), or by close personal contact, such as during sexual intercourse, particularly in male homosexuals. The virus can be found in semen and saliva. Vertical transmission from mother to child during parturition or soon after birth is the usual means of transmission world-wide.
Hepatitis B virus (HBV)
The complete infective virion or Dane particle is a
tiny particle comprising an inner core or nucleocapsid , surrounded by an outer envelope of surface protein (HBsAg). This surface coat is produced in excess by the infected hepatocytes and can exist in serum and body fluid.
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) genome.
HBV proteins
Significance
Core:
Protein of core particle; kinase activity (role in replication?)
Pre-core (HBeAg) : Pre-core/core cleaves to HBeAg; good marker of active
replication. Surface (HBsAg) :
Pre-S2 : Pre-S1
Envelope protein of HBV; basis of current vaccine
HBV binding and entry into hepatocytes
Polymerase :Viral replication X protein :Transcriptional and transactivator activity.
Significnace of viral markers in hepatitis B Antigens HBsAg :Acute or chronic infection HBeAg :Acute hepatitis B Persistence implies: continued infectious state ,increased severity of disease HBV DNA : Implies viral replication Found in serum and liver Antibodies Anti-HBs :Immunity to HBV; previous exposure ;vaccination Anti-HBe :Seroconversion Anti-HBc : IgM Acute hepatitis B (high titre) . IgG Past exposure to hepatitis B .
Clinical course of acquired HBV infection in adults
Chronic asymptomatic subjects with HBV : Following an acute HBV infection which may be
subclinical, approximately 1-10% of patients will not clear the virus and most will become carriers of HBsAg.
Asymptomatic carriers are usually discovered incidentally
on blood tests, such as when they are screened for donating blood for transfusion .
They have no evidence of active liver disease. Most remain HBsAg-positive, but do not develop active
liver disease; there is an annual spontaneous clearance rate of HBsAg of 1-2%. These patients need to be followed up.
Chronic HBV infection goes through a replicative and
an integrated phase. In the former there is active viral replication with hepatic inflammation and the patient is highly infectious with HBeAg and HBV DNA positivity. At some stage the viral genome becomes integrated into the host DNA and the viral genes are then transcribed along with those of the host. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) develops in patients with this late-stage disease, but the mechanism is still unclear. Integration of the viral DNA with the host-cell chromosomal DNA does appear to have a major role in carcinogenesis.
Clinical features and investigations Chronic hepatitis is more frequent in men and it is
often not preceded by an acute attack. The condition may be asymptomatic or may present as a mild, slowly progressive hepatitis; 50% present with established chronic liver disease. Investigations show a moderate rise in aminotransferases and a slightly raised ALP. The serum bilirubin is often normal. HBsAg and HBV DNA are found in the serum, usually with HBe antigen.
Treatment
Patients with HBsAg, HBeAg and HBV DNA in the
serum with abnormal serum aminotransferases and chronic hepatitis on liver biopsy should be treated. Patients with normal aminotransferases and those with decompensated liver disease should not be treated with interferon. The of aim of treatment is the seroconversion of HBeAg (when present) and the reduction of HBV DNA to undetectable levels by PCR. In addition normalization of the serum ALT level and histological improvement in inflammation and fibrosis reflects a good response.
Antiviral agents Interferon, lamivudine, adefovir, entecavir and tenofovir are
the most commonly used drugs . Response to therapy is judged by the HBV DNA level. Pegylated α-2a interferon (180 μg once a week subcutaneously) gives response rates of 25–45% after 12 months of treatment. Side-effects of treatment are many, with an acute flu-like illness occurring 6-8 hours after the first injection. This usually disappears after subsequent injections, but malaise, headaches and myalgia, are common and depression, diarrhoea, reversible hair loss and bone marrow depression and infection may occur. The platelet count should be monitored. These drug reactions occur in up to 30% of patients. patients with concomitant HIV infection have a poor response. Patients with decompensated liver disease often have severe sideeffects and should not be routinely treated with this drug.
Lamivudine 100 mg/day can be given orally and
is well-tolerated. It appears more effective than interferon. The duration of all treatment, and which combination of antivirals is optimal, is still being assessed. Currently, treatment is with alphainterferon , lamivudine (12 months)
Hepatitis D
This is caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV or delta virus). It is an incomplete RNA particle enclosed in a shell of HBsAg.
It is unable to replicate on its own but is activated by the presence of HBV. It is particularly seen in intravenous drug abusers but can affect all risk groups for HBV infection. Hepatitis D viral infection can occur either as a co-infection with HBV or as a superinfection in an HBsAg-positive patient.. Diagnosis is confirmed by finding serum IgM anti-delta. Superinfection results in an acute flare-up of previously quiescent chronic HBV infection. A rise in serum AST or ALT may indication of infection. Fulminant hepatitis can follow both types of infection but is more common after co-infection.
Hepatitis C
Clinical features
Most acute infections are asymptomatic with about 10% of patients having a mild flu-like illness with jaundice and a rise in serum aminotransferases. Most patients will not be diagnosed until they present, years later, with evidence of abnormal transferase values at health checks or with chronic liver disease. Diagnosis. HCV RNA can be detected 1 or 2 weeks after infection. Anti-HCV is usually positive 6 weeks from infection. Treatment Interferon has been used in acute cases to prevent chronic disease. Needlestick injuries must be followed and treated early if there is evidence of HCV viraemia. Course At least 85% of patients go on to develop chronic liver disease . Cirrhosis develops in about 15-20% within 10-30 years and of these patients between 7% and 15% will develop hepatocellular carcinoma. The course is adversely affected by alcohol consumption, which should be discouraged.
Chronic hepatitis C Clinical features Patients with chronic hepatitis C infection are usually
asymptomatic, the disease being discovered only following a routine biochemical test when mild elevations in the aminotransferases (usually ALT) are noticed (50%). The elevation in ALT may be minimal and fluctuating, and some patients have a persistently normal ALT (25%) - the disease being detected by checking HCV antibodies (e.g. in blood donors). Those with severe inflammation may have fatigue. A few patients present with the symptoms and signs found in cirrhosis.
Diagnosis This is made by finding HCV antibody in the serum
using third-generation ELISA-3 tests. HCV RNA should be assayed using quantitative HCV-RNA PCR. Liver biopsy is indicated if active treatment is being considered. The changes on liver biopsy are highly variable. Sometimes only minimal inflammation is detected, but in most cases the features of CH are present. Lymphoid follicles are often present in the portal tracts, and fatty change is frequently seen.
Treatment is appropriate for patients with chronic hepatitis on liver
histology who have HCV RNA in their serum and who have raised serum aminotransferases for more than 6 months. Patients with persistently normal aminotransferases are also treated if they have abnormal histology. The presence of cirrhosis is not a contraindication, but therapeutic responses are less likely. Patients with decompensated cirrhosis should be considered for transplantation. The aim of treatment is to eliminate the HCV RNA from the serum in order to: stop the progression of active liver disease prevent the development of hepatocellular carcinoma.
Antiviral agents Current treatment is combination therapy with PEG-
IFN α2a – 180 μg/week) and ribavirin (1000-1200 mg/day for genotype 1, 800 mg/day for genotype 2 or 3); in divided doses for 12 months for genotype 1, and 6 months for other genotypes. Ribavirin is usually well tolerated but side-effects include a dose-related haemolysis, pruritus and nasal congestion. Pregnancy should be avoided as it is teratogenic.
AUTOIMMUNE HEPATITIS
This condition occurs most frequently in women.
In type I there is an association with other
autoimmune diseases (e.g. pernicious anaemia, thyroiditis and Coombs'-positive haemolytic anaemia).
Pathogenesis The cause is unknown. It is proposed, in a genetically predisposed person,
that an environmental agent causes an autoimmune process to develop against liver antigens, producing a progressive necroinflammatory process which results in fibrosis and cirrhosis. In vitro observations have shown that there is a defect of suppressor (regulatory) T cells which may be primary or secondary. However, no clear mechanism causing the inflammation has been found.
Clinical features
There are two peaks in presentation. In the peri- and
postmenopausal group, patients may be asymptomatic or present with fatigue, the disease being discovered by abnormalities in liver biochemistry or because of signs of chronic liver disease on routine examination. In the teens and early twenties the disease (often type II) presents as an acute hepatitis with jaundice and very high aminotransferases, which do not improve with time. This age group often has clinical features of cirrhosis with hepatosplenomegaly, cutaneous striae, acne, hirsuties, bruises and, sometimes, ascites. An ill patient can also have features of an autoimmune disease with a fever, migratory polyarthritis, glomerulonephritis, pleurisy, pulmonary infiltration or fibrosing alveolitis.
Investigations
Liver biochemistry
The serum aminotransferases are high, with lesser
elevations in the ALP and bilirubin. The serum γ-globulins are high, frequently twice normal, particularly the IgG. The biochemical pattern is the same with all three types. Haematology A mild normochromic normocytic anaemia with thrombocytopenia and leucopoenia is present, even before portal hypertension and splenomegaly. The prothrombin time is often high.
Autoantibodies Three types of autoimmune hepatitis have been
recognized: Type I with antibodies:
(a) antinuclear (ANA). (b) anti-smooth muscle (SMA).
Type II with antibodies: anti-liver/kidney microsomal
(anti-LKM). The main target is cytochrome ,on liver cell plasma membranes. Type III with soluble liver antigen (SLA), this group behaves as type I. Type II occurs most frequently in girls and young women.
Treatment
Prednisolone 30 mg is given daily for 2 weeks,
followed by a slow reduction and then a maintenance dose of 10-15 mg daily. Azathioprine should be added, 1-2 mg/kg daily, as a steroid-sparing agent and in some patients as sole long-term maintenance therapy. Course and prognosis :Steroid and azathioprine therapy induce remission in over 80% of cases. The length of treatment is lifelong in most cases. Liver transplantation is performed if treatment fails, although the disease may recur.
