American History

American History

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Contents
Articles
Colonial America
Jamestown, Virginia 1 1 14 14 16 25 25 48 70 76 76 82 89 92 97 111 116 119 130 139 145 151 172 187 192 198 203 214 224 234 239

Pre American Revolution
Stamp Act Boston Tea Party

American Revolution
Declaration of Independence American Revolutionary War Continental Congress

Battles
List of American Revolutionary War battles Battle of Bennington Battle of Blue Licks Battle of Brandywine Battle of Bunker Hill Battle of Camden Battle of Cape Spartel Battle of the Chesapeake Battle of Cowpens Battle of Guilford Court House Battle of Kings Mountain Battles of Lexington and Concord Battle of Long Island Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge Battle of Oriskany Battle of the Saintes Battles of Saratoga Battle of Trenton Battle of Valcour Island Battle of White Plains Braddock Expedition

Post Revolution
United States Constitution Louisiana Purchase

244 244 292 301 301 331 339 339 360 360 391 413 413 417 417 426 433 436 451 463 469 472 480 481

War of 1812
War of 1812 Battle of New Orleans

Mexican-American War
Mexican–American War

American Civil War
American Civil War Battle of Gettysburg

Miscellany
Alaska Purchase Canal Ring Carpetbagger Central Pacific Railroad Crédit Mobilier of America scandal Expulsion of the Acadians Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution Panic of 1873 Red-baiting Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution Watered stock Whiskey Ring

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 482 496

Article Licenses
License 505

1

Colonial America
Jamestown, Virginia
Jamestown Jamestowne, James Towne
—  Fort (1607); Town (1619)  —

The Susan Constant, a replica of Christopher Newport's ship docked in the harbor.

Jamestown Location in the United States Coordinates: 37°12′33″N 76°46′39″W Present Country State Historic Country Colony Established Abandoned Founder Named for United States of America Virginia England Colony of Virginia 1607 after 1699 Virginia Company of London James I of England

Jamestown, Virginia Jamestown (or James Towne or Jamestowne) was a settlement in the Colony of Virginia. Established by the Virginia Company of London as "James Fort" on May 14, 1607 (O.S., May 24, 1607 N.S.),[1] it was the first permanent English settlement in what is now the United States, following several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke. It would serve as capital of the colony for 83 years (from 1616 until 1699). Within a year of its founding, the Virginia Company brought Polish and Dutch colonists to help improve the settlement.[2] In 1619, the first documented Africans were brought to Jamestown, though the modern conception of slavery in the future United States did not begin in Virginia until 1660.[3] When the colony was subdivided into the original eight shires of Virginia in 1634, the town became located in the eponymous James City Shire.[4] The London Company's second settlement, Bermuda, claims to be the site of the oldest town in the English New World, as St. George's, Bermuda was officially established (as New London) in 1612, whereas James Fort, in Virginia, was not to be converted into James towne until 1619, and further did not survive into the present day. [5] In 1699, the capital was relocated from Jamestown to what is today Williamsburg, after which Jamestown ceased to exist as a settlement, existing today only as an archaeological site. Today, Jamestown is one of three locations comprising the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, along with Williamsburg and Yorktown, with two primary heritage sites. Historic Jamestowne,[6] the archaeological site on Jamestown Island, is a cooperative effort by Jamestown National Historic Site (part of Colonial National Historical Park), and Preservation Virginia. The Jamestown Settlement, a living history interpretive site, is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation in conjunction with the Commonwealth of Virginia.

2

Settlement (1607–1705)
Although Spain and Portugal moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, other European countries moved more slowly. Not until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot did the English attempt to found colonies. Early efforts were failures, most notably the Roanoke Colony, which vanished about 1590.

Arrival and early years (1607-1610)
Late in 1606, English entrepreneurs set sail with a charter from the Virginia Company of London to establish a colony in the New World. After a particularly long voyage of five months duration including stops in Puerto Rico, they finally departed for the American mainland on April 10, Location of Jamestown 1607. The three ships, named Susan Constant, Discovery, and Godspeed, under Captain Christopher Newport, made landfall on April 26, 1607 at a place they named Cape Henry. Under orders to select a more secure location, they set about exploring what is now Hampton Roads and an outlet into the Chesapeake Bay they named the James River in honor of their king, James I of England.[7] On May 14, 1607, Captain Edward Maria Wingfield (elected president of the governing council on April 25th) selected Jamestown Island on the James River, some 40 miles (67 kilometers) inland from the Atlantic Ocean, as a prime location for a fortified settlement. The island was surrounded by deep water, making it a navigable and defensible strategic point. Perhaps the best thing about it, from an English point of view, was that it was not inhabited by nearby Virginia Indian[8] tribes, who regarded the site as too poor and remote for agriculture.[9]

Jamestown, Virginia However, the island was swampy, isolated, offered limited space and was plagued by mosquitoes and brackish tidal river water unsuitable for drinking. In addition to the malarial swamp the settlers arrived too late in the year to get crops planted.[2] Many in the group were gentlemen unused to work, or their manservants, equally unaccustomed to the hard labor demanded by the harsh task of carving out a viable colony.[2] In a few months, fifty-one of the party were dead; some of the survivors were deserting to the Indians whose land they had invaded.[2] In the "starving time" of 1609–1610, the Jamestown settlers were in even worse straits. Only 61 of the 500 colonists survived the period.[2] Virginia Indians had already established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 natives in the region, politically known as Tsenacommacah, who spoke an Algonquian language. They were the Powhatan Confederacy, ruled by their paramount chief known as Wahunsenacawh, or "Chief Powhatan". Wahunsenacawh initially sought to resettle the English colonists from Jamestown, considered part of Paspahegh territory, to another location known as Capahosick, where they would make metal tools for him as members of his Confederacy, but this never transpired. The first explorers had been greeted by the natives with lavish feasts and supplies of maize, but as the English, lacking the inclination to grow their own food, became hungry and began to strong-arm more and more supplies from nearby villages, relations quickly deteriorated and eventually led to conflict. The resulting Anglo-Powhatan War lasted until Samuel Argall captured his daughter Matoaka, better known by her nickname Pocahontas, after which the chief accepted a treaty of peace.
Marshes on Jamestown Island

3

Despite the leadership of Captain John Smith early on, most of the colonists and their replacements died within the first five years. Two-thirds of the settlers died before arriving ships brought supplies and experts from Poland and Germany in the next year, 1608,[10] who would help to establish the first manufactories in the colony. As a result, glassware became the "first" American product to be exported to Europe. After Smith was forced to return to England due to an explosion during a trading expedition,[11] the colony was led by George Percy, who proved incompetent in negotiating with the native tribes. During what became known as the "Starving Time" in 1609–1610, over 80% of the colonists perished, and the island was briefly abandoned that spring.[12] However, on June 10, 1610, retreating settlers were intercepted a few The Zuniga map, depicting the fort ca. 1608 miles downriver by a supply mission from London headed by a new governor, Lord De La Warr, who brought much-needed supplies and additional settlers.[13] Lord De La Warr's ship was named The Deliverance. The English called this The Day of Providence, and the state of Delaware was eventually named after the timely governor. Fortuitously, among the colonists inspired to remain was John Rolfe, who carried with him a cache of untested new tobacco seeds from the Caribbean. (His first wife and their infant daughter had already died in Bermuda, after being shipwrecked on the island during the voyage from England.)[14]

Jamestown, Virginia

4

Rising fortunes (1610-1624)
Due to the aristocratic backgrounds of many of the new colonists, a historic drought and the communal nature of their work load, progress through the first few years was inconsistent, at best. By 1613, six years after Jamestown's founding, the organizers and shareholders of the Virginia Company were desperate to increase the efficiency and profitability of the struggling colony. Without stockholder consent, Governor Dale assigned 3-acre (12000 m2) plots to its "ancient planters" and smaller plots to the "settlement's" later arrivals. Measurable economic progress was made, and the settlers began expanding their planting to land belonging to local native tribes. That this turnaround coincided with the end of a drought that had begun the year before the English settlers arrival probably indicates multiple factors were involved besides the colonists' ineptitude.[15] The following year, 1614, John Rolfe began to successfully harvest tobacco.[16] Prosperous and wealthy, he married Pocahontas, daughter of Chief Powhatan, bringing several years of peace between the English and natives.[17] (Through their son, Thomas Rolfe, many of the First Families of Virginia trace both Virginia Indian and English roots.) However, at the end of a public relations trip to England, Pocahontas became sick and died on March 21, 1617.[18] The following year, her father also died. As the English continued to leverage more land for tobacco farming, relations with the natives worsened. Powhatan's brother, a fierce warrior named Opchanacanough, became head of the Powhatan Confederacy. In 1619, the first representative assembly in America convened in a Jamestown church, "to establish one equal and uniform government over all Virginia" which would provide "just laws for the happy guiding and governing of the people there inhabiting." This became known as the House of Burgesses (forerunner of the Virginia General Assembly, which last met in Jamestown in January, 2007). Individual land ownership was also instituted, and the colony was divided into four large "boroughs" or "incorporations" called "citties" (sic) by the colonists. Jamestown was located in James Cittie. Initially only men of English origin were permitted to vote. The Polish artisans protested and refused to work if not allowed to vote. On July 12, the court granted the Poles equal voting rights.[19] After several years of strained coexistence, Chief Opchanacanough and his Powhatan Confederacy attempted to eliminate the English colony once and for all. On the morning of March 22, 1622, they attacked outlying plantations and communities up and down the James River in what became known as the Indian Massacre of 1622. The attack killed over 300 settlers, about a third of the English-speaking population. This event is often incorrectly reported to have occurred on a Good Friday. Sir Thomas Dale's progressive development at Henricus, which was to feature a college to educate the natives, and Wolstenholme Towne at Martin's Hundred, were both essentially wiped out. Jamestown was spared only through a timely warning by a Virginia Indian employee. There was not enough time to spread the word to the outposts. Of the 6,000 people who came to the settlement between 1608–1624, only 3,400 survived.[15]

Later years (1624-1699)

Graves at Jamestown, beneath the foundations of one of the later capitol buildings

In 1624, King James revoked the Virginia Company's charter, and Virginia became a royal colony. Despite the setbacks, the colony continued to grow. Ten years later, in 1634, by order of King Charles I, the colony was divided into the original eight shires of Virginia (or counties), in a fashion similar to that practiced in England. Jamestown was now located in James City Shire, soon renamed the "County of James City", better-known in modern times as James City County, Virginia, the nation's oldest county.

Jamestown, Virginia Another large-scale "Indian attack" occurred in 1644. In 1646, Opchanacanough was captured and while in custody an English guard shot him in the back-against orders-and killed him, and the Powhatan Confederacy began to decline. Opechancanough's successor then signed the first peace treaties between the Powhatan Indians and the English. The treaties required the Powhatan to pay yearly tribute payment to the English and confined them to reservations.[20] A generation later, during Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, Jamestown was burned, eventually to be rebuilt. During its recovery, the Virginia legislature met first at Governor William Berkeley's nearby Green Spring Plantation, and later at Middle Plantation, which had been started in 1632 as a fortified community inland on the Virginia Peninsula about 8 miles (13 km) distant.[21] . When the statehouse burned again in 1698, this time accidentally, the legislature again temporarily relocated to Middle Plantation, and was able to meet in the new facilities of the College of William and Mary, which had been established after receiving a royal charter in 1693. Rather than rebuilding at Jamestown again, the capital of the colony was moved permanently to Middle Plantation in 1699. The town was soon renamed Williamsburg, to honor the reigning monarch, King William III. A new Capitol building and "Governor's Palace" were erected there in the following years.

5

Aftermath and preservation
Due to the movement of the capital to Williamsburg, the old town of Jamestown began to slowly disappear from view. Those who lived in the general area attended services at Jamestown's church until the 1750s, when it was abandoned. By the mid-18th century, the land was heavily cultivated, primarily by the Travis and Ambler families. During the American Revolutionary War, although the Battle of Green Spring was fought nearby at the site of former Governor Berkeley's plantation, Jamestown was apparently inconsequential. In 1831, David Bullock purchased Jamestown from Travis and Ambler families.

1854 image of the ruins of Jamestown showing the tower of the old Jamestown Church built in 1639

American Civil War
During the American Civil War, in 1861, Confederate William Allen, who owned the Jamestown Island, occupied Jamestown with troops he raised at his own expense with the intention of blockading the James River and Richmond from the Union Navy. He was soon joined by Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones who directed the building of batteries and conducted ordnance and armor tests for the first Confederate ironclad warship CSS Virginia which was under construction at the Gosport Naval Shipyard in Portsmouth in late 1861 and early 1862. Jamestown had a force of 1,200 men which was augmented in early 1862 by an artillery battalion. During the Peninsula Campaign which began later that spring, Union forces under General George B. McClellan moved up the Peninsula from Fort Monroe to attempt to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond. The Union forces captured Yorktown in April 1862, and the Battle of Williamsburg was fought the following month. With these developments, Jamestown and the lower James River were abandoned by the Confederates, and the Virginia was blown up off Craney Island on Hampton Roads to avoid capture. Some of the forces from Jamestown and the crew of the Virginia shifted to Drewry's Bluff, a fortified and strategic position located high above the river about 8 miles (13 km) below Richmond. There, they successfully blocked the Union Navy from reaching the Confederate capital.

Jamestown, Virginia Once in Federal hands, Jamestown became a meeting place for runaway slaves who burned the Ambler house, an eighteenth-century plantation which along with the old church were the few remaining signs of Jamestown. When Allen sent men to assess damage in late 1862, they were killed by the former slaves. Following the surrender at Appomattox Courthouse, the oath of allegiance was administered to former Confederate soldiers at Jamestown.

6

Preservation
In the years after the Civil War, Jamestown became quiet and peaceful once again. In 1892, Jamestown was purchased by Mr. and Mrs. Edward Barney. The following year, the Barneys donated 22½ acres of land, including the 1639 church tower, to Preservation Virginia (formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities). By this time, erosion from the river had eaten away the island's western shore; visitors began to conclude that the site of James Fort lay completely underwater. With federal assistance, a sea wall was constructed in The 3 points of Colonial Virginia's Historic Triangle, Jamestown, 1900 to protect the area from further erosion. The Williamsburg, and Yorktown are linked by the National Park Service's archaeological remains of the original 1607 fort, scenic Colonial Parkway. which had been protected by the sea wall, were discovered in 1994. (See Jamestown Rediscovery section below) In 1932, George Craghead Gregory of Richmond was credited with discovering the foundation of the first brick statehouse (capitol) building, circa 1646, at Jamestown on the land owned by Preservation Virginia.[22] Around 1936, Gregory, who was active with the Virginia Historical Society, founded the Jamestowne Society for descendants of stockholders in the Virginia Company of London and the descendants of those who owned land or who had domiciles in Jamestown or on Jamestown Island prior to 1700. Since its founding, the Society has helped with genealogical records and expanded into dozens of branches, called "Companies." (In the Jamestowne Society, "Companies" are similar to chapters in most lineage societies). Membership in Companies is elective, while membership in the national Society is acquired at the time a member joins. In 1958, the Jamestowne Society was formally organized as a non-profit corporation under section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code (1954, as amended). It frequently holds meetings and events.[23] Colonial National Monument was authorized by the U.S. Congress on July 3, 1930 and established on December 30, 1930. In 1934, the National Park Service obtained the remaining 1,500 acre (6.1 km²) portion of Jamestown Island which had been under private ownership by the Vermillion family. The National Park Service partnered with Preservation Virginia to preserve the area and present it to visitors in an educational manner. On June 5, 1936, the national monument was re-designated a national historical park, and became known as Colonial National Historical Park.

Jamestown, Virginia

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Jamestown Rediscovery
Since 1994, a major archaeological campaign at Jamestown known as the Jamestown Rediscovery project has been conducted by Dr. William M. Kelso in preparation for the quadricentennial of Jamestown's founding. The original goal of the archaeological campaign was to locate archaeological remains of "the first years of settlement at Jamestown, especially of the earliest fortified town; [and the] the subsequent growth and development of the town".[24] Early on, the project discovered early colonial artifacts. This was something of a surprise to some historians as it had been widely thought that the original site had been entirely lost due to erosion by the James River. Many others suspected that at least portions of the fort site remained and subsequent excavations have shown that only one corner of the first triangular fort (which contained the original settlement) turned out to have been destroyed. The sea wall built in 1900 to limit the erosion turned out to be a rich investment in the past and the future. Since it began, the extended archaeological campaign has made many more discoveries including retrieving hundreds of thousands of artifacts, a large fraction of them from the first few years of the settlement's history. In addition, it has uncovered much of the fort, the remains of several houses and wells, a palisade wall line attached to the fort and the graves of several of the early settlers.

Today
In the present time, Jamestown is home to two heritage tourism sites related to the original fort and town: Historic Jamestowne and the Jamestown Settlement. Nearby, the Jamestown-Scotland Ferry[25] service provides a link across the navigable portion of the James River for vehicles and affords passengers a view of Jamestown Island from the river.

Historic Jamestowne
Historic Jamestowne, located at the downtown original site of Jamestown in the Virginia Colony, is administered by Colonial Williamsburg and the National Park Service. The central 22½ acres of land, where the archaeological remains of the original James Fort are, were donated to Preservation Virginia (formerly known as the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities) in 1893 and the remaining 1500 acres (6.1 km2) were acquired by the National Park Service in 1934 and are now part of the Colonial National Historical Park. The site gained renewed importance when in 1993 Dr. William Kelso began excavations in search of the original James Fort site. Despite obstacles and naysayers, Dr. Kelso found what other historians had said was lost, the fort site and approaching two million 17th century artifacts.

[26] View of Historic Jamestowne, which is on Jamestown Island, today looking toward the statue of John Smith which was erected in 1909. The Jamestown Church Tower, circa 1639, is in the left background (the church behind the tower [27] was built in 1907).

Today, visitors to Historic Jamestowne can view the site of the original 1607 James Fort, the 17th century church tower and the site of the 17th century town, as well as tour an archaeological museum called the Archaearium and view many of the hundreds of thousands of artifacts found by Jamestown Rediscovery. They also may participate in living history and ranger tours. Visitors can also often observe archaeologists from the Jamestown Rediscovery Project at work, as archaeological work at the site continues and is greatly expanding knowledge of what happened at Jamestown in its earliest days. Among the discoveries, a grave site with indications of an important figure was located. Dr. Kelso and the Jamestown Rediscovery staff, as well as physical anthropologists from the Smithsonian Institution theorize the remains to be that of Captain Bartholomew Gosnold[28] though others have claimed it to be the remains of Thomas

Jamestown, Virginia West, 3rd Baron De La War. It had long been thought that Baron De La War, who died en route back to the colony from England on his second trip, had been buried elsewhere but some recent research concluded that his body was in fact brought to Jamestown for burial.[29] As of 2009, the archaeological work and studies are ongoing.[30] New discoveries are frequently reported in the local newspaper, the Virginia Gazette based in nearby Williamsburg, and by other news media, often worldwide.[31]

8

Jamestown Settlement
Jamestown Settlement is a living-history park located 1.25 miles (2.01 km) from the original location of the colony and adjacent to Jamestown Island. Initially created for the celebration of the 350th anniversary in 1957, Jamestown Settlement is operated by the Jamestown Yorktown Foundation, and largely sponsored by largely sponsored by the Commonwealth.

Economy of Jamestown
Tobacco was the biggest product that was shipped out of America during the time of Jamestown. Local Indian tribes taught settlers how to grow it and harvest it. It counted for most of Virginia's economy. John Rolfe brought seeds to Virginia. He is the first colonist recognized today to have planted, cultivated, and harvested tobacco.

Commemorations
200th anniversary (1807)
The bicentennial of Jamestown on May 13–15, 1807 is said to have been a dignified celebration, commonly called the Grand National Jubilee. Over 3,000 people attended the event, many arriving on vessels which anchored in the river near the island. May 13 was the opening day of the festival, which began with a procession which marched to the graveyard of the old church, where the attending bishop delivered the prayer. The procession then moved to the Travis mansion, where the celebrants dined and danced in the mansion that evening. Also during the festivities, Students of the College of William and Mary gave orations. An old barn on the island was used as a temporary theater, where a company of players from Norfolk performed. Attending were many dignitaries, politicians, and historians. The Bicentennial celebration concluded on May 14 with a dinner and toast at the Raleigh Tavern in Williamsburg.

250th anniversary (1857)
In 1857, the Jamestown Society organized a celebration marking the 250th anniversary of Jamestown's founding. According to the Richmond Enquirer, the site for the celebration was on 10 acres (40000 m2) on the spot where some of the colonists' houses were originally built. However, it is also speculated that the celebration was moved further east on the island closer to the Travis grave site, in order to avoid damaging Major William Allen's corn fields. The attendance was estimated at between 6,000 and 8,000 people. Sixteen large steam ships anchored offshore in the James River and were gaily decorated with streamers. Former US President John Tyler of nearby Sherwood Forest Plantation gave a 2½ hour speech, and there were military displays, a grand ball and fireworks.[32]

Jamestown, Virginia

9

300th anniversary (1907): Jamestown Exposition
The 100th anniversary of the Surrender at Yorktown in 1781 had generated a new interest in the historical significance of the colonial sites of the Peninsula. Williamsburg, a sleepy but populated town of shops and homes, was still celebrating Civil War events. However, as the new century dawned, thoughts turned to the upcoming 300th anniversary of the founding of Jamestown. The Preservation Virginia started the movement in 1900 by calling for a celebration honoring the establishment of the first permanent English colony in the New World at Jamestown to be held on the 300th anniversary in 1907. As a celebration was planned, virtually no one thought that the actual isolated and long-abandoned original site of Jamestown would be suitable for a major event because Jamestown Island had Exposition Seal no facilities for large crowds. The original fort housing the Jamestown settlers was believed to have been long ago swallowed by the James River. The general area in James City County near Jamestown was also considered unsuitable, as it was not very accessible in the day of rail travel before automobiles were common. As the tricentennial of the 1607 Founding of the Jamestown neared, around 1904, despite an assumption in some quarters that Richmond would be a logical location, leaders in Norfolk began a campaign to have a celebration held there. The decision was made to locate the international exposition on a mile-long frontage at Sewell's Point near the mouth of Hampton Roads. This was about 30 miles (48 km) downstream from Jamestown in a rural section of Norfolk County. It was a site which could become accessible by both long-distance passenger railroads and local streetcar service, with considerable frontage on the harbor of Hampton Roads. This latter feature proved ideal for the naval delegations which came from points all around the world. The Jamestown Exposition of 1907 was one of the many world's fairs and expositions that were popular in the early part of the 20th century. Held from April 26, 1907 to December 1, 1907, attendees included US President Theodore Roosevelt, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, the Prince of Sweden, Mark Twain, Henry H. Rogers, and dozens of other dignitaries and famous persons. A major naval review featuring the United State's Great White Fleet was a key feature. U.S. Military officials and leaders were impressed by the location, and the Exposition site later formed the first portion of the large U.S. Naval Station Norfolk in 1918 during World War I.

Jamestown, Virginia

10

350th Anniversary (1957): Jamestown Festival
With America's increased access to automobiles, and with improved roads and transportation, it was feasible for the 350th anniversary celebration to be held at Jamestown itself in 1957. Although erosion had cut off the land bridge between Jamestown Island and the mainland, the isthmus was restored and new access provided by the completion of the National Park Service's Colonial Parkway which led to Williamsburg and Yorktown, the other two portions of Colonial Virginia's Historic Triangle. There were also improvements of state highways. The north landing for the popular Jamestown Ferry and a portion of State Route 31 were relocated. Major projects such were developed by non-profit, state and federal agencies. Queen Elizabeth II of the United Jamestown Festival Park was established by the Commonwealth of Virginia Kingdom and her consort Prince adjacent to the entrance to Jamestown Island. Full-sized replicas of the three ships Phillip inspect replica of Susan that brought the colonists, the Susan Constant, the Godspeed, and the Discovery Constant at Jamestown Festival Park in Virginia on October 16, were constructed at a shipyard in Portsmouth, Virginia and placed on display at a 1957 new dock at Jamestown, where the largest, the Susan Constant, could be boarded by visitors. On Jamestown Island, the reconstructed Jamestown Glasshouse, the Memorial Cross and the visitors center were completed and dedicated. A loop road was built around the island. Special events included army and navy reviews, air force fly-overs, ship and aircraft christenings and even an outdoor drama at Cape Henry, site of the first landing of the settlers. This celebration continued from April 1 to November 30 with over a million participants, including dignitaries and politicians such as the British Ambassador and U.S. Vice President Richard Nixon. The highlight for many of the nearly 25,000 at the Festival Park on October 16, 1957 was the visit and speech of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and her consort, Prince Philip. Queen Elizabeth II loaned a copy of the Magna Carta for the exhibition. It was her first visit to the United States since assuming the throne. The 1957 Jamestown Festival was so successful that tourists still kept coming long after the official event was completed. Jamestown became a permanent attraction of the Historic Triangle, and has been visited by families, school groups, tours, and thousands of other people continuously ever since.

400th anniversary: Jamestown 2007

Virginia State Quarter(Reverse)

Jamestown, Virginia

11
Obverse of Jamestown 400th Anniversary silver dollar, the "Three Faces of Diversity" of Jamestown

Obverse of the Jamestown 400th Anniversary gold five dollar coin

Early in the 21st century, new accommodations, transportation facilities and attractions were planned in preparation for the quadricentennial of the founding of Jamestown. Numerous events were promoted under the banner of America's 400th Anniversary and promoted by the Jamestown 2007 Commission. The commemoration included 18 months of statewide, national and international festivities and events, which began in April 2006 with a tour of the new replica Godspeed. In January 2007, the Virginia General Assembly held a session at Jamestown. On May 4, 2007, Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Prince Philip attended a ceremony commemorating the 400th anniversary of the settlement's arrivals, reprising the honor they paid in 1957.[33] In addition to the Virginia State Quarter, Jamestown was also the subject of two United States commemorative coins celebrating the 400th anniversary of its settlement. A silver dollar and a gold five dollar coin were issued in 2007.

Other commemoration
In 1987, John Otho Marsh, Jr., the Secretary of the Army of the United States of America, planted an oak tree at Runnymede England commemorating and linking the bicentenary of the Constitution with the establishment of the Jamestown settlement

Jamestown in film
A highly fictionalized version of the Jamestown settlement is depicted in the animated Disney film Pocahontas (1995). Among other inaccuracies it is shown as being near mountains, when it was actually located on a coastal plain. A feature length film, The New World (2006), directed by Terrence Malick, covers the story of Jamestown's colonization. Although the historical details are accurate in most ways, the plot focuses on a dramatized relationship between John Smith, played by Colin Farrell, and Pocahontas, played by Q'orianka Kilcher. Many scenes were filmed on-location along the James and Chickahominy Rivers and at Henricus Historical Park in Chesterfield County, Virginia. Another feature length film, First Landing: The Voyage from England to Jamestown (2007), documents the 1607 landing of English colonists.[34]

Jamestown, Virginia

12

References
[1] "History of Jamestown" (http:/ / www. apva. org/ history/ ). Apva.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [2] James S. Pula | Jamestown's 400th Anniversary | Polish American Studies, 65.2 | The History Cooperative (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ pas/ 65. 2/ pula. html) [3] "The Royal African Company - Supplying Slaves to Jamestown" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ historyculture/ the-royal-african-company-supplying-slaves-to-jamestown. htm). Historic Jamestowne (NPS). . Retrieved 8 June 2011. [4] "Historic Jamestowne – Chronology of Jamestown Events (U.S. National Park Service)" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ historyculture/ chronology-of-jamestown-events. htm). Nps.gov. 2007-05-23. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [5] The Royal Gazette, World Heritage (Tdevonown of St. George's and related fortifications) Supplement, 22 February 2001. [6] "Historic Jamestowne (U.S. National Park Service)" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ index. htm). Nps.gov. 2009-08-03. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [7] "Extracts from account of Capt. John Smith" (http:/ / etext. lib. virginia. edu/ etcbin/ jamestown-browse?id=J1007). Etext.lib.virginia.edu. . Retrieved 2009-09-22. [8] http:/ / indians. vipnet. org/ resources/ writersGuide. pdf [9] "Historic Jamestowne – An Unoccupied Site (U.S. National Park Service)" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ an-unoccupied-site. htm). Nps.gov. 2009-06-22. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [10] "list of settlers in 1608 expedition" (http:/ / www. apva. org/ history/ 2ndsup. html). Apva.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-22. [11] John Marshall p.44 [12] John Marshall p.45 [13] Woodward, Hobson. A Brave Vessel: The True Tale of the Castaways Who Rescued Jamestown and Inspired Shakespeare's The Tempest. Viking (2009). [14] "John Rolfe" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ historyculture/ john-rolfe. htm). Historic Jamestowne (NPS). . Retrieved 8 June 2011. [15] "The lost colony and Jamestown droughts." (http:/ / www. ncdc. noaa. gov/ paleo/ drought/ drght_james. html), Stahle, D. W., M. K. Cleaveland, D. B. Blanton, M. D. Therrell, and D. A. Gay. 1998. Science 280:564-567. [16] John Marshall p.52 [17] "history of Pocahontas" (http:/ / www. apva. org/ history/ pocahont. html). Apva.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-22. [18] "Historic Jamestowne - Pocahontas: Her Life and Legend (U.S. National Park Service)" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ historyculture/ pocahontas-her-life-and-legend. htm). Nps.gov. 2008-01-04. . Retrieved 2009-09-22. [19] http:/ / polishpioneersinjamestown. org/ history. aspx [20] "Historic Jamestowne - Powhatan" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ historyculture/ powhatan-indian-lifeways. htm). Nps.gov. 2008-01-04. . Retrieved 2009-09-22. [21] Carla Davidson (http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ articles/ magazine/ ah/ 2006/ 5/ 2006_5_29. shtml) "Four Centuries: How Jamestown Got Us Started" American Heritage, Oct. 2006. [22] "NPS Publications: Popular Study Series" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ history/ online_books/ popular/ 15/ ps15-1. htm). Nps.gov. 2001-10-20. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [23] "Welcome to the Jamestowne Society!" (http:/ / www. jamestowne. org/ ). Jamestowne.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [24] "1994 Interim Field Report – Jamestown Rediscovery" (http:/ / www. apva. org/ pubs/ 94reprt. html). Apva.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [25] "Jamestown-Scotland Ferry" (http:/ / virginiadot. org/ travel/ ferry-jamestown. asp). Virginiadot.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [26] "Historic Jamestowne (U.S. National Park Service)" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ index. htm). Nps.gov. 2009-08-03. . Retrieved 2009-09-22. [27] "Historic Jamestowne - Jamestown Churches (U.S. National Park Service)" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ jame/ historyculture/ jamestown-churches. htm). Nps.gov. 2007-05-29. . Retrieved 2009-09-22. [28] "Is it Gosnold? APVA Preservation Virginia Archaeologists Seek Matching DNA-Historic Jamestowne" (http:/ / www. historicjamestowne. org/ news/ gosnold_dna_01. php). Historic Jamestowne.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [29] (http:/ / www. vagazette. com/ news/ va-news1_032206mar22,0,6921190. story?coll=va-news) [30] "Home-Historic Jamestown" (http:/ / www. historicjamestowne. org/ ). Historic Jamestowne.org. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [31] Billings, Malcolm (2007-05-03). "Programmers | From Our Own Correspondent | Putting Jamestown into context" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ programmes/ from_our_own_correspondent/ 6616037. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2009-09-21. [32] (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ colo/ Jthanout/ JTCele. html) [33] http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2007/ 05/ 05/ nqueen05. xml Retrieved on 2008-04-19 [34] First Landing at the Internet Movie Database. (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0878671/ )

Jamestown, Virginia

13

Further reading
• Jocelyn R. Wingfield, Virginia's True Founder: Edward Maria Wingfield and His Times (Booksurge, 2007) ISBN 1419660322 • William M. Kelso, Jamestown, The Buried Truth (University of Virginia Press, 2006) • William M. Kelso, Jamestown Rediscovery II (APVA, 1996) • William M. Kelso, Nicholas M. Luccketti, Beverly A. Straube, Jamestown Rediscovery III (APVA, 1997) • William M. Kelso, Nicholas M. Luccketti, Beverly A. Straube, Jamestown Rediscovery IV (APVA, 1998) • William M. Kelso, Nicholas M. Luccketti, Beverly A. Straube, Jamestown Rediscovery V (APVA, 1999) • William Kelso, Beverly Straube, Jamestown Rediscovery VI (APVA, 2000) • David A. Price, Love and Hate in Jamestown (Alfred A. Knopf, 2003) • Ernie Gross, "The American Years" (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1999) • James Horn, A Land as God Made It (Perseus Books, 2005) ISBN 0465030947 • Chesapeake, a novel (1978) by author James A. Michener

External links
• History Channel Web Site telling the story from the standpoint of the three major cultural nuclei. (http://www. history.com/classroom/jamestownstory/) • APVA web site for the Jamestown Rediscovery project (http://www.apva.org/jr.html) • Historic Jamestowne (http://www.historicjamestowne.org/) • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Where are We Digging Now? (http://www.historicjamestowne.org/the_dig/) America's 400th Anniversary (http://www.Americas400thAnniversary.com/) Jamestown 1607 (http://www.jamestown1607.org/) National Geographic Magazine Jamestown Interactive (http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/jamestown/ ) Jamestown Settlement and Yorktown Victory Center (http://www.historyisfun.org/) Virtual Jamestown (http://www.virtualjamestown.org/) National Park Service: Jamestown National Historic Site (http://www.nps.gov/jame/) New Discoveries at Jamestown (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16277/16277-h/16277-h.htm) by John L. Cotter and J. Paul Hudson, (1957) at Project Gutenberg First Landing State Park (http://www.first-landing-state-park.org/) State Tourism Website – Virginia is for Lovers (http://www.virginia.org) Jamestown Discovery Trail (http://jamesriverplantations.com/jamestown_discovery_trail.htm/) Time Team Special: Jamestown – America's Birthplace (http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/T/ timeteam//thisweek.html) Jamestown Four-Hundred Years (http://www.angelfire.com/planet/apalon/quadcentennial.htm) The Poles in Jamestown (http://www.pljournal.com/events/jamestown-polish-artisans.html) Following in Godspeeds Wake (http://www.qsl.net/wa4chq/godspeed.html) NBC News Interview with Dr. William Kelso (http://www.icue.com/portal/site/iCue/flatview/ ?cuecard=320) Jamestown records on The UK National Archives' website. (http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ documentsonline/jamestown.asp)

14

Pre American Revolution
Stamp Act
A stamp act is any legislation that requires a tax to be paid on the transfer of certain documents. Those that pay the tax receive an official stamp on their documents, making them legal documents. The taxes raised under a stamp act are called stamp duty. This system of taxation was first devised in the Netherlands in 1624 after a public competition to find a new form of tax. A variety of products have been covered by stamp acts including playing cards, patent medicines, cheques, mortgages, contracts and newspapers. The items often have to be physically stamped at approved government offices following payment of the duty, although methods involving annual payment of a fixed sum or purchase of adhesive stamps are more practical and common. Stamp acts have been enforced in many countries, including Australia, People's Republic of China, Canada, Ireland, Malaysia, Israel, the United Kingdom and the United States of America.

Stamp acts in Britain and America
In many areas of the American colonies, opposition to the looming Stamp Act was taking the form of violence and intimidation. A more reasoned approach was taken by some elements. At the urging of James Otis, usually in the radical forefront, the Massachusetts assembly sent a circular letter to the other colonies, which called for an intercolonial meeting to plan tempered resistance to new tax. The stamp act was a tax placed on: The Stamp Act Congress convened in New York City on October 7 with nine colonies in attendance; others would likely have participated if earlier notice had been provided. The delegates approved a 14-point Declaration of Rights and Grievances, formulated largely by Julia Aggas of Pennsylvania. The statement echoed the recent resolves of the Virginia House of Burgesses, which argued that colonial taxation could only be carried on by their own assemblies. The delegates singled out the Stamp Act and the use of the vice admiralty courts for special criticism, yet ended their statement with a pledge of loyalty to the king. The Stamp Act Congress was another step in the process of attempted common problem-solving, which had most recently been tried in the Albany Congress in 1754. That earlier meeting had been held at the urging of royal officials, but the later one was strictly a colonial affair. The congress was a forum for voicing constitutional concerns, not a rallying point for revolution and independence. In fact, the meeting afforded the more conservative critics of British policy some hope of regaining control of events from the unruly mobs in the streets of many cities.

English and United Kingdom Stamp Acts
1694 Stamp Act A Stamp Duty was first introduced in England in 1694 following the Dutch model as An act for granting to Their Majesties several duties on Vellum, Parchment and Paper for 10 years, towards carrying on the war against France (5 & 6 Will. & Mar. c. 21).[1] The duty ranged between 1 penny to several shillings on a number of different legal documents including insurance policies, documents used as evidence in courts, grants of honour, grants of probate and letters of administration. It raised around 50,000 pounds a year and although it was initially a temporary measure, it proved so successful that its use was continued.

Stamp Act

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1765 Stamp Act
The Stamp Act of 1765 (short title Duties in American Colonies Act 1765; 5 George III, c. 12) was a direct tax imposed by the British Parliament on the colonies of British America. Americans in all 13 colonies protested strongly and the British retreated part way, but insisted on the right of Parliament to tax the colonies. The Americans rejected that as unconstitutional--crying "No Taxation without Representation"--and it was a major grievance that led to the American Revolution. The act required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London and carrying an embossed revenue stamp.[2] [3] These printed materials were legal documents, magazines, newspapers and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the stamp tax had to be paid in valid British currency, not in colonial paper money. The purpose of the tax was to help pay for troops stationed in North America after the British victory in the Seven Years' War. The British government felt that the colonies were the primary beneficiaries of this military presence, and should pay at least a portion of the expense. The Americans saw no need for the troops or the taxes; the British saw colonial defiance of their lawful rulers.[4] The Stamp Act met great resistance in the colonies. The colonies sent no representatives to Parliament, and therefore had no influence over what taxes were raised, how they were levied, or how they would be spent. Many colonists considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent—consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant. Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests. The Stamp Act Congress held in New York City, reflecting the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure, also petitioned Parliament and the King. Local protest groups, led by colonial merchants and landowners, established connections through correspondence that created a loose coalition that extended from New England to Georgia. Protests and demonstrations initiated by the Sons of Liberty often turned violent and destructive as the masses became involved. Very soon all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, and the tax was never effectively collected. 1891 Stamp Act and Stamp Duties Management Act All the above Acts were superseded by the Stamp Duties Management Act 1891 and the Stamp Act 1891, which still constitute the bulk of UK law on stamp duties today. The modern UK Stamp Act In 1914 The Director of Stamping at the Stamp Office oversaw the production of the first Treasury Notes (later called banknotes, not to be confused with US Treasury notes). This lasted until 1928 when production of banknotes passed from the Department to the Bank of England. In 1963 production of postage stamps passed to the General Post Office. The Finance Act 1986 introduced Stamp Duty Reserve Tax. From 27 October 1986 the charge was imposed on 'closing' transactions at the London Stock Exchange which until then had been transactions where no document was used and therefore exempt from Stamp Duty. A public display of Stamp Office artifacts and records was held at the Courtauld Institute in 1994 to commemorate the three hundredth anniversary of the introduction of UK Stamp Duty. The Stamp Office was also awarded the Charter Mark by John Major's Advisory Committee as a reward for its public service. Stamp duties are the oldest taxes still raised by the HM Revenue and Customs. "The Stamp Act of 1765 represented a new departure in imperial policy. For the first time, Parliament attempted to raise money from direct taxes in the colonies rather than through the regulation of trade. The act required that all sorts of printed material produced in the colonies-newspapers, books, court documents, commercial papers, land deeds, almanacs, etc.-carry a stamp purchased from authorities. Its purpose was to help finance the operations of the empire, including the cost of stationing British troops in North America, without seeking revenue from the colonial assemblies."[5]

Stamp Act

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References
[1] Russell, David Lee (2000). The American Revolution in the Southern Colonies. McFarland & Company. p. 27. ISBN 9780786407835. [2] Morgan and Morgan pg. 96-97 [3] "The Stamp Act of 1765 - A Serendipitous Find" by Hermann Ivester in The Revenue Journal, The Revenue Society, Vol.XX, No.3, December 2009, pp.87-89. [4] Gordon Wood, The American Revolution: A History Modern Library. 2002, page 24. [5] Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty: An American History. (Pg. 171) 2009

Boston Tea Party
The Boston Tea Party was a direct action by colonists in Boston, a town in the British colony of Massachusetts, against the British government and the monopolistic East India Company that controlled all the tea imported into the colonies. On December 16, 1773, after officials in Boston refused to return three shiploads of taxed tea to Britain, a group of colonists boarded the ships and destroyed the tea by throwing it into Boston Harbor. The incident remains an iconic event of American history, and other political protests often refer to it.

The Tea Party was the culmination of a resistance movement throughout British America against the Tea Act, which had been passed by the British Parliament in 1773. Colonists objected to the Tea Act for a variety of reasons, especially because they believed that it violated their right to be taxed only by their own elected representatives. Protesters had successfully prevented the unloading of taxed tea in three other colonies, but in Boston, embattled Royal Governor Thomas Hutchinson refused to allow the tea to be returned to Britain. He apparently did not expect that the protestors would choose to destroy the tea rather than concede the authority of a legislature in which they were not directly represented. The Boston Tea Party was a key event in the growth of the American Revolution. Parliament responded in 1774 with the Coercive Acts, which, among other provisions, closed Boston's commerce until the British East India Company had been repaid for the destroyed tea. Colonists in turn responded to the Coercive Acts with additional acts of protest, and by convening the First Continental Congress, which petitioned the British monarch for repeal of the acts and coordinated colonial resistance to them. The crisis escalated, and the American Revolutionary War began near Boston in 1775.

This iconic 1846 lithograph by Nathaniel Currier was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard. Contrary to Currier's depiction, few of the men dumping the tea were [1] actually disguised as Indians.

Boston Tea Party

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Background
The Boston Tea Party arose from two issues confronting the British Empire in 1773: the financial problems of the British East India Company, and an ongoing dispute about the extent of Parliament's authority, if any, over the British American colonies without seating any elected representation. The North Ministry's attempt to resolve these issues produced a showdown that would eventually result in revolution.[2]

Tea trade to 1767
Plaque affixed to side of the Independence Wharf As Europeans developed a taste for tea in the 17th century, rival building (2009) companies were formed to import the product from the East Indies.[3] In England, Parliament gave the East India Company a monopoly on the importation of tea in 1698.[4] When tea became popular in the British colonies, Parliament sought to eliminate foreign competition by passing an act in 1721 that required colonists to import their tea only from Great Britain.[5] The East India Company did not export tea to the colonies; by law, the company was required to sell its tea wholesale at auctions in England. British firms bought this tea and exported it to the colonies, where they resold it to merchants in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston.[6]

Until 1767, the East India Company paid an ad valorem tax of about 25% on tea that it imported into Great Britain.[7] Parliament laid additional taxes on tea sold for consumption in Britain. These high taxes, combined with the fact that tea imported into Holland was not taxed by the Dutch government, meant that Britons and British Americans could buy smuggled Dutch tea at much cheaper prices.[8] The biggest market for illicit tea was England—by the 1760s the East India Company was losing £400,000 per year to smugglers in Great Britain[9] —but Dutch tea was also smuggled into British America in significant quantities.[10] In 1767, to help the East India Company compete with smuggled Dutch tea, Parliament passed the Indemnity Act, which lowered the tax on tea consumed in Great Britain, and gave the East India Company a refund of the 25% duty on tea that was re-exported to the colonies.[11] To help offset this loss of government revenue, Parliament also passed the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, which levied new taxes, including one on tea, in the colonies.[12] Instead of solving the smuggling problem, however, the Townshend duties renewed a controversy about Parliament's right to tax the colonies.

Townshend duty crisis
Controversy between Great Britain and the colonies arose in the 1760s when Parliament sought, for the first time, to directly tax the colonies for the purpose of raising revenue. Some colonists, known in the colonies as Whigs, objected to the new tax program, arguing that it was a violation of the British Constitution. Britons and British Americans agreed that, according to the constitution, British subjects could not be taxed without the consent of their elected representatives. In Great Britain, this meant that taxes could only be levied by Parliament. Colonists, however, did not elect members of Parliament, and so American Whigs argued that the colonies could not be taxed by that body. According to Whigs, colonists could only be taxed by their own colonial assemblies. Colonial protests resulted in the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1765, but in the 1766 Declaratory Act, Parliament continued to insist that it had the right to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever". When new taxes were levied in the Townshend Revenue Act of 1767, Whig colonists again responded with protests and boycotts. Merchants organized a non-importation agreement, and many colonists pledged to abstain from drinking British tea, with activists in New England promoting alternatives, such as domestic Labrador tea.[13] Smuggling continued apace, especially in New York and Philadelphia, where tea smuggling had always been more

Boston Tea Party extensive than in Boston. Dutied British tea continued to be imported into Boston, however, especially by Richard Clarke and the sons of Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson, until pressure from Massachusetts Whigs compelled them to abide by the non-importation agreement.[14] Parliament finally responded to the protests by repealing the Townshend taxes in 1770, except for the tea duty, which Prime Minister Lord North kept to assert "the right of taxing the Americans".[15] This partial repeal of the taxes was enough to bring an end to the non-importation movement by October 1770.[16] From 1771 to 1773, British tea was once again imported into the colonies in significant amounts, with merchants paying the Townshend duty of three pence per pound.[17] Boston was the largest colonial importer of legal tea; smugglers still dominated the market in New York and Philadelphia.[18]

18

Tea Act of 1773
The Indemnity Act of 1767, which gave the East India Company a refund of the duty on tea that was re-exported to the colonies, expired in 1772. Parliament passed a new act in 1772 that reduced this refund, effectively leaving a 10% duty on tea imported into Britain.[19] The act also restored the tea taxes within Britain that had been repealed in 1767, and left in place the three pence Townshend duty in the colonies. With this new tax burden driving up the price of British tea, sales plummeted. The company continued to import tea into Great Britain, however, amassing a huge surplus of product that no one would buy.[20] For these and other reasons, by late 1772 the East India Company, one of Britain's most important commercial institutions, was in a serious financial crisis.[21] Eliminating some of the taxes was one obvious solution to the crisis. The East India Company initially sought to have the Townshend duty repealed, but the North ministry was unwilling because such an action might be interpreted as a retreat from Parliament's position that it had the right to tax the colonies.[22] More importantly, the tax collected from the Townshend duty was used to pay the salaries of some colonial governors and judges.[23] This was in fact the purpose of the Townshend tax: previously these officials had been paid by the colonial assemblies, but Parliament now paid their salaries to keep them dependent on the British government rather than allowing them to be accountable to the colonists.[24] Another possible solution for reducing the growing mound of tea in the East India Company warehouses was to sell it cheaply in Europe. This possibility was investigated, but it was determined that the tea would simply be smuggled back into Great Britain, where it would undersell the taxed product.[25] The best market for the East India Company's surplus tea, so it seemed, was the American colonies, if a way could be found to make it cheaper than the smuggled Dutch tea.[26] The North ministry's solution was the Tea Act, which received the assent of King George on May 10, 1773.[27] This act restored the East India Company's full refund on the duty for importing tea into Britain, and also permitted the company, for the first time, to export tea to the colonies on its own account. This would allow the company to reduce costs by eliminating the middlemen who bought the tea at wholesale auctions in London.[28] Instead of selling to middlemen, the company now appointed colonial merchants to receive the tea on consignment; the consignees would in turn sell the tea for a commission. In July 1773, tea consignees were selected in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Charleston.[29] The Tea Act retained the three pence Townshend duty on tea imported to the colonies. Some members of Parliament wanted to eliminate this tax, arguing that there was no reason to provoke another colonial controversy. Former Chancellor of the Exchequer William Dowdeswell, for example, warned Lord North that the Americans would not accept the tea if the Townshend duty remained.[30] But North did not want to give up the revenue from the Townshend tax, primarily because it was used to pay the salaries of colonial officials; maintaining the right of taxing the Americans was a secondary concern.[31] According to historian Benjamin Labaree, "A stubborn Lord North had unwittingly hammered a nail in the coffin of the old British Empire."[32] Even with the Townshend duty in effect, the Tea Act would allow the East India Company to sell tea more cheaply than before, undercutting the prices offered by smugglers. In 1772, legally imported Bohea, the most common

Boston Tea Party variety of tea, sold for about 3 shillings (3s) per pound.[33] After the Tea Act, colonial consignees would be able to sell it for 2 shillings per pound (2s), just under the smugglers' price of 2 shillings and 1 penny (2s 1d).[34] Realizing that the payment of the Townshend duty was politically sensitive, the company hoped to conceal the tax by making arrangements to have it paid either in London once the tea was landed in the colonies, or have the consignees quietly pay the duties after the tea was sold. This effort to hide the tax from the colonists was unsuccessful.[35]

19

Resisting the Tea Act
In September and October 1773, seven ships carrying East India Company tea were sent to the colonies: four were bound for Boston, and one each for New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston.[36] In the ships were more than 2,000 chests containing nearly 600,000 pounds of tea.[37] Americans learned the details of the Tea Act while the ships were en route, and opposition began to mount.[38] Whigs, sometimes calling themselves Sons of Liberty, began a campaign to raise awareness and to convince or compel the consignees to resign, in the same way that stamp distributors had been forced to resign in the 1765 Stamp Act crisis.[39] The protest movement that culminated with the Boston Tea Party was not a dispute about high taxes. The price of legally imported tea was actually reduced by the Tea Act of 1773. Protestors were instead concerned with a variety of other issues. The familiar "no taxation without representation" argument, along with the question of the extent of Parliament's authority in the colonies, remained prominent.[40] Some regarded the purpose of the tax program—to make leading officials independent of colonial influence—as a dangerous infringement of colonial rights.[41] This was especially true in Massachusetts, the only colony where the Townshend program had been fully implemented.[42]

This 1775 British cartoon, "A Society of Patriotic Ladies at Edenton in North Carolina", satirizes the Edenton Tea Party, a group of women who organized a boycott of English tea.

Colonial merchants, some of them smugglers, played a significant role in the protests. Because the Tea Act made legally imported tea cheaper, it threatened to put smugglers of Dutch tea out of business.[43] Legitimate tea importers who had not been named as consignees by the East India Company were also threatened with financial ruin by the Tea Act.[44] Another major concern for merchants was that the Tea Act gave the East India Company a monopoly on the tea trade, and it was feared that this government-created monopoly might be extended in the future to include other goods.[45] South of Boston, protestors successfully compelled the tea consignees to resign. In Charleston, the consignees had been forced to resign by early December, and the unclaimed tea was seized by customs officials.[46] There were mass protest meetings in Philadelphia. Benjamin Rush urged his fellow countrymen to oppose the landing of the tea, because the cargo contained "the seeds of slavery".[47] By early December, the Philadelphia consignees had resigned and the tea ship returned to England with its cargo following a confrontation with the ship's captain.[48] The tea ship bound for New York City was delayed by bad weather; by the time it arrived, the consignees had resigned, and the ship returned to England with the tea.[49]

Boston Tea Party

20

Standoff in Boston
In every colony except Massachusetts, protestors were able to force the tea consignees to resign or to return the tea to England.[50] In Boston, however, Governor Hutchinson was determined to hold his ground. He convinced the tea consignees, two of whom were his sons, not to back down.[51] When the tea ship Dartmouth arrived in the Boston Harbor in late November, Whig leader Samuel Adams called for a mass meeting to be held at Faneuil Hall on November 29, 1773. Thousands of people arrived, so many that the meeting was moved to the larger Old South Meeting House.[52] British law required the Dartmouth to unload and pay the duties within twenty days or customs officials could confiscate the cargo.[53] The mass meeting passed a resolution, introduced by Adams and based on a similar set of resolutions promulgated earlier in This notice from the "Chairman of the Committee Philadelphia, urging the captain of the Dartmouth to send the ship back for Tarring and Feathering" in Boston denounced the tea consignees as "traitors to their country". without paying the import duty. Meanwhile, the meeting assigned twenty-five men to watch the ship and prevent the tea—including a number of chests from Davison, Newman and Co. of London—from being unloaded.[54] Governor Hutchinson refused to grant permission for the Dartmouth to leave without paying the duty. Two more tea ships, the Eleanor and the Beaver, arrived in Boston Harbor (there was another tea ship headed for Boston, the William, but it encountered a storm and was destroyed before it could reach its destination[55] ). On December 16—the last day of the Dartmouth's deadline—about 7,000 people had gathered around the Old South Meeting House.[56] After receiving a report that Governor Hutchinson had again refused to let the ships leave, Adams announced that "This meeting can do nothing further to save the country." According to a popular story, Adams's statement was a prearranged signal for the "tea party" to begin. However, this claim did not appear in print until nearly a century after the event, in a biography of Adams written by his great-grandson, who apparently misinterpreted the evidence.[57] According to eyewitness accounts, people did not leave the meeting until ten or fifteen minutes after Adams's alleged "signal", and Adams in fact tried to stop people from leaving because the meeting was not yet over.[58]

Destruction of the tea
While Samuel Adams tried to reassert control of the meeting, people poured out of the Old South Meeting House and headed to Boston Harbor. That evening, a group of 30 to 130 men, some of them thinly disguised as Mohawk Indians, boarded the three vessels and, over the course of three hours, dumped all 342 chests of tea into the water.[59] The precise location of the Griffin's Wharf site of the Tea Party has been subject to prolonged uncertainty; a comprehensive study[60] places it near the foot of Hutchinson Street (today's Pearl Street).

1789 engraving of the destruction of the tea

Boston Tea Party

21

Reaction
Whether or not Samuel Adams helped plan the Boston Tea Party is unknown, but he immediately worked to publicize and defend it.[61] He argued that the Tea Party was not the act of a lawless mob, but was instead a principled protest and the only remaining option the people had to defend their constitutional rights.[62] Governor Thomas Hutchinson had been urging London to take a hard line with the Sons of Liberty. If he had done what the other royal governors had done and let the ship owners and captains resolve the issue with the colonists, the Dartmouth, Eleanor and the Beaver would have left without unloading any tea. In Britain, even those politicians considered friends of the colonies were appalled and this act united all parties there against the colonies. The Prime Minister Lord North said, "Whatever may be the consequence, we must risk something; if we do not, all is over".[63] The British government felt this action could not remain unpunished, and responded by closing the port of Boston and putting in place other laws known as the "Coercive Acts". In the colonies, Benjamin Franklin stated that the destroyed tea must be repaid, all 90,000 pounds (which, at two shillings per pound, comes to £9,000, or £888 thousand today). Robert Murray, a New York merchant, went to Lord North with three other merchants and offered to pay for the losses, but the offer was turned down.[64] A number of colonists were inspired to carry out similar acts, such as the burning of the Peggy Stewart. The Boston Tea Party eventually proved to be one of the many reactions that led to the American Revolutionary War. In February, 1775, Britain passed the Conciliatory Resolution, which ended taxation for any colony that satisfactorily provided for the imperial defense and the upkeep of imperial officers. The tax on tea was repealed with the Taxation of Colonies Act 1778, part of another Parliamentary attempt at conciliation that failed.

Legacy
According to historian Alfred Young, the term "Boston Tea Party" did not appear in print until 1834.[65] Before that time, the event was usually referred to as the "destruction of the tea". According to Young, American writers were for many years apparently reluctant to celebrate the destruction of property, and so the event was usually ignored in histories of the American Revolution. This began to change in the 1830s, however, especially with the publication of biographies of George Robert Twelves Hewes, one of the few still-living participants of the "tea party", as it then became known.[66]

The Boston Tea Party has often been referenced in other political protests. When Mohandas K. Gandhi led a mass burning of Indian registration cards in South Africa in 1908, a British newspaper compared the event to the Boston Tea Party.[67] When Gandhi met with the British viceroy in 1930 after the Indian salt protest campaign, Gandhi took some duty-free salt from his shawl and said, with a smile, that the salt was "to remind us of the famous Boston Tea Party."[68] American activists from a variety of political viewpoints have invoked the Tea Party as a symbol of protest. In 1973, on the 200th anniversary of the Tea Party, a mass meeting at Faneuil Hall called for the impeachment of President Richard Nixon and protested oil companies in the ongoing oil crisis. Afterwards, protesters boarded a replica ship in Boston Harbor, hanged Nixon in effigy, and dumped several empty oil drums into the harbor.[69] In 1998, two conservative US Congressmen put the federal tax code into a chest marked "tea" and dumped it into the harbor.[70]

~ 200th Anniversary Boston Tea Party ~In 1973 the US Post Office issued a set of four stamps, together making one scene of the Boston Tea Party

Boston Tea Party In 2006, a libertarian political party called the "Boston Tea Party" was founded. In 2007, the Ron Paul "Tea Party" money bomb, held on the 234th anniversary of the Boston Tea Party, broke the one-day fund-raising record by raising $6.04 million in 24 hours.[71]

22

References
Notes
[1] Young, Shoemaker, 183–85. [2] Benjamin L. Carp, Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America (2010) ch. 1 [3] Labaree, Tea Party, 3–4. [4] Knollenberg, Growth, 90. [5] Knollenberg, Growth, 90; Labaree, Tea Party, 7. [6] Labaree, Tea Party, 8–9. [7] Labaree, Tea Party, 6–8; Knollenberg, Growth, 91; Thomas, Townshend Duties, 18. [8] Labaree, Tea Party, 6. [9] Labaree, Tea Party, 59. [10] Labaree, Tea Party, 6–7. [11] Labaree, Tea Party, 13; Thomas, Townshend Duties, 26–27. This kind of refund or rebate is known as a "drawback". [12] Labaree, Tea Party, 21. [13] Labaree, Tea Party, 27–30. [14] Labaree, Tea Party, 32–34. [15] Knollenberg, Growth, 71; Labaree, Tea Party, 46. [16] Labaree, Tea Party, 46–49. [17] Labaree, Tea Party, 50–51. [18] Labaree, Tea Party, 52. [19] The 1772 tax act was 12 Geo. III c. 60 sec. 1; Knollenberg, Growth, 351n12. [20] Thomas, Townshend Duties, 248–49; Labaree, Tea Party, 334. [21] Labaree, Tea Party, 58, 60–62. [22] Knollenberg, Growth, 90–91. [23] Thomas, Townshend Duties, 252–54. [24] Knollenberg, Growth, 91. [25] Thomas, Townshend Duties, 250; Labaree, Tea Party, 69. [26] Labaree, Tea Party, 70, 75. [27] Knollenberg, Growth, 93. [28] Labaree, Tea Party, 67, 70. [29] Labaree, Tea Party, 75–76. [30] Labaree, Tea Party, 71; Thomas, Townshend Duties, 252. [31] Thomas, Townshend Duties, 252. [32] Labaree, Tea Party, 72–73. [33] Labaree, Tea Party, 51. [34] Thomas, Townshend Duties, 255; Labaree, Tea Party, 76–77. [35] Labaree, Tea Party, 76–77. [36] Labaree, Tea Party, 78–79. [37] Labaree, Tea Party, 77, 335. [38] Labaree, Tea Party, 89–90. [39] Knollenberg, Growth, 96. [40] Thomas, Townshend Duties, 246. [41] Labaree, Tea Party, 106. [42] Thomas, Townshend Duties, 245. [43] Labaree, Tea Party, 102; see also John W. Tyler, Smugglers & Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution (Boston, 1986). [44] Thomas, Townshend Duties, 256. [45] Knollenberg, Growth, 95–96. [46] Knollenberg, Growth, 101. [47] Labaree, Tea Party, 100. See also Alyn Brodsky, Benjamin Rush (Macmillan, 2004), 109. [48] Labaree, Tea Party, 97. [49] Labaree, Tea Party, 96; Knollenberg, Growth, 101–02. [50] Labaree, Tea Party, 96–100.

Boston Tea Party
[51] Labaree, Tea Party, 104–05. [52] This was not an official town meeting, but a gathering of "the body of the people" of greater Boston; Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 123. [53] Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 124. [54] Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 123. [55] The Story of the Boston Tea Party Ships (http:/ / www. boston-tea-party. org/ darthmouth. html) by The Boston Tea Party Historical Society [56] Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 125. [57] Raphael, Founding Myths, 53. [58] Maier, Old Revolutionaries, 27–28n32; Raphael, Founding Myths, 53. For firsthand accounts that contradict the story that Adams gave the signal for the tea party, see L. F. S. Upton, ed., "Proceeding of Ye Body Respecting the Tea," William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 22 (1965), 297–98; Francis S. Drake, Tea Leaves: Being a Collection of Letters and Documents, (Boston, 1884), LXX; Boston Evening-Post, December 20, 1773; Boston Gazette, December 20, 1773; Massachusetts Gazette and Boston Weekly News-Letter, December 23, 1773. [59] Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 125–26; Labaree, Tea Party, 141–44. [60] Robertson, John. "Where Was the Actual Boston Tea Party Site?" (http:/ / jrshelby. com/ btp/ ). . Retrieved 2009-06-20. [61] Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 126. [62] Alexander, Revolutionary Politician, 129. [63] Cobbett, Parliamentary History of England, XVII, pg. 1280-1281 [64] Ketchum, Divided Loyalties, 262. [65] Young, Shoemaker, xv. [66] Young, Shoemaker. [67] Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (New York: Norton, 1969), 204. [68] Erikson, Gandhi's Truth, 448. [69] Young, Shoemaker, 197. [70] Young, Shoemaker, 198. [71] Ron Paul’s “tea party” breaks fund-raising record (http:/ / www. aapsonline. org/ newsoftheday/ 005)

23

Frequently cited works • Alexander, John K. Samuel Adams: America's Revolutionary Politician. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002. ISBN 0-7425-2115-X. • Carp, Benjamin L. Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America (Yale U.P., 2010) ISBN 978-0300117059 • Ketchum, Richard. Divided Loyalties: How the American Revolution came to New York. 2002. ISBN 0805061207. • Knollenberg, Bernhard. Growth of the American Revolution, 1766–1775. New York: Free Press, 1975. ISBN 0-02-917110-5. • Labaree, Benjamin Woods. The Boston Tea Party. Originally published 1964. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-930350-05-7. • Maier, Pauline. The Old Revolutionaries: Political Lives in the Age of Samuel Adams. New York: Knopf, 1980. ISBN 0-394-51096-8. • Raphael, Ray. Founding Myths: Stories That Hide Our Patriotic Past. New York: The New Press, 2004. ISBN 1-56584-921-3. • Thomas, Peter D. G. The Townshend Duties Crisis: The Second Phase of the American Revolution, 1767–1773. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987. ISBN 0-19-822967-4. • Thomas, Peter D. G. Tea Party to Independence: The Third Phase of the American Revolution, 1773–1776. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991. ISBN 0-19-820142-7. • Young, Alfred F. The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution. Boston: Beacon Press, 1999. ISBN 0807054054; ISBN 978-0807054055.

Boston Tea Party

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External links
• The Boston Tea Party Historical Society (http://www.boston-tea-party.org) • Eyewitness Account of the Event (http://www.historyplace.com/unitedstates/revolution/teaparty.htm) • Tea Party Finds Inspiration In Boston History (http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. php?storyId=125917175&ps=rs) – audio report by NPR

25

American Revolution
Declaration of Independence
United States Declaration of Independence

1823 facsimile of the engrossed copy Created Ratified Location Author(s) June–July 1776 July 4, 1776 Engrossed copy: National Archives Rough draft: Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson et al.

Signatories 56 delegates to the Continental Congress Purpose To announce and explain separation from Great Britain
[1]

The Declaration of Independence was a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, which announced that the thirteen American colonies then at war with Great Britain regarded themselves as independent states, and no longer a part of the British Empire. John Adams put forth a resolution earlier in the year which made a formal declaration inevitable. A committee was assembled to draft the formal declaration, which was to be ready when congress voted on independence. Adams persuaded the committee to select Thomas Jefferson to compose the original draft of the document,[2] which congress would edit to produce the final version. The Declaration was ultimately a formal explanation of why Congress had voted on July 2 to declare independence from Great Britain, more than a year after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The birthday of the United States of America—Independence Day—is celebrated on July 4, the day the wording of the Declaration was approved by Congress. After finalizing the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was initially published as a printed broadside that was widely distributed and read to the public. The most famous version of the Declaration, a signed copy that is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, is on display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C. Although the wording of the Declaration was approved on July 4, the date of its signing has been disputed. Most historians have concluded that it was signed nearly a month after its adoption, on August 2, 1776, and not on July 4 as is commonly believed. The original July 4 United States Declaration of Independence manuscript was lost while all other copies have been derived from this original document.[3] The sources and interpretation of the Declaration have been the subject of much scholarly inquiry. The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing colonial grievances against King George III, and by

Declaration of Independence asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Having served its original purpose in announcing independence, the text of the Declaration was initially ignored after the American Revolution. Its stature grew over the years, particularly the second sentence, a sweeping statement of human rights: We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. This sentence has been called "one of the best-known sentences in the English language"[4] and "the most potent and consequential words in American history".[5] The passage has often been used to promote the rights of marginalized people throughout the world, and came to represent a moral standard for which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Abraham Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy, and argued that the Declaration is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.[6]

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Background
Believe me, dear Sir: there is not in the British empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do. But, by the God that made me, I will cease to exist before I yield to a connection on such terms as the British Parliament propose; and in this, I think I speak the sentiments of America. —Thomas Jefferson, November 29, 1775[7] By the time the Declaration of Independence was adopted in July 1776, the Thirteen Colonies and Great Britain had been at war for more than a year. Relations between the colonies and the mother country had been deteriorating since the end of the Seven Years' War in 1763. The war had plunged the British government deep into debt, and so Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase tax revenue from the colonies. Parliament believed that these acts, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767, were a legitimate means of having the colonies pay their fair share of the costs to keep the colonies in the British Empire.[8]

Thomas Jefferson, the principal author of the Declaration

Many colonists, however, had developed a different conception of the empire. Because the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the British Constitution and the extent of Parliament's authority in the colonies.[9] The orthodox British view, dating from the Glorious Revolution of 1688, was that Parliament was the supreme authority throughout the empire, and so by definition anything Parliament did was constitutional.[10] In the colonies, however, the idea had developed that the British Constitution recognized certain fundamental rights that no government—not even Parliament—could violate.[11] After the Townshend Acts, some essayists even began to question whether Parliament had any legitimate jurisdiction in the colonies at all.[12] Anticipating the arrangement of the British Commonwealth,[13] by 1774 American writers such as Samuel Adams, James Wilson, and Thomas Jefferson were arguing that Parliament was the legislature of Great Britain only, and that the colonies, which had their own legislatures, were connected to the rest of the empire only through their allegiance to the Crown.[14]

Declaration of Independence

27

Congress convenes
The issue of Parliament's authority in the colonies became a crisis after Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774 to punish the Province of Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party of 1773. Many colonists saw the Coercive Acts as a violation of the British Constitution and thus a threat to the liberties of all of British America. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia to coordinate a response. Congress organized a boycott of British goods and petitioned the king for repeal of the acts. These measures were unsuccessful because King George III and the ministry of Prime Minister Lord North were determined not to retreat on the question of parliamentary supremacy. As the king wrote to North in November 1774, "blows must decide whether they are to be subject to this country or independent".[15] Even after fighting in the American Revolutionary War began at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, most colonists still hoped for reconciliation with Great Britain.[16] When the Second Continental Congress convened at the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia in May 1775, some delegates hoped for eventual independence, but no one yet advocated declaring it.[17] Although many colonists no longer believed that Parliament had any sovereignty over them, they still professed loyalty to King George, who they hoped would intercede on their behalf. They were to be disappointed: in late 1775, the king rejected Congress's second petition, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion, and announced before Parliament on October 26 that he was even considering "friendly offers of foreign assistance" to suppress the rebellion.[18] A pro-American minority in Parliament warned that the government was driving the colonists toward independence.[19]

Toward independence
In January 1776, just as it became clear in the colonies that the king was not inclined to act as a conciliator, Thomas Paine's pamphlet Common Sense was published.[20] Paine, who had only recently arrived in the colonies from England, argued in favor of colonial independence, advocating republicanism as an alternative to monarchy and hereditary rule.[21] Common Sense introduced no new ideas,[22] and probably had little direct effect on Congress's thinking about independence; its importance was in stimulating public debate on a topic that few had previously dared to openly discuss.[23] Public support for separation from Great Britain steadily increased after the publication of Paine's enormously popular pamphlet.[24] Although some colonists still held out hope for reconciliation, developments in early 1776 further strengthened public support for independence. In February 1776, colonists learned of Parliament's passage of the Prohibitory Act, which established a blockade of American ports and declared American ships to be enemy vessels. John Adams, a strong supporter of independence, believed that Parliament had effectively declared American independence before Congress had been able to. Adams labeled the Prohibitory Act the "Act of Independency", calling it "a compleat Dismemberment of the British Empire".[25] Support for declaring independence grew even more when it was confirmed that King George had hired German mercenaries to use against his American subjects.[26]

The Assembly Room in Philadelphia's Independence Hall, where the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence

Despite this growing popular support for independence, Congress lacked the clear authority to declare it. Delegates had been elected to Congress by thirteen different governments—which included extralegal conventions, ad hoc committees, and elected assemblies—and were bound by the instructions given to them. Regardless of their personal opinions, delegates could not vote to declare independence unless their instructions permitted such an action.[27] Several colonies, in fact, expressly prohibited their delegates from taking any steps towards separation from Great

Declaration of Independence Britain, while other delegations had instructions that were ambiguous on the issue.[28] As public sentiment for separation from Great Britain grew, advocates of independence sought to have the Congressional instructions revised. For Congress to declare independence, a majority of delegations would need authorization to vote for independence, and at least one colonial government would need to specifically instruct (or grant permission for) its delegation to propose a declaration of independence in Congress. Between April and July 1776, a "complex political war"[29] was waged to bring this about.[30]

28

Revising instructions
In the campaign to revise Congressional instructions, many Americans formally expressed their support for separation from Great Britain in what were effectively state and local declarations of independence. Historian Pauline Maier identified more than ninety such declarations that were issued throughout the Thirteen Colonies from April to July 1776.[31] These "declarations" took a variety of forms. Some were formal, written instructions for Congressional delegations, such as the Halifax Resolves of April 12, with which North Carolina became the first colony to explicitly authorize its delegates to vote for independence.[32] Others were legislative acts that officially ended British rule in individual colonies, such as on May 4, when the Rhode Island legislature became the first to declare its independence from Great Britain.[33] Many "declarations" were resolutions adopted at town or county meetings that offered support for independence. A few came in the form of jury instructions, such as the statement issued on April 23, 1776, by Chief Justice William Henry Drayton of South Carolina: "the law of the land authorizes me to declare...that George the Third, King of Great Britain...has no authority over us, and we owe no obedience to him."[34] Most of these declarations are now obscure, having been overshadowed by the declaration approved by Congress on July 4.[35] Some colonies held back from endorsing independence. Resistance was centered in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Delaware.[36] Advocates of independence saw Pennsylvania as the key: if that colony could be converted to the pro-independence cause, it was believed that the others would follow.[36] On May 1, however, opponents of independence retained control of the Pennsylvania Assembly in a special election that had focused on the question of independence.[37] In response, on May 10 Congress passed a resolution, which had been promoted by John Adams and Richard Henry Lee, calling on colonies without a "government sufficient to the exigencies of their affairs" to adopt new governments.[38] The resolution passed unanimously, and was even supported by Pennsylvania's John Dickinson, the leader of the anti-independence faction in Congress, who believed that it did not apply to his colony.[39]

May 15 preamble
This Day the Congress has passed the most important Resolution, that ever was taken in America. John Adams, May 15, 1776
[40]

As was the custom, Congress appointed a committee to draft a preamble that would explain the purpose of the resolution. John Adams wrote the preamble, which stated that because King George had rejected reconciliation and was even hiring foreign mercenaries to use against the colonies, "it is necessary that the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown should be totally suppressed".[41] Everyone understood that Adams's preamble was meant to encourage the overthrow of the governments of Pennsylvania and Maryland, which were still under proprietary governance.[42] Congress passed the preamble on May 15 after several days of debate, but four of the middle colonies voted against it, and the Maryland delegation walked out in protest.[43] Adams regarded his May 15 preamble as effectively an American declaration of independence, although he knew that a formal declaration would still have to be made.[44]

Declaration of Independence

29

Lee's resolution and the final push
On the same day that Congress passed Adams's radical preamble, the Virginia Convention set the stage for a formal Congressional declaration of independence. On May 15, the Convention instructed Virginia's congressional delegation "to propose to that respectable body to declare the United Colonies free and independent States, absolved from all allegiance to, or dependence upon, the Crown or Parliament of Great Britain".[45] In accordance with those instructions, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia presented a three-part resolution to Congress on June 7. The motion, which was seconded by John Adams, called on Congress to declare independence, form foreign alliances, and prepare a plan of colonial confederation. The part of the resolution relating to declaring independence read: Resolved, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved.[46] Lee's resolution met with resistance in the ensuing debate. Opponents of the resolution, while conceding that reconciliation with Great Britain was unlikely, argued that declaring independence was premature, and that securing foreign aid should take priority.[47] Advocates of the resolution countered that foreign governments would not intervene in an internal British struggle, and so a formal declaration of independence was needed before foreign aid was possible. All Congress needed to do, they insisted, was to "declare a fact which already exists".[48] Delegates from Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, and New York were still not yet authorized to vote for independence, however, and some of them threatened to leave Congress if the resolution were adopted. Congress therefore voted on June 10 to postpone further discussion of Lee's resolution for three weeks.[49] Until then, Congress decided that a committee should prepare a document announcing and explaining independence in the event that Lee's resolution was approved when it was brought up again in July. Support for a Congressional declaration of independence was consolidated in the final weeks of June 1776. On June 14, the Connecticut Assembly instructed its delegates to propose independence, and the following day the legislatures of New Hampshire and Delaware authorized their delegates to declare independence.[50] In Pennsylvania, political struggles ended with the dissolution of the colonial assembly, and on June 18 a new Conference of Committees under Thomas McKean authorized Pennsylvania's delegates to declare independence.[51] On June 15, the Provincial Congress of New Jersey, which had been governing the province since January 1776, resolved that Royal Governor William Franklin was "an enemy to the liberties of this country" and had him arrested.[52] On June 21, they chose new delegates to Congress and empowered them to join in a declaration of independence.[53] Only Maryland and New York had yet to authorize independence. When the Continental Congress had adopted Adams's radical May 15 preamble, Maryland's delegates walked out and sent to the Maryland Convention for instructions.[54] On May 20, the Maryland Convention rejected Adams's preamble, instructing its delegates to remain against independence, but Samuel Chase went to Maryland and, thanks to local resolutions in favor of independence, was able to get the Maryland Convention to change its mind on June 28.[55] Only the New York delegates were unable to get revised instructions. When Congress had been considering the resolution of independence on June 8, the New York Provincial Congress told the delegates to wait.[56] But on June 30, the Provincial Congress evacuated New York as British forces approached, and would not convene again until July 10. This meant that New York's delegates would not be authorized to declare independence until after Congress had made its decision.[57]

Declaration of Independence

30

Draft and adoption
While political maneuvering was setting the stage for an official declaration of independence, a document explaining the decision was being written. On June 11, 1776, Congress appointed a "Committee of Five", consisting of John Adams of Massachusetts, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, Robert R. Livingston of New York, and Roger Sherman of Connecticut, to draft a declaration. Because the committee left no minutes, there is some uncertainty about how the drafting process proceeded—accounts written many years later by Jefferson and Adams, although frequently cited, are contradictory and not entirely reliable.[59] What is certain is that the committee, after discussing the general outline that the document should follow, decided that Jefferson would write the first draft.[60] The committee in general, and Jefferson in particular, thought Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson and promised to consult with Jefferson This idealized depiction of (left to right) Franklin, personally.[2] Considering Congress's busy schedule, Jefferson Adams, and Jefferson working on the Declaration probably had limited time for writing over the next seventeen days, and (Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, 1900) was widely [58] likely wrote the draft quickly.[61] He then consulted the others, made reprinted. some changes, and then produced another copy incorporating these alterations. The committee presented this copy to the Congress on June 28, 1776. The title of the document was "A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled."[62] Congress ordered that the draft "lie on the table".[63] On Monday, July 1, having tabled the draft of the declaration, Congress resolved itself into a committee of the whole, with Benjamin Harrison of Virginia presiding, and resumed debate on Lee's resolution of independence.[64] John Dickinson made one last effort to delay the decision, arguing that Congress should not declare independence without first securing a foreign alliance and finalizing the Articles of Confederation.[65] John Adams gave a speech in reply to Dickinson, restating the case for an immediate declaration. After a long day of speeches, a vote was taken. As always, each colony cast a single vote; the delegation for each colony—numbering two to seven members—voted amongst themselves to determine the colony's vote. Pennsylvania and South Carolina voted against declaring independence. The New York delegation, lacking permission to vote for independence, abstained. Delaware cast no vote because the delegation was split between Thomas McKean (who voted yes) and George Read (who voted no). The remaining nine delegations voted in favor of independence, which meant that the resolution had been approved by the committee of the whole. The next step was for the resolution to be voted upon by the Congress itself. Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, who was opposed to Lee's resolution but desirous of unanimity, moved that the vote be postponed until the following day.[66]

Declaration of Independence

31

On July 2, South Carolina reversed its position and voted for independence. In the Pennsylvania delegation, Dickinson and Robert Morris abstained, allowing the delegation to vote three-to-two in favor of independence. The tie in the Delaware delegation was broken by the timely arrival of Caesar Rodney, who voted for independence. The New York delegation abstained once again, since they were still not authorized to vote for independence, although they would be allowed to do so by the New York Provincial Congress a week later.[67] The resolution of independence had been adopted with twelve affirmative votes and one abstention. With this, the colonies had officially severed political ties with Great Britain.[68] In a now-famous letter written to Jefferson drafted the Declaration on this portable his wife on the following day, John Adams predicted that July 2 would lap desk of his own design. become a great American holiday.[69] Adams thought that the vote for independence would be commemorated; he did not foresee that Americans—including himself—would instead celebrate Independence Day on the date that the announcement of that act was finalized.[70] After voting in favor of the resolution of independence, Congress turned its attention to the committee's draft of the declaration. Over several days of debate, Congress made a few changes in wording and deleted nearly a fourth of the text, most notably a passage critical of the slave trade, changes that Jefferson resented.[71] On July 4, 1776, the wording of the Declaration of Independence was approved and sent to the printer for publication.

Text
The first sentence of the Declaration asserts as a matter of Natural law the ability of a people to assume political independence, and acknowledges that the grounds for such independence must be reasonable.[72] When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. The next section, the famous preamble, includes the ideas and ideals that were principles of the Declaration. It is also an assertion of what is known as the "right of revolution": that is, people have certain rights, and when a government violates these rights, the people have the right to "alter or abolish" that government.[73]

The Dunlap broadside was the first published version of the Declaration.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights,[74] that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and

Declaration of Independence Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. The next section is a list of charges against King George III, which aim to demonstrate that he has violated the colonists' rights and is therefore unfit to be their ruler:[75] Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our people, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

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Declaration of Independence For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury: For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies: For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Many Americans still felt a kinship with the people of Great Britain, and had appealed in vain to the prominent among them, as well as to Parliament, to convince the King to relax his more objectionable policies toward the colonies. The next section represents disappointment that these attempts had been unsuccessful.[75] Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. In the final section, the signers assert that there exist conditions under which people must change their government, that the British have produced such conditions, and by necessity the colonies must throw off political ties with the British Crown and become independent states. The conclusion incorporates language from Lee's resolution of independence that had been passed on July 2.[76] We, therefore, the Representatives of the united States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United

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Declaration of Independence Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

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Influences
Historians have often sought to identify the sources that most influenced the words and political philosophy of the Declaration of Independence. By Jefferson's own admission, the Declaration contained no original ideas, but was instead a statement of sentiments widely shared by supporters of the American Revolution. As he explained in 1825: Neither aiming at originality of principle or sentiment, nor yet copied from any particular and previous writing, it was intended to be an expression of the American mind, and to give to that expression the proper tone and spirit called for by the occasion.[77] Jefferson's most immediate sources were two documents written in June 1776: his own draft of the preamble of the Constitution of Virginia, and George Mason's draft of the Virginia Declaration of English political philosopher John Locke Rights. Ideas and phrases from both of these documents appear in the (1632–1704) [78] Declaration of Independence. They were, in turn, directly influenced by the 1689 English Declaration of Rights, which formally ended the reign of King James II.[79] During the American Revolution, Jefferson and other Americans looked to the English Declaration of Rights as a model of how to end the reign of an unjust king.[80] The Scottish Declaration of Arbroath (1320) and the Dutch Act of Abjuration (1581) have also been offered as models for Jefferson's Declaration, but these arguments have been disputed.[81] Jefferson wrote that a number of authors exerted a general influence on the words of the Declaration.[82] The English political theorist John Locke, whom Jefferson called one of "the three greatest men that have ever lived",[83] is usually cited as one of the primary influences. In 1922, historian Carl L. Becker wrote that "Most Americans had absorbed Locke's works as a kind of political gospel; and the Declaration, in its form, in its phraseology, follows closely certain sentences in Locke's second treatise on government."[84] The extent of Locke's influence on the American Revolution has been questioned by some subsequent scholars, however. Historian Ray Forrest Harvey declared in 1937, as he argued for the dominant influence of the Swiss jurist Jean Jacques Burlamaqui, that Jefferson and Locke were at "two opposite poles" in their political philosophy, as evidenced by Jefferson's use in the Declaration of Independence of the phrase "pursuit of happiness" instead of "property."[85] Other scholars emphasized the influence of republicanism rather than Locke's classical liberalism.[86] Historian Garry Wills argued that Jefferson was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, particularly Francis Hutcheson, rather than Locke,[87] an interpretation that has been strongly criticized.[88] Legal historian John Phillip Reid has written that the emphasis on the political philosophy of the Declaration has been misplaced. The Declaration is not a philosophical tract about natural rights, argues Reid, but is instead a legal document—an indictment against King George for violating the constitutional rights of the colonists.[89] In contrast,

Declaration of Independence historian Dennis J. Mahoney argues that the Declaration is not a legal document at all, but a philosophical document influenced by Emerich de Vattel, Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and Samuel Pufendorf.[90] Historian David Armitage has argued that the Declaration is a document of international law. According to Armitage, the Declaration was strongly influenced by de Vattel's The Law of Nations, a book that Benjamin Franklin said was "continually in the hands of the members of our Congress".[91] Armitage writes that because "Vattel made independence fundamental to his definition of statehood", the primary purpose of the Declaration was "to express the international legal sovereignty of the United States". If the United States were to have any hope of being recognized by the European powers, the American revolutionaries had to first make it clear that they were no longer dependent on Great Britain.[92]

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Signing
The handwritten copy of the Declaration of Independence that was signed by Congress is dated July 4, 1776. The signatures of fifty-six delegates are affixed; however, whether or not Congress actually signed the document on this date has long been the subject of debate. Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams all wrote that the Declaration had been signed by Congress on July 4.[93] But in 1796, signer Thomas McKean disputed that the Declaration had been signed on July 4, pointing out that some signers were not then present, including several who were not even elected to Congress until after that date.[94] According to the 1911 record of events by the U.S. State Department, under Sec. Philander C. Knox, the Declaration was transposed on paper, adopted by the Continental Congress, and signed by John Hancock, President of the Congress, on July 4, 1776. [95] On August 2, The signed copy of the Declaration, now badly faded, is on display at the National Archives in 1776 a parchment paper copy of the Declaration was signed by 56 Washington, DC. persons. [95] Many of these signers were not present when the original [95] Declaration was adopted on July 4. One signer, Matthew Thornton, from New Hampshire, who agreed to the Declaration and having joined the Continental Congress, signed on November 4, 1776. [95] Historians have generally accepted McKean's version of events, arguing that the famous signed version of the Declaration was created after July 19 and was not signed by Congress until August 2.[96] In 1986, legal historian Wilfred Ritz argued that historians had misunderstood the primary documents and given too much credence to McKean, who had not been present in Congress on July 4.[97] According to Ritz, about thirty-four delegates signed the Declaration on July 4, and the others signed on or after August 2.[98] Historians who reject a July 4 signing maintain that most delegates signed on August 2, and that those eventual signers who were not present added their names later.[99] The most famous signature on the engrossed copy is that of John Hancock, who, as President of Congress, presumably signed first.[100] Hancock's large, flamboyant signature became iconic, and John Hancock emerged in the United States as an informal synonym for "signature".[101] Two future U.S. presidents, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams, were among the signatories.

On July 4, 1776, Continental Congress President John Hancock's signature authenticated the United States Declaration of Independence.

Declaration of Independence Various legends about the signing of the Declaration emerged years later, when the document had become an important national symbol. In one famous story, John Hancock supposedly said that Congress, having signed the Declaration, must now "all hang together", and Benjamin Franklin replied: "Yes, we must indeed all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately." The quote did not appear in print until more than fifty years after Franklin's death.[102]

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Publication and reaction
After Congress approved the final wording of the Declaration on July 4, a handwritten copy was sent a few blocks away to the printing shop of John Dunlap. Through the night Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides for distribution. Before long, the Declaration was read to audiences and reprinted in newspapers across the thirteen states. The first official public reading of the document was by John Nixon in the yard of Independence Hall on July 8; public readings also took place on that day in Trenton, New Jersey, and Easton, Pennsylvania.[103] A German translation of the Declaration was published in Philadelphia by July 9.[104]

President of Congress John Hancock sent a broadside to General George Washington, instructing him to have it proclaimed "at the Head of the Army in the way you shall think it most proper".[105] Washington had the Declaration read to his troops in New York City on July 9, with the British forces not far away. Washington and Congress hoped the Declaration would inspire the soldiers, and encourage others to join the army.[103] After hearing the Declaration, crowds in many cities tore down and destroyed signs or statues representing royalty. An equestrian statue of King George in New York City was pulled down and the lead used to make musket balls.[106] British officials in North America sent copies of the Declaration to Great Britain.[107] It was published in British newspapers beginning in mid-August; translations appeared in European newspapers soon after.[108] The North Ministry did not give an official answer to the Declaration, but instead secretly commissioned pamphleteer John Lind to publish a response, which was entitled Answer to the Declaration of the American Congress.[109] British Tories denounced the signers of the Declaration for not applying the same principles of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" to African Americans.[110] Thomas Hutchinson, the former royal governor of Massachusetts, also published a rebuttal.[111] These pamphlets challenged various aspects of the Declaration. Hutchinson argued that the American Revolution was the work of a few conspirators who wanted independence William Whipple, signer of the from the outset, and who had finally achieved it by inducing otherwise loyal Declaration of Independence, freed his [112] colonists to rebel. Lind's pamphlet included an anonymous attack on the slave believing he could not fight for concept of natural rights written by Jeremy Bentham, an argument he would liberty and own a slave. repeat during the French Revolution.[113] Both pamphlets asked how slave owners in Congress could proclaim that "all men are created equal" without then freeing their own slaves.[114] Slaves in America became infatuated with the Declaration's principles of freedom and equality and desired the right to "own themselves". In 1778, the call for freedom was great as 30,000 slaves in Virginia fled their slave masters, according to Thomas Jefferson. 4,000 to 5,000 African Americans served in the Continental Army fighting for

Johannes Adam Simon Oertel's painting Pulling Down the Statue of King George III, N.Y.C., ca. 1859, depicts citizens destroying a statue of King George after the Declaration was read in New York City on July 9, 1776.

Declaration of Independence American Independence. Slaves were given freedom by enlisting into the Continental Army; 5% of George Washington's forces consisted of African American troops. In 1780, slaves in New York were emboldened, pushed for their own freedom, and took the revolutionary phrases found in the Declaration seriously. One American slave owner and signer of the Declaration of Independence, William Whipple, who fought in the American War of Independence, freed his slave, Prince Whipple, having believed he could not fight for liberty and own a slave. Prince Whipple was one of George Washington's oarsmen as Washington crossed the Delaware River in the Winter of 1776. Having fought for American Independence, however, freed African Americans were denied voting rights and needed a pass to travel between the states.[115]

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History of the documents
The copy of the Declaration that was signed by Congress is known as the engrossed or parchment copy. It was probably engrossed (that is, carefully handwritten) by clerk Timothy Matlack.[116] Because of poor conservation of the engrossed copy through the 19th century, a facsimile made in 1823, rather than the original, has become the basis of most modern reproductions.[116] In 1921, custody of the engrossed copy of the Declaration, along with the United States Constitution, was transferred from the State Department to the Library of Congress. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the documents were moved for safekeeping to the United States Bullion Depository at Fort Knox in Kentucky, where they were kept until 1944.[117] In 1952, the engrossed Declaration was transferred to the National Archives, and is now on permanent display at the National Archives in the "Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom".[118] Although the document signed by Congress and enshrined in the National Archives is usually regarded as the Declaration of Independence, historian Julian P. Boyd argued that the Declaration, like Magna Carta, is not a single document. Boyd considered the printed broadsides ordered by Congress to be official texts as well. The Declaration was first published as a broadside that was printed the night of July 4 by John Dunlap of Philadelphia. Dunlap printed about 200 broadsides, of which 26 are known to survive. The 26th copy was The Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom in the discovered in The National Archives in England in 2009.[119] In 1777, National Archives building Congress commissioned Mary Katherine Goddard to print a new broadside that, unlike the Dunlap broadside, listed the signers of the Declaration.[116] [120] Nine copies of the Goddard broadside are known to still exist.[120] A variety of broadsides printed by the states are also extant.[120] Several early handwritten copies and drafts of the Declaration have also been preserved. Jefferson kept a four-page draft that late in life he called the "original Rough draught".[121] How many drafts Jefferson wrote prior to this one, and how much of the text was contributed by other committee members, is unknown. In 1947, Boyd discovered a fragment of an earlier draft in Jefferson's handwriting.[122] Jefferson and Adams sent copies of the rough draft, with slight variations, to friends. During the writing process, Jefferson showed the rough draft to Adams and Franklin, and perhaps other members of the drafting committee,[121] who made a few more changes. Franklin, for example, may have been responsible for changing Jefferson's original phrase "We hold these truths to be sacred and undeniable" to "We hold these truths to be self-evident".[123] Jefferson incorporated these changes into a copy that was submitted to Congress in the name of the committee.[121] The copy that was submitted to Congress on June 28 has been lost, and was perhaps destroyed in the printing process,[124] or destroyed during the debates in accordance with Congress's secrecy rule.[125]

Declaration of Independence

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Legacy
Having served its original purpose in announcing the independence of the United States, the Declaration was initially neglected in the years immediately following the American Revolution.[126] Early celebrations of Independence Day, like early histories of the Revolution, largely ignored the Declaration. Although the act of declaring independence was considered important, the text announcing that act attracted little attention.[127] The Declaration was rarely mentioned during the debates about the United States Constitution, and its language was not incorporated into that document.[128] George Mason's draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was more influential, and its language was echoed in state constitutions and state bills of rights more often than Jefferson's words.[129] "In none of these documents", wrote Pauline Maier, "is there any evidence whatsoever that the Declaration of Independence lived in men's minds as a classic statement of American political principles."[130]

Influence in other countries
Some leaders of the French Revolution admired the Declaration of Independence[130] but were more interested in the new American state constitutions.[131] The French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (1789) borrowed language from George Mason's Virginia Declaration of Rights and not Jefferson's Declaration, although Jefferson was in Paris at the time and was consulted during the drafting process.[132] According to historian David Armitage, the United States Declaration of Independence did prove to be internationally influential, but not as a statement of human rights. Armitage argued that the Declaration was the first in a new genre of declarations of independence that announced the creation of new states. Other French leaders were directly influenced by the text of the Declaration of Independence itself. The Manifesto of the Province of Flanders (1790) was the first foreign derivation of the Declaration;[133] others include the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence (1811), the Liberian Declaration of Independence (1847), the declarations of secession by the Confederate States of America (1860–61), and the Vietnam Declaration of Independence (1945).[134] These declarations echoed the United States Declaration of Independence in announcing the independence of a new state, without necessarily endorsing the political philosophy of the original.[135]

Revival of interest
In the United States, interest in the Declaration was revived in the 1790s with the emergence of America's first political parties.[136] Throughout the 1780s, few Americans knew, or cared, who wrote the Declaration.[137] But in the next decade, Jeffersonian Republicans sought political advantage over their rival Federalists by promoting both the importance of the Declaration and Jefferson as its author.[138] Federalists responded by casting doubt on Jefferson's authorship or originality, and by emphasizing that independence was declared by the whole Congress, with Jefferson as just one member of the drafting committee. Federalists insisted that Congress's act of declaring independence, in which Federalist John Adams had played a major role, was more important than the document announcing that act.[139] But this view, like the Federalist Party, would fade away, and before long the act of declaring independence would become synonymous with the document.

Declaration of Independence

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A less partisan appreciation for the Declaration emerged in the years following the War of 1812, thanks to a growing American nationalism and a renewed interest in the history of the Revolution.[141] In 1817, Congress commissioned John Trumbull's famous painting of the signers, which was exhibited to large crowds before being installed in the Capitol.[142] The earliest commemorative printings of the Declaration also appeared at this time, offering many Americans their first view of the signed document.[143] Collective biographies of the signers were first published in the 1820s,[144] giving birth to what Garry Wills called the "cult of the signers".[145] In the years that followed, many stories about the writing and signing of the document would be published for the first time.

John Trumbull's famous painting is often identified as a depiction of the signing of the Declaration, but it actually shows the drafting committee presenting its work to the [140] Congress.

When interest in the Declaration was revived, the sections that were most important in 1776—the announcement of the independence of the United States and the grievances against King George—were no longer relevant. But the second paragraph, with its talk of self-evident truths and unalienable rights, were applicable long after the war had ended.[146] Because the Constitution and the Bill of Rights lacked sweeping statements about rights and equality, advocates of marginalized groups turned to the Declaration for support.[147] Starting in the 1820s, variations of the Declaration were issued to proclaim the rights of workers, farmers, women, and others.[148] In 1848, for example, the Seneca Falls Convention, a meeting of women's rights advocates, declared that "all men and women are created equal".[149]

Slavery and the Declaration
Further information: Slavery in the colonial United States The Declaration would have its most prominent influence on the debate over slavery.[150] The contradiction between the claim that "all men are created equal" and the existence of American slavery attracted comment when the Declaration was first published. As mentioned above, although Jefferson had included a paragraph in his initial draft that strongly indicted Britain's role in the slave trade, this was deleted from the final version.[71] Jefferson himself was a prominent Virginia slave holder having owned hundreds of slaves.[151] Referring to this seeming contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter, "If there be an object truly ridiculous in nature, it is an American patriot, signing resolutions of independency with the one hand, and with the other brandishing a whip over his affrighted slaves."[152] In the 19th century, the Declaration took on a special significance for the abolitionist movement. Historian Bertram Wyatt-Brown wrote that "abolitionists tended to interpret the Declaration of Independence as a theological as well as a political document".[150] Abolitionist leaders Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garrison adopted the "twin rocks" of "the Bible and the Declaration of Independence" as the basis for their philosophies. "As long as there remains a single copy of the Declaration of Independence, or of the Bible, in our land," wrote Garrison, "we will not despair."[153] For radical abolitionists like Garrison, the most important part of the Declaration was its assertion of the right of revolution: Garrison called for the destruction of the government under the Constitution, and the creation of a new state dedicated to the principles of the Declaration.[154] The controversial question of whether to add additional slave states to the United States coincided with the growing stature of the Declaration. The first major public debate about slavery and the Declaration took place during the Missouri controversy of 1819 to 1821.[155] Antislavery Congressmen argued that the language of the Declaration indicated that the Founding Fathers of the United States had been opposed to slavery in principle, and so new slave states should not be added to the country.[156] Proslavery Congressmen, led by Senator Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina, argued that since the Declaration was not a part of the Constitution, it had no relevance to the question.[157] With the antislavery movement gaining momentum, defenders of slavery such as John Randolph and John C. Calhoun found it necessary to argue that the Declaration's assertion that "all men are created equal" was false, or at

Declaration of Independence least that it did not apply to black people.[158] During the debate over the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1853, for example, Senator John Pettit of Indiana argued that "all men are created equal", rather than a "self-evident truth", was a "self-evident lie".[159] Opponents of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, including Salmon P. Chase and Benjamin Wade, defended the Declaration and what they saw as its antislavery principles.[160]

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Lincoln and the Declaration
The Declaration's relationship to slavery was taken up in 1854 by Abraham Lincoln, a little-known former Congressman who idolized the Founding Fathers.[161] Lincoln thought that the Declaration of Independence expressed the highest principles of the American Revolution, and that the Founding Fathers had tolerated slavery with the expectation that it would ultimately wither away.[6] For the United States to legitimize the expansion of slavery in the Kansas-Nebraska Act, thought Lincoln, was to repudiate the principles of the Revolution. In his October 1854 Peoria speech, Lincoln said: Nearly eighty years ago we began by declaring that all men are created equal; but now from that beginning we have run down to the other declaration, that for some men to enslave others is a "sacred right of self-government." ... Our republican robe is soiled and trailed in the dust. Let us repurify it. ... Let us re-adopt the Declaration of Independence, and with it, the practices, and policy, which harmonize with it. ... If we do this, we shall not only have saved the Union: but we shall have saved it, as to make, and keep it, forever worthy of the saving.[162]

Congressman Abraham Lincoln Shepherd, 1845-1846

The meaning of the Declaration was a recurring topic in the famed debates between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas in 1858. Douglas argued that "all men are created equal" in the Declaration referred to white men only. The purpose of the Declaration, he said, had simply been to justify the independence of the United States, and not to proclaim the equality of any "inferior or degraded race".[163] Lincoln, however, thought that the language of the Declaration was deliberately universal, setting a high moral standard for which the American republic should aspire. "I had thought the Declaration contemplated the progressive improvement in the condition of all men everywhere", he said.[164] According to Pauline Maier, Douglas's interpretation was more historically accurate, but Lincoln's view ultimately prevailed. "In Lincoln's hands", wrote Maier, "the Declaration of Independence became first and foremost a living document" with "a set of goals to be realized over time".[165]
[T]here is no reason in the world why the negro is not entitled to all the natural rights enumerated in the Declaration of Independence, the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. I hold that he is as much entitled to these as the white man. Abraham Lincoln, 1858
[166]

Like Daniel Webster, James Wilson, and Joseph Story before him, Lincoln argued that the Declaration of Independence was a founding document of the United States, and that this had important implications for interpreting the Constitution, which had been ratified more than a decade after the Declaration.[167] Although the Constitution did not use the word "equality", Lincoln believed that "all men are created equal" remained a part of the nation's founding principles.[168] He famously expressed this belief in the opening sentence of his 1863 Gettysburg Address: "Four score and seven years ago [i.e. in 1776] our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal." Lincoln's view of the Declaration as a moral guide to interpreting the Constitution became influential. "For most people now," wrote Garry Wills in 1992, "the Declaration means what Lincoln told us it means, as a way of

Declaration of Independence correcting the Constitution itself without overthrowing it."[169] Admirers of Lincoln, such as Harry V. Jaffa, praised this development. Critics of Lincoln, notably Willmoore Kendall and Mel Bradford, argued that Lincoln dangerously expanded the scope of the national government, and violated states' rights, by reading the Declaration into the Constitution.[170]

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Women's suffrage and the Declaration
In July 1848, the first Woman's Rights Convention was held in Seneca Falls, New York. The convention was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Mary Ann McClintock, Martha White, and Jane Hunt. In their Declaration of Sentiments, patterned off of the Declaration of Independence, the convention members demanded social and political equality for women. Their motto was that "All men and women are created equal" and the convention demanded suffrage for women. The suffrage movement was supported by William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglas.[171]

Elizabeth Cady Stanton and her two sons. 1848.

In popular culture
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence was dramatized in the 1969 Tony Award-winning musical play 1776, and the 1972 movie of the same name, as well as in the 2008 television miniseries John Adams. The engrossed copy of the Declaration is central to the 2004 Hollywood film National Treasure, in which the main character steals the document because he believes it has secret clues to a treasure hidden by some of the Founding Fathers of the United States. The Declaration figures prominently in The Probability Broach, wherein the point of divergence rests in the addition of a single word to the document, causing it to state that governments "derive their just power from the unanimous consent of the governed". The Declaration also plays a major part in Honour Among Thieves, a novel by Jeffrey Archer where Saddam Hussein tries to steal the Declaration and publicly burn it on

Presentation of the Declaration depicted on a United States postal issue of 1869

July 4.

Notes
[1] Becker, Declaration of Independence, 5. [2] (http:/ / www. digitalhistory. uh. edu/ learning_history/ revolution/ revolution_declaringindependence. cfm) From Adams' notes: "Why will you not? You ought to do it." "I will not." "Why?" "Reasons enough." "What can be your reasons?" "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can." "Well," said Jefferson, "if you are decided, I will do as well as I can." "Very well. When you have drawn it up, we will have a meeting."" [3] Boyd (1976), The Declaration of Independence: The Mystery of the Lost Original, pg. 438 [4] Lucas, "Justifying America", 85. [5] Ellis, American Creation, 55–56. [6] McPherson, Second American Revolution, 126.

Declaration of Independence
[7] Hazelton, Declaration History, 19. [8] Christie and Labaree, Empire or Independence, 31. [9] Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 162. [10] Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 200–02. [11] Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 180–82. [12] Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 241. [13] Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 224–25. [14] Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 241–42. The writings in question include Wilson's Considerations on the Authority of Parliament and Jefferson's A Summary View of the Rights of British America (both 1774), as well as Samuel Adams's 1768 Circular Letter. [15] Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 168; Ferling, Leap in the Dark, 123–24. [16] Hazelton, Declaration History, 13; Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 318. [17] Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 318. [18] Maier, American Scripture, 25. The text of the 1775 king's speech is online (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ rbpe:@field(DOCID+ @lit(rbpe1440150a))), published by the American Memory project. [19] Maier, American Scripture, 25. [20] Rakove, Beginnings of National Politics, 88–90. [21] Christie and Labaree, Empire or Independence, 270; Maier, American Scripture, 31–32. [22] Jensen, Founding, 667. [23] Rakove, Beginnings of National Politics, 89; Maier, American Scripture, 33. [24] Maier, American Scripture, 33–34. [25] Hazelton, Declaration History, 209; Maier, American Scripture, 25–27. [26] Friedenwald, Interpretation, 67. [27] Friedenwald, Interpretation, 77. [28] Maier, American Scripture, 30. [29] Maier, American Scripture, 59. [30] Jensen, Founding, 671; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 78. [31] Maier, American Scripture, 48, and Appendix A, which lists the state and local declarations. [32] Jensen, Founding, 678–79. [33] Jensen, Founding, 679; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 92–93. [34] Maier, American Scripture, 69–72, quote on 72. [35] Maier, American Scripture, 48. The modern scholarly consensus is that the best-known and earliest of the local declarations, the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence, allegedly adopted in May 1775 (a full year before other local declarations), is most likely inauthentic; Maier, American Scripture, 174. [36] Jensen, Founding, 682. [37] Jensen, Founding, 683. [38] Jensen, Founding, 684; Maier, American Scripture, 37. For the full text of the May 10 resolve see the Journals of the Continental Congress (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(jc004109)):). [39] Jensen, Founding, 684. [40] Burnett, Continental Congress, 159. The text of Adams's letter is online (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(dg003624))::). [41] Maier, American Scripture, 37; Jensen, Founding, 684. For the full text of the May 15 preamble see the Journals of the Continental Congress (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(jc004113))). [42] Rakove, National Politics, 96; Jensen, Founding, 684; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 94. [43] Rakove, National Politics, 97; Jensen, Founding, 685. [44] Maier, American Scripture, 38. [45] Boyd, Evolution, 18; Maier, American Scripture, 63. The text of the May 15 Virginia resolution is online (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ const/ const02. htm) at Yale Law School's Avalon Project. [46] Maier, American Scripture, 41; Boyd, Evolution, 19. [47] Jensen, Founding, 689–90; Maier, American Scripture, 42. [48] Jensen, Founding, 689; Armitage, Global History, 33–34. The quote is from Jefferson's notes; Boyd, Papers of Jefferson, 1:311. [49] Maier, American Scripture, 42–43; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 106. [50] Jensen, Founding, 691–92. [51] Friedenwald, Interpretation, 106–07; Jensen, Founding, 691. [52] Jensen, Founding, 692. [53] Jensen, Founding, 693. [54] Jensen, Founding, 694. [55] Jensen, Founding, 694–96; Friedenwald, Interpretation, 96; Maier, American Scripture, 68. [56] Friedenwald, Interpretation, 118; Jensen, Founding, 698. [57] Friedenwald, Interpretation, 119–20.

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[58] Dupont and Onuf, 3. [59] Maier, American Scripture, 97–105; Boyd, Evolution, 21. [60] Boyd, Evolution, 22. [61] Maier, American Scripture, 104. [62] Becker, Declaration of Independence, 4. [63] Jensen, Founding, 701. [64] Burnett, Continental Congress, 181. [65] Jensen, Founding, 699. [66] Burnett, Continental Congress, 182; Jensen, Founding, 700. [67] Maier, American Scripture, 45. [68] Boyd, Evolution, 19. [69] Jensen, Founding, 703–04. [70] Maier, American Scripture, 160–61. [71] Maier, American Scripture, 146–50. [72] Becker, Declaration of Independence, 277-279. [73] Becker, Declaration of Independence, 9. [74] The published Declaration uses "unalienable", rather than the now more common "inalienable". This appears to simply be a stylistic issue, and some drafts, notably that by Thomas Jefferson, used inalienable. See: Unalienable / Inalienable (http:/ / www. ushistory. org/ DECLARATION/ unalienable. htm) [75] Becker, Declaration of Independence, 214-215. [76] Becker, Declaration of Independence, 210-211. [77] "TO HENRY LEE — Thomas Jefferson The Works, vol. 12 (Correspondence and Papers 1816-1826; 1905)" (http:/ / oll. libertyfund. org/ ?option=com_staticxt& staticfile=show. php?title=808& chapter=88496& layout=html& Itemid=27). The Online Library of Liberty. May 8, 1825. . Retrieved March 8, 2008. [78] Malone, Jefferson the Virginian, 221; Maier, American Scripture, 125–26. [79] Maier, American Scripture, 126–28. [80] Maier, American Scripture, 53–57. [81] Maier found no evidence that the Dutch Act of Abjuration served as a model for the Declaration and considers the argument "unpersuasive" (American Scripture, 264). Armitage discounts the influence of the Scottish and Dutch acts, and writes that neither was called "declarations of independence" until fairly recently (Global History, 42–44). For the argument in favor of the influence of the Dutch act, see Stephen E. Lucas, "The 'Plakkaat van Verlatinge': A Neglected Model for the American Declaration of Independence", in Rosemarijn Hofte and Johanna C. Kardux, eds., Connecting Cultures: The Netherlands in Five Centuries of Transatlantic Exchange (Amsterdam, 1994), 189–207. [82] Boyd, Evolution, 16–17. [83] "The Three Greatest Men" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ exhibits/ treasures/ trm033. html). . Retrieved June 13, 2009. "Jefferson identified Bacon, Locke, and Newton as "the three greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception". Their works in the physical and moral sciences were instrumental in Jefferson's education and world view." [84] Becker, Declaration of Independence, 27. [85] Ray Forrest Harvey, Jean Jacques Burlamaqui: A Liberal Tradition in American Constitutionalism (Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1937), 120. [86] A brief, online overview of the classical liberalism vs. republicanism debate is Alec Ewald, "The American Republic: 1760-1870" (2004) (http:/ / www. flowofhistory. org/ themes/ american_republic/ overview. php). [87] Wills, Inventing America, especially chs. 11–13. Wills concludes (p. 315) that "the air of enlightened America was full of Hutcheson's politics, not Locke's." [88] Hamowy, "Jefferson and the Scottish Enlightenment", argues that Wills gets much wrong (p. 523), that the Declaration seems to be influenced by Hutcheson because Hutcheson was, like Jefferson, influenced by Locke (pp. 508–09), and that Jefferson often wrote of Locke's influence, but never mentioned Hutcheson in any of his writings (p. 514). See also Kenneth S. Lynn, "Falsifying Jefferson," Commentary 66 (Oct. 1978), 66–71. Ralph Luker, in "Garry Wills and the New Debate Over the Declaration of Independence" (http:/ / www. vqronline. org/ articles/ 1980/ spring/ luker-garry-wills/ ) (The Virginia Quarterly Review, Spring 1980, 244–61) agreed that Wills overstated Hutcheson's influence to provide a communitarian reading of the Declaration, but he also argued that Wills's critics similarly read their own views into the document. [89] John Phillip Reid, "The Irrelevance of the Declaration", in Hendrik Hartog, ed., Law in the American Revolution and the Revolution in the Law (New York University Press, 1981), 46–89. [90] Mahoney, Declaration of Independence. [91] Benjamin Franklin to Charles F.W. Dumas, December 19, 1775, in The Writings of Benjamin Franklin, ed. Albert Henry Smyth (New York: 1970), 6:432. [92] Armitage, Global History, 21, 38–40. [93] Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", 242–43. [94] Hazelton, Declaration History, 299–302; Burnett, Continental Congress, 192. [95] The U.S. State Department (1911), The Declaration of Independence, 1776, pp. 10, 11.

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[96] Warren, "Fourth of July Myths", 245–46; Hazelton, Declaration History, 208–19; Wills, Inventing America, 341. [97] Ritz, "Authentication", 179–200. [98] Ritz, "Authentication", 194. [99] Hazelton, Declaration History, 208–19. [100] Hazelton, Declaration History, 209. [101] Merriam-Webster online (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ John Hancock); Dictionary.com (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ john hancock). [102] Malone, Story of the Declaration, 91. [103] Maier, American Scripture, 156. [104] Armitage, Global History, 72. [105] Maier, American Scripture, 155. [106] Maier, American Scripture, 156–57. [107] Armitage, Global History, 73. [108] Armitage, Global History, 70. [109] Armitage, Global History, 75. [110] Jessup, John J. (September 20, 1943). "America and the Future" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cVAEAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA105& dq=How+ a+ policy+ of+ Freedom+ can+ be+ vigorously+ applied& hl=en& ei=5_piTqfSL5PZiAKfn9jMCg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=How a policy of Freedom can be vigorously applied& f=false). Life: 105. . Retrieved 09-03-2011. [111] Armitage, Global History, 74. [112] Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 155–56. [113] Armitage, Global History, 79–80. [114] Armitage, Global History, 76–77. [115] Quarles, Benjamin (August 1975). "Black America at the Time of the Revolutionary War" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=znUlZTIWfrEC& pg=PA44& dq=Black+ America+ at+ the+ time+ Benjamin+ Quarles& hl=en& ei=jeJiToRuj9iIAojy8bYK& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& sqi=2& ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=Black America at the time Benjamin Quarles& f=false). Ebony: 44, 45, 48. . Retrieved 09-03-2011. [116] "The Declaration of Independence: A History" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ exhibits/ charters/ declaration_history. html). Charters of Freedom. National Archives and Records Administration. . Retrieved July 1, 2011. [117] Malone, Story of the Declaration, 263. [118] "Charters of Freedom Re-encasement Project" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ press/ press-kits/ charters. html#pressrelaese1). National Archives and Records Administration. . Retrieved July 1, 2011. [119] "Rare copy of United States Declaration of Independence found in Kew" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ northamerica/ usa/ 5727812/ Rare-copy-of-United-States-Declaration-of-Independence-found-in-Kew. html). The Daily Telegraph. July 3, 2009. . Retrieved July 1, 2011. [120] Ann Marie Dube (May 1996). "The Declaration of Independence" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ history/ online_books/ dube/ inde2. htm). A Multitude of Amendments, Alterations and Additions: The Writing and Publicizing of the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution of the United States. National Park Service. . Retrieved July 1, 2011. [121] Boyd, "Lost Original", 446. [122] Boyd, Papers of Jefferson, 1:421. [123] Becker, Declaration of Independence, 142 note 1. Boyd (Papers of Jefferson, 1:427–28) casts doubt on Becker's belief that the change was made by Franklin. [124] Boyd, "Lost Original", 448–50. Boyd argued that if a document was signed on July 4--which he thought unlikely--it would have been the Fair Copy, and probably would have been signed only by Hancock and Thomson. [125] Ritz, "From the Here", speculates that the Fair Copy was immediately sent to the printer so that copies could be made for each member of Congress to consult during the debate. All of these copies were then destroyed, theorizes Ritz, to preserve secrecy. [126] Armitage, Global History, 87–88; Maier, American Scripture, 162, 168–69. [127] McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 178–79; Maier, American Scripture, 160. [128] Armitage, Global History, 92. [129] Armitage, Global History, 90; Maier, American Scripture, 165–67. [130] Maier, American Scripture, 167. [131] Armitage, Global History, 82. [132] Maier, American Scripture, 166–68. [133] Armitage, Global History, 113. [134] Armitage, Global History, 120–35. [135] Armitage, Global History, 104, 113. [136] McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 172. [137] McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 172, 179. [138] McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 179; Maier, American Scripture, 168–71.

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[139] McDonald, "Jefferson's Reputation", 180–84; Maier, American Scripture, 171. [140] Wills, Inventing America, 348. [141] Detweiler, "Changing Reputation", 571–72; Maier, American Scripture, 175–78. [142] Detweiler, "Changing Reputation", 572; Maier, American Scripture, 175. [143] Detweiler, "Changing Reputation", 572; Maier, American Scripture, 175–76; Wills, Inventing America, 324. See also John C. Fitzpatrick, Spirit of the Revolution (Boston 1924). [144] Maier, American Scripture, 176. [145] Wills, Inventing America, 90. [146] Armitage, "Global History," 93. [147] Maier, American Scripture, 196–97. [148] Maier, American Scripture, 197. See also Philip S. Foner, ed., We, the Other People: Alternative Declarations of Independence by Labor Groups, Farmers, Woman's Rights Advocates, Socialists, and Blacks, 1829–1975 (Urbana 1976). [149] Maier, American Scripture, 197; Armitage, Global History, 95. [150] Wyatt-Brown, Lewis Tappan, 287. [151] Cohen (1969), Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery [152] Armitage, Global History, 77. [153] Mayer, All on Fire, 53, 115. [154] Maier, American Scripture, 198–99. [155] Detweiler, "Congressional Debate", 598. [156] Detweiler, "Congressional Debate", 604. [157] Detweiler, "Congressional Debate", 605. [158] Maier, American Scripture, 199; Bailyn, Ideological Origins, 246. [159] Maier, American Scripture, 200. [160] Maier, American Scripture, 200–01. [161] Maier, American Scripture, 201–02. [162] McPherson, Second American Revolution, 126–27. [163] Maier, American Scripture, 204. [164] Maier, American Scripture, 204–05. [165] Maier, American Scripture, 207. [166] Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 100. [167] Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 129–31. [168] Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 145. [169] Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 147. [170] Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 39, 145–46. See also Harry V. Jaffa, Crisis of the House Divided (1959) and A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War (2000); Willmoore Kendall and George W. Carey, The Basic Symbols of the American Political Tradition (1970); and M.E. Bradford, "The Heresy of Equality: A Reply to Harry Jaffa" (1976), reprinted in A Better Guide than Reason (1979) and Modern Age, the First Twenty-five Years (1988). [171] Norton, et al (2010), p. 301.

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References
• Armitage, David. The Declaration Of Independence: A Global History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-674-02282-9. • Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Enlarged edition. Originally published 1967. Harvard University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-674-44302-0. • Becker, Carl. The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas. 1922. Available online from The Online Library of Liberty (http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Book.php?recordID=0034) and Google Book Search (http://books.google.com/books?id=VC5nCgcUmjsC). Revised edition New York: Vintage Books, 1970. ISBN 0394700600. • Boyd, Julian P. The Declaration of Independence: The Evolution of the Text. Originally published 1945. Revised edition edited by Gerard W. Gawalt. University Press of New England, 1999. ISBN 0844409804. • Boyd, Julian P., ed. The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 1. Princeton University Press, 1950. • Boyd, Julian P. "The Declaration of Independence: The Mystery of the Lost Original" (http://dpubs.libraries. psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0&verb=Display&page=toc&handle=psu.pmhb/1172588457). Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 100, number 4 (October 1976), 438–67.

Declaration of Independence • Burnett, Edward Cody. The Continental Congress. New York: Norton, 1941. • Christie, Ian R. and Benjamin W. Labaree. Empire or Independence, 1760–1776: A British-American Dialogue on the Coming of the American Revolution. New York: Norton, 1976. • Detweiler, Philip F. "Congressional Debate on Slavery and the Declaration of Independence, 1819–1821," American Historical Review 63 (April 1958): 598–616. • Detweiler, Philip F. "The Changing Reputation of the Declaration of Independence: The First Fifty Years." William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 19 (1962): 557–74. • Dumbauld, Edward. The Declaration of Independence And What It Means Today. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1950. • Ellis, Joseph. American Creation: Triumphs and Tragedies at the Founding of the Republic. New York: Knopf, 2007. ISBN 9780307263698. • Dupont, Christian Y. and Peter S. Onuf, eds. Declaring Independence: The Origina and Influence of America's Founding Document. Revised edition. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia Library, 2010. ISBN 9780979999710. • Ferling, John E. A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0195159241. • Friedenwald, Herbert. The Declaration of Independence: An Interpretation and an Analysis. New York: Macmillan, 1904. Accessed via the Internet Archive (http://www.archive.org/details/ declarationofind00frierich). • Gustafson, Milton. "Travels of the Charters of Freedom" (http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/ 2002/winter/travels-charters.html). Prologue Magazine 34, no 4. (Winter 2002). • Hamowy, Ronald. "Jefferson and the Scottish Enlightenment: A Critique of Garry Wills's Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence". William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 36 (October 1979), 503–23. • Hazelton, John H. The Declaration of Independence: Its History. Originally published 1906. New York: Da Capo Press, 1970. ISBN 0306719878. 1906 edition available on Google Book Search (http://books.google.com/ books?id=YVaEEz4TVi0C) • Journals of the Continental Congress,1774-1789, Vol. 5 ( Library of Congress, 1904-1937) • Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution, 1763–1776. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968. • Mahoney, D. J. (1986). "Declaration of independence". Society 24: 46–48. doi:10.1007/BF02695936. • Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence. New York: Knopf, 1997. ISBN 0679454926. • Malone, Dumas. Jefferson the Virginian. Volume 1 of Jefferson and His Time. Boston: Little Brown, 1948. • Malone, Dumas. The Story of the Declaration of Independence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975. A picture book with text by a leading Jefferson scholar. • Mayer, Henry. All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998. ISBN 0-312-18740-8. • McDonald, Robert M. S. "Thomas Jefferson's Changing Reputation as Author of the Declaration of Independence: The First Fifty Years." Journal of the Early Republic 19, no. 2 (Summer 1999): 169–95. • McPherson, James. Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-19-505542-X. • Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789. Revised and expanded edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. • Norton, Mary Beth, et al, A People and a Nation, Eighth Edition, Boston, Wadsworth, 2010. ISBN 0-547-17558-2. • Rakove, Jack N. The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress. New York: Knopf, 1979. ISBN 0801828643

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Declaration of Independence • Ritz, Wilfred J. "The Authentication of the Engrossed Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776". Law and History Review 4, no. 1 (Spring 1986): 179–204. • Ritz, Wilfred J. "From the Here of Jefferson's Handwritten Rough Draft of the Declaration of Independence to the There of the Printed Dunlap Broadside" (http://dpubs.libraries.psu.edu/DPubS?service=UI&version=1.0& verb=Display&page=toc&handle=psu.pmhb/1172588457). Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 116, no. 4 (October 1992): 499–512. • Warren, Charles. "Fourth of July Myths." The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, vol. 2, no. 3 (July 1945): 238–72. • United States Department of State, " The Declaration of Independence, 1776 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=TNRCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Declaration+of+Independence&hl=en& ei=_3BBTu21D6TniALAw4SzBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1& ved=0CDkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false), 1911. • Wills, Garry. Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence. Garden City, New York: Doubleday, 1978. ISBN 0385089767. • Wills, Garry. Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Rewrote America. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992. ISBN 0-671-76956-1. • Wyatt-Brown, Bertram. Lewis Tappan and the Evangelical War Against Slavery. Cleveland: Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1969. ISBN 0829501460.

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External links
• Declaration of Independence at the National Archives (http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/declaration. html) • Declaration of Independence at the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/ DeclarInd.html) • "The Stylistic Artistry of the Declaration of Independence" by Stephen E. Lucas (http://www.archives.gov/ exhibits/charters/declaration_style.html) • Strictures upon the Declaration of the Congress at Philadelphia (http://oll.libertyfund.org/index. php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1130&Itemid=264) (London 1776), Thomas Hutchinson's reaction to the Declaration • Short film released in 2002 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jYyttEu_NLU) with actors reading the Declaration, with an introduction by Morgan Freeman

American Revolutionary War

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American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the American War of Independence,[1] or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers. The war was the result of the political American Revolution. Colonists galvanized around the position that the Stamp Act of 1765, imposed by Parliament of Great Britain, was unconstitutional. The British Parliament insisted it had the right to tax colonists. The colonists claimed that, as they were British subjects, taxation without representation was illegal. The American colonists formed a unifying Continental Congress and a shadow government in each colony, though ostensibly claiming loyalty to the monarch and a place in the British Empire. The American boycott of directly taxed British tea led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773. London responded by ending self-government in Massachusetts and putting it under the control of the British army with General Thomas Gage as governor. In April 1775 Gage learned that weapons were being gathered in Concord, and he sent British troops to seize and destroy them.[2] Local militia, known as 'minutemen,' confronted the troops and exchanged fire (see Battles of Lexington and Concord). After repeated pleas to the British monarchy for intervention with Parliament, any chance of a compromise ended when the Congress were declared traitors by royal decree, and they responded with a declared independence forming a new sovereign nation external to the British Empire, the United States of America, on July 4, 1776. France, Spain and the Dutch Republic all secretly provided supplies, ammunition and weapons to the revolutionaries starting early in 1776. After early British success, the war became a standoff. The British used their naval superiority to capture and occupy American coastal cities while the rebels largely controlled the countryside, where 90 percent of the population lived. British strategy relied on mobilizing Loyalist militia, and was never fully realized. A British invasion from Canada ended in the capture of the British army at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. That American victory persuaded France to enter the war openly in early 1778, balancing the two sides' military strength. Spain and the Dutch Republic—French allies—also went to war with Britain over the next two years, threatening an invasion of Great Britain and severely testing British military strength with campaigns in Europe. Spain's involvement culminated in the expulsion of British armies from West Florida, securing the American southern flank. French involvement proved decisive[3] yet expensive as it ruined France's economy.[4] A French naval victory in the Chesapeake led to a siege by combined French and Continental armies that forced a second British army to surrender at the Yorktown, Virginia in 1781. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the war and recognized the sovereignty of the United States over the territory bounded roughly by what is now Canada to the north, Florida to the south, and the Mississippi River to the west.[5] [6]

American Revolutionary War

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Combatants before 1778
American armies and militias
When the war began, the 13 colonies lacked a professional army or navy. Each colony sponsored local militia. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were reluctant to travel far from home and thus were unavailable for extended operations, and lacked the training and discipline of soldiers with more experience. If properly used, however, their numbers could help the Continental armies overwhelm smaller British forces, as at the battles of Concord, Bennington and Saratoga, and the siege of Boston. Both sides used partisan warfare but the Americans effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area.[7] Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the Population density in the American Colonies in 1775 Continental Congress established (on paper) a regular army on June 14, 1775, and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war. The United States Marine Corps traces its institutional roots to the Continental Marines of the war, formed at Tun Tavern in Philadelphia, by a resolution of the Continental Congress on November 10, 1775, a date regarded and celebrated as the birthday of the Marine Corps. At the beginning of 1776, Washington's army had 20,000 men, with two-thirds enlisted in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias.[8] At the end of the American Revolution in 1783, both the Continental Navy and Continental Marines were disbanded. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time. Armies were small by European standards of the era, largely attributable to limitations such as lack of powder and other logistical capabilities on the American side.[9] It was also difficult for Great Britain to transport troops across the Atlantic and they depended on local supplies that the Patriots tried to cut off. By comparison, Duffy notes that Frederick the Great usually commanded from 23,000 to 50,000 in battle. Both figures pale in comparison to the armies that would be fielded in the early 19th century, where troop formations approached or exceeded 100,000 men.

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Loyalists
Historians[10] have estimated that approximately 40 to 45 percent of the colonists supported the rebellion, while 15 to 20 percent remained loyal to the Crown. The rest attempted to remain neutral and kept a low profile. At least 25,000 Loyalists fought on the side of the British. Thousands served in the Royal Navy. On land, Loyalist forces fought alongside the British in most battles in North America. Many Loyalists fought in partisan units, especially in the Southern theater.[11] The British military met with many difficulties in maximizing the use of Loyalist factions. British historian Jeremy Black wrote, "In the American war it was clear to both royal generals and revolutionaries that organized and significant Loyalist activity would require the presence of British forces."[12] In the South, the use of Loyalists presented the British with "major problems of strategic choice" since while it was necessary to widely disperse troops in order to defend Loyalist areas, it was also recognized that there was a need for "the maintenance of large concentrated forces able" to counter major attacks from the American forces.[13] In addition, the British were forced to ensure that their military actions would not "offend Loyalist opinion", eliminating such options as attempting to "live off the country", destroying property for intimidation purposes, or coercing payments from colonists ("laying them under contribution").[14]

British armies and auxiliaries
Further information: History of the British Army: American War of Independence Early in 1775, the British Army consisted of about 36,000 men worldwide, but wartime recruitment steadily increased this number. Great Britain had a difficult time appointing general officers, however. General Thomas Gage, in command of British forces in North America when the rebellion started, was criticized for being too lenient (perhaps influenced by his American wife). General Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst turned down an appointment as commander in chief due to an unwillingness to take sides in the conflict.[15] Similarly, Admiral Augustus Keppel turned down a command, saying "I cannot draw the sword in such a cause." The Earl of Effingham publicly resigned his commission when his 22nd Regiment of foot was posted to America, and William Howe and John Burgoyne were members of parliament who opposed military solutions to the American rebellion. Howe and Henry Clinton stated that they were unwilling participants in the war and were only following orders.[16] Over the course of the war, Great Britain signed treaties with various German states, which supplied about 30,000 soldiers. Germans made up about one-third of the British troop strength in North America. Hesse-Kassel contributed more soldiers than any other state, and German soldiers became known as "Hessians" to the Americans. Revolutionary speakers called German soldiers "foreign mercenaries," and they are scorned as such in the Declaration of Independence. By 1779, the number of British and German troops stationed in North America was over 60,000, although these were spread from Canada to Florida.[17] The Secretary of State at War Lord Barrington and the Adjutant-General Edward Harvey were both strongly opposed to outright war on land. In 1766 Barrington had recommended withdrawing the army from the 13 Colonies to Canada, Nova Scotia and Florida. At the beginning of the war he urged a naval blockade, which would quickly damage the colonists' trading activities.[18]

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Black Americans
African Americans—slave and free—served on both sides during the war. The British recruited slaves belonging to Patriot masters and promised freedom to those who served. Because of manpower shortages, George Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. Small all-black units were formed in Rhode Island and Massachusetts; many slaves were promised freedom for serving. Another all-black unit came from Haiti with French forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Revolutionary cause.[19]

This 1780 drawing of American soldiers from the Yorktown campaign shows a black infantryman from the 1st Rhode Island Regiment.

Tens of thousands of slaves escaped during the war and joined British lines; others simply moved off into the chaos. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30% of the enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the disruption of the war.[20] This greatly disrupted plantation production during and after the war. When they withdrew their forces from Savannah and Charleston, the British also evacuated 10,000 slaves, now freedmen.[21] Altogether, the British were estimated to evacuate nearly 20,000 freedmen (including families) with other Loyalists and their troops at the end of the war. More than 3,000 freedmen were resettled in Nova Scotia; others were transported to the West Indies of the Caribbean islands, and some to Great Britain.[22]

Native Americans
Most Native Americans east of the Mississippi River were affected by the war, and many communities were divided over the question of how to respond to the conflict. Though a few tribes were on friendly terms with the Americans, most Native Americans opposed the United States as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Native Americans fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the Iroquois tribes, who fielded around 1,500 men.[23] The powerful Iroquois Confederacy was shattered as a result of the conflict; although the Confederacy did not take sides, the Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga nations sided with the British. Members of the Mohawk fought on both sides. Many Tuscarora and Oneida sided with the colonists. The Continental Army sent the Sullivan Expedition on raids throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes which had sided with the British. Both during and after the war friction between the Mohawk leaders Joseph Louis Cook and Joseph Brant, who had sided with the Americans and the British respectively, further exacerbated the split. Creek and Seminole allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the Broad River in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined Thomas Brown's raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the Siege of Savannah.[24] Many Native Americans were involved in the fighting between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and up the Mississippi River—mostly on the British side. Thousands of Creeks, Chickasaws, and Choctaws fought in or near major battles such as the Battle of Fort Charlotte, the Battle of Mobile, and the Siege of Pensacola.[25]

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Sex, race, class
Pybus (2005) estimates that about 20,000 slaves defected to or were captured by the British, of whom about 8,000 died from disease or wounds or were recaptured by the Patriots, and 12,000 left the country at the end of the war, for freedom in Canada or slavery in the West Indies.[26] Baller (2006) examines family dynamics and mobilization for the Revolution in central Massachusetts. He reports that warfare and the farming culture were sometimes incompatible. Militiamen found that living and working on the family farm had not prepared them for wartime marches and the rigors of camp life. Rugged individualism conflicted with military discipline and regimentation. A man's birth order often influenced his military recruitment, as younger sons went to war and older sons took charge of the farm. A person's family responsibilities and the prevalent patriarchy could impede mobilization. Harvesting duties and family emergencies pulled men home regardless of the sergeant's orders. Some relatives might be Loyalists, creating internal strains. On the whole, historians conclude the Revolution's effect on patriarchy and inheritance patterns favored egalitarianism.[27] McDonnell, (2006) shows a grave complication in Virginia's mobilization of troops was the conflicting interests of distinct social classes, which tended to undercut a unified commitment to the Patriot cause. The Assembly balanced the competing demands of elite slave owning planters, the middling yeomen (some owning a few slaves), and landless indentured servants, among other groups. The Assembly used deferments, taxes, military service substitute, and conscription to resolve the tensions. Unresolved class conflict, however, made these laws less effective. There were violent protests, many cases of evasion, and large-scale desertion, so that Virginia's contributions came at embarrassingly low levels. With the British invasion of the state in 1781, Virginia was mired in class divisiveness as its native son, George Washington, made desperate appeals for troops.[28]

War in the north, 1775–1780
Massachusetts
Before the war, Boston had been the center of much revolutionary activity, leading to the punitive Massachusetts Government Act in 1774 that ended local government. Popular resistance to these measures, however, compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in Boston. Lieutenant General Thomas Gage, the British North American commander-in chief, commanded four regiments of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries. On the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at Concord, Massachusetts. Riders including Paul Revere alerted the countryside, and when British troops entered Lexington on the morning of April 19, they found 77 minutemen formed up on the village green. Shots were exchanged, killing several minutemen. The British moved on to Concord, where a detachment of three companies was engaged and routed at the North Bridge by a force of 500 minutemen. As the British retreated back to The British marching to Concord in April 1775 Boston, thousands of militiamen attacked them along the roads, inflicting great damage before timely British reinforcements prevented a total disaster. With the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the war had begun. The militia converged on Boston, bottling up the British in the city. About 4,500 more British soldiers arrived by sea, and on June 17, 1775, British forces under General William Howe seized the Charlestown peninsula at the Battle of Bunker Hill. The Americans fell back, but British losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. The siege was not broken, and Gage was soon replaced by Howe as the British commander-in-chief.[29]

American Revolutionary War In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces and to organize the Continental Army. Realizing his army's desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. Arsenals were raided and some manufacturing was attempted; 90% of the supply (2 million pounds) was imported by the end of 1776, mostly from France.[30] Patriots in New Hampshire had seized powder, muskets and cannons from Fort William and Mary in Portsmouth Harbor in late 1774.[31] Some of the munitions were used in the Boston campaign. The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March 1776, heavy cannons that the patriots had captured at Fort Ticonderoga were brought to Boston by Colonel Henry Knox, and placed on Dorchester Heights. Since the artillery now overlooked the British positions, Howe's situation was untenable, and the British fled on March 17, 1776, sailing to their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia.[32] Washington then moved most of the Continental Army to fortify New York City.

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Quebec
Three weeks after the siege of Boston began, a troop of militia volunteers led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured Fort Ticonderoga, a strategically important point on Lake Champlain between New York and the Province of Quebec. After that action they also raided Fort St. John's, not far from Montreal, which alarmed the population and the authorities there. In response, Quebec's governor Guy Carleton began fortifying St. John's, and opened negotiations with the Iroquois and other Native American tribes for their support. These actions, combined with lobbying by both Allen and Arnold and the fear of a British attack from the north, eventually persuaded the Congress to authorize an invasion of Quebec, with the goal of driving the British military from that province. (Quebec was then frequently referred to as Canada, as most of its territory included the former French Province of Canada.)[33] Two Quebec-bound expeditions were undertaken. On September 28, 1775, Brigadier General Richard Montgomery marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, besieging and capturing Fort St. Jean on November 2 and then Montreal on November 13. General Carleton escaped to Quebec City and began preparing that city for an attack. The second expedition, led by Colonel Arnold, went through the wilderness of what is now northern Maine. Logistics were difficult, with 300 men turning back, and another 200 perishing due to the harsh conditions. By the time Arnold reached Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Montgomery's force joined Arnold's, and they attacked Quebec City on December 31, but were defeated by Carleton in a battle that ended with Montgomery dead, Arnold wounded, and over 400 Americans taken prisoner.[34] The remaining Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, suffering from poor camp conditions and smallpox, and then withdrew when a squadron of British ships under Captain Charles Douglas arrived to relieve the siege.[35] Another attempt was made by the Americans to push back towards Quebec, but they failed at Trois-Rivières on June 8, 1776. Carleton then launched his own invasion and defeated Arnold at the Battle of Valcour Island in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion had begun. While the invasion ended as a disaster for the Americans, Arnold's efforts in 1776 delayed a full-scale British counteroffensive until the Saratoga campaign of 1777. The invasion cost the Americans their base of support in British public opinion, "So that the violent measures towards America are freely adopted and countenanced by a majority of individuals of all ranks, professions, or occupations, in this country."[36] It gained them at best limited support in the population of Quebec, which, while somewhat supportive early in the invasion, became less so later during the occupation, when American policies against suspected Loyalists became harsher, and the army's hard currency ran out. Two small regiments of Canadiens were recruited during the operation, and they were with the army on its retreat back to Ticonderoga.[37]

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New York and New Jersey
Having withdrawn his army from Boston, General Howe now focused on capturing New York City, which then was limited to the southern tip of Manhattan Island. To defend the city, General Washington spread about 20,000 soldiers along the shores of New York's harbor, concentrated on Long Island and Manhattan.[38] While British and recently hired Hessian troops were assembling across the upper harbor on Staten Island for the campaign, Washington had the newly issued Declaration of American Independence read to his men and the citizens American soldiers in the Battle of Long Island, of the city.[39] No longer was there any possibility of compromise. On 1776 August 27, 1776, after landing about 22,000 men on Long Island, the British drove the Americans back to Brooklyn Heights, securing a decisive British victory in the largest battle of the entire Revolution. Howe then laid siege to fortifications there. In a feat considered by many historians to be one of his most impressive actions as Commander in Chief, Washington personally directed the withdrawal of his entire remaining army and all their supplies across the East River in one night without discovery by the British or significant loss of men and materiel.[40] After a failed peace conference on September 11, Howe resumed the attack. On September 15, Howe landed about 12,000 men on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew north up the island to Harlem Heights, where they skirmished the next day but held their ground. When Howe moved to encircle Washington's army in October, the Americans again fell back, and a battle at White Plains was fought on October 28.[41] Again Washington retreated, and Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid November, taking about 2,000 prisoners (with an additional 1,000 having been captured during the battle for Long Island). Thus began the infamous "prison ships" system the British maintained in New York for the rest of the war, in which more American soldiers and sailors died of neglect than died in every battle of the entire war, combined.[42]
[43] [44] [45] [46]

Howe then detached General Clinton to seize Newport, Rhode Island, while General Lord Cornwallis continued to chase Washington's army through New Jersey, until the Americans withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December.[47] With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing American army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 Americans. The outlook of the Continental Army was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls," wrote Thomas Paine, who was with the army on the retreat.[48] The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair, although popular resistance to British occupation was growing in the countryside.[49]

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Washington decided to take the offensive, stealthily crossing the Delaware on Christmas night and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776.[50] Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was first repulsed and then outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully attacked the British rearguard at Princeton on January 3, 1777.[51] Washington then entered winter quarters at Morristown, New Jersey, having given a Emanuel Leutze's stylized depiction of Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851) morale boost to the American cause. New Jersey militia continued to harass British and Hessian forces throughout the winter, forcing the British to retreat to their base in and around New York City.[52] At every stage the British strategy assumed a large base of Loyalist supporters would rally to the King given some military support. In February 1776 Clinton took 2,000 men and a naval squadron to invade North Carolina, which he called off when he learned the Loyalists had been crushed at the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge. In June he tried to seize Charleston, South Carolina, the leading port in the South, hoping for a simultaneous rising in South Carolina. It seemed a cheap way of waging the war but it failed as the naval force was defeated by the forts and because no local Loyalists attacked the town from behind. The Loyalists were too poorly organized to be effective, but as late as 1781 senior officials in London, misled by Loyalist exiles, placed their confidence in their rising.

Saratoga and Philadelphia
When the British began to plan operations for 1777, they had two main armies in North America: Carleton's army in Quebec, and Howe's army in New York. In London, Lord George Germain approved campaigns for these armies which, because of miscommunication, poor planning, and rivalries between commanders, did not work in conjunction. Although Howe successfully captured Philadelphia, the northern army was lost in a disastrous surrender at Saratoga. Both Carleton and Howe resigned after the 1777 campaign. Saratoga campaign The first of the 1777 campaigns was an expedition from Quebec led by General John Burgoyne. The goal was to seize the Lake Champlain and Hudson River corridor, effectively isolating New England from the rest of the American colonies. Burgoyne's invasion had two components: he would lead about 8,000 men along Lake Champlain towards Albany, New York, while a second column of about 2,000 men, led by Barry St. Leger, would move down the Mohawk River Valley and link up with Burgoyne in Albany, New York.[53]

Mohawk leader Joseph Brant led both Native Americans and white Loyalists in battle.

Burgoyne set off in June, and recaptured Fort Ticonderoga in early July. Thereafter, his march was slowed by the Americans

who

literally

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knocked down trees in his path, and by his army's extensive baggage train. A detachment sent out to seize supplies was decisively defeated in the Battle of Bennington by American militia in August, depriving Burgoyne of nearly 1,000 men. Meanwhile, St. Leger—more than half of his force Native Americans led by Sayenqueraghta—had laid siege to Fort Stanwix. American militiamen and their Native American allies marched to relieve the siege but were ambushed and scattered at the Battle of Oriskany. When a second relief expedition approached, this time led by Benedict Arnold, St. Leger's Indian support abandoned him, forcing him to break off the siege and return to Quebec. Burgoyne's army had been reduced to about 6,000 men by the loss at Bennington and the need to garrison Ticonderoga, and he was running short on supplies.[54] Despite these setbacks, he determined to push on towards Albany. An American army of 8,000 men, commanded by the General Horatio Gates, had entrenched about 10 miles (16 km) south of Saratoga, New York. Burgoyne tried to outflank the Americans but was checked at the first battle of Saratoga in September. Burgoyne's situation was desperate, but he now hoped that help from Howe's army in New York City might be on the way. It was not: Howe had instead sailed away on his expedition to capture Philadelphia. American militiamen flocked to Gates' army, swelling his force to 11,000 by the beginning of October. After being badly beaten at the second battle of Saratoga, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17.

"The surrender at Saratoga" shows General Daniel Morgan in front of a French de Vallière 4-pounder.

Washington and Lafayette look over the troops at Valley Forge.

Saratoga was the turning point of the war. Revolutionary confidence and determination, suffering from Howe's successful occupation of Philadelphia, was renewed. What is more important, the victory encouraged France to make an open alliance with the Americans, after two years of semi-secret support. For the British, the war had now become much more complicated.[55] Philadelphia campaign Having secured New York City in 1776, General Howe concentrated on capturing Philadelphia, the seat of the Revolutionary government, in 1777. He moved slowly, landing 15,000 troops in late August at the northern end of Chesapeake Bay. Washington positioned his 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia but was driven back at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. The Continental Congress again abandoned Philadelphia, and on September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into the city unopposed. Washington unsuccessfully attacked the British encampment in nearby Germantown in early October and then retreated to watch and wait. After repelling a British attack at White Marsh, Washington and his army encamped at Valley Forge in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, where they stayed for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by Baron von Steuben, who introduced the most modern Prussian methods of organization and tactics. General Clinton replaced Howe as British commander-in-chief. French entry into the war had changed British strategy, and Clinton abandoned Philadelphia to reinforce New York City, now vulnerable to French naval power. Washington shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal and forced a strategic victory at the battle at Monmouth on June

American Revolutionary War 28, 1778, the last major battle in the north. Clinton's army went to New York City in July, arriving just before a French fleet under Admiral d'Estaing arrived off the American coast. Washington's army returned to White Plains, New York, north of the city. Although both armies were back where they had been two years earlier, the nature of the war had now changed.[56]

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An international war, 1778–1783
From 1776 France had informally been involved in the American Revolutionary War, with French admiral Latouche Tréville having provided supplies, ammunition and guns from France to the United States after Thomas Jefferson had encouraged a French alliance, and guns such as de Valliere type were used, playing an important role in such battles as the Battle of Saratoga.[57] George Washington wrote about the French supplies and guns in a letter to General Heath on May 2, 1777. After learning of the American victory at Saratoga, France signed the Treaty of Alliance with the United States on February 6, 1778, formalizing the Franco-American alliance negotiated by Benjamin Franklin. In 1776 the Count of Aranda met in representation of Spain with the first U.S. Commission composed by Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane and Arthur Lee.[58] The Continental Congress had charged the commissioners to travel to Europe and forge alliances with other European powers that could help break the British naval blockade along the North American coast. Aranda invited the commission to his house in Paris, where he was acting as Spanish ambassador and he became an active supporter of the struggle of the fledgling Colonies, recommending an early and open Spanish commitment to the Colonies. However he was overruled by José Moñino, 1st Count of Floridablanca who opted by a more discreet approach. The Spanish position was later summarized by the Spanish Ambassador to the French Court, Jerónimo Grimaldi, in a letter to Arthur Lee who was in Madrid trying to persuade the Spanish government to declare an open alliance. Grimaldi told Lee that "You have considered your own situation, and not ours. The moment is not yet come for us. The war with Portugal — France being unprepared, and our treasure ships from South America not being arrived — makes it improper for us to declare immediately."[59] Meanwhile, Grimaldi reassured Lee, stores of clothing and powder were deposited at New Orleans and Havana for the Americans, and further shipments of blankets were being collected at Bilbao. Spain finally entered officially the war in June 1779, thus implementing the Treaty of Aranjuez, although the Spanish government had been providing assistance to the revolutionaries since the very beginning of the war. So too had the Dutch Republic, which was formally brought into the war at the end of 1780.[60]

Punish the Americans
In London King George III gave up all hope of subduing America by more armies, while Britain had a European war to fight. "It was a joke," he said, "to think of keeping Pennsylvania." There was no hope of recovering New England. But the King was still determined "never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal."[61] His plan was to keep the 30,000 men garrisoned in New York, Rhode Island, Quebec, and Florida; other forces would attack the French and Spanish in the West Indies. To punish the Americans the King planned to destroy their coasting-trade, bombard their ports; sack and burn towns along the coast (as Benedict Arnold did to New London, Connecticut in 1781), and turn loose the Native Americans to attack civilians in frontier settlements. These operations, the King felt, would inspire the Loyalists; would splinter the Congress; and "would keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse" and they would beg to return to his authority.[62] The plan meant destruction for the Loyalists and loyal Native Americans, an indefinite prolongation of a costly war, and the risk of disaster as the French and Spanish assembled an armada to invade the British Isles. The British planned to re-subjugate the rebellious colonies after dealing with the Americans' European allies.

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Widening of the naval war
Further information: Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War, France in the American Revolutionary War, Spain in the American Revolutionary War When the war began, the British had overwhelming naval superiority over the American colonists. The Royal Navy had over 100 ships of the line and many frigates and smaller craft, although this fleet was old and in poor condition, a situation which would be blamed on Lord Sandwich, the First Lord of the Admiralty. During the first three years of the war, the Royal Navy was primarily used to transport troops for land operations and to protect commercial shipping. The American colonists had no ships of the line, and relied extensively on privateering to harass British shipping. The privateers caused worry disproportionate to their material success, although those operating out of French channel ports before and after France joined the war caused significant embarrassment to the Royal Navy and inflamed Anglo-French relations. About 55,000 American sailors served aboard the privateers during the war.[63] The American privateers had almost 1,700 ships, and they captured 2,283 enemy ships.[64] The Continental Congress authorized the creation of a small Continental Navy in October 1775, which was primarily used for commerce raiding. John Paul Jones became the first great American naval hero, capturing HMS Drake on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters.[65]

Combat de la Dominique, April 17, 1780, by Auguste Louis de Rossel de Cercy (1736–1804)

Map of Newport with the camp of the troops of Rochambeau and the position of the squadron of Knight Ternay in 1780.

The Defeat of the Floating Batteries at Gibraltar, September 13, 1782, by John Singleton Copley

France's formal entry into the war meant that British naval superiority was now contested. The Franco-American alliance began poorly, however, with failed operations at Rhode Island in 1778 and Savannah, Georgia, in 1779. Part of the problem was that France and the United States had different military priorities: France hoped to capture British possessions in the West Indies before helping to secure American independence. While French financial assistance to the American war effort was already of critical importance, French military aid to the Americans would not show positive results until the arrival in July 1780 of a large force of soldiers led by the Comte de Rochambeau.

Spain entered the war as a French ally with the goal of recapturing Gibraltar and Minorca, which it had lost to the British in 1704. Gibraltar was besieged for more than three years, but the British garrison stubbornly resisted and was resupplied twice: once after Admiral Rodney's victory over Juan de Lángara in the 1780 "Moonlight Battle", and again after Admiral Richard Howe fought Luis de Córdova y Córdova to a draw in the Battle of Cape Spartel. Further Franco-Spanish efforts to capture Gibraltar were unsuccessful. One notable success took place on February 5, 1782, when Spanish and French forces captured Minorca, which Spain retained after the war. Ambitious plans for an invasion of Great Britain in 1779 had to be abandoned.

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West Indies and Gulf Coast
There was much action in the West Indies, especially in the Lesser Antilles. Although France lost St. Lucia early in the war, its navy dominated the West Indies, capturing Dominica, Grenada, Saint Vincent, Montserrat, Tobago and St. Kitts. Dutch possessions in the West Indies and South America were captured by Britain but later recaptured by France and restored to the Dutch Republic. France successfully conquered the Turks and Caicos archipelago. At the Battle of the Saintes in April 1782, a victory by Rodney's fleet over the French Admiral de Grasse frustrated the hopes of France and Spain to take Jamaica and other colonies from the British. On the Gulf Coast, Count Bernardo de Gálvez, the Spanish governor of Louisiana, quickly removed the British from their outposts on the lower Bernardo de Gálvez Mississippi River in 1779 in actions at Manchac and Baton Rouge in British West Florida. Gálvez then captured Mobile in 1780 and stormed and captured the British citadel and capital of Pensacola in 1781. On May 8, 1782, Gálvez captured the British naval base at New Providence in the Bahamas; it was ceded by Spain after the Treaty of Paris and simultaneously recovered by British Loyalists in 1783. Gálvez' actions led to the Spanish acquisition of East and West Florida in the peace settlement, denied the British the opportunity of encircling the American rebels from the south, and kept open a vital conduit for supplies to the American frontier. The Continental Congress cited Gálvez in 1785 for his aid during the revolution and George Washington took him to his right during the first parade of July 4.[66] Central America was also subject to conflict between Britain and Spain, as Britain sought to expand its influence beyond coastal logging and fishing communities in present-day Belize, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Expeditions against San Fernando de Omoa in 1779 and San Juan in 1780 (the latter famously led by a young Horatio Nelson) met with only temporary success before being abandoned due to disease. The Spanish colonial leaders, in turn, could not completely eliminate British influences along the Mosquito Coast. Except for the French acquisition of Tobago, sovereignty in the West Indies was returned to the status quo ante bellum in the peace of 1783.

Norteamerica, 1792, Jaillot-Elwe, Florida's borders after Bernardo Gálvez's military actions.

India and the Netherlands
When word reached India in 1778 that France had entered the war, British military forces moved quickly to capture French colonial outposts there, capturing Pondicherry after two months of siege.[67] The capture of the French-controlled port of Mahé on India's west coast motivated Mysore's ruler, Hyder Ali (who was already upset at other British actions, and benefited from trade through the port), to open the Second Anglo-Mysore War in 1780. Ali, and later his son Tipu Sultan, almost drove the British from southern India but was frustrated by weak French support, and the war ended status quo ante bellum with the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore. French opposition was led in 1782 and 1783 by Admiral the Baillie de Suffren, who recaptured Trincomalee from the British and fought five celebrated, but largely inconclusive, naval engagements against British Admiral Sir Edward Hughes.[68] France's Indian colonies were returned after the war.

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The Dutch Republic, nominally neutral, had been trading with the Americans, exchanging Dutch arms and munitions for American colonial wares (in contravention of the British Navigation Acts), primarily through activity based in St. Eustatius, before the French formally entered the war.[69] The British considered this trade to include contraband military supplies and had attempted to stop it, at first diplomatically by appealing to previous treaty obligations, interpretation of whose terms the two nations disagreed on, and then by Suffren meeting with ally Hyder Ali in 1783. J.B. searching and seizing Dutch merchant ships. The situation escalated Morret engraving, 1789 when the British seized a Dutch merchant convoy sailing under Dutch naval escort in December 1779, prompting the Dutch to join the League of Armed Neutrality. Britain responded to this decision by declaring war on the Dutch in December 1780, sparking the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War.[70] The war was a military and economic disaster for the Dutch Republic. Paralyzed by internal political divisions, it could not respond effectively to British blockades of its coast and the capture of many of its colonies. In the 1784 peace treaty between the two nations, the Dutch lost the Indian port of Negapatam and were forced to make trade concessions.[71] The Dutch Republic signed a friendship and trade agreement with the United States in 1782, and was the second country (after France) to formally recognize the United States.[72]

Southern theater
During the first three years of the American Revolutionary War, the primary military encounters were in the north, although some attempts to organize Loyalists were defeated, a British attempt at Charleston, South Carolina failed, and a variety of efforts to attack British forces in East Florida failed. After French entry into the war, the British turned their attention to the southern colonies, where they hoped to regain control by recruiting Loyalists. This southern strategy also had the advantage of keeping the Royal Navy closer to the Caribbean, where the British needed to defend economically important possessions against the French and Spanish.[73] On December 29, 1778, an expeditionary corps from Clinton's army in New York captured Savannah, Georgia. An attempt by French and American forces to retake Savannah failed on October 9, 1779. Clinton then besieged Charleston, capturing it and most of the southern Continental Army on May 12, 1780. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South's biggest city and seaport, providing a base for further conquest.[74] The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw to North Carolina but were pursued by Lt. Colonel Banastre Tarleton, who defeated them at the Waxhaws on May 29, 1780. With these events, organized American military activity in the region collapsed, though the war was carried on by partisans such as Francis Marion. Cornwallis took over British operations, while Horatio Gates arrived to command the American effort. On August 16, 1780, Gates was defeated at the Battle of Camden, setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina.[75] Cornwallis' victories quickly turned, however. One wing of his army was utterly defeated at the Battle of Kings Mountain on October 7, 1780, and Tarleton was decisively defeated by Daniel Morgan at the Battle of Cowpens on January 17,

The British Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton. Painting by Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1782.

1781. General Nathanael Greene, who replaced General Gates, proceeded to wear down the British in a series of battles, each of them tactically a victory for the British but giving no strategic advantage to the victors. Greene

American Revolutionary War summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again." By March, Greene's army had grown to the point where he felt that he could face Cornwallis directly. In the key Battle of Guilford Court House, Cornwallis defeated Greene, but at tremendous cost, and without breaking Greene's army. He retreated to Wilmington, North Carolina for resupply and reinforcement, after which he moved north into Virginia, leaving the Carolinas and Georgia open to Greene.[76] In January 1781, a British force under Benedict Arnold landed in Virginia, and began moving through the Virginia countryside, destroying supply depots, mills, and other economic targets. In February, General Washington dispatched General Lafayette to counter Arnold, later also sending General Anthony Wayne. Arnold was reinforced with additional troops from New York in March, and his army was joined with that of Cornwallis in May. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. Cornwallis could not trap Lafayette, and upon his arrival at Williamsburg in June, received orders from General Clinton to establish a fortified naval base in Virginia. Following these orders, he fortified Yorktown, and, shadowed by Lafayette, awaited the arrival of the Royal Navy.[77]

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Northern and western frontier
Further information: Western theater of the American Revolutionary War West of the Appalachian Mountains and along the border with Quebec, the American Revolutionary War was an "Indian War". Most Native Americans supported the British. Like the Iroquois Confederacy, tribes such as the Shawnee split into factions, and the Chickamauga split off from the rest of the Cherokee over differences regarding peace with the Americans. The British supplied their native allies with muskets, gunpowder and advice, while Loyalists led raids against civilian settlements, especially in New York, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania. Joint Iroquois-Loyalist attacks in the Wyoming Valley and at Cherry Valley in 1778 provoked Washington to send the Sullivan Expedition into western New York during the summer of 1779. There was little fighting as Sullivan systematically destroyed the Indians' winter food supplies, forcing them to flee permanently to British bases in Quebec and the Niagara Falls area.[78]

George Rogers Clark's 180 mile (290 km) winter march led to the capture of General Henry Hamilton, Lieutenant-Governor of Quebec

In the Ohio Country and the Illinois Country, the Virginia frontiersman George Rogers Clark attempted to neutralize British influence among the Ohio tribes by capturing the outposts of Kaskaskia and Cahokia and Vincennes in the summer of 1778, at which he succeeded. When General Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, retook Vincennes, Clark returned in a surprise march in February 1779 and captured Hamilton.[79] In March 1782, Pennsylvania militiamen killed about a hundred neutral Native Americans in the Gnadenhütten massacre. In the last major encounters of the war, a force of 200 Kentucky militia was defeated at the Battle of Blue Licks in August 1782.

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Yorktown and the surrender of Cornwallis
The northern, southern, and naval theaters of the war converged in 1781 at Yorktown, Virginia. Cornwallis, having been ordered to occupy a fortified position that could be resupplied (and evacuated, if necessary) by sea, had settled in Yorktown, on the York River, which was navigable by sea-going vessels. Aware that the arrival of the French fleet from The West Indies would give the allies control of the Chesapeake, Washington began moving the American and French forces south toward Virginia in August. In early September, French Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown by (John naval forces defeated a British fleet at the Battle of the Chesapeake, Trumbull, 1797) cutting off Cornwallis' escape. When Washington arrived outside Yorktown, the combined Franco-American force of 18,900 men began besieging Cornwallis in early October. For several days, the French and Americans bombarded the British defenses, and then began taking the outer positions. Cornwallis decided his position was becoming untenable, and he surrendered his entire army of over 8,000 men on October 19, 1781.[80] With the surrender at Yorktown, King George lost control of Parliament to the peace party, and there were no further major military activities in North America. The British had 30,000 garrison troops occupying New York City, Charleston, and Savannah.[81] The war continued elsewhere, including the siege of Gibraltar and naval operations in the East and West Indies, until peace was agreed in 1783.

Treaty of Paris
In London, as political support for the war plummeted after Yorktown, British Prime Minister Lord North resigned in March 1782. In April 1782, the Commons voted to end the war in America. Preliminary peace articles were signed in Paris at the end of November, 1782; the formal end of the war did not occur until the Treaty of Paris (for the U.S.) and the Treaties of Versailles (for the other Allies) were signed on September 3, 1783. The last British troops left New York City on November 25, 1783, and the United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Paris treaty on January 14, 1784.[82] Britain negotiated the Paris peace treaty without consulting her Native American allies and ceded all Native American territory between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River to the United States. Full of resentment, Native Americans reluctantly confirmed these land cessions with the United States in a series of treaties, but the fighting would be renewed in conflicts along the frontier in the coming years, the largest being the Northwest Indian War.[83] The British would continue to support the Indians against the new American nation especially when hostilities resumed 29 years later in the War of 1812. The United States gained more than it expected, thanks to the award of western territory. The other Allies had mixed-to-poor results. France did win revenge over hated England, but its material gains were minimal and its financial losses huge. It was already in financial trouble and its borrowing to pay for the war used up all its credit and created the financial disasters that marked the 1780s. Historians link those disasters to the coming of the French Revolution. The Dutch clearly lost on all points. The Spanish had a mixed result; they did not achieve their primary war goal (recovery of Gibraltar), but they did gain territory. However in the long run, as the case of Florida shows, the new territory was of little or no value.[84]

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Historical assessment
Advantages and disadvantages of the opposing sides
The Americans began the war with significant disadvantages compared to the British. They had no national government, no national army or navy, and no financial system, no banks, no established credit, and no functioning government departments, such as a treasury. The Congress tried to handle administrative affairs through legislative committees, which proved inefficient. At first, the Americans had no international allies. However the American cause eventually attracted alliances and supporters, especially from France, the Netherlands, and Spain. The British had no supporters throughout the conflict, apart from small German states that were willing to send troops ("Hessians") to do much of the fighting. The Americans had a large, relatively prosperous population (when compared to other colonies) that depended not on imports but on local production for food and most supplies. They were on their home ground, had a smoothly functioning, well organized system of local and state governments, newspapers and printers, and internal lines of communications. They had a long-established system of local militia, with companies and an officer corps that could form the basis of local militias, and provide a training ground for the national army that the Congress set up.[85] Britain had a large, efficient, and well-financed government, with good credit, and the largest and best navy in the world. Its army was relatively small, but the officer corps and noncommissioned officers were professionals with high levels of skill and many years of experience.[86] Distance was a major problem: most troops and supplies had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. The British usually had logistical problems whenever they operated away from port cities. Additionally, ocean travel meant that British communications were always about two months out of date: by the time British generals in America received their orders from London, the military situation had usually changed.[87] Suppressing a rebellion in America also posed other problems. Since the colonies covered a large area and had not been united before the war, there was no central area of strategic importance. In Europe, the capture of a capital often meant the end of a war; in America, when the British seized cities such as New York, Philadelphia or Boston, the war continued unabated. Furthermore, the large size of the colonies meant that the British lacked the manpower to control them by force. Once any area had been occupied, troops had to be kept there or the Revolutionaries would regain control, and these troops were thus unavailable for further offensive operations. In addition, despite the professionalism and discipline of the British troops, unfamiliar guerrilla warfare and skirmishing greatly hindered their gains early on. The British had sufficient troops to defeat the Americans on the battlefield but not enough to simultaneously occupy the colonies. This manpower shortage became critical after French and Spanish entry into the war, because British troops had to be dispersed in several theaters, where previously they had been concentrated in America.[88]

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The British also had the difficult task of fighting the war while simultaneously retaining the allegiance of Loyalists. Loyalist support was important, since the goal of the war was to keep the colonies in the British Empire, but this imposed numerous military limitations. Early in the war, the Howe brothers served as peace commissioners while simultaneously conducting the war effort, a dual role which may have limited their effectiveness. Additionally, the British could have recruited more slaves and Native Americans to fight the war, but this would have alienated many Loyalists, even more so than the controversial hiring of German mercenaries. The need to retain Loyalist allegiance also meant that the British could not use the harsh methods of suppressing rebellion they employed in Ireland and Scotland. Even with these limitations, many potentially neutral colonists were nonetheless driven into the ranks of the Revolutionaries because of the war.[89]

Costs of the war
Casualties

Map of campaigns in the Revolutionary War

The total loss of life resulting from the American Revolutionary War is unknown. As was typical in the wars of the era, disease claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a smallpox epidemic raged across much of North America, killing more than 130,000 people. Historian Joseph Ellis suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops inoculated against the smallpox epidemic was one of his most important decisions.[90] More than 25,000 American Revolutionaries died during active military service. About 8,000 of these deaths were in battle; the other 17,000 recorded deaths were from disease, including about 8,000–12,000 who died of starvation or disease brought on by deplorable conditions while prisoners of war,[91] most in rotting British prison ships in New York. This tally of deaths from disease is undoubtedly too low, however; 2,500 Americans died while encamped at Valley Forge in the winter of 1777–78 alone. The number of Revolutionaries seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000. The total American military casualty figure was therefore as high as 50,000.[92] About 171,000 sailors served in the Royal Navy during the war; about a quarter had been pressed into service. About 1,240 were killed in battle, while 18,500 died from disease. The greatest killer was scurvy, a disease which had been shown to preventable by issuing lemon or lime juice to sailors but was not taken seriously. Scurvy would be eradicated in the Royal Navy in the 1790's by the chairman of the Navy's Sick and Hurt Board, Gilbert Blane. About 42,000 British sailors deserted during the war.[93] Approximately 1,200 Germans were killed in action and 6,354 died from illness or accident. About 16,000 of the remaining German troops returned home, but roughly 5,500 remained in the United States after the war for various reasons, many eventually becoming American citizens. No reliable statistics exist for the number of casualties among other groups, including Loyalists, British regulars, Native Americans, French and Spanish troops, and civilians.

American Revolutionary War Financial costs The British spent about £80 million and ended with a national debt of £250 million, which it easily financed at about £9.5 million a year in interest. The French spent 1.3 billion livres (about £56 million). Their total national debt was £187 million, which they could not easily finance; over half the French national revenue went to debt service in the 1780s. The debt crisis became a major enabling factor of the French Revolution as the government could not raise taxes without public approval.[94] The United States spent $37 million at the national level plus $114 million by the states. This was mostly covered by loans from France and the Netherlands, loans from Americans, and issuance of an increasing amount of paper money (which became "not worth a continental.") The U.S. finally solved its debt and currency problems in the 1790s when Alexander Hamilton spearheaded the establishment of the First Bank of the United States.[95]

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Notes
To avoid duplication, notes for sections with a link to a "Main article" will be found in the linked article.
[1] British writers generally favor "American War of Independence", "American Rebellion", or "War of American Independence". See Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture, Bibliography at the Michigan State University (http:/ / revolution. h-net. msu. edu/ bib. html) for usage in titles. [2] http:/ / www. winthrop. dk/ reports. html Orders from General Thomas Gage to Lieutenant Colonel Smith, 10th Regiment 'Foot Boston, April 18, 1775 [3] Greene and Pole, A companion to the American Revolution p 357 [4] Jonathan R. Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (1987) p. 161 [5] Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution ch 18 [6] Lawrence S. Kaplan, "The Treaty of Paris, 1783: A Historiographical Challenge," International History Review, Sept 1983, Vol. 5 Issue 3, pp 431–442 [7] Black (2001), p. 59. On militia see Boatner (1974), p. 707, and Weigley (1973), ch. 2. [8] Crocker (2006), p. 51 [9] Boatner (1974), p. 264 says the largest force Washington commanded was "under 17,000"; Duffy (1987), p. 17, estimates Washington's maximum was "only 13,000 troops". [10] Greene and Pole (1999), p. 235 [11] Savas and Dameron (2006), p. xli [12] Black (2001), p. 12 [13] Black (2001), p. 13–14 [14] Black (2001), p. 14 [15] Ketchum (1997), p. 76 [16] Ketchum (1997), p. 77 [17] Black (2001), pp. 27–29; Boatner (1974), pp. 424–26 [18] The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994) p. 122-123 [19] Kaplan and Kaplan (1989), pp. 64–69 (Revolutionary all-black units) [20] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1994, p. 73 [21] Kolchin, p.73 [22] ""African Americans In The Revolutionary Period (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071012032555/ http:/ / americanrevolution. com/ AfricanAmericansInTheRevolution. htm), American Revolution [23] Greene and Pole (1999), p. 393; Boatner (1974), p. 545 [24] Ward, Harry M. (1999). The war for independence and the transformation of American are society (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kgqa4_OBcIkC& pg=PA198). Psychology Press. p. 198. ISBN 9781857286564. . Retrieved 25 March 2011. [25] O'Brien, Greg (30 April 2008). Pre-removal Choctaw history: exploring new paths (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jGFmNPevedUC& pg=PA123). University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 123–126. ISBN 9780806139166. . Retrieved 25 March 2011. [26] Cassadra Pybus, "Jefferson's Faulty Math: the Question of Slave Defections in the American Revolution." William and Mary Quarterly 2005 62(2): 243–264. Issn: 0043-5597 Fulltext: in History Cooperative [27] William Baller, "Farm Families and the American Revolution." Journal of Family History (2006) 31(1): 28–44. Issn: 0363-1990 Fulltext: online in EBSCO [28] Michael A. McDonnell, "Class War: Class Struggles During the American Revolution in Virginia," William and Mary Quarterly 2006 63(2): 305–344. Issn: 0043-5597 Fulltext: online at History Cooperative [29] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 75–77 [30] Stephenson (1925), pp. 271–281

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[31] * Elwin L. Page. "The King's Powder, 1774," New England Quarterly Vol. 18, No. 1 (Mar., 1945), pp. 83–92 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 361393) [32] Arthur S. Lefkowitz, " The Long Retreat: The Calamitous American Defense of New Jersey 1776 (http:/ / www. magweb. com/ sample/ amr/ c1h01lon. htm), 1998. Retrieved September 10, 2007. [33] Thomas A. Desjardin, Through a Howling Wilderness: Benedict Arnold's March to Quebec, 1775 (2006) [34] Willard Sterne Randall, "Benedict Arnold at Quebec," MHQ: Quarterly Journal of Military History, Summer 1990, Vol. 2 Issue 4, pp 38–49 [35] Desjardin, Through a Howling Wilderness: Benedict Arnold's March to Quebec, 1775 (2006) [36] Watson (1960), p. 203. [37] Arthur S. Lefkowitz, Benedict Arnold's Army: The 1775 American Invasion of Canada during the Revolutionary War (2007) [38] Fischer (2004), pp. 51–52,83 [39] Fischer (2004), p. 29 [40] Fischer (2004), pp. 91–101 [41] Fischer (2004), pp. 102–111 [42] Stiles, Henry Reed. "Letters from the prisons and prison-ships of the revolution". Thomson Gale, December 31, 1969. ISBN 978-1-4328-1222-5 [43] Dring, Thomas and Greene, Albert. "Recollections of the Jersey Prison Ship" (American Experience Series, No 8). Applewood Books. November 1, 1986. ISBN 978-0-918222-92-3 [44] Lang, Patrick J. "The horrors of the English prison ships, 1776 to 1783, and the barbarous treatment of the American patriots imprisoned on them". Society of the Friendly Sons of Saint Patrick, 1939. [45] Onderdonk. Henry. "Revolutionary Incidents of Suffolk and Kings Counties; With an Account of the Battle of Long Island and the British Prisons and Prison-Ships at New York." Associated Faculty Press, Inc. June, 1970. ISBN 978-0-8046-8075-2. [46] West, Charles E. "Horrors of the prison ships: Dr. West's description of the wallabout floating dungeons, how captive patriots fared." Eagle Book Printing Department, 1895. [47] Fischer (2004), pp. 115–137 [48] Fischer (2004), pp. 138–140 [49] Fischer (2004), pp. 143–205 [50] Fischer (2004), pp. 206–259 [51] Fischer (2004), pp. 277–343 [52] Fischer (2004), pp. 345–358 [53] Ketchum (1997), p. 84 [54] Ketchum (1997), pp. 285–323 [55] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 188–98 [56] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 175–188 [57] Springfield Armory (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ spar/ historyculture/ french-field_4pdr. htm) [58] E. Chavez, Thomas (1997). Spain's support vital to United States independence, 1777–1783. United States. Dept. of Defense. pp. United States. [59] Sparks, 1:408 [60] Jonathan R. Dull, A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (1987) ch 7–9 [61] Trevelyan (1912), vol. 1, p. 4 [62] Trevelyan (1912), vol. 1, p. 5 [63] Privateers or Merchant Mariners help win the Revolutionary War (http:/ / www. usmm. org/ revolution. html) [64] Privateers (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ agency/ navy/ privateer. htm) [65] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 331–46 [66] Heintze, “A Chronology of Notable Fourth of July Celebration Occurrences”. [67] Riddick (2006), pp. 23–25 [68] Fletcher (1909), pp. 155–158 [69] Edler (1911), pp. 37–38, 42–62; The American trade via St. Eustatius was very substantial. In 1779 more than 12,000 hogsheads of tobacco and 1.5 million ounces of indigo were shipped from the Colonies to the island in exchange for naval supplies and other goods; Edler, p. 62 [70] Edler (1911), pp. 95–173 [71] Edler (1911), pp. 233–246 [72] Edler (1911), pp. 205–232 [73] Henry Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South (2000) [74] John W. Gordon and John Keegan, South Carolina and the American Revolution: A Battlefield History (2007) [75] Hugh F. Rankin, North Carolina in the American Revolution (1996) [76] Lumpkin, From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South (2000) [77] Michael Cecere, Great Things are Expected from the Virginians: Virginia in the American Revolution (2009) [78] Colin Gordon Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country (1995) [79] Lowell Hayes Harrison, George Rogers Clark and the War in the West (2001) [80] Richard Ferrie, The World Turned Upside Down: George Washington and the Battle of Yorktown (1999)

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[81] Mackesy, p. 435. [82] Richard Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (1983) [83] Benn (1993), p. 17 [84] Lawrence S. Kaplan, "The Treaty of Paris, 1783: A Historiographical Challenge," International History Review, Sept 1983, Vol. 5 Issue 3, pp 431–442 [85] Pole and Greene, eds. Companion to the American Revolution ch 36–39 [86] Daniel P Murphy, The everything American revolution book (2008) p 56 online (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=V1nzK16XImwC& pg=PT69& dq="disciplined+ superiority+ in+ maneuver,+ the+ red-coated"& hl=en& ei=_y-nTqrmOITiiAKBponQDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q="disciplined superiority in maneuver, the red-coated"& f=false) [87] Black (2001), p. 39; Greene and Pole (1999), pp. 298, 306 [88] Higginbotham (1983), pp. 298, 306; Black (2001), pp. 29, 42 [89] Black (2001), pp. 14–16 (Harsh methods), pp. 35, 38 (slaves and Indians), p. 16 (neutrals into revolutionaries) [90] Smallpox epidemic: Fenn, p. 275. A great number of these smallpox deaths occurred outside the theater of war—in Mexico or among Native Americans west of the Mississippi River. Washington and inoculation: Ellis, p. 87. [91] Edwin G. Burrows (http:/ / www. americanheritage. com/ articles/ magazine/ ah/ 2008/ 5/ 2008_5_54. shtml) "Patriots or Terrorists?," American Heritage, Fall 2008. [92] American dead and wounded: Shy, pp. 249–50. The lower figure for number of wounded comes from Chambers, p. 849. [93] Mackesy (1964), pp. 6, 176 (British seamen) [94] Tombs (2007), p. 179 [95] Jensen (2004), p. 379

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References
• Black, Jeremy. War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775–1783. 2001. Analysis from a noted British military historian. • Benn, Carl. Historic Fort York, 1793–1993 (http://books.google.com/books?id=Zu0hgVoIj3UC&pg=PA17& lpg=PA17&ots=LCcVf9I7f7&sig=zeKc7-_kZudvZs2aZhIoFABED0w). Toronto: Dundurn Press Ltd., 1993. ISBN 0-920474-79-9. • Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0-8117-0578-1. Military topics, references many secondary sources. • Chambers, John Whiteclay II, ed. in chief. The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-19-507198-0. • Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. ISBN 978-1-4000-5363-6. • Duffy, Christopher. The Military Experience in the Age of Reason, 1715–1789 Routledge, 1987. ISBN 978-0-7102-1024-1. • Edler, Friedrich. The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution (http://books.google.com/ books?id=MhoMAAAAYAAJ). University Press of the Pacific, 1911, reprinted 2001. ISBN 0-89875-269-8. • Ellis, Joseph J. His Excellency: George Washington. (2004). ISBN 1-4000-4031-0. • Fenn, Elizabeth Anne. Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775–82. New York: Hill and Wang, 2001. ISBN 0-8090-7820-1. • Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-19-517034-2. • Fletcher, Charles Robert Leslie. An Introductory History of England: The Great European War, Volume 4 (http:/ /books.google.com/books?id=dvM1AAAAMAAJ). E.P. Dutton, 1909. OCLC 12063427. • Greene, Jack P. and Pole, J.R., eds. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991; reprint 1999. ISBN 1-55786-547-7. Collection of essays focused on political and social history. • Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789. Northeastern University Press, 1983. ISBN 0-930350-44-8. Overview of military topics; online in ACLS History E-book Project. • Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763–1776. (2004)

American Revolutionary War • Kaplan, Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution. Amherst, Massachusetts: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1989. ISBN 0-87023-663-6. • Ketchum, Richard M. Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. Henry Holt, 1997. ISBN 0-8050-4681-X. • Mackesy, Piers. The War for America: 1775–1783 (http://www.questia.com/library/book/ the-war-for-america-1775-1783-by-piers-mackesy.jsp). London, 1964. Reprinted University of Nebraska Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8032-8192-7. Highly regarded examination of British strategy and leadership. • McCullough, David. 1776. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. • Riddick, John F. The history of British India: a chronology. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. ISBN 978-0-313-32280-8. • Savas, Theodore P. and Dameron, J. David. A Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution. New York: Savas Beatie LLC, 2006. ISBN 1-932714-12-X. • Schama, Simon. Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves, and the American Revolution, New York, NY: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2006 • Shy, John. A People Numerous and Armed: Reflections on the Military Struggle for American Independence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976 (ISBN 0-19-502013-8); revised University of Michigan Press, 1990 (ISBN 0-472-06431-2). Collection of essays. • Stephenson, Orlando W. "The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776", American Historical Review, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Jan. 1925), pp. 271–281 in JSTOR. • Tombs, Robert and Isabelle. That Sweet Enemy: The French and the British from the Sun King to the Present Random House, 2007. ISBN 978-1-4000-4024-7. • Trevelyan, George Otto. George the Third and Charles Fox: the concluding part of The American revolution Longmans, Green, 1912. • Watson, J. Steven. The Reign of George III, 1760–1815 (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o& d=22810670). 1960. Standard history of British politics. • Weigley, Russell F. The American Way of War. Indiana University Press, 1977. ISBN 978-0-253-28029-9. • Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire: 1775–1783. New York: Free Press, 2005 (a division of Simon and Schuster). ISBN 0-7432-2687-9. An account of the British politics on the conduct of the war.

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Further reading
These are some of the standard works about the war in general which are not listed above; books about specific campaigns, battles, units, and individuals can be found in those articles. • Conway, Stephen. The War of American Independence 1775-1783. Publisher: E. Arnold, 1995. ISBN: 0340625201. 280 pages. • Bancroft, George. History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent. (1854–78), vol. 7–10. • Bobrick, Benson. Angel in the Whirlwind: The Triumph of the American Revolution. Penguin, 1998 (paperback reprint). • Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Ryerson, Richard A., eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (ABC-CLIO, 2006) 5 volume paper and online editions; 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics • Billias, George Athan. George Washington's Generals and Opponents: Their Exploits and Leadership (1994) scholarly studies of key generals on each side • Hibbert, Christopher. Redcoats and Rebels: The American Revolution through British Eyes. New York: Norton, 1990. ISBN 0-393-02895-X.

American Revolutionary War • Kwasny, Mark V. Washington's Partisan War, 1775–1783. Kent, Ohio: 1996. ISBN 0-87338-546-2. Militia warfare. • Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789. Oxford University Press, 1984; revised 2005. ISBN 0-19-516247-1. online edition (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=84633736) • Symonds, Craig L. A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution (1989), newly drawn maps • Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution. 2 volumes. New York: Macmillan, 1952. History of land battles in North America. • Wood, W. J. Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775–1781. ISBN 0-306-81329-7 (2003 paperback reprint). Analysis of tactics of a dozen battles, with emphasis on American military leadership. • Men-at-Arms series: short (48pp), very well illustrated descriptions: • Zlatich, Marko; Copeland, Peter. General Washington's Army (1): 1775–78 (1994) • Zlatich, Marko. General Washington's Army (2): 1779–83 (1994) • Chartrand, Rene. The French Army in the American War of Independence (1994) • May, Robin. The British Army in North America 1775–1783 (1993) • The Partisan in War, a treatise on light infantry tactics written by Colonel Andreas Emmerich in 1789.

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External links
• Important People of the American Revolutionary War (http://theamericanrevolution.org/people.aspx) • American Revolutionary War History Resources (http://users.snowcrest.net/jmike/amrevmil.html) • Spain's role in the American Revolution from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean (http://www.americanrevolution. org/hispanic.html) • African-American soldiers in the Revolution (http://www.americanrevolution.com/ AfricanAmericansInTheRevolution.htm) • American Revolution & Independence (http://www.besthistorysites.net/USHistory_Independence.shtml) • Liberty – The American Revolution (http://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty/) from PBS • American Revolutionary War 1775–1783 in the News (http://revolutionarywar.cloudworth.com/) • Haldimand Collection (http://www.haldimand-collection.ca) Haldimand Collection, 232 series fully indexed; extensive military correspondence of British generals • Africans in America (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part2/2narr4.html) from PBS • Approval of the American victory in England (http://www.parlington.co.uk/structures.lasso?process=3) Unique arch inscription commemorates "Liberty in N America Triumphant MDCCLXXXIII" • The Spanish and Latin American Contribution to the American Revolutionary War (http://www. ouramericanhistory.com) • The American Revolution as a People’s War (http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1485) by William F. Marina, The Independent Institute, July 1, 1976 • Important battles of the American Revolutionary War (http://theamericanrevolution.org/battles.aspx) • Revolutionary War Movies (http://www.war-films.com/conflict/american-revolution.html) – list of films along with trailers and reviews.

American Revolutionary War

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Bibliographies
• Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/revolution/ home.html) • Bibliographies of the War of American Independence (http://www.history.army.mil/reference/revbib/revwar. htm) compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History • Political bibliography from (http://revolution.h-net.msu.edu/bib.html) Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture

Continental Congress

Continental Congress
First Continental Congress
• • • Declaration and Resolves Continental Association First Petition to the King

Second Continental Congress
• • • • Olive Branch Petition Declaration of the Causes... Declaration of Independence Articles of Confederation

Confederation Congress
• • • Northwest Ordinance Land Ordinance of 1784 Land Ordinance of 1785

Members
• • List of delegates Presidents

The Continental Congress was a convention of delegates called together from the Thirteen Colonies that became the governing body of the United States during the American Revolution. The Congress met from 1774 to 1789 in three incarnations. The first call for a convention was made over issues of mounting taxation without representation in Parliament and because of the British blockade. Though at first somewhat divided on issues concerning independence and a break from Crown rule, the new Congress would come to issue a Declaration of Independence and a Constitution, and proclaim the name United States of America as the name of the new nation. It would establish a Continental Army and also have to endure a war with Britain, before fruition of an independent Constitutional government was fully realized among the American colonies.

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First Continental Congress
The First Continental Congress, which met briefly in Carpenter's Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania from September 5, to October 26, in 1774 and consisted of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies that would become the United States of America. The delegates which included George Washington, then a colonel of the Virginia volunteers, Patrick Henry, and John Adams, were elected by their respective colonial assemblies. Other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts Bay, and Joseph Galloway and John Dickinson from Pennsylvania. Benjamin Franklin had put forth the idea of such a meeting the year before but was unable to convince the colonies of its necessity until the British placed a blockade at the Port of Boston in response to the Boston Tea Party in 1773. All of the colonies sent their delegates except Georgia, who had its own troubles and needed the protection of British soldiers. Most of the delegates were not yet ready to break away from Great Britain, but they wanted the British King and Parliament to act more fairly. Convened in response to the Intolerable Acts passed by the British Parliament in 1774, the delegates organized an economic boycott of Great Britain in protest and petitioned the King for a redress of grievances. The colonies were united in their effort to demonstrate their authority to Great Britain by virtue of their common causes and through their unity, but their ultimate objectives were not consistent. Pennsylvania and New York had sent delegates with firm instructions to pursue a resolution with Great Britain. While the other colonies all held the idea of colonial rights as paramount they were split between those who sought legislative equality with Britain and those who instead favored independence and a break from the Crown and its excesses. On October 26, 1774 the First Continental Congress adjourned but agreed to reconvene in May 1775 if Parliament still did not address their grievances. In London, Parliament debated the merits of meeting the demands made by the colonies; however, it took no official notice of Congress's petitions and addresses. On November 30, 1774, King George III opened Parliament with a speech condemning Massachusetts and the Suffolk Resolves. At that point it became clear that the Continental Congress would have to convene once again.[1] [2] [3]

Second Continental Congress
By the time the Second Continental Congress met on May 10, 1775 in Philadelphia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord had already begun in April, and while delegates were still making their way to Philadelphia, which marked the beginning of the American Revolutionary War. John Hancock from Massachusetts was elected president of the assembly. Congress issued a petition entitled "The Declaration of Rights and Grievances" to King George III, the King of Great Britain. The Delegates adopted a strategy where the colonies would prepare for war while the Congress continued to pursue reconciliation. On July 8 the Congress adopted a petition to the king in the hopes that he would intervene in Parliament on behalf of the colonies. A former governor of Pennsylvania was chosen to carry another petition, approved in July 1775, to London and present it to the king himself but the king refused to see him. On August 23 he issued a proclamation declaring the colonies to be in a state of "open and avowed rebellion." Moderates in the Congress still hoped that the colonies could be reconciled with Great Britain, but a movement towards independence steadily gained ground. On June 17 the Battle of Bunker Hill energized the Patriots; Congress established the Continental Army and appointed George Washington as commander-in-chief in June 1775. On July 4, 1776 Congress issued a Declaration of Independence, ending all American efforts at reconciliation. Congress designed a new government in the Articles of Confederation, which operated as the nation's constitution.[3]

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Confederation Congress
The newly-founded country of the United States next had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament that it was in rebellion against. After much debate, the Americans adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a national government which was made up of a one-house legislature known as the Confederation Congress. Its ratification gave the Congress a new name: the Congress of the Confederation, which met from 1781 to 1789.[4] The Confederation Congress helped guide the United States through the final stages of the Revolutionary War, but during peacetime, the Continental Congress steeply declined in importance. During peacetime, there were two important, long-lasting acts of the Confederation Congress: 1. The passage of the Northwest Ordinance in 1787. This ordinance accepted the abolishment of all claims to the land west of Pennsylvania and north of the Ohio River by the states of Pennsylvania, Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, and the ordinance established Federal control over all of this land in the Northwest Territory -- with the goal that several new states should be created there. In the course of time, this land was divided among Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. 2. After years of frustration, an agreement was reached in 1787 to organize a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia with the mission of writing and proposing a number of amendments to the Articles of Confederation in order to improve the form of government. In reality, the delegates to this Constitutional Convention soon decided that they needed to start over with a blank slate to write a new Constitution of the United States to completely replace the Articles of Confederation. Furthermore, the delegates agreed that the new Federal Government would come into effect upon the ratification of just nine of the States, rather than requiring unanimous consent as the Articles of Confederation did. Hence, the Confederation Congress peacefully planted the seeds of its own demise and replacement. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Confederation Congress had little power to compel the individual states to comply with any of its decisions. More and more prospective delegates elected to the Confederation Congress declined to serve in it. The leading men in each State preferred to serve in the state governments, and thus the Continental Congress had frequent difficulties in establishing a quorum. When the Articles of Confederation were superseded by the Constitution of the United States, the Confederation Congress was superseded by the United States Congress. The Confederation Congress finally set up a suitable administrative structure for the Federal government. It put into operation a departmental system, with ministers of finance, of war, and of foreign affairs. Robert Morris was selected as the new Superintendent of Finance, and then Morris used some ingenuity and initiative -- along with a loan from the French Government -- to deal with his empty treasury and also runaway inflation, for a number of years, in the supply of paper money. As the ambassador to France, Benjamin Franklin not only secured the "bridge loan" for the national budget, but also he persuaded France to send an army of about 6,000 soldiers across the Atlantic Ocean to America -- and also the dispatch of large squadron of French warships under Comte de Grasse to the coasts of Virginia and North Carolina. These French warships proved to be decisive at the Battle of Yorktown along the coast of Virginia by preventing Lord Cornwallis's British troops from receiving supplies, reinforcements, or evacuation via the James River and Hampton Roads, Virginia.[5] Robert Morris, the Minister of Finance, persuaded Congress set up the Bank of North America, in 1782. This bank was privately chartered, but it was funded in part by the loan from France. The Bank of North America played a major role in financing the war against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The combined armies of George Washington and Nathaniel Greene, with the help of the French Army and Navy, defeated the British in the Battle of Yorktown during October 1781. Lord Cornwallis was forced to sue for peace and to surrender his entire army to General Washington. During 1783, the Americans secured the official recognition of the independence of the United States from the United Kingdom via negotiations with British diplomats in Paris,

Continental Congress France. These negotiations culminated with the signing of the Treaty of Paris of 1783, and this treaty was soon ratified by the British Parliament.[4]

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Timeline
1774 • • • • • September 5: First Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia’s Carpenter's Hall. October 14: Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress adopted October 18: Continental Association adopted October 25: First Petition to the King signed October 26: Congress adjourned, resolving to reconvene the following May if grievances are not redressed

1775 • • • • • • • • • April 19: War began at the Battles of Lexington and Concord May 10: Second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia’s State House. June 14: Congress established the Continental Army June 15: Congress appointed one of its members, George Washington, as commander of the Continental Army July 1: King George III Addresses Parliament stating they will "put a speedy end" to the rebellion July 6: Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms approved July 8: Second petition to the king (the Olive Branch Petition) signed October 13: Congress established the Continental Navy November 10: Congress established the Continental Marines

1776 • • • • • • January 10: Thomas Paine publishes Common Sense July 2: Resolution of independence adopted, asserting the independence of the colonies from Britain July 4: Final text of the United States Declaration of Independence approved August 2: Declaration of Independence signed in Congress December 12: Congress adjourns to move to Baltimore, Maryland. December 20: Congress convenes in Baltimore at Henry Fite’s House.

1777 • • • • • • February 27: Congress adjourns to return to Philadelphia. March 4: Congress reconvenes at Philadelphia’s State House. September 18: Congress adjourns in order to move to Lancaster, Pennsylvania. September 27: Congress convenes for one day in Lancaster, at the Court House. September 30: Congress reconvenes at York, Pennsylvania at the Court House. November 15: Congress issues the Articles of Confederation to the states for approval

1778 • June 27: Congress adjourns to return to Philadelphia. • July 2: Congress reconvenes in Philadelphia, first at College Hall, then at the State House. 1781 • March 1: Articles of Confederation go into effect, Congress becomes the Congress of the Confederation. 1783 • June 21: Congress adjourns to move to Princeton, New Jersey. • June 30: Congress reconvenes in Princeton, New Jersey, first at a house named “Prospect,” then Nassau Hall. • November 4: Congress adjourns to move to Annapolis, Maryland. • November 26: Congress reconvenes at Annapolis, in the State House.

Continental Congress 1784 • August 19: Congress adjourns to move to Trenton, New Jersey. • November 1: Congress reconvenes at Trenton, at the French Arms Tavern. • December 24: Congress adjourns to move to New York City 1785 • January 11: Congress reconvenes in New York City, first at City Hall, then at Fraunces Tavern. 1787 • September 17: Philadelphia Convention adjourns after writing the United States Constitution 1788 • July 2: New Hampshire became the ninth state to ratify the US Constitution, thereby allowing for the creation of the new government. • July 8: Continental Congress puts the new Constitution into effect by announcing the dates for the elections and the assembly of the new Congress. • October 10: The last session during which the Continental Congress succeeded in achieving a quorum. The Continental Congress passed its last act on this date.[6] 1789 • March 2: Last session of the Continental Congress at Fraunces Tavern is adjourned sine die. Philip Pell of New York was the sole member in attendance. • March 4: First session of the 1st United States Congress begins at Federal Hall. • April 30: George Washington inaugurated as first President of the United States. • July 23: Charles Thomson transmitted to President Washington his resignation of the office of Secretary of Congress. • July 25: In accordance with President Washington's directions, "the books, records, and papers of the late Congress, the Great Seal of the Federal Union, and the Seal of the Admiralty" were delivered over to Roger Alden, deputy secretary of the new Congress, who had been designated by President Washington as custodian for the time being.[7]

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References
[1] "First Continental Congress" (http:/ / www. ushistory. org/ declaration/ related/ congress. htm). Independence Hall Association, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. . Retrieved October 22, 2010. [2] "The 1st Continental Congress, Lexington" (http:/ / www. u-s-history. com/ pages/ h650. html). Founding Fathers.info. . Retrieved October 23, 2010. [3] "The Second Continental Congress" (http:/ / www. masshist. org/ revolution/ congress2. php). Massachusetts Historical Society. . Retrieved October 23, 2010. [4] "Confederation Congress" (http:/ / ohiohistorycentral. org/ entry. php?rec=2327). Ohio Historical Society. . Retrieved October 23, 2010. [5] Joseph J. Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington (2004) p 131 [6] Taylor, Hannis. The Origin and Growth of the American Constitution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WnxDAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA268& dq="March+ 2,+ 1789"+ and+ "Philip+ Pell"& hl=en& ei=Mm-tTJSsLIG78gb28tS4BA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q="March 2, 1789" and "Philip Pell"& f=false), page 268 (1911). [7] Burnett, Continental Congress, 726.

Continental Congress

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Further reading
• Burnett, Edward Cody (1941). The Continental Congress. New York: Norton. • Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard A. Ryerson, eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol. 2006) 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics • Henderson, H. James (1974). Party Politics in the Continental Congress. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0070281432. • Horgan, Lucille E. Forged in War: The Continental Congress and the Origin of Military Supply and Acquisition Policy (2002) • Irvin, Benjamin H. Clothed in Robes of Sovereignty: The Continental Congress and the People Out of Doors (Oxford University Press; 2011) 378 pages; analyzes the ritual and material culture used by the Continental Congress to assert its legitimacy and rally a wary public. • Jensen, Merrill. The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774-1781 (1959) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/ Articles-Confederation-Interpretation-Social-Constitutional-Revolution/dp/0299002047/) • Rakove, Jack N. (1979). The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0801828643. • Resch, John P., ed. Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 1 (2005), articles by scholars

Primary sources
• Smith, Paul H., ed. Letters of Delegates to Congress, 1774–1789. 26 volumes. Washington: Library of Congress, 1976–1998.

External links
• Journals of the Continental Congress (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwjc.html), September 5, 1774 to March 2, 1789

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Battles
List of American Revolutionary War battles
This is a list of military actions in the American Revolutionary War. Actions marked with an asterisk involved no casualties.

Major campaigns, theaters, and expeditions of the war
• • • • • • • • • • • Boston campaign (1774–76) Invasion of Canada (1775–76) New York and New Jersey campaigns (1776–77) Saratoga campaign (1777) Philadelphia campaign (1777–78) Yorktown campaign (1781) Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga (1778–81) West Indies and Gulf Coast campaigns (1779–82) Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War (1775–83) Western theater of the American Revolutionary War (1779–82) Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War

Battles (in chronological order)
1774
• Powder Alarm – September 1, 1774*

1775
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • Battles of Lexington and Concord – April 19, 1775 Siege of Boston – April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776 Gunpowder Incident – April 20, 1775* Capture of Fort Ticonderoga – May 10, 1775* Battle of Chelsea Creek – May 27–28, 1775 Battle of Machias – June 11–12, 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill – June 17, 1775 (also known as the Battle of Breed's Hill) Battle of Gloucester, MA – August 8, 1775 Shelling of Stonington – August 30, 1775 Siege of Fort St. Jean – September 17 – November 3, 1775 (also called St. John's) Burning of Falmouth – October 18, 1775* Battle of Kemp's Landing – November 14, 1775 Battle of Great Bridge – December 9, 1775 Snow Campaign - December 23, 1775

• Battle of Quebec – December 31, 1775

List of American Revolutionary War battles

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1776
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Burning of Norfolk – January 1, 1776 Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge – February 27, 1776 Battle of the Rice Boats – March 2–3, 1776 Battle of Nassau – March 3–4, 1776 Fortification of Dorchester Heights – March 4, 1776* Battle of Saint-Pierre – March 25, 1776 Battle of Block Island – April 6, 1776 Battle of The Cedars – May 18–27, 1776 Battle of Trois-Rivières – June 8, 1776 Battle of Sullivan's Island – June 28, 1776 Battle of Long Island – August 27, 1776 (also known as the Battle of Brooklyn) Landing at Kip's Bay – September 15, 1776 Battle of Harlem Heights – September 16, 1776 Battle of Valcour Island – October 11, 1776 (naval battle) Battle of White Plains – October 28, 1776 Battle of Fort Cumberland – November 10–29, 1776 Battle of Fort Washington – November 16, 1776 Ambush of Geary – December 14, 1776 Battle of Iron Works Hill – December 22–23, 1776 (also known as the Battle of Mount Holly) Battle of Trenton – December 26, 1776

1777
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Second Battle of Trenton – January 2, 1777 Battle of Princeton – January 3, 1777 Battle of Millstone – January 20, 1777 Forage War – Winter 1777 Battle of Bound Brook – April 13, 1777 Battle of Ridgefield – April 27, 1777 (also known as the Danbury Raid) Battle of Thomas Creek – May 17, 1777 Meigs Raid – May 24, 1777 (also known as the Battle of Sag Harbor) Battle of Short Hills – June 26, 1777 (also known as the Battle of Metuchen Meetinghouse) Siege of Fort Ticonderoga – July 5 – 6, 1777 Battle of Hubbardton – July 7, 1777 Battle of Fort Ann – July 8, 1777 Siege of Fort Stanwix – August 2 – 23, 1777 Battle of Oriskany – August 6, 1777 Second Battle of Machias – August 13 – 14, 1777 Battle of Bennington – August 16, 1777 Battle of Staten Island – August 22, 1777 Battle of Setauket – August 22, 1777 First Siege of Fort Henry – September, 1777 Battle of Cooch's Bridge – September 3, 1777 Battle of Brandywine – September 11, 1777

• Battle of the Clouds – September 16, 1777 • Battle of Saratoga I – September 19, 1777 (also known as the Battle of Freeman's Farm) • Battle of Paoli – September 21, 1777

List of American Revolutionary War battles • • • • • • • • Siege of Fort Mifflin – September 26 – November 15, 1777 Battle of Germantown – October 4, 1777 Battle of Forts Clinton and Montgomery – October 6, 1777 Battle of Saratoga II – October 7, 1777 (also known as the Battle of Bemis Heights) Battle of Red Bank – October 22, 1777 (also known as the Battle of Fort Mercer) Battle of Gloucester, NJ – November 25, 1777 Battle of White Marsh – December 5–8, 1777 Battle of Matson's Ford – December 11, 1777

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1778
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Battle off Barbados – March 7, 1778 Battle of Quinton's Bridge – March 18, 1778 North Channel Naval Duel – April 24, 1778 Battle of Crooked Billet – May 1, 1778 Battle of Barren Hill – May 20, 1778 Mount Hope Bay raids – May 25 and 30, 1778 Battle of Monmouth – June 28, 1778 Battle of Alligator Bridge – June 30, 1778 Wyoming Massacre – July 3, 1778 First Battle of Ushant – July 27, 1778 Siege of Pondicherry – August 21 – October 19, 1778 Battle of Rhode Island – August 29, 1778 (also known as Battle of Newport or Quaker Hill) Grey's raid – September 5–17, 1778 Invasion of Dominica – September 7, 1778 Siege of Boonesborough – September 7–18, 1778 Baylor Massacre – September 27, 1778 Battle of Chestnut Neck – October 6, 1778 Little Egg Harbor massacre – October 16, 1778 Carleton's Raid – October 24 – November 14, 1778 Cherry Valley Massacre – November 11, 1778 Battle of St. Lucia – December 15, 1778 (naval battle) Capture of St. Lucia – December 18–28, 1778 Capture of Savannah – December 29, 1778

1779
• • • • • • • • • Battle of Beaufort – February 3, 1779 (also known as the Battle of Port Royal Island) Battle of Kettle Creek – February 14, 1779 Battle of Vincennes – February 23–25, 1779 Battle of Brier Creek – March 3, 1779 Battle of Chillicothe – May, 1779 Chesapeake raid – May 10–24, 1779 Armada of 1779 – June – September, 1779 Capture of Saint Vincent – June 16–18, 1779 Battle of Stono Ferry – June 20, 1779

• Great Siege of Gibraltar – June 24, 1779 – February 7, 1783 • Capture of Grenada – July 2, 1779 • Tryon's raid – July 5–14, 1779

List of American Revolutionary War battles • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Battle of Grenada – July 6, 1779 Battle of Stony Point – July 16, 1779 Penobscot Expedition – July 24 – August 29, 1779 Battle of Paulus Hook – August 19, 1779 Battle of Newtown – August 29, 1779 Capture of Fort Bute – September 7, 1779 Battle of Lake Pontchartrain – September 10, 1779 Action of 14 September 1779 – September 14, 1779 Siege of Savannah – September 16 – October 18, 1779 Battle of Baton Rouge – September 20–21, 1779 Battle of Flamborough Head – September 23, 1779 Battle of San Fernando de Omoa – October 16 – November 29, 1779 Action of 11 November 1779 – November 11, 1779 First Battle of Martinique – December 18, 1779

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1780
• Action of 8 January 1780 – January 8, 1780 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Battle of Cape St. Vincent – January 16, 1780 Battle of Young's House – February 3, 1780 San Juan Expedition – March – November 1780 Battle of Fort Charlotte – March 2–14, 1780 Siege of Charleston – March 29 – May 12, 1780 Battle of Monck's Corner – April 14, 1780 Second Battle of Martinique – April 17, 1780 Battle of Lenud's Ferry – May 6, 1780 Bird's invasion of Kentucky – May 25 – August, 1780 Battle of St. Louis – May 25, 1780 Battle of Waxhaws – May 29, 1780 Battle of Connecticut Farms – June 7, 1780 Battle of Mobley's Meeting House – June 10?, 1780 Battle of Ramsour's Mill – June 20, 1780 Battle of Springfield, NJ – June 23, 1780 Huck's Defeat – July 12, 1780 Battle of Colson's Mill – July 21, 1780 Battle of Rocky Mount – August 1, 1780 Battle of Hanging Rock – August 6, 1780 Battle of Pekowee – August 8, 1780 (also known as the Battle of Piqua) Action of 9 August 1780 – August 9, 1780 Battle of Camden – August 16, 1780 Battle of Fishing Creek – August 18, 1780 Battle of Musgrove Mill – August 18, 1780 Battle of Black Mingo – August 28, 1780 Battle of Wahab's Plantation – September 20, 1780 Battle of Charlotte – September 26, 1780 Battle of Kings Mountain – October 7, 1780

• Royalton Raid – October 16, 1780 • Battle of Klock's Field – October 19, 1780

List of American Revolutionary War battles • • • • La Balme's Defeat – November 5, 1780 Battle of Fishdam Ford – November 9, 1780 Battle of Blackstock's Farm – November 20, 1780 Battle of Fort St. George – November 23, 1780

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1781
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Battle of Jersey – January 6, 1781 Battle of Mobile – January 7, 1781 Battle of Cowpens – January 17, 1781 Battle of Cowan's Ford – February 1, 1781 Capture of Sint Eustatius – February 3, 1781 Battle of Haw River – February 25, 1781 Battle of Wetzell's Mill – March 6, 1781 Battle of Pensacola – March 9 – May 8, 1781 Battle of Guilford Court House – March 15, 1781 Battle of Cape Henry – March 16, 1781 Siege of Fort Watson – April 15 – 23, 1781 Battle of Porto Praya – April 15, 1781 Battle of Blanford – April 25, 1781 (also known as the Battle of Petersburg) Battle of Hobkirk's Hill – April 25, 1781 (also known as the Second Battle of Camden) Battle of Fort Royal – April 29 or 30, 1781 Action of 1 May 1781 – May 1, 1781 Battle of Fort Motte – May 8–12, 1781 Siege of Augusta – May 22 – June 6, 1781 Siege of Ninety-Six – May 22 – June 19, 1781 Action of 30 May 1781 – May 30, 1781 Battle of Spencer's Ordinary – June 26, 1781 Francisco's Fight – July, 1781 Battle of Green Spring – July 6, 1781 Naval battle of Louisbourg – July 21, 1781 Battle of Dogger Bank – August 5, 1781 Invasion of Minorca – August 19, 1781 – February 5, 1782 Lochry's Defeat – August 24, 1781 Capture of USS Trumbull – August 29, 1781 Battle of the Chesapeake – September 5, 1781 Battle of Groton Heights – September 6, 1781 (also known as the Battle of Fort Griswold) Battle of Eutaw Springs – September 8, 1781 Battle of Lindley's Mill – September 13, 1781 Long Run Massacre – September 13, 1781 Siege of Yorktown – September 28 – October 19, 1781 Battle of Fort Slongo – October 3, 1781 Siege of Negapatam – October 21 – November 11, 1781 Battle of Johnstown – October 25, 1781 Second Battle of Ushant – December 12, 1781

List of American Revolutionary War battles

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1782
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Siege of Brimstone Hill – January 5 – February 12, 1782 Capture of Trincomalee – January 11, 1782 Capture of Demerara and Essequibo – January 22 – February 5, 1782 Battle of Saint Kitts – January 25–26, 1782 Battle of Sadras – February 17, 1782 Capture of Montserrat – February 22, 1782 Gnadenhütten massacre – March 8, 1782 Battle of Roatán – March 16, 1782 Action of 16 March 1782 – March 16, 1782 Battle of Little Mountain – March 22, 1782 Battle of Delaware Bay – April 8, 1782 Battle of the Saintes – April 9–12, 1782 Battle of Providien – April 12, 1782 Battle of the Black River – April 13 – August 23, 1782 Battle of the Mona Passage – April 19, 1782 Action of 20–21 April 1782 – April 20–21, 1782 Capture of the Bahamas – May, 1782 Crawford expedition – May 25 – June 12, 1782 Naval battle off Halifax – May 28–29, 1782 Raid on Lunenburg – July 1, 1782 Battle of Negapatam – July 6, 1782 Battle of Piqua – August 8, 1782 Hudson Bay Expedition – August 8, 1782 Siege of Bryan Station – August 15–17, 1782 Battle of Blue Licks – August 19, 1782 Battle of the Combahee River – August 26, 1782 Battle of Trincomalee – August 25 – September 3, 1782 Siege of Fort Henry – September 11–13, 1782 Action of 18 October 1782 – October 18, 1782 Battle of Cape Spartel – October 20, 1782 Action of 6 December 1782 – December 6, 1782 Action of 12 December 1782 – December 12, 1782

1783
• • • • • Action of 22 January 1783 – January 22, 1783 Capture of the Turks and Caicos Islands – February 12, 1783 Capture of the Bahamas – April 14–18, 1783 Battle of Cuddalore – June 20, 1783 (naval battle) Siege of Cuddalore – June 7–25, 1783 (land siege)

Battle of Bennington

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Battle of Bennington
The Battle of Bennington was a battle of the American Revolutionary War that took place on August 16, 1777, in Walloomsac, New York, about 10 miles (16 km) from its namesake Bennington, Vermont. A rebel force of 2,000 men, primarily composed of New Hampshire and Massachusetts militiamen, led by General John Stark, and reinforced by men led by Colonel Seth Warner and members of the Green Mountain Boys, decisively defeated a detachment of General John Burgoyne's army led by Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum, and supported by additional men under Lieutenant Colonel Heinrich von Breymann. Baum's detachment was a mixed force of 700 composed of dismounted Brunswick dragoons, Canadians, Loyalists, and Indians. He was sent by Burgoyne to raid Bennington in the disputed New Hampshire Grants area for horses, draft animals, and other supplies. Believing the town to be only lightly defended, Burgoyne and Baum were unaware that Stark and 1,500 militiamen were stationed there. After a rain-caused standoff, Stark's men enveloped Baum's position, taking many prisoners, and killing Baum. Reinforcements for both sides arrived as Stark and his men were mopping up, and the battle restarted, with Warner and Stark driving away Breymann's reinforcements with heavy casualties. The battle was an important victory for the rebel cause, as it reduced Burgoyne's army in size by almost 1,000 men, led his Indian support to largely abandon him, and deprived him of needed supplies, all factors that contributed to Burgoyne's eventual surrender at Saratoga. The victory also galvanized colonial support for the independence movement, and played a role in bringing France into the war on the rebel side. The battle anniversary is celebrated in the state of Vermont as Bennington Battle Day.

Background
After the British victories at Hubbardton, Fort Ticonderoga, and Fort Anne, General John Burgoyne's plan for the 1777 Saratoga campaign was to capture Albany and gain control of the Hudson River Valley, dividing the American colonies in half. This was part of a grand plan to separate the rebellious New England colonies from the (believed) more loyal southern colonies via a three-way pincer movement.[1] The western pincer, under the command of Barry St. Leger, was repulsed when the Siege of Fort Stanwix failed,[2] and the southern pincer, which was to progress up the Hudson valley from New York City, never started since General William Howe decided instead to capture Philadelphia.[3]

British forces
Burgoyne's progress towards Albany had initially met with great success, including the scattering of Seth Warner's men in the Battle of Hubbardton. However, his advance had slowed to a crawl by late July, due to logistical difficulties, exacerbated by the American destruction of a key road, and the army's supplies began to dwindle.[4] Burgoyne's concern over supplies was magnified in early August when he received word from Howe that he was going to Philadelphia, and was not in fact going to advance up the Hudson River valley.[5] In response to a proposal first made on July 22 by the commander of his German troops, Baron Riedesel,[6] Burgoyne sent a detachment of about 800 troops under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Friedrich Baum from Fort Miller on a foraging mission to acquire horses for the German dragoons, draft animals to assist in moving the army, and to harass the enemy.[4] Baum's detachment was primarily made up of dismounted Brunswick dragoons of the Prinz Ludwig regiment. Along the way it was joined by local companies of Loyalists, some Canadians and about 100 Indians, and a company of British sharpshooters.[7] Baum was originally ordered to proceed to the Connecticut River valley where they believed horses could be procured for the dragoons.[8] However, as Baum was preparing to leave, Burgoyne verbally changed the goal to be a supply depot at Bennington, which was believed to be guarded by the remnants of Warner's brigade, about 400 colonial militia.[9]

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American forces
Unknown to Burgoyne, the citizens of the New Hampshire Grants territory (which was then disputed between New York and the Vermont Republic) had appealed to the states of New Hampshire and Massachusetts for protection from the invading army following the British capture of Ticonderoga.[10] New Hampshire responded on July 18 by authorizing John Stark to raise a militia for the defense of the people "or the annoyance of the enemy".[4] [11] Using funds provided by John Langdon, Stark raised 1,500 New Hampshire militiamen in the space of six days, more than ten percent of New Hampshire's male population over the age of sixteen.[12] They were first marched to the Fort at Number 4 (modern Charlestown, New Hampshire), then crossed the river border into the Grants and stopped at General John Stark Manchester, where Stark conferred with Warner.[4] [10] While in Manchester, General Benjamin Lincoln, whose promotion in preference to Stark had been the cause for Stark's resignation from the Continental Army, attempted to assert Army authority over Stark and his men.[13] Stark refused, stating that he was solely responsible to the New Hampshire authorities.[4] Stark then went on to Bennington with Warner as a guide, while Warner's men remained in Manchester.[14] Lincoln returned to the American camp at Stillwater, where he and General Philip Schuyler hatched a plan for Lincoln, with 500 men, to join with Stark and Warner in actions to harass Burgoyne's communications and supply lines at Skenesboro. Baum's movements significantly altered these plans.[15]

Prelude
Baum's Germans left Burgoyne's camp at Fort Edward on August 9 and marched to Fort Miller, where they waited until they were joined by the Indians and a company of British marksmen. The company marched off toward Bennington on August 11.[16] In minor skirmishes along the way they learned from prisoners taken that a sizable force was in place at Bennington.[17] On August 14 Baum's men encountered a detachment of Stark's men that had been sent out to investigate reports of Indians in the area. Stark's men retreated, destroying a bridge to delay Baum's advance. Stark, on receiving word of the approaching force, sent a request to Manchester for support, and then moved his troops out of Bennington toward Baum's force, setting up a defensive line.[14] Baum sent a message to Burgoyne following the first contact indicating that the American force was larger than expected, but that it was likely to retreat before him. He then advanced a few miles further until he neared Stark's position. He then realized that at least part of his first message was incorrect, so he sent a second message to Burgoyne, requesting reinforcements.[18]

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It rained for the next day and a half, preventing battle. During this time, Baum's men constructed a small redoubt at the crest of the hill and hoped that the weather would prevent the Americans from attacking before reinforcements arrived.[14] Stark sent out skirmishers to probe the German lines, and managed to kill thirty Indians in spite of the difficulties of keeping their gunpowder dry.[19] [20] Reinforcements for both sides marched out on the 15th; travel was quite An early 20th-century map depicting the battlefield difficult due to the heavy rains. Burgoyne sent 550 men under Heinrich von Breymann, while Warner's company of about 350 Green Mountain Boys came south from Manchester under Lieutenant Samuel Safford's command.[14] [21] Late on the night of August 15, Stark was awakened by the arrival of Parson Thomas Allen and a band of Massachusetts militiamen from nearby Berkshire County who insisted on joining his force. In response to the minister's fiery threat that his men would never come out again if they were not allowed to participate, Stark is reported to have said, "Would you go now on this dark and rainy night? Go back to your people and tell them to get some rest if they can, and if the Lord gives us sunshine to-morrow and I do not give you fighting enough, I will never call on you to come again."[22] Stark's forces again swelled the next day with the arrival of some Stockbridge Indians, bringing his force (excluding Warner's men) to nearly 2,000 men.[23] Stark was not the only beneficiary of unexpected reinforcements. Baum's force grew by almost 100 when a group of local Loyalists arrived in his camp on the morning of August 16.[24]

Battle
On the afternoon of August 16, the weather cleared, and Stark ordered his men to be ready to attack. Stark is reputed to have rallied his troops by saying, "There are your enemies, the Red Coats and the Tories. They are ours, or this night Molly Stark sleeps a widow."[25] Upon hearing that the militia had melted away into the woods, Baum assumed that the Americans were retreating or redeploying.[26] However, Stark had decided to capitalize on weaknesses in the German's widely distributed position, and had sent sizable flanking parties to either side of his lines.[14] These movements were assisted by a ruse employed by Stark's men that enabled them to safely get closer without alarming the Battle of Bennington, c. 1900 opposing forces. The Germans, most of whom spoke no English, had been told that soldiers with bits of white paper in their hat were Loyalists, and should not be fired on; Stark's men had also heard this and many of them had suitably adorned their hats.[26] When the fighting broke out around 3:00 PM the German position was immediately surrounded by gunfire, which Stark described as "the hottest engagement I have ever witnessed, resembling a continual clap of thunder."[27] The Loyalists and Indian positions were overrun, causing many of them to flee or surrender. This left Baum and his Brunswick dragoons trapped alone on the high ground. The Germans fought valiantly even after running low on

Battle of Bennington powder and the destruction of their ammunition wagon. In desperation the dragoons led a sabre charge in an attempt to break through the enveloping forces. Baum was mortally wounded in this final charge, and the remaining Germans surrendered.[26] After the battle ended, while Stark's militiamen were busy disarming the prisoners and looting their supplies, Breymann arrived with his reinforcements. Seeing the Americans in disarray, they immediately pressed their attack. After hastily regrouping, Stark's forces tried to hold their ground against the new German onslaught, but began to fall back. Before their lines collapsed, Warner's men arrived on the scene to reinforce Stark's troops. Pitched battle continued until dark, when both sides disengaged. Breymann began a hasty retreat; he had lost one quarter of his force and all of his artillery pieces.[26]

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Aftermath
Total German and British losses at Bennington were recorded at 207 dead and 700 captured;[29] American losses included 30 Americans dead and 40 wounded.[] The battle was at times particularly brutal when Loyalists met Patriots, as in some cases they came from the same communities.[30] The prisoners, who were first kept in Bennington, were eventually marched to Boston.[31]
The Bennington flag was long incorrectly [28] believed to have flown during the battle.

Burgoyne's army was readying to cross the Hudson at Fort Edward on August 17 when the first word of the battle arrived. Believing that reinforcements might be necessary, Burgoyne marched the army toward Bennington until further word arrived that Breymann and the remnants of his force were returning. Stragglers continued to arrive throughout the day and night, while word of the disaster spread within the camp.[32] The effect on Burgoyne's campaign was significant. Not only had he lost nearly 1,000 men, of which half were regulars, but he also lost the crucial Indian support. In a council following the battle, many of the Indians (who had traveled with him from Quebec) decided to go home. This loss severely hampered Burgoyne's reconnaissance efforts in the days to come.[29] The failure to bring in nearby supplies meant that he had to rely on supply lines that were already dangerously long, and that he eventually broke in September.[33] The shortage of supplies was a significant factor in his decision to surrender at Saratoga,[34] following which France entered the war.[35]

The Bennington Battle Monument in Bennington, Vermont

American Patriots reacted to news of the battle with optimism. Especially after Burgoyne's Indian screen left him, small groups of local Patriots began to emerge to harass the fringes of British positions.[36] Interestingly, a significant portion of Stark's force returned home[37] and did not again become influential in the campaign until appearing at Saratoga on October 13 to complete the encirclement of Burgoyne's army.[38] John Stark's reward from the New Hampshire General Assembly for "the Memorable Battle of Bennington" was "a compleat suit of Clothes becoming his Rank".[39] A reward that Stark likely valued the highest was a message of thanks from John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress, which included a commission as "brigadier in the army of the United States".[39]

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Commemorations
August 16 is a legal holiday in Vermont, known as Bennington Battle Day.[40] The battlefield, now a New York state historic site, was designated a National Historic Landmark on January 20, 1961, and added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.[41] [42] In the 1870s, the local historic society in Bennington commissioned the design and construction of the Bennington Battle Monument, which was complete in 1889 and dedicated in 1891 with ceremonies attended by President Benjamin Harrison. The Monument, an obelisk 306 feet (93 m) high, is also listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[42] [43] Although the monument was not ready in time to mark the centennial of the battle, the 100th anniversary of the battle was marked by speeches attended by President Rutherford B. Hayes.[44]

Historic Marker marking the Bennington Battlefield Park

Order of battle
The battle forces are generally described as in Morrissey.[45] [46] His numbers are generally consistent with other sources on the British units, although there is disagreement across a wide array of sources on the number of troops under Breymann, which are generally listed at either approximately 550 or 650.[14] [21] Morrissey is also incorrect in identifying some of the American units. He identifies William Gregg as having a separate command; Gregg apparently led several companies in Nichols' regiment.[47] Morrissey also failed to include the Massachusetts militia,[48] and misidentified Langdon's company, erroneously believing they may have been from Worcester, Massachusetts.[49] (Militia companies from the Worcester area marched on Bennington, with some companies arriving the day after the battle.)[50] Langdon originally raised his company in 1776, but it did not become a cavalry unit until 1778.[51]

American troops
New Hampshire militia regiments Hobart's Regiment of Militia 150 Nichols' Regiment of Militia 550 Stickney's Regiment of Militia 150 Langdon's Company of Light Horse Volunteers (number unknown, were infantry at the time) Additional New Hampshire militia 1,000 Vermont militia regiments Herrick's Regiment 300 Additional Vermont Rangers 200 Massachusetts militia regiments Simonds' Regiment of Militia (number unknown) Continental Regiments Warner's Additional Continental Regiment (Green Mountain Boys, commanded by Safford) 150

British troops
Baum's forces Prinz Ludwig Dragoons 205 Grenadiers 24 Light infantry 57 Line infantry (from regiments of Riedesel, Specht, and Rhetz) 37 Hesse-Hanau artillery 13 Queen's Loyal Rangers (Peters) over 150 British marksmen 48 Local Loyalists (Pfister, Covel) over 150 Canadians 56 Indians (Lanaudière, Campbell) over 100 Breymann's forces Grenadiers 353 Light infantry 277 Hesse-Hanau artillery 20

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Notes
[1] Ketchum (1997), pp. 84–85 [2] Ketchum (1997), p. 335 [3] Ketchum (1997), p. 82 [4] Pancake (1977), p. 135 [5] Ketchum (1997), p. 283 [6] Nickerson (1967), p. 233 [7] Nickerson (1967), p. 239 [8] Nickerson (1967), pp. 235–238. Contains a transcription of Burgoyne's order to Baum. [9] Nickerson (1967), p. 240 [10] Nickerson (1967), p. 224 [11] Ketchum (1997), pp. 285–287 [12] Ketchum (1997), p. 287 [13] Nickerson (1967), p. 232 [14] Pancake (1977), p. 136 [15] Ketchum (1997), p. 290 [16] Ketchum (1997), p. 296 [17] Ketchum (1997), p. 297 [18] Nickerson (1967), p. 243 [19] Nickerson (1967), pp. 244–245 [20] Ketchum (1997), p. 303 [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] Nickerson (1967), p. 245 Nickerson (1967), pp. 246–247 Nickerson (1967), p. 247 Nickerson (1967), p. 249 Crockett (1921), p. 125 Pancake (1977), p. 138 Ketchum (1997), p. 307 A history of the Bennington Flag Pancake (1977), p. 139 Ketchum (1997), pp. 297, 325 Ketchum (1997), p. 326 Ketchum (1997), p. 321 Ketchum (1997), pp. 323, 340–341 Ketchum (1997), p. 418 Nickerson (1967), p. 411 Nickerson (1967), pp. 268–269 Nickerson (1967), p. 265 Nickerson (1967), pp. 385–386 Ketchum (1997), p. 327 Vermont State Holidays NHL summary listing National Register Information System Bennington Battle Monument Bartlett (1894), p. 445 Morrissey (2000), p. 22 (British forces) Morrissey (2000), pp. 25–26 (American forces) Griffin (1904), p. 226 Niles (1912), p. 337 Morrissey (2000), pp. 26 Worcester Historic Society (1881), p. 136 Head (1866), p. 333

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References
• Bartlett, Samuel Colcord (1894). Anniversary Addresses (http://books.google.com/ books?id=VlQNAAAAYAAJ). Boston: Congregational Sunday School and Publishing Society. OCLC 844053. • Crockett, Walter Hill (1921). Vermont: The Green Mountain State, volume 2 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=07oMAAAAYAAJ). New York: The Century history company. OCLC 9412165. • Griffin, Simon Goodell; Whitcomb,Frank H;Applegate, Octavius (1904). A History of the Town of Keene from 1732 (http://books.google.com/books?id=8ZYDEDFOQPkC). Sentinel Printing. OCLC 887449. • Head, Natt (Adjutant-General) (1866). Report of the Adjutant-General for the year ending June 1, 1866 (http:// books.google.com/books?id=_3UUAAAAYAAJ). Concord, NH: G.E. Jenks. OCLC 35852277. • Ketchum, Richard M (1997). Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 9780805061239. OCLC 41397623. • Morrissey, Brendan (2000). Saratoga 1777: Turning Point of a Revolution. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781855328624. OCLC 43419003. • Nickerson, Hoffman (1967 (first published in 1928)). The Turning Point of the Revolution. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat. OCLC 549809. • Niles, Grace Greylock (1912). The Hoosac Valley: its legends and its history (http://books.google.com/ books?id=c-F4AAAAMAAJ). G.P. Putnam's Sons. OCLC 4293711. • Pancake, John S (1977). 1777: The Year of the Hangman. University, Alabama: University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0-8173-5112-4. OCLC 2680864. • Worcester Historical Society (1881). Collections of the Worcester Society of Antiquity, Volume 1 (http://books. google.com/books?id=4-07AAAAIAAJ). Worcester Historical Society. OCLC 10840331. • "A history of the Bennington Flag" (http://www.benningtonmuseum.org/flag.html). Bennington Museum. Retrieved 2009-04-14. • "Vermont State Holidays" (http://www.vermontpersonnel.org/htm/holiday.php). Vermont Department of Human Resources. Retrieved 2009-05-24. • "Bennington Battle Monument" (http://www.bennington.com/chamber/walking/monumentdescription.html). Bennington Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved 2009-04-29. • "National Register Information System" (http://nrhp.focus.nps.gov/natreg/docs/All_Data.html). National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2007-01-23. • "Bennington Battlefield" (http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=407&ResourceType=Site). National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. 2007-09-08. Retrieved 2009-04-29.

External links
• The Battle of Bennington: An American Victory, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan (http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/107bennington/107bennington.htm) • Official Battlefield page (http://nysparks.state.ny.us/sites/info.asp?siteID=3) • The Riflemen's Song at Bennington (http://sniff.numachi.com/pages/tiRIFLEBEN;ttRIFLEBEN.html)

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Battle of Blue Licks
The Battle of Blue Licks, fought on August 19, 1782, was one of the last battles of the American Revolutionary War. The battle occurred ten months after Lord Cornwallis's famous surrender at Yorktown, which had effectively ended the war in the east. On a hill next to the Licking River in what is now Robertson County, Kentucky (but was then in Kentucky County, Virginia), a force of about 50 American and Canadian Loyalists along with 300 American Indians ambushed and routed 182 Kentucky militiamen. It was the worst defeat for the Kentuckians during the frontier war.

Background
Caldwell's expedition
Although a British army under Lord Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781, the war on the western frontier continued. Aided by the British stationed at Fort Detroit, American Indians north of the Ohio River redoubled their efforts to drive American settlers out of western Virginia (what is now Kentucky and West Virginia). In July 1782, a large meeting was held at the Shawnee villages near the headwaters of the Mad River in the Ohio Country, with Shawnees, Delawares, Mingos, Wyandots, Miamis, Ottawas, Ojibwas, and Potawatomis in attendance. A force of 150 British rangers under Captain William Caldwell (of Butler's Rangers) and 1,100 Indians supervised by Pennsylvania Loyalists Alexander McKee, Simon Girty, and Matthew Elliott was sent against Wheeling on the Ohio River. This would have been one of the largest forces sent against the American settlements during the war. This expedition was called off, however, after scouts reported that George Rogers Clark, whom the Indians feared more than any other American commander, was preparing to invade the Ohio Country from Kentucky. Caldwell's army returned to the Mad River to intercept the invasion, but Clark's army never materialized. As it turned out, the rumors were false: Clark had a large boat patrolling the Ohio River, but he was not prepared to launch an expedition. Frustrated with this turn of events, most of the American Indians dispersed.

Bryan Station
With the remaining force of approximately 50 American and Canadian Loyalists along with 300 American Indians, Caldwell and McKee crossed into the Kentucky territory. They hoped to surprise the settlement of Bryan Station, but the settlers had learned of the approach of the army and taken refuge within their fort. Caldwell and McKee's force laid siege to Bryan Station on August 15, 1782, but withdrew two days later when they learned that a force of Kentucky militia was on the way. Caldwell's force had 5 killed and 2 wounded.[1]

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The Kentucky militia who came to the relief of Bryan Station on August 18 consisted of about 47 men from Fayette County and about 135 from Lincoln County. The highest-ranking officer, Colonel John Todd of the Fayette militia, was in overall command; under him were two lieutenant colonels, Stephen Trigg of Lincoln County and Daniel Boone of Fayette County. Benjamin Logan, colonel of the Lincoln militia, was still gathering men and was not present. The officers discussed whether to pursue the enemy force immediately before it could escape across the Ohio River or to wait for Colonel Logan to arrive with reinforcements. Major Hugh McGary recommended waiting for Logan, but he was overruled by Colonel Todd, who shamed McGary by suggesting that he was timid. The Kentuckians therefore pursued the retreating British and Indian force, covering nearly 40 miles (60 km) on horseback over an old buffalo trail before making camp.

Battle

The Kentuckians reached the Licking River on the morning of August 19, near a spring and salt lick known as the Lower Blue Licks. On the other side of the river, a few Indian scouts could be seen. Behind the Indians was a hill around which the river made a loop. Colonel Todd called a council and asked Boone, the most experienced woodsman, for his opinion. Boone, who had been growing increasingly suspicious of the obvious trail the Indians had been leaving, advised his fellow officers that the Indians were trying to draw them into an ambush. Major McGary, apparently eager to prove that he was not a coward as Todd's earlier criticism had suggested, urged an immediate attack. He mounted his horse and rode across the ford in the river, shouting, "Them that ain't cowards, follow me." Men began to follow, as did the officers, who hoped to at least make an orderly attack. "We are all slaughtered men," said Boone as he crossed the river. On the other side of the river, most of the men dismounted and formed into a battle line of three or four divisions. They advanced up the hill, Todd and McGary in the center, Trigg on the right, Boone on the left. As Boone had suspected, Caldwell's force was waiting on the other side of the hill, concealed in ravines. As the Kentuckians reached the summit, the Indians opened fire with devastating effect. After only five minutes, the center and right of the Kentucky line gave way; only Boone's men on the left managed to push forward. Todd and Trigg, easy targets on horseback, were quickly shot down. The Kentuckians began to flee wildly back down the hill, fighting hand-to-hand with the Indians who had flanked them. McGary rode up to Boone's company and told him that everyone was retreating and that Boone was now surrounded. Boone gathered his men for a withdrawal. He grabbed a riderless horse and ordered his son, Israel Boone, to mount and make an escape. Israel refused to leave his father, however, and was shot through the neck as Daniel searched for another horse. Boone saw that his son's wound was mortal, mounted the horse, and fled. According to legend, Boone hid his son's body before leaving, but in reality there was no time.

This 1820 oil painting by Chester Harding is the only portrait of Daniel Boone made from life. Boone, 85 years old and just months away from death, had to be steadied by a friend while the [2] artist worked.

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Aftermath
Although he had not taken part in the battle, George Rogers Clark, as senior militia officer, was widely condemned in Kentucky for the Blue Licks disaster. In response to the criticism, Clark launched a retaliatory raid into the Ohio Country. In November 1782, he led more than 1,000 men, including Benjamin Logan and Daniel Boone, on an expedition that destroyed five Shawnee villages on the Great Miami River, the last major offensive of the war. No battles were fought in that engagement because the Shawnees declined to engage the Kentuckians, instead pulling back to their villages on the Mad River. Those villages were subsequently destroyed by Benjamin Logan in 1786 at the outset of the Northwest Indian War. On that expedition, Hugh McGary confronted the Shawnee chief Moluntha, asking him if he had been at Blue Licks. Moluntha had not taken part in the Battle of Blue Licks—relatively few Shawnees had—but he evidently misunderstood McGary's question and nodded his head in agreement. McGary then killed the Shawnee leader with a tomahawk. Logan relieved McGary of command and later had him court-martialed.

Monument at the Blue Licks Battlefield State Park, photographed in 2006 during a memorial service marking the 224th anniversary of the battle.

Legacy
The Blue Licks battle site is commemorated at Blue Licks Battlefield State Park, on U.S. Route 68 between Paris and Maysville, just outside the town of Blue Licks Springs. The site includes a granite obelisk, burial grounds, and a museum. Former congressman Ike Skelton often tells stories of the Battle of Blue Licks in speeches and claims Daniel Boone as an ancestor.

Notes
[1] Capt. Caldwell's Report (http:/ / www. royalprovincial. com/ history/ battles/ brcald1. shtml) at The On-Line Institute for Advanced Loyalist Studies (http:/ / www. royalprovincial. com/ index. htm) [2] Faragher, Daniel Boone, 317.

References

• Cotterill, R. S. (October 1927). "Battle of Upper Blue Licks" (http://connect1.ajaxdocumentviewer.com/ viewerajax.php?l47yFFgA5HFXnLYYagm0VLMZTs/rLUaZPOMPXxfLqeD+ 3JlVF7Tb4mzVRO77SUveo088Z0kZfSCrR2RdGfbUc33f29I3golvXnxEuoH1IN65n08xmPr4ug9AkSldkMFmKDPr2MDN2NEO 6wN2KgHiY3ISt+q7b30jWuv3BJWWj+f42zd/R9im9fEA6OUwc1gN8+hykXrEO/ OvtBXV2cPX5tNUjFS3gzrcrv91JSyw8Auxbt9ywV599SiZ5LYge9tiaqPqibwxLVS5lBZXwk/G+ RH5tlhrgloOBVaIxU2/KGajKuj/X30TLPKqPsERcAV85eBibWBoDeJnbl+ 5jWAeqjuGaSuxGefhEnbAUHCumcsaHFg5ZS+I1UKlw53316KmIgis=). Filson Club Historical Quarterly 2 (1). Retrieved 2011-11-11. • Faragher, John Mack. Daniel Boone: The Life and Legend of an American Pioneer. New York: Holt, 1992. ISBN 0-8050-1603-1.

Battle of Blue Licks • Hammon, Neal O. Daniel Boone and the Defeat at Blue Licks. Minneapolis: The Boone Society, 2005. (Local history, no ISBN) • Lofaro, Michael A. Daniel Boone: An American Life. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2003. ISBN 0-8131-2278-3. • Nelson, Larry L. A Man of Distinction among Them: Alexander McKee and the Ohio Country Frontier, 1754–1799. Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-87338-620-5 (hardcover). • Rice, Otis K. Frontier Kentucky. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975. ISBN 0-8131-0212-X. • Sugden, John. Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8032-4288-3.

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External links
• Text of the inscriptions and list of names on the Battle of Blue Licks Monument (http://ftp.rootsweb.com/pub/ usgenweb/ky/robertson/military/bluelicks.txt) • Blue Licks Battlefield State Resort Park (http://parks.ky.gov/findparks/resortparks/bl/)

Battle of Brandywine
The Battle of Brandywine, also known as the Battle of the Brandywine or the Battle of Brandywine Creek, was fought between the American army of Major General George Washington and the British-Hessian army of General Sir William Howe on September 11, 1777. The British defeated the Americans and forced them to withdraw toward the rebel capital of Philadelphia. The engagement occurred near Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania during Howe's campaign to take Philadelphia, part of the American Revolutionary War. Howe's army sailed from New York City and landed near Elkton, Maryland in northern Chesapeake Bay. Marching north, the British-Hessian army brushed aside American light forces in a few skirmishes. Washington offered battle with his army posted behind Brandywine Creek. While part of his army demonstrated in front of Chadds Ford, Howe took the bulk of his troops on a long march that crossed the Brandywine beyond Washington's right flank. Due to poor scouting, the Americans did not detect Howe's column until it reached a position in rear of their right flank. Belatedly, three divisions were shifted to block the British-Hessian flanking force near a Quaker meeting house. After a stiff fight, Howe's wing broke through the newly-formed American right wing which was deployed on several hills. At this point Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Knyphausen attacked Chadds Ford and crumpled the American left wing. As Washington's army streamed away in retreat, he brought up elements of Nathanael Greene's division which held off Howe's column long enough for his army to escape to the northeast. The defeat and subsequent maneuvers left Philadelphia vulnerable. The British captured the city on September 26, beginning an occupation that would last until June 1778.

Background
In late July 1777, after a distressing 34-day journey from Sandy Hook on the coast of New Jersey, a Royal Navy fleet of more than 260 ships carrying some 17,000 British troops under the command of British General Sir William Howe landed at the head of the Elk River, on the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay near present-day Elkton, Maryland (then known as Head of Elk), approximately 40–50 miles (60–80 km) southwest of Philadelphia. Unloading the ships proved to be a logistical problem because the narrow river neck was shallow and muddy. General George Washington had situated the American forces, about 20,300 strong, between Head of Elk and Philadelphia. His forces were able to reconnoiter the British landing from Iron Hill near Newark, Delaware, about nine miles (14 km) to the northeast. Because of the delay disembarking from the ships, Howe did not set up a typical camp but quickly moved forward with the troops. As a result, Washington was not able to accurately gauge the

Battle of Brandywine strength of the opposing forces. After a skirmish at Cooch's Bridge south of Newark, the British troops moved north and Washington abandoned a defensive encampment along the Red Clay Creek near Newport, Delaware to deploy against the British at Chadds Ford. This site was important as it was the most direct passage across the Brandywine River on the road from Baltimore to Philadelphia. On September 9, Washington positioned detachments to guard other fords above and below Chadds Ford, hoping to force the battle there. Washington employed View from the top of Osborne's Hill looking southeast toward the American positions General John Armstrong, commanding about 1,000 Pennsylvania militia, to cover Pyle's Ford, a few hundred yards south of Chadds Ford, which was covered by Major Generals Anthony Wayne's and Nathanael Greene's divisions. Major General John Sullivan's division extended northward along the Brandywine's east banks, covering the high ground north of Chadds Ford along with Major General Adam Stephen's division and Major General Lord Stirling's divisions. Further upstream was a brigade under Colonel Moses Hazen covering Buffington's Ford and Wistar's Ford. Washington was confident that the area was secure. The British grouped forces at nearby Kennett Square.[1] Howe, who had better information about the area than Washington, had no intention of mounting a full scale frontal attack against the prepared American defenses. He instead employed a flanking maneuver, similar to that used in the Battle of Long Island. About 5,000 men under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen advanced to meet Washington's troops at Chadds Ford. The remainder of Howe's troops, under the command of Charles, Lord Cornwallis, marched north to Trimble's Ford across the West Branch of the Brandywine Creek, then east to Jefferis Ford across the East Branch (two fords that Washington had overlooked), and then south to flank the American forces.[2]

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Battle
The British advance
September 11 began with a heavy fog, which provided cover for the British troops. Washington received contradictory reports about the British troop movements and continued to believe that the main force was moving to attack at Chadds Ford. At 5:30 a.m. the British and Hessian troops began marching east along the "Great Road" (now Route 1) from Kennett Square, advancing on the American troops positioned where the road crossed Brandywine Creek. The first shots of the battle took place at a tavern where the British were repulsed. The British called for reinforcements and ran down the road to take cover behind the stone walls on the Old Kennett Meetinghouse grounds. The battle was fought at mid-morning around the meeting house while the pacifist Quakers continued to hold their midweek service. One of the Quakers later wrote, "While there was much noise and confusion without, all was quiet and peaceful within."

The Battle of Brandywine, 11 September 1777

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From the Meetinghouse grounds, the battle continued for three miles to what is now Battlefield Park. Eventually the British pushed the Americans back but not before suffering heavy losses. The British appeared on the Americans' right flank at around 2 p.m. With Hazen's brigades outflanked, Sullivan, Stephen, and Stirling tried to reposition their troops to meet the unexpected British threat to their right flank. Howe was slow to attack, which bought time for the Americans to position some of their men on high ground at Birmingham Meetinghouse, about a mile (1.6 km) north of Chadds Ford.[3] By 4 p.m., the British attacked, with Stephen's and Stirling's divisions receiving the brunt of the assault; both American divisions lost ground fast.

Birmingham Meetinghouse in 1974

American counterattack dissolves into retreat
Sullivan attacked a group of Hessian troops trying to outflank Stirling's men near Meeting House Hill and bought some time for most of Stirling's men to withdraw, but returned British fire forced Sullivan's men to retreat. At this point, slightly after 4 p.m., Washington and Greene arrived with reinforcements to try to hold off the British, who now occupied Meeting House Hill. These reinforcements, combined with the remnants of Sullivan's, Stephen's, and Stirling's divisions, stopped the pursuing British for nearly an hour but were eventually forced to retreat. The Americans were also forced to leave behind many of their cannon on Meeting House Hill because almost all of their artillery horses were killed.

The battlefield today, south of Meeting House Hill

Knyphausen, on the east bank of the Brandywine, launched an attack against the weakened American center across Chadds Ford, breaking through the divisions commanded by Wayne and William Maxwell and forcing them to retreat and leave behind most of their cannon. Armstrong's militia, never engaged in the fighting, also decided to retreat from their positions. Further north, Greene sent Brigadier General George Weedon's troops to cover the road just outside the town of Dilworth to hold off the British long enough for the rest of the Continental Army to retreat. Darkness brought the British pursuit to a standstill, which then allowed Weedon's force to retreat. The defeated Americans retreated to Chester where most of them arrived at midnight, with stragglers arriving until morning. The American retreat was well-organized largely due to the efforts of Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette, who, although wounded, created a rally point that allowed for a more orderly retreat before being treated for his wound.[4]

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Losses
The official British casualty list detailed 587 casualties: 93 killed (eight officers, seven sergeants and 78 rank and file); 488 wounded (49 officers, 40 sergeants, four drummers and 395 rank and file); and six rank and file missing unaccounted for.[5] Only 40 of the British Army’s casualties were Hessians.[6] Historian Thomas J. McGuire writes that, "American estimates of British losses run as high as 2,000, based on distant observation and sketchy, unreliable reports".[5] No casualty return for the American army at Brandywine survives and no figures, official or otherwise, were ever released. Most accounts of the American loss were from the British side. One initial report by a British officer recorded American casualties at over 200 killed, around 750 wounded, and 400 prisoners taken, many of them wounded. A member of General Howe's staff claimed that 400 rebels were buried on the field by the victors.[7] Another British officer wrote that, "The Enemy had 502 dead in the field".[5] General Howe's report to the British colonial secretary, Lord George Germain, said that the Americans, "had about 300 men killed, 600 wounded, and near 400 made prisoners".<ref name="mcguire269" The nearest thing to a hard figure from the American side was by Major General Nathanael Greene, who estimated that Washington's army had lost between 1,200 and 1,300 men.[8] On September 14, 350 wounded Americans were taken from the British camp at Dilworth to a newly-established hospital at Wilmington, Delaware.[9] This would suggest that of the "near 400" prisoners reported by Howe, only about 50 had surrendered unwounded. If General Greene's estimate of the total American loss was accurate, then they had between 1,160 and 1,260 killed, wounded or deserted during the battle. The British also captured 11 out of 14 of the American artillery guns. Among the American wounded was the Marquis de Lafayette.

Nation Makers depicts a scene from the battle, by Howard Pyle, a summer resident of Chadds Ford. The painting is displayed in the Brandywine River Museum

George Washington's Headquarters

In addition to losses in battle, 315 men were posted as deserters from Washington's camp during this stage of the campaign.[10]

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Aftermath
Although Howe had defeated the American army, his lack of cavalry prevented its total destruction. Washington had committed a serious error in leaving his right flank wide open and nearly brought about his army's annihilation had it not been for Sullivan, Stirling and Stephen's divisions, which fought for time. Evening was approaching and, in spite of the early start Cornwallis had made in the flanking manoeuvre, most of the American army was able to escape. British and Patriot forces manoeuvred around each other for the next several days with only comparatively minor encounters such as the Battle of Paoli on the night of September 20–21. The Continental Congress abandoned Philadelphia, first to Lancaster, Pennsylvania for one day and then to York, Pennsylvania. Military supplies were moved out of the city to Reading, Pennsylvania. On September 26, 1777, British forces marched into Philadelphia unopposed.

The 7th Pennsylvania Regiments Brandywine flag

References
[1] 39°50′39″N 75°42′38″W [2] "Cornwallis's March: Driving Tour of the Brandywine Battlefield Region" (http:/ / www. ushistory. org/ brandywine/ drivingtour/ car2. htm). Brandywine Battlefield Historic Site. . Retrieved September 4, 2009. Trimble's Ford is located at 39°55′23″N 75°41′13″W. Jefferis Ford is located at 39°56′20″N 75°38′10″W [3] Birmingham Meetinghouse is located at 39°54′20″N 75°35′42″W [4] Gaines, James (September 2007). "Washington & Lafayette" (http:/ / www. smithsonianmag. com/ history-archaeology/ washington_main. html?c=y& page=3). Smithsonian Magazine Online (Smithsonian). . Retrieved 21 October 2008. [5] McGuire, Thomas J.; The Philadelphia Campaign: Volume 1: Brandywine and the Fall of Philadelphia; Stackpole Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania; 2006; ISBN 978-0-8117-0178-5; ISBN 0-8117-0178-6, page 269 [6] Martin, David G.; The Philadelphia Campaign June 1777–July 1778; Combined Books; Conshohocken, Pennsylvania; 1993; ISBN 0-938289-19-5, page 76 [7] Martin, page 76 [8] Boatner, Mark Mayo, Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence 1763–1783, Cassell, London, 1966, ISBN 0-304-29296-6, page 109 [9] McGuire, page 278 [10] Martin, p.76. Edgar, Philadelphia Campaign, p. 39, incorrectly states that these 315 men deserted during the battle of September 11

Further reading
• Edgar, Gregory T. (1966). The Philadelphia Campaign, 1777-1778. Westminster, MD: Heritage Books. ISBN 0-7884-0921-2. • Fortescue, John. History of the British Army. • McGuire, Thomas J. Brandywine Battlefield Park: Pennsylvania Trail of History Guide. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001. • McGuire, Thomas J. The Philadelphia Campaign, Vol. I: Brandywine and the Fall of Philadelphia. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2006. • Martin, David G., The Philadelphia Campaign: June 1777–July 1778. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Books, 1993. ISBN 0-938289-19-5. 2003 Da Capo reprint, ISBN 0-306-81258-4. • Bruce Mowday. September 11, 1777: Washington's Defeat at Brandywine Dooms Philadelphia. White Mane Publishers. • Ward, Christopher. The War of the Revolution.

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External links
• • • • • • Brandywine Battlefield Park (http://www.ushistory.org/brandywine/brandywine.htm) The Philadelphia Campaign (http://www.ushistory.org/march/index.html) Battle of Brandywine (http://www.generalatomic.com/AmericanHistory/battle_of_brandywine.html) Battle of Brandywine at BritishBattles.com (http://www.britishbattles.com/brandywine.htm) Animated History of the Battle of Brandywine (http://www.revolutionarywaranimated.com/brandywine) The Battle of the Brandywine in Pennsbury Township (http://www.aw-el.com/brandywine/index.htm)

• John Hannafin (September 11, 2007). Battle of the Brandywine, Pennsylvania (http://www.johnhannafin.com/ index.php?fuseAction=catalogs.viewLevel&catalogID=1&catalogLevelID=17) (Google video). Chadds Ford, PA: www.johnhannafin.com. (230th anniversary re-enactment)

Battle of Bunker Hill
The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775, mostly on and around Breed's Hill, during the Siege of Boston early in the American Revolutionary War. The battle is named after the adjacent Bunker Hill, which was peripherally involved in the battle and was the original objective of both colonial and British troops, and is occasionally referred to as the "Battle of Breed's Hill." On June 13, 1775, the leaders of the colonial forces besieging Boston learned that the British generals were planning to send troops out from the city to occupy the unoccupied hills surrounding the city. In response to this intelligence, 1,200 colonial troops under the command of William Prescott stealthily occupied Bunker Hill and Breed's Hill, constructed an earthen redoubt on Breed's Hill, and built lightly fortified lines across most of the Charlestown Peninsula. When the British were alerted to the presence of the new position the next day, they mounted an attack against them. After two assaults on the colonial lines were repulsed with significant British casualties, the British finally captured the positions on the third assault, after the defenders in the redoubt ran out of ammunition. The colonial forces retreated to Cambridge over Bunker Hill, suffering their most significant losses on Bunker Hill. While the result was a victory for the British, they suffered heavy losses: over 800 wounded and 226 killed, including a notably large number of officers. The battle is seen as an example of a Pyrrhic victory, because the immediate gain (the capture of Bunker Hill) was modest and did not significantly change the state of the siege, while the cost (the loss of nearly a third of the deployed forces) was high. Meanwhile, colonial forces were able to retreat and regroup in good order having suffered few casualties. Furthermore, the battle demonstrated that relatively inexperienced colonial forces were willing and able to stand up to regular army troops in a pitched battle.

Geography
Boston, situated on a peninsula,[1] was largely protected from close approach by the expanses of water surrounding it, which were dominated by British warships. In the aftermath of the battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the colonial militia, a force of about 15,000 men[2] had surrounded the town, and effectively besieged it. Under the command of Artemas Ward, they controlled the only land access to Boston itself (the Roxbury Neck), but, lacking a navy, were unable to control or even contest British domination of the waters of the harbor. The British troops, a force of about 6,000 under the command of General Thomas Gage, occupied the city, and were able to be resupplied and reinforced by sea.[3] They were thus able to remain in Boston indefinitely. However, the land across the water from Boston contained a number of hills, which could be used to advantage.[4] If the militia could obtain enough artillery pieces, these could be placed on the hills and used to bombard the city until the occupying army evacuated it or surrendered. It was with this in mind that the Knox Expedition, led by Henry

Battle of Bunker Hill Knox, later transported cannon from Fort Ticonderoga to the Boston area.[5] The Charlestown Peninsula, lying to the north of Boston, started from a short, narrow isthmus (known as the Charlestown Neck) at its northwest, extending about 1 mile (1.6 km) southeastward into Boston Harbor. Bunker Hill, with an elevation of 110 feet (34 m), lay at the northern end of the peninsula. Breed's Hill, at a height of 62 feet (19 m), was more southerly and nearer to Boston.[6] The town of Charlestown occupied flats at the southern end of the peninsula. At its closest approach, less than 1000 feet (305 m) separated the Charlestown Peninsula from the Boston Peninsula, where Copp's Hill was at about the same height as Breed's Hill. While the British retreat from Concord had ended in Charlestown, General Gage, rather than immediately fortifying the hills on the peninsula, had withdrawn those troops to Boston the day after that battle, turning the entire Charlestown Peninsula into a no man's land.[7]

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British planning
Throughout May, in response to orders from Gage requesting support, the British received reinforcements, until they reached a strength of about 6,000 men. On May 25, three Generals arrived on HMS Cerberus: William Howe, John Burgoyne, and Henry Clinton. Gage began planning with them to break out of the city,[8] finalizing a plan on June 12.[9] This plan began with the taking of the Dorchester Neck, fortifying the Dorchester Heights, and then marching on the colonial forces stationed in Roxbury. Once the southern flank had been secured, the Charlestown heights would be taken, and the forces in Cambridge driven away. The attack was set for June 18.[10]

The Battle of Bunker Hill, by Howard Pyle, 1897.

On June 13, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was notified, by express messenger from the Committee of Safety in Exeter, New Hampshire, that a New Hampshire gentleman "of undoubted veracity" had, while visiting Boston, overheard the British commanders making plans to capture Dorchester and Charlestown.[11] On June 15, the Massachusetts Committee of Safety decided that additional defenses needed to be erected.[12] General Ward directed General Israel Putnam to set up defenses on the Charlestown Peninsula, specifically on Bunker Hill.[13]

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Prelude to battle
Fortification of Breed's Hill
On the night of June 16, colonial Colonel William Prescott led about 1,200 men onto the peninsula in order to set up positions from which artillery fire could be directed into Boston.[14] This force was made up of men from the regiments of Prescott, Putnam (the unit was commanded by Thomas Knowlton), James Frye, and Ebenezer Bridge.[15] At first, Putnam, Prescott, and their engineer, Captain Richard Gridley, disagreed as to where they should locate their defense. Some work was performed on Bunker Hill, but Breed's Hill was closer to Boston and viewed as being more defensible. Arguably against orders, they decided to build their primary redoubt there.[16] Prescott and his men, using Gridley's outline, began digging a square fortification about 130 feet (40 m) on a side with ditches and earthen walls. The walls of the redoubt were about 6 feet (1.8 m) high, with a wooden platform inside on which men could stand and fire over the walls.[17]

The first British attack on Bunker Hill. Shaded areas are hills.

The works on Breed's Hill did not go unnoticed by the British. General Clinton, out on reconnaissance that night, was aware of them, and tried to convince Gage and Howe that they needed to prepare to attack the position at daylight. British sentries were also aware of the activity, but most apparently did not think it cause for alarm.[18] Then, in the early predawn, around 4:00 am, a sentry on board HMS Lively spotted the new fortification, and notified her captain. Lively opened fire, temporarily halting the colonists' work. Aboard his flagship HMS Somerset, Admiral Samuel Graves awoke, irritated by the gunfire that he had not ordered.[19] He stopped it, only to have General Gage countermand his decision when he became fully aware of the situation in the morning. He ordered all 128 guns in the harbor, as well as batteries atop Copp's Hill in Boston, to fire on the colonial position, which had relatively little effect.[20] The rising sun also alerted Prescott to a significant problem with the location of the redoubt – it could easily be flanked on either side.[18] He promptly ordered his men to begin constructing a breastwork running down the hill to the east, deciding he did not have the manpower to also build additional defenses to the west of the redoubt.[21]

British preparations
When the British generals met to discuss their options, General Clinton, who had urged an attack as early as possible, recommended an attack beginning from the Charlestown Neck that would cut off the colonists' retreat, reducing the process of capturing the new redoubt to one of starving out its occupants. However, he was outvoted by the other three generals. Howe, who was the senior officer present and would lead the assault, was of the opinion that the hill was "open and easy of ascent and in short would be easily carried".[22] Orders were then issued to prepare the expedition.[23]

1775 map of the Boston area (contains some inaccuracies)

When General Gage surveyed the works from Boston with his staff, Loyalist Abijah Willard recognized his brother-in-law Colonel Prescott. "Will he fight?" asked Gage. "[A]s to his men, I cannot answer for them;" replied

Battle of Bunker Hill Willard, "but Colonel Prescott will fight you to the gates of hell."[24] Prescott lived up to Willard's word, but his men were not so resolute. When the colonists suffered their first casualty, Asa Pollard of Billerica,[25] a young private killed by cannon fire, Prescott gave orders to bury the man quickly and quietly, but a large group of men gave him a solemn funeral instead, with several deserting shortly thereafter.[24] It took almost six hours for the British to organize an infantry force and to gather up and inspect the men on parade. General Howe was to lead the major assault, drive around the colonial left flank, and take them from the rear. Brigadier General Robert Pigot on the British left flank would lead the direct assault on the redoubt, and Major John Pitcairn led the flank or reserve force. It took several trips in longboats to transport Howe's initial forces (consisting of about 1,500 men) to the eastern corner of the peninsula, known as Moulton's Point.[26] [27] By 2 pm, Howe's chosen force had landed.[26] However, while crossing the river, Howe noted the large number of colonial troops on top of Bunker Hill. Believing these to be reinforcements, he immediately sent a message to Gage, requesting additional troops. He then ordered some of the light infantry to take a forward position along the eastern side of the peninsula, alerting the colonists to his intended course of action. The troops then sat down to eat while they waited for the reinforcements.[27]

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Colonists reinforce their positions
Prescott, seeing the British preparations, called for reinforcements. Among the reinforcements were Joseph Warren, the popular young leader of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety, and Seth Pomeroy, an aging Massachusetts militia leader. Both of these men held commissions of rank, but chose to serve as infantry.[26] Prescott ordered the Connecticut men under Captain Knowlton to defend the left flank, where they used a crude dirt wall as a breastwork, and topped it with fence rails and hay. They also constructed three small v-shaped trenches between this dirt wall and Prescott's breastwork. Troops that arrived to reinforce this flank position included about 200 men from the 1st and 3rd New Hampshire regiments, under Colonels John Stark and James Reed. Stark's men, who did not arrive until after Howe landed his forces (and thus filled a gap in the defense that Howe could have taken advantage of, had he pressed his attack sooner),[28] The second British attack on Bunker Hill. took positions along the breastwork on the northern end of the colonial position. When low tide opened a gap along the Mystic River to the north, they quickly extended the fence with a short stone wall to the water's edge.[28] [29] Colonel Stark placed a stake about 100 feet (30 m) in front of the fence and ordered that no one fire until the regulars passed it.[30] Just prior to the action, further reinforcements arrived, including portions of Massachusetts regiments of Colonels Brewer, Nixon, Woodbridge, Little, and Major Moore, as well as Callender's company of artillery.[31] Behind the colonial lines, confusion reigned. Many units sent toward the action stopped before crossing the Charlestown Neck from Cambridge, which was under constant fire from gun batteries to the south. Others reached Bunker Hill, but then, uncertain about where to go from there, milled around. One commentator wrote of the scene that "it appears to me there never was more confusion and less command".[32] While General Putnam was on the scene attempting to direct affairs, unit commanders often misunderstood or disobeyed orders.[32]

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Assault
By 3 pm, the British reinforcements, which included the 47th Foot and the 1st Marines, had arrived, and the British were ready to march.[33] Brigadier General Pigot's force, gathering just south of Charlestown village, were taking casualties from sniper fire, and Howe asked Admiral Graves for assistance in clearing out the snipers. Graves, who had planned for such a possibility, ordered incendiary shot fired into the village, and then sent a landing party to set fire to the town.[34] The smoke billowing from Charlestown lent an almost surreal backdrop to the fighting, as the winds were such that the smoke was kept from the field of battle.[35] Pigot, commanding the 5th, 38th, 43rd, 47th, and 52nd regiments, as well as Major Pitcairn's Marines, were to feint an assault on the redoubt. However, they continued to be harried by snipers in Charlestown, and Pigot, when he saw what happened to Howe's advance, ordered a retreat.[36] General Howe led the light infantry companies and grenadiers in the assault on the American left flank, expecting an easy effort against Stark's recently arrived troops.[37] His light infantry were set along the narrow beach, in column, in order to turn the far left flank of the colonial position.[38] The grenadiers were deployed in the middle. They lined up four deep and several hundred across. As the regulars closed, John Simpson, a New Hampshire man, prematurely fired, drawing an ineffective volley of return fire from the regulars. When the regulars finally closed within range, both sides opened fire. The colonists inflicted heavy casualties on the regulars, using the fence to steady and aim their muskets, and benefit from a modicum of cover. With this devastating barrage of musket fire, the regulars retreated in disarray, and the militia held their ground.[39] The regulars reformed on the field and marched out again. This time, Pigot was not to feint; he was to assault the redoubt, possibly without the assistance of Howe's force. Howe, instead of marching against Stark's position along the beach, marched instead against Knowlton's position along the rail fence. The outcome of the second attack was much the same as the first. One British observer wrote, "Most of our Grenadiers and Light-infantry, the moment of presenting themselves lost three-fourths, and many nine-tenths, of their men. Some had only eight or nine men a company left ..."[40] Pigot did not fare any better in his attack on the redoubt, and again ordered a retreat.[41] Meanwhile, in the rear of the colonial forces, confusion continued to reign. General Putnam tried, with only limited success, to send additional troops from Bunker Hill to Breed's Hill to support the men in the redoubt and along the defensive lines.[42]

The third and final British attack on Bunker Hill

The British rear was also in some disarray. Wounded soldiers that were mobile had made their way to the landing areas, and were being ferried back to Boston, and the wounded lying on the field of battle were the source of moans and cries of pain.[43] General Howe, deciding that he would try again, sent word to General Clinton in Boston for additional troops. Clinton, who had watched the first two attacks, sent about 400 men from the 2nd Marines and the 63rd Foot, and then followed himself to help rally the troops. In addition to the new reserves, he also convinced about 200 of the wounded to form up for the third attack.[44] During the interval between the second and third assaults, General Putnam continued trying to direct troops toward the action. Some companies, and leaderless groups of men, moved toward the action; others retreated. John Chester, a Connecticut captain, seeing an entire company in retreat, ordered his company to aim muskets at that company to halt its retreat; they turned about and headed back to the battlefield.[45] The third assault, concentrated on the redoubt (with only a feint on the colonists' flank), was successful, although the colonists again poured musket fire into the British ranks, and it cost the life of Major Pitcairn.[46] The defenders had run out of ammunition, reducing the battle to close combat. The British had the advantage once they entered the

Battle of Bunker Hill redoubt, as their troops were equipped with bayonets on their muskets while most of the colonists were not. Colonel Prescott, one of the last colonists to leave the redoubt, parried bayonet thrusts with his normally ceremonial sabre.[47] It is during the retreat from the redoubt that Joseph Warren was killed.[48] The retreat of much of the colonial forces from the peninsula was made possible in part by the controlled retreat of the forces along the rail fence, led by John Stark and Thomas Knowlton, which prevented the encirclement of the hill. Their disciplined retreat, described by Burgoyne as "no flight; it was even covered with bravery and military skill", was so effective that most of the wounded were saved;[49] most of the prisoners taken by the British were mortally wounded.[49] General Putnam attempted to reform the troops on Bunker Hill; however the flight of the colonial forces was so rapid that artillery pieces and entrenching tools had to be abandoned. The colonists suffered most of their casualties during the retreat on Bunker Hill. By 5 pm, the colonists had retreated over the Charlestown Neck to fortified positions in Cambridge, and the British were in control of the peninsula.[48]

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Aftermath
The British had taken the ground but at a great loss; they suffered 1,054 casualties (226 dead and 828 wounded), with a disproportionate number of these officers. The casualty count was the highest suffered by the British in any single encounter during the entire war.[50] General Clinton, echoing Pyrrhus of Epirus, remarked in his diary that "A few more such victories would have shortly put an end to British dominion in America."[51] British dead and wounded included 100 commissioned officers, a significant portion of the British officer corps in North America.[52] Much of General Howe's field staff was among the casualties.[53] Major Pitcairn had been killed, and Lieutenant Colonel James Abercrombie fatally wounded. General Gage, in his report after the battle, reported the following officer casualties (listing lieutenants and above by name):[54] • 1 lieutenant colonel killed • 2 majors killed, 3 wounded • • • • 7 captains killed, 27 wounded 9 lieutenants killed, 32 wounded 15 sergeants killed, 42 wounded 1 drummer killed, 12 wounded
The Bunker Hill Monument

The colonial losses were about 450, of whom 140 were killed. Most of the colonial losses came during the withdrawal. Major Andrew McClary was technically the highest ranking colonial officer to die in the battle; he was hit by cannon fire on Charlestown neck, the last person to be killed in the battle. He was later commemorated by the dedication of Fort McClary in Kittery, Maine.[55] A serious loss to the Patriot cause, however, was the death of Dr. Joseph Warren. He was the President of Massachusetts' Provincial Congress, and he had been appointed a Major General on June 14. His commission had not yet taken effect when he served as a volunteer private three days later at Bunker Hill.[56] Only thirty men were captured by the British, most of them with grievous wounds; twenty died while held prisoner. The colonials also lost numerous shovels and other entrenching tools, as well as 5 out of the 6 cannon they had brought to the peninsula.[57]

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Political consequences
When news of the battle spread through the colonies, it was reported as a colonial loss, as the ground had been taken by the enemy, and significant casualties were incurred. George Washington, who was on his way to Boston as the new commander of the Continental Army, received news of the battle while in New York City. The report, which included casualty figures that were somewhat inaccurate, gave Washington hope that his army might prevail in the conflict.[58]
"We have ... learned one melancholy truth, which is, that the Americans, if they were equally well commanded, are full as good soldiers as ours."
[59]

A British officer in Boston, after the battle

The Massachusetts Committee of Safety, seeking to repeat the sort of propaganda victory it won following the battles at Lexington and Concord, commissioned a report of the battle to send to England. Their report, however, did not reach England before Gage's official account arrived on July 20. His report unsurprisingly caused friction and argument between the Tories and the Whigs, but the casualty counts alarmed the military establishment, and forced many to rethink their views of colonial military capability.[60] King George's attitude toward the colonies hardened, and the news may have contributed to his rejection of the Continental Congress' Olive Branch Petition, the last substantive political attempt at reconciliation. Sir James Adolphus Oughton, part of the Tory majority, wrote to Lord Dartmouth of the colonies, "the sooner they are made to Taste Distress the sooner will [Crown control over them] be produced, and the Effusion of Blood be put a stop to."[61] This hardening of the British position also led to a hardening of previously weak support for the rebellion, especially in the southern colonies, in favor of independence.[61] Gage's report had a more direct effect on his own career. His dismissal from office was decided just three days after his report was received, although General Howe did not replace him until October 1775.[62] Gage wrote another report to the British Cabinet, in which he repeated earlier warnings that "a large army must at length be employed to reduce these people", that would require "the hiring of foreign troops."[63]

Analysis
Much has been written in the wake of this battle over how it was conducted. Both sides made strategic and tactical missteps which could have altered the outcome of the battle. While hindsight often gives a biased view, some things seem to be apparent after the battle that might reasonably have been within the reach of the command of the day.

Colonial faults
The colonial forces, while nominally under the overall command of General Ward, with General Putnam leading in the field, often acted quite independently. This was evident in the opening page of the drama, when a tactical decision was made that had strategic implications. Colonel Prescott and his staff, apparently in contravention of orders, decided to fortify Breed's Hill rather than Bunker Hill.[16] The fortification of Breed's Hill was more provocative; it would have put offensive artillery closer to Boston. It also exposed the forces there to the possibility of being trapped, as they probably could not properly defend against attempts by the British to land troops and take control of Charlestown Neck. If the British had taken that step, they might have had a victory with many fewer casualties.[64]

Battle of Bunker Hill

104 While the front lines of the colonial forces were generally well managed, the scene behind them, especially once the action began, was significantly disorganized, due at least in part to a poor chain of command. Only some of the militias operated directly under Ward's and Putnam's authority,[65] and some commanders also disobeyed orders, staying at Bunker Hill rather than joining in the defense on the third British assault. Several officers were subjected to court martial and cashiered.[66] Colonel Prescott was of the opinion that the third assault would have been repulsed, had his forces in the redoubt been reinforced with either more men, or more supplies of ammunition and powder.[67]

A historic map of Bunker Hill featuring military notes

British faults
The British leadership, for its part, was slow to act once the works on Breed's Hill were spotted. It was 2 pm when the troops were ready for the assault, roughly ten hours after the Lively first opened fire. This leisurely pace gave the colonial forces time to reinforce the flanking positions that had been poorly defended.[68] Gage and Howe decided that a frontal assault on the works would be a simple matter, when an encircling move (gaining control of Charlestown Neck), would have given them a more resounding victory.[64] (This move would not have been without risks of its own, as the colonists could have made holding the Neck expensive with fire from the high ground in Cambridge.) But the British leadership was excessively optimistic, believing that "two regiments were sufficient to beat the strength of the province".[69] Once in the field, Howe, rather than focusing on the redoubt, opted (twice) to dilute the force attacking the redoubt with a flanking maneuver against the colonial left. It was only with the third attack, when the flank attack was merely a feint,[70] and the main force (now also reinforced with additional reserves) was squarely targeted at the redoubt, that the attack succeeded.[71] Following the taking of the peninsula, the British arguably had a tactical advantage that they could have used to press into Cambridge. "View of the Attack on Bunker's Hill with the General Clinton proposed this to Howe; having just led three assaults Burning of Charlestown" by Lodge [72] with grievous casualties, he declined the idea. Howe was eventually recognized by the colonial military leaders to be a tentative decision-maker, to his detriment; in the aftermath of the Battle of Long Island, he again had tactical advantages that might have delivered Washington's army into his hands, but again refused to act.[73]

"The whites of their eyes"
The famous order "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes" was popularized in stories about the battle of Bunker Hill. It is uncertain as to who said it there, since various histories, including eyewitness accounts,[74] attribute it to Putnam, Stark, Prescott or Gridley, and it may have been said first by one, and repeated by the others. It was also not an original statement. It was used by General James Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham, when his troops defeated Montcalm's army on September 13, 1759.[75] The earliest similar quote came from the Battle of Dettingen on June 27, 1743, where Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Andrew Agnew of Lochnaw warned his Regiment, the Royal Scots Fusiliers, not to fire until they could "see the white's of their e'en."[76] The phrase was also used by Prince Charles of Prussia in 1745, and repeated in 1755 by Frederick the Great, and may have been mentioned in histories the colonial military leaders were familiar with.[77] Whether or not it was actually said in this battle, it was clear that the colonial

Battle of Bunker Hill military leadership were regularly reminding their troops to hold their fire until the moment when it would have the greatest effect, especially in situations where their ammunition would be limited.[78]

105

Notable participants

According to the John Trumbull painting, this flag of New England was carried by the colonists during the battle.

This flag, known as the Bunker Hill flag, is also associated with the battle.

A significant number of notable people fought in this battle. Henry Dearborn and William Eustis, for example, went on to distinguished military and political careers; both served in Congress, the Cabinet, and in diplomatic posts. Others, like John Brooks, Henry Burbeck, Christian Febiger, Thomas Knowlton, and John Stark, became well known for later actions in the war.[79] [80] Stark became known as the "Hero of Bennington" for his role in the 1777 Battle of Bennington. Free African-Americans also fought in the battle, notable examples include Barzillai Lew, Salem Poor, and Peter Salem[81] [82] (the leadership would not allow slaves to fight, as this was anathema to the very idea of the freedom for which they were fighting). Another notable participant was Daniel Shays, who later became famous for his army of protest in Shays' Rebellion.[83] Israel Potter was immortalized in Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile, a novel by Herman Melville.[84] [85] Colonel John Patterson (New York), commanded the Massachusetts First Militia, served in Shay's Rebellion, and became a US Congressman from New York.[86] Lt. Col. Seth Read, who served under John Patterson at Bunker Hill, went on to settle Geneva, New York and Erie, Pennsylvania, and was said to have been instrumental in the phrase E Pluribus Unum being added to US Coins.[87] [88] [89] [90] </ref>[91]

Commemorations
John Trumbull's painting, The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker Hill (pictured above), while an idealized and inaccurate depiction of Warren's death, shows a number of participants in the battle. John Small, a British officer who was among those storming the redoubt, was a friend of Israel Putnam's and an acquaintance of Trumbull. He is depicted holding Warren and preventing a redcoat from bayoneting him.[92] The Bunker Hill Monument is an obelisk that stands 221 feet (67 m) high on Breed's Hill. On June 17, 1825, the fiftieth anniversary of the battle, the cornerstone of the monument was laid by the Marquis de Lafayette and an address delivered by Daniel Webster.[93] (When Lafayette died, he was buried next to his wife at the Cimetière de Picpus under soil from Bunker Hill, which his son Georges sprinkled upon him.)[94] The Leonard P. Zakim Bunker Hill Memorial Bridge was specifically designed to evoke this monument.[95] There is also a statue of William Prescott showing him calming his men down. The National Park Service operates a museum dedicated to the battle near the monument, which is part of the Boston National Historical Park.[96] A cyclorama of the battle was added in 2007 when the museum was renovated.[97]

Battle of Bunker Hill

106 Bunker Hill Day, observed every June 17, is a legal holiday in Suffolk County, Massachusetts (which includes the city of Boston), as well as Somerville in Middlesex County. Prospect Hill, site of colonial fortifications overlooking the Charlestown neck, is now located in Somerville, which was previously part of Charlestown.[98] [99] State institutions in Massachusetts (such as public institutions of higher) located in Boston also celebrate the holiday.[100] [101] However, the state's FY2011 budget requires all state and municipal offices in Suffolk County be open on Bunker Hill Day and Evacuation Day.[102]

Bunker Hill clipper ship

On June 16 and 17, 1875, the centennial of the battle was celebrated with a military parade and a reception featuring notable speakers, among them General William Tecumseh Sherman and Vice President Henry Wilson. It was attended by dignitaries from across the country.[103] Celebratory events also marked the sesquicentennial (150th anniversary) in 1925 and the bicentennial in 1975.[104] [105]

References
[1] 18th century Boston was a peninsula. Primarily in the 19th century, much land around the peninsula was filled, giving the modern city its present geography. See the history of Boston for details. [2] Chidsey, p. 72 New Hampshire 1,200, Rhode Island 1,000, Connecticut 2,300, Massachusetts 11,500 [3] Alden, p. 178 [4] Visitors to Boston, upon seeing the nearby hills, may conclude that they are too low. The hills were once higher, but were lowered by excavations to obtain landfill used to expand Boston in the 19th century. [5] Martin, James Kirby (1997). Benedict Arnold: Revolutionary Hero. New York: New York University Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780814755600. OCLC 36343341. [6] Chidsey p. 91 has an historic map showing elevations. [7] French, p. 220 [8] French, p. 249 [9] Brooks, p. 119 [10] Ketchum, pp. 45–46 [11] Ketchum, p. 47 [12] Ketchum, pp. 74–75 [13] French, p. 255 [14] Frothingham, pp. 122–123 [15] Ketchum, pp. 102, 245 [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] Frothingham, pp. 123–124 Frothingham, p. 135 Ketchum, p. 115 Frothingham, p. 125 Brooks, p. 127 Ketchum, p. 117 Ketchum, pp. 120–121 Ketchum, p. 122 Graydon, p. 424 Chidsey, p. 84 Frothingham, p. 133 Ketchum, p. 139

Statue of William Prescott in Charlestown, Massachusetts

[28] Ketchum, p 143 [29] Chidsey p. 93 [30] Chidsey p. 96 [31] Frothingham, p. 136 [32] Ketchum, p. 147

Battle of Bunker Hill
[33] Ketchum, pp. 152–153 [34] Ketchum, pp. 151–152 [35] Frothingham, pp. 144–145 [36] Ketchum, p. 160 [37] Ketchum, p. 152 [38] Fusillers, Mark Urban p38 [39] Frothingham, pp. 141–142 [40] Ketchum, p. 161 [41] Ketchum, p. 162 [42] Frothingham, p. 146 [43] Ketchum, p. 163 [44] Ketchum, p. 164 [45] Ketchum, pp. 165–166 [46] Chidsey p. 99 [47] Frothingham, p. 150 [48] Frothingham, p. 151 [49] Ketchum, p. 181 [50] Brooks, p. 237 [51] Clinton, p. 19. General Clinton's remark is an echoing of Pyrrhus of Epirus's original sentiment after the Battle of Heraclea, "one more such victory and the cause is lost". [52] Brooks, pp. 183–184 [53] Frothingham, pp. 145, 196 [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] Frothingham, pp. 387–389 lists the officer casualties by name, as well as this summary Bardwell, p. 76 Ketchum, p. 150 Ketchum, p. 255 Ketchum, pp. 207–208 Ketchum, p. 209 Ketchum, pp. 208–209 Ketchum, p. 211 Ketchum, p. 213 Scheer, p. 64 Frothingham, p. 155 Frothingham, pp. 158–159 French, pp. 274–276 Frothingham, p. 153 French, pp. 263–265 Frothingham, p. 156 French, p. 277 Frothingham, p. 148 Frothingham pp. 152–153 Jackson, p. 20 Lewis, John E., ed. The Mammoth Book of How it Happened. London: Robinson, 1998. Print. P. 179 R. Reilly, "The Rest to Fortune: The Life of Major-General James Wolfe" (1960) Anderson, p. 679 Winsor, p. 85 French, pp. 269–270 Abbatt, p. 252 Ketchum, pp. 132,165 Woodson, p. 204 Ketchum, p. 260 Richards, p. 95 Ketchum, p. 257 Melville Congressional bio of John Patterson (http:/ / bioguide. congress. gov/ scripts/ biodisplay. pl?index=P000101)

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[87] Buford, Mary Hunter (1895). Seth Read, Lieut.-Col.Continental Army; Pioneer at Geneva, New York, 1787, and at Erie, Penn., June, 1795. His Ancestors and Descendants. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ABlMAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA5& lpg=PA5& dq=buford+ mary+ hunter+ 1895+ "seth+ read"& source=web& ots=_540EB_Xa8& sig=L2OHCI7kvzQ2l582XuF0fvFBMUk). Boston, Mass.. pp. 167 Pages on CD in PDF Format.. .

Battle of Bunker Hill
[88] Marvin, p. 425, 436 [89] "Massachusetts Coppers 1787-1788: Introduction" (http:/ / www. coins. nd. edu/ ColCoin/ ColCoinIntros/ MA-Copper. intro. html). University of Notre Dame. . Retrieved 2007-10-09. [90] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qJUUAAAAYAAJ& pg=RA1-PA107& lpg=RA1-PA107& dq=Seth+ Reed-+ petition+ to+ mint+ coins+ in+ Massachusetts& source=web& ots=qDWGjJDk6o& sig=aicPPy3A917xqvyTcIGUvuhdbPk& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=5& ct=result#PRA1-PA107,M1 [91] "e pluribus unum FAQ #7" (http:/ / 205. 168. 45. 71/ education/ faq/ coins/ portraits. shtml). www.treas.gov. . Retrieved 2007-09-29. [92] Bunce, p. 336 [93] Hayward, p. 322 [94] Clary [95] MTA Bridges [96] Bunker Hill Museum [97] McKenna [98] MA List of legal holidays [99] Somerville Environmental Services Guide [100] University of Massachusetts, Boston, observed holidays [101] Bunker Hill Day closings [102] "Commonwealth of Massachusetts FY2011 Budget, Outside Section 5" (http:/ / www. mass. gov/ bb/ gaa/ fy2011/ os_11/ h5. htm). July 14, 2010. . Retrieved August 6, 2010. [103] See the Centennial Book for a complete description of the events. [104] Sesquicentennial celebration [105] New York Times, June 15, 1975

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Major sources
Most of the information about the battle itself in this article comes from the following sources. • Brooks, Victor (1999). The Boston Campaign. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing. ISBN 1-58097-007-9. OCLC 42581510. • Chidsey, Donald Barr (1966). The Siege of Boston. Boston, MA: Crown. OCLC 890813. • Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1851). History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill, Second Edition (http://books.google.com/?id=xl4sAAAAMAAJ). Boston, MA: Charles C. Little and James Brown. OCLC 2138693. • French, Allen (1911). The Siege of Boston (http://books.google.com/?id=PqZcY9z3Vn4C). New York: McMillan. OCLC 3927532. • Ketchum, Richard (1999). Decisive Day: The Battle of Bunker Hill. New York: Owl Books. ISBN 0-385-41897-3. OCLC 24147566. (Paperback: ISBN 0-8050-6099-5)

Minor sources
Specific facts not necessarily covered by the major sources come from the following sources. • Bunce, Oliver Bell (1870). The romance of the revolution: being true stories of the adventures, romantic incidents, hairbreath escapes, and heroic exploits of the days of '76 (http://books.google.com/ ?id=s7ZEAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA336&dq="John Small" "Bunker Hill"&pg=PA337#v=onepage&q="John Small" "Bunker Hill"). Philadelphia: Porter & Coates. OCLC 3714510. • Abbatt, William (ed) (1883). The Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries, volume 8 (http://books. google.com/?id=k34FAAAAQAAJ). A.S. Barnes. OCLC 1590082. • Alden, John R (1989). A History of the American Revolution. Da Capo. ISBN 0-306-80366-6. • Anderson, William (1863). The Scottish Nation: Or, The Surnames, Families, Literature, Honours, and Biographical History of the People of Scotland, volume 2 (http://books.google.com/?id=otxpAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA679&dq=Agnew+cavalry+Dettingen). Fullarton. OCLC 1290413. • Bardwell, John D (2005). Old Kittery. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-2476-4. • Clinton, Henry; Willcox, William B. (ed) (1954). The American Rebellion: Sir Henry Clinton's Narrative of His Campaigns, 1775–1782 (http://books.google.com/?id=H2AsAAAAMAAJ). Yale University Press.

Battle of Bunker Hill OCLC 1305132. Graydon, Alexander; Littell, John Stockton (ed) (1846). Memoirs of His Own Time: With Reminiscences of the Men and Events of the Revolution (http://books.google.com/?id=wvQEAAAAYAAJ). Philadelphia: Lindsay & Blakiston. OCLC 1557096. Hayward, John (1854). A Gazetteer of the United States of America (http://books.google.com/ ?id=hlJ_1U2IaAIC). self published. OCLC 68756962. Jackson, Kenneth T; Dunbar, David S (2005). Empire City: New York Through the Centuries. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-10909-3. Melville, Herman (1855). Israel Potter: his fifty years of exile: his fifty years of exile (http://books.google.com/ ?id=oK4BAAAAQAAJ). G. Routledge. OCLC 13065897. Richards, Leonard L (2003). Shays's Rebellion: The American Revolution's Final Battle. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1870-1. Scheer, George F; Rankin, Hugh F (1987). Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolution Through the Eyes of Those Who Fought and Lived It. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80307-9. Winsor, Justin; Jewett, Clarence F (1882). The Memorial History of Boston: Including Suffolk County, Massachusetts, 1630–1880, Volume 3 (http://books.google.com/?id=z64TAAAAYAAJ). James R. Osgood. OCLC 4952179.

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•

• • • • • •

• Woodson, Carter Godwin; Logan, Rayford Whittingham (1917). The Journal of Negro History, Volume 2 (http:// books.google.com/?id=AECdAAAAMAAJ). Association for the Study of Negro Life and History. OCLC 1782257.

Commemorations
Various commemorations of the battle are described in the following sources. • "Charles River Bridges" (http://web.archive.org/web/20070928042628/http://www.masspike.com/bigdig/ background/crb.html). Massachusetts Turnpike Authority. Archived from the original (http://www.masspike. com/bigdig/background/crb.html) on September 28, 2007. Retrieved November 26, 2008. • "Massachusetts List of Legal Holidays" (http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/cishol/holidx.htm). Massachusetts Secretary of State. Retrieved December 16, 2008. • "Environmental Guide 2008" (http://www.somervillema.gov/CoS_Content/documents/ EnvironmentalGuide2008.pdf) (pdf). City of Somerville, Massachusetts. Retrieved February 26, 2009. • "UMass Boston Holidays observed" (http://www.umb.edu/faculty_staff/administration_finance/ Human_Resources/Benefits/holidays.html). University of Massachusetts, Boston. Retrieved March 16, 2009. • "Bunker Hill Day Closings" (http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2007/06/18/ bunker_hill_day_closings/). Boston Globe. June 18, 2007. Retrieved March 16, 2009. • ), Boston (Mass; Winsor, Justin (1875). Celebration of the centennial anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill (http://books.google.com/?id=Z9V3AAAAMAAJ). Boston, MA: Boston City Council. OCLC 2776599. • Celebration of the sesquicentennial anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1925. Boston, MA: City of Boston. 1925. OCLC 235594934. • "Bunker Hill Museum" (http://www.nps.gov/bost/historyculture/bhmuseum.htm). National Park Service. Retrieved March 17, 2009. • Clary, David (2007). Adopted Son: Washington, Lafayette, and the Friendship that Saved the Revolution (http:// books.google.com/?id=cgGgAAAACAAJ&dq=adopted+son). New York City: Bantam Books. pp. 443–448. ISBN 9780553804355. OCLC 70407848. • Kifner, John (July 15, 1975). "Not Unusual Occurrence: British Take Bunker Hill" (http://proquest.umi.com/ pqdweb?did=118450359&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=67991&RQT=309&VName=HNP). New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2009. (ProQuest document number: 118450359)

Battle of Bunker Hill • McKenna, Kathleen (June 10, 2007). "On Bunker Hill, a boost in La Fayette profile" (http://www.boston.com/ news/local/articles/2007/06/10/on_bunker_hill_a_boost_in_lafayette_profile/). Boston Globe. Retrieved March 17, 2009.

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Further reading
• Doyle, Peter (1998). Bunker Hill. Charlottesville, VA: Providence Foundation. ISBN 1-887456-08-2. OCLC 42421560. • Drake, Samuel Adams (1875). Bunker Hill: the story told in letters from the battle field by British Officers Engaged (http://books.google.com/?id=7jVCAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover). Boston: Nichols and Hall. • Elting, John R. (1975). The Battle of Bunker's Hill. Monmouth Beach, NJ: Phillip Freneau Press. ISBN 0-912480-11-4. OCLC 2867199. • Fast, Howard (2001). Bunker Hill. New York: ibooks inc. ISBN 0-7434-2384-4. OCLC 248511443. • Swett, S (1826). History of Bunker Hill Battle, With a Plan, Second Edition (http://books.google.com/ ?id=QM3KyrZKnZAC). Boston, MA: Munroe and Francis. OCLC 3554078. This book contains printings of both Gage's official account and that of the Massachusetts Congress.

External links
Pages about the battle
• Library of Congress page about the battle (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/jun17.html) • Bunker Hill Web Exhibit (http://www.masshist.org/bh) of the Massachusetts Historical Society • SAR Sons of Liberty Chapter list of colonial fallen at Bunker Hill (http://revolutionarywararchives.org/ bunkerfallen.html) • SAR Sons of Liberty Chapter description of the battle (http://revolutionarywararchives.org/bunkerhillbattle. html) • The Battle of Bunker Hill: Now We Are at War, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan (http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/42bunker/42bunker.htm) • TheAmericanRevolution.org description of the battle (http://theamericanrevolution.org/battles/bat_bhil.asp) • BritishBattles.com description of the battle (http://www.britishbattles.com/bunker-hill.htm) • Animated History of the Battle of Bunker Hill (http://www.revolutionarywaranimated.com/bunnker-hill)

Pages about people in the battle
• WGBH Forum Network-Patriots of Color:Revolutionary Heroes (http://www.forum-network.org/wgbh/ forum.php?lecture_id=1251&state=afn) • Israel Putnam Website (http://www.israelputnam.com/index.html) • Genealogy of Captain Samuel Cherry, who fought at Bunker Hill (http://www.jhowell.com/tng/getperson. php?personID=I1956&tree=1) • Dr. John Hart, Regimental Surgeon of Col Prescott's Regiment who treated the wounded at Bunker Hill

Other external pages
• Boston National Historical Park Official Website (http://www.nps.gov/bost/)

Battle of Camden

111

Battle of Camden
The Battle of Camden was a major victory for the British in the Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War (American War of Independence). On August 16, 1780, British forces under Lieutenant General Charles, Lord Cornwallis routed the American forces of Major General Horatio Gates about 10 km (six miles) north of Camden, South Carolina, strengthening the British hold on the Carolinas following the capture of Charleston. The rout was an humiliating defeat for Gates, the American general best known for commanding the Americans at the British defeat of Saratoga, whose army had possessed a large numerical superiority over the British force. Following the battle, he never held a field command again. His political connections, however, helped him avoid inquiries and courts martial into the debacle.

Background
Following the British defeat at Saratoga in 1777 and French entry into the American Revolutionary War in early 1778, the British decided to renew a "southern strategy" to win back their rebellious North American colonies. This campaign began in December 1778 with the capture of Savannah, Georgia, and gained further ground in January 1780, when General Sir Henry Clinton led an army and captured Charleston, South Carolina. Clinton returned to New York in the summer of 1780, leaving Lord Cornwallis the task of fortifying the South and raising the anticipated large numbers of Loyalists. The Continental Army in the south, most of which had surrendered at Charleston, was completely driven from South Carolina in the May 1780 Battle of Waxhaws. The only Patriot resistance remaining in South Carolina consisted of militia partisan companies under commanders like Thomas Sumter, William Davie, and Francis Marion. The Continental Army began to reform at Charlotte, North Carolina under Horatio Gates, the "hero of Saratoga". Gates arrived in late July, and met with the local militia and Continental Army commanders. Against the advice of council, Gates, even before he knew the full capabilities of the troops under his command, ordered a march into South Carolina through an area he had been advised had strong Loyalist tendencies. A significant number of his troops were relatively untested militia companies, and even some of the Continentals under his command had little battlefield experience. Because of its crossroads location, Camden was considered a key to controlling the back country of the Carolinas. On July 27, Gates advanced into South Carolina, heading towards Camden, then garrisoned by about 1,000 men under Lord Rawdon.[1] Gates established a camp at Rugeley's Mill, north of Camden, where he was joined by militia companies from North Carolina and Virginia. The weather was extremely hot, and a significant number of troops were put out of action by the heat and diseases like dysentery. Although Gates had over 4,000 men in camp, only about 2000 of them were effective for combat, in part because Gates further reduced their numbers by sending several hundred men in support of operations by Sumter and Marion. General Cornwallis, alerted to Gates' movement on August 9, marched from Charleston with reinforcements, arriving at Camden on August 13, bringing the effective British troop strength over 2,000 men.

Battle of Camden

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Deployments
Gates formed up first on the field. He had around 3,700 troops, of which around only 1,500 of them were regular troops. On his right flank he placed Mordecai Gist, Johann de Kalb's 2nd Maryland and a Delaware Regiment. On his left flank, he placed 2,500 untried North Carolina militia under Colonel Richard Caswell. Gates stayed with the reserve force, the 1st Maryland Brigade under William Smallwood. Gates placed seven guns along the line. Behind the militia, he placed companies of cavalry and light infantry. With this formation, a typical British practice of the time, Gates was placing the untested militia, his weakest forces, against the most experienced British regiments, while his best troops would face the weaker elements of the British forces. Cornwallis had around 2,100 men, of which around 600 were Loyalist militia and Volunteers of Ireland. The other 1,500 were regular troops. Cornwallis also had the infamous and highly experienced Tarleton's Legion, around 250 cavalry and 200 infantry who were formidable in a pursuit situation. Cornwallis formed his army in two brigades. Lord Rawdon was in command of the left wing, facing the Continental Infantry with the Irish Volunteers, Banastre Tarleton's infantry and the Loyalist troops. On the right was Lt. Col James Webster, facing the inexperienced militia with the 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers and the 33rd Regiment of Foot. In reserve, Cornwallis had two battalions of the 71st Regiment of Foot and Tarleton's cavalry force. He also placed four guns in the British centre.[1]
Battle of Camden initial dispositions and movements, 16 August 1780

Battle
Both armies advanced at each other just after dawn. The British troops opened the battle, when the right flank fired a volley into the militia regiments, causing a significant number of casualties. They followed the volley up with a bayonet charge. The militia, lacking bayonets, panicked and fled before the British regiments even reached them. Only one company of militia managed to fire a volley before fleeing. The panic quickly spread to the North Carolina militia, and they also broke ranks and fled. Seeing his left flank collapse, Gates fled with the first of the militia to run from the field. Within a matter of minutes, the whole American left wing had evaporated. The Virginia militia ran away so quickly that they suffered only three casualties.[2] While the militia was routing, and before Gates' flight, he ordered his right flank General Horatio Gates, portrait by Gilbert Stuart under de Kalb to attack the opposing British militia forces. Rawdon's troops advanced forward in two charges, but a heavy fire repulsed his regiments. The Continental troops then launched a counter attack which came close to breaking Rawdon's line, which began to falter. Cornwallis rode to his left flank and steadied Rawdon's men. Instead of pursuing the fleeing militia, Webster wheeled around and launched a bayonet charge into the left flank of the Continental regiments in the center. The North Carolina militia that had been stationed next to the Delaware regiment held its ground, the only militia unit to do so. The Continental regiments fought a stiff fight for some time, but only 800 Continentals were by this time facing over 2,000 British troops. Cornwallis, rather than fight a sustained fight with a heavy loss, ordered Tarleton's cavalry to charge the rear of the Continental line. The cavalry charge broke up the formation of the Continental troops, who finally broke and fled.

Battle of Camden De Kalb, attempting to rally his men was shot eleven times by musket fire. After just one hour of combat, the American troops had been utterly defeated, suffering over 2,000 casualties. Tarleton's cavalry pursued and harried the retreating Continental troops for some 20 miles (32 km) before drawing rein. By that evening, Gates, mounted on a swift horse, had taken refuge 60 miles (97 km) away in Charlotte, North Carolina.[1]

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Casualties
The British casualties were 68 killed, 245 wounded and 11 missing.[3] Hugh Rankin says, "of the known dead, 162 were Continentals, 12 were South Carolina militiamen, 3 were Virginia militiamen and 63 were North Carolina militiamen".[4] David Ramsay says, "290 American wounded prisoners were carried into Camden after this action. Of this number, 206 were Continentals, 82 were North Carolina militia and 2 were Virginia militia. The resistance made by each corps may in some degree be estimated from the number of wounded. The Americans lost the whole of their artillery - 8 field pieces, upwards of 200 wagons and the greatest part of their baggage."[5] A letter from Cornwallis to Lord George Germain, dated 21 August 1780, says that his army took "about one thousand Prisoners, many of whom wounded" on August 18.[6] The website Documentary History of the Battle of Camden, 16 August 1780 [7] details on its Officer Casualties at Camden [8] page the fates of 48 Continental officers at Camden: 5 were killed, 4 died of wounds, 4 were wounded without being captured, 11 were wounded and captured and 24 were captured without being wounded. These ratios would suggest that a significant number of the Americans wounded in the battle escaped capture.

Analysis
There are many reasons given for Gates' defeat. The most prominent are the following:

Tactical evaluation
The Battle of Camden has been scrutinized as one of the worst tactical decisions made on part of the Americans throughout the entire war. Following the surrender at Saratoga, Gates became overconfident in the ability of the American troops, which was displayed during this battle as he rushed his tactical deployment. Gates was a former British officer, and was therefore accustomed to the traditional British deployment of the most experienced regiments on the place of honour—the right flank of the battle line. Gates had therefore placed the Continental regiments on his right flank, and the mass of militia which had joined him, nearly all of which had never even fought in a battle before on the left flank, facing the most experienced British regiments. At first impression, it may seem curious that Gates putting his regiments in the fashion was a grave tactical error, as Cornwallis had done exactly the same thing: his Loyalist troops faced the Continentals just as his Regulars faced the militia. However, the forces were dissimilar, in that the Loyalists were far more experienced in combat at this point than their southern colonial counterparts. As a result, the Loyalists therefore managed to hold the line against the best Continental troops during the battle, while the Regulars effectively broke the colonial militias.

Strategic evaluation
Aside from tactics on the battlefield, Gates had made several strategic errors before joining the battle: • His aggressive movement brought his forces deep into British territory, where residents still loyal to the Crown would extend no supplies nor join his army. • So far from their supply lines, Gates' forces were weakened by lack of adequate food and fresh water, many of them falling victim to dysentery. • Gates took great confidence in his victory at Saratoga but erred in mapping the inexperience of Burgoyne (his opponent in that battle) onto Cornwallis, who was a gifted strategist.

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Aftermath
Gates' army had been utterly defeated; it had suffered over 2,000 casualties, some 1,000 of the troops being prisoners. They lost all seven guns and the whole baggage train. Gates lost control of the southern army due to his cowardice. Major General Nathanael Greene, standing next to George Washington as the most able and trusted Colonial officer of the Revolution, was given command of the southern army and started recruiting additional troops. Gates, who had strong political connections in the Continental Congress, successfully avoided inquiries into the debacle.

Legacy
The Camden Battlefield, located about 5 miles (8.0 km) north of Camden, is owned by the Daughters of the American Revolution, and is undergoing preservation in a private-public partnership. The site was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961, and placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.

Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton by Sir Joshua Reynolds

Aspects of the battle were included in the 2000 movie The Patriot, in which Ben and Gabriel Martin are seen watching a similar battle. Ben comments at the stupidity of Gates fighting "muzzle to muzzle with Redcoats". The film is not historically accurate, depicting too many Continental troops relative to the number of militia, and that the Continentals and militia retreated at the same time.

Order of battle
British
Overall Command: Lord Charles Cornwallis Right Brigade: Commanding Officer: Colonel Webster • • • • Light Infantry 23rd Foot, the Royal Welsh Fusiliers 33rd Foot, now the 3rd Battalion, 1st Yorkshire Regiment 2 artillery guns

American
Overall Command: Horatio Gates Right Flank: Commanding Officer: Gist • • • 2nd Maryland Regiment 1st Delaware Regiment 3 artillery guns

Centre Flank: Commanding Officer: Caswell • • North Carolina Militia 2 artillery guns

Left Brigade: Commanding Officer: Lord Rawdon • • • Irish Volunteers Tarleton's Infantry Loyalist Militia: • The Royal North Carolina Regiment • Bryan's Loyalist Militia (North Carolina) 2 artillery guns

Left Flank: Commanding Officer: Seymour Johnson • • Virginia Militia Armand's Legion

•

Reserve: Commanding Officer: Fraser • • Two battalions of 71st Highlanders Tarleton's Cavalry

Reserve: Commanding Officer: Smallwood • • 1st Maryland Regiment 2 artillery guns

Battle of Camden

115

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] My Revolutionary War: The Battle of Camden (http:/ / www. myrevolutionarywar. com/ battles/ 800816. htm) Buchanan, p. 170 Boatner, p. 169 Rankin, p. 244 Ramsay, p. 169 ‘Letter from Charles, the Earl, Cornwallis to Lord George Germain, dated 21 August 1780, State Records of North Carolina XV:269-273. (http:/ / www. battleofcamden. org/ cornwallis2germain_txt. htm) [7] http:/ / www. battleofcamden. org/ index. htm [8] http:/ / www. battleofcamden. org/ offcas. htm

• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

References
• Boatner, Mark Mayo, Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence, 1763-1783, Cassell and Company Ltd., London, 1966. ISBN 0-304-29296-6 • Buchanan, John, The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The Revolution In The Carolinas.1997, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0-471-32716-6 • Ramsay, David, The History of the American Revolution, Liberty Fund, Indianapolis, 1990 (first published 1789), Volume II • Rankin, Hugh F. (1971). The North Carolina Continentals. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-1154-8. • Russell, David Lee The American Revolution in the Southern Colonies 2000. • Ward, Christopher War of the Revolution 2 Volumes, MacMillan, New York, 1952

External links
• Battle Commemoration website (http://battleofcamden.org/index.htm) - Includes a listing of American and British participants and casualties • Portrait of Baron DeKalb (http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/revwar/image_gal/indeimg/dekalb. html) • Portrait of John Edgar Howard (http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/revwar/image_gal/indeimg/ howard.html) • Portrait of William Smallwood (http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/revwar/image_gal/indeimg/ smallwood.html) • Portrait of William Washington (http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/revwar/image_gal/indeimg/ washington.html) • Portrait of Otho Williams (http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/revwar/image_gal/indeimg/williams. html)

Battle of Cape Spartel

116

Battle of Cape Spartel
The Battle of Cape Spartel was an indecisive naval battle between a Franco-Spanish fleet under Admiral Luis de Córdova y Córdova and a British fleet under Admiral Richard Howe. The fleets met on 20 October 1782 during a successful British campaign to maintain supply routes to Gibraltar, then under siege by the Bourbon armies as part of the American War of Independence.

Battle
There was a tempest on 10 October, and some of the ships of the Franco-Spanish fleet blockading Gibraltar, then anchored off Algeciras, were damaged, although none were sunk. Howe's fleet, escorting a Gibraltar-bound merchant convoy, appeared the next day and, owing to the storm, were pushed into the Mediterranean. That day, taking advantage of a WNW wind, De Córdoba's fleet started to pursue the convoy, while the Spanish Admiral sent his smaller vessels to shadow the British. After several days of fighting westerly winds and currents the convoy, having evaded the Spanish, managed to enter Gibraltar on the 17th. Meanwhile, around sunrise of the 20th, both battle fleets sighted each other some 18 miles off Cape Spartel. De Córdova signalled general chase disregarding division places. The British line of battle was to starboard of the Franco-Spanish. At around 1 pm, and after Cordova's flagship. the 120-gun Santísima Trinidad reached the centre of the combined line, both fleets were about two miles apart. The British reduced sail in order to tighten their line of battle. At 5.45 the van of the Franco-Spanish fleet opened fire. The British returned fire, while Howe signalled retreat all sail, making at least 14 Franco-Spanish ships redundant, among them two three-deckers. No British ships were really engaged despite the efforts of de Córdoba's ships, which chased the fleeing British fleet. On the 21st both fleets were some 12 miles apart. De Córdova made repairs and was ready to resume battle. However, no battle took place as the next day as Howe had sailed back to Britain in line with his orders.

Aftermath
Gibraltar had been under long-standing siege by the Franco-Spanish ships and needed supplies badly. Howe succeeded in his main aim, ensuring that the convoy arrived safely, and returned to England. The successes in resupplying the hard pressed garrison at Gibraltar ensured its survival at a time British forces were suffering a demoralising succession of losses at Minorca, Florida and the Bahamas. The sailing qualities of their ships enabled the British to decline an action and from then on the Spanish Navy struggled to build faster ships to avoid these situations than such as that of the Battle of Cape St. Vincent – the Moonlight Battle - two years before, when Rodney's "coppered" 18-ship fleet chased down and engaged de Lángara's 11-ship fleet. The Spanish navy had been slow to begin coppering its own vessels. It was also limited by the slow speed of some its heavier vessels, like the Santisima Trinidad.

Fleets
British (Howe)
34 ships of the line (according to Schomberg)

Battle of Cape Spartel

117

Admiral Richard Howe's fleet Van - First division Ship Rate Guns Commander Killed HMS Goliath HMS Ganges HMS Royal William HMS Britannia Third rate Third rate Second rate First rate 74 74 84 100 Captain Hyde Parker Captain Charles Fielding Captain John Carter Allen Vice-Admiral Samuel Barrington Captain C. Hills Captain George Vandeput Captain John Collins Van - Second division HMS Panther HMS Foudroyant HMS Edgar HMS Polyphemus HMS Suffolk HMS Vigilant Fourth rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate 60 80 74 64 74 64 Centre - First division HMS Courageux HMS Crown HMS Alexander HMS Sampson HMS Princess Royal HMS Victory Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Second rate First rate 74 64 74 64 98 100 Captain Lord Mulgrave Captain Samuel Reeve Captain Lord Longford Captain John Harvey Captain Jonathan Faulknor Admiral Viscount Howe Captain John Leveson-Gower Captain H. Duncan Centre - Second division HMS Blenheim HMS Asia HMS Egmont HMS Queen Second rate Third rate Third rate Second rate 90 64 74 98 Rear-Admiral Alexander Hood Captain William Domett Captain Richard Onslow Rear - Second division HMS Raisonnable HMS Fortitude HMS Princess Amelia Third rate Third rate Second rate 64 64 84 Captain Lord Hervey Captain George Keppel Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Hughes Captain J. Reynolds Captain Hon. Charles Phipps Captain J. Howarth 1 2 4 0 9 5 1 11 9 Captain Adam Duncan Captain Richard Bligh 2 0 0 1 3 0 0 4 5 0 0 5 1 0 2 2 1 0 4 1 4 0 0 0 5 1 6 2 1 0 Fleet flagship Captain W. C. Finch Captain Sir George Home Captain Henry Hervey Captain John Jervis 3 4 0 0 0 1 15 8 6 4 0 2 18 12 6 4 0 3 4 6 2 8 Casualties Wounded 16 23 13 13 Total 20 29 15 21 Flagship of the van Notes

HMS Atlas HMS Ruby

Second rate Third rate

98 64

2 6

3 0

5 6

HMS Bellona

Third rate

74

0

0

0

HMS Berwick HMS Bienfaisant

Third rate Third rate

74 64

1 2

5 4

6 6

Battle of Cape Spartel

118
Rear - First division

HMS Dublin HMS Cambridge HMS Ocean HMS Union HMS Buffalo HMS Vengeance

Third rate Second rate Second rate Second rate Fourth rate Third rate

74 84 98 90 60 74

Captain Archibald Dickson

0 4

0 6 0 15 16 14

0 10 0 Flagship of the rear 20 22 16

Admiral Mark Milbanke Captain John Dalrymple Captain John Holloway Captain John Moutray Attached frigates

0 5 6 2

HMS Latona

Fifth rate

38

Captain Hon. Hugh Seymour-Conway 63 killed, 198 wounded

0

0

0

Source: Schomberg, Naval Chronology, pp. 390–3.

Franco-Spanish (De Cordova y Cordova)
46 ships of the line
Spanish • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Santísima Trinidad (120), Flagship, Lieutenant-General Luis de Cordova Rayo (80) Commodore Posada Terrible (74) Arrogante (70) Brillante (70), Lieutenant General Viscount De Rochecouart Firme (70) Galicia (70) Guerrero (70) San Isidoro (70) San Isidro (70) San Joaquín (70) San Juan Bautista (70) San Justo (70) San Lorenzo (70) San Rafael (70) San Vicente (70), Commodore Ponce de León Santa Isabel (70) Serio (70) Triunfante (70) Vencedor (70) Castilla (64) España (64) Septentrión (64) French • • • • • • • • • • • Bretagne (110) Invincible (110), Lieutenant General Lamotte-Picquet Majesteux (110) Royal Louis (110), Commodore de Bausset Actif (74) Dictateur (74) Guerriere (74) Robuste (74) Suffisant (74) Zodiaque (74) Indien (64)

The following ships took no part in the action:
Spanish • • • • • • • • Purísima Concepción (112) San Fernando (80) Africa (70) Oriente (70) San Eugenio (70), Lieutenant General Count de Guichen Astuto (60) San Julián (60) Miño (54) French • • • • Terrible (110), Lieutenant General Bonet Bienanime (74) Atlas (70) Lion (64), Lieutenant General Miguel Gastón

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119

Notes References
• Chartrand, René. Gibraltar 1779–1783: The Great Siege (http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/ title=S9770). Patrice Courcelle (1st Edition ed.). Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781841769776. • Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1901). Armada Española desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y Aragón. VII. Madrid, Spain: Est. tipográfico "Sucesores de Rivadeneyra".

External links
• Revolutionary War chronology (http://www.nps.gov/revwar/revolution_day_by_day/1782_bottom.html) • Combate de Espartel. 20 de octubre de 1782 (http://www.todoababor.es/articulos/espartel.htm#prof)
(Spanish)

Battle of the Chesapeake
The Battle of the Chesapeake, also known as the Battle of the Virginia Capes or simply the Battle of the Capes, was a crucial naval battle in the American War of Independence that took place near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on 5 September 1781, between a British fleet led by Rear Admiral Sir Thomas Graves and a French fleet led by Rear Admiral François Joseph Paul, comte de Grasse. The battle was tactically inconclusive but strategically a major defeat for the British, since it prevented the Royal Navy from reinforcing or evacuating the blockaded forces of General Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown, Virginia. It also prevented British interference with the transport of French and Continental Army troops and provisions to Yorktown via Chesapeake Bay. As a result, Cornwallis surrendered his army after the Siege of Yorktown. The major consequence of Cornwallis's surrender was the beginning of negotiations that eventually resulted in peace and British recognition of the independent United States of America. Presented in July 1781 with the options of attacking British forces in either New York or Virginia, Admiral de Grasse opted for the latter, arriving at the Chesapeake at the end of August. Upon learning that de Grasse had sailed from the West Indies for North America, and that French Admiral de Barras had also sailed from Newport, Rhode Island, Admiral Graves concluded that they were going to join forces at the Chesapeake. Sailing south from New York with 19 ships of the line, Graves arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake early on 5 September to see de Grasse's fleet at anchor in the bay. De Grasse hastily prepared most of his fleet, 24 ships of the line, for battle and sailed out to meet Graves. In a two-hour engagement that took place after hours of manoeuvring, the lines of the two fleets did not completely meet, with only the forward and center sections of the lines fully engaging. The battle was consequently fairly evenly matched, although the British suffered more casualties and ship damage. The battle broke off when the sun set. British tactics in the battle have been a subject of contemporary and historic debate. For several days the two fleets sailed within view of each other, with de Grasse preferring to lure the British away from the bay, where de Barras was expected to arrive carrying vital siege equipment. On 13 September de Grasse broke away from the British and returned to the Chesapeake, where de Barras had arrived. Graves returned to New York to organize a larger relief effort; this did not sail until 19 October, two days after Cornwallis surrendered.

“

[The] Battle of the Chesapeake was a tactical victory for the French by no clearcut margin, but it was a strategic victory for the French and Americans that sealed the principal outcome of the war.

”
[1]

— Russell Weigley

Battle of the Chesapeake

120

Background
During the early months of 1781, British and American forces began concentrating in Virginia, a state that had previously not experienced more than naval raids. The British forces were led at first by the turncoat Benedict Arnold, and then by William Phillips before General Charles, Earl Cornwallis arrived in late May with his southern army to take command. In June he marched to Williamsburg, where he received a confusing series of orders from General Sir Henry Clinton that culminated in a directive to establish a fortified deep water port.[2] In response to these orders, Cornwallis moved to Yorktown in late July, where his army began building fortifications.[3] The presence of these British troops, coupled with General Clinton's desire for a port there, made control of the Chesapeake Bay an essential naval objective.[4] [5] On 21 May Generals George Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau, respectively the commanders of the American and French armies in North America, met to discuss potential operations against the British. They considered either an assault or siege on the principal British base at New York City, or operations against the British forces in Virginia. Since either of these options would require the assistance of the French fleet then in the West Indies, a ship was dispatched to meet with French Rear Admiral François Joseph Paul, comte de Grasse who was expected at Cap-Français (now known as Cap-Haïtien, Haiti), outlining the possibilities and requesting his assistance.[6] Rochambeau, in a private note to de Grasse, indicated that his preference was for an operation against Virginia. The two generals then moved their forces to White Plains, New York to study New York's defenses and await news from de Grasse.[7]

Admiral Thomas Graves

Arrival of the fleets
De Grasse arrived at Cap-Français on 15 August. He immediately dispatched his response, which was that he would make for the Chesapeake. Taking on 3,200 troops, he sailed from Cap-Français with his entire fleet, 28 ships of the line. Sailing outside the normal shipping lanes to avoid notice, he arrived at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on August 30,[7] and disembarked the troops to assist in the land blockade of Cornwallis.[8] Two British frigates that were supposed to be on patrol outside the bay were trapped inside the bay by de Grasse's arrival; this prevented the British in New York from learning the full strength of de Grasse's fleet until it was too late.[9] British Admiral George Brydges Rodney, who had been tracking de Grasse around the West Indies, was alerted to the latter's departure, but was uncertain of the French admiral's destination. Believing that de Grasse would return a portion of his fleet to Europe, Rodney detached Rear Admiral Sir Samuel Hood with 14 ships of the line and orders to find de Grasse's destination in North America. Rodney, who was ill, sailed for Europe with the rest of his fleet in order to recover, refit his fleet, and to avoid the Atlantic hurricane season.[10] Sailing more directly than de Grasse, Hood's fleet arrived off the entrance to the Chesapeake on 25 August. Finding no French ships there, he then sailed for New York.[10] Meanwhile his colleague and commander of the New York fleet, Rear Admiral Sir Thomas Graves, had spent several weeks trying to intercept a convoy organized by John Laurens to bring much-needed supplies and hard currency from France to Boston.[11] When Hood arrived at New York, he found that Graves was in port (having failed to intercept the convoy), but had only five ships of the line that were ready for battle.[10]

François Joseph Paul, comte de Grasse, coloured engraving by Antoine Maurin

Battle of the Chesapeake De Grasse had notified his counterpart in Newport, the Comte de Barras Saint-Laurent, of his intentions and his planned arrival date. De Barras sailed from Newport on 27 August with 8 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 18 transports carrying French armaments and siege equipment. He deliberately sailed via a circuitous route in order to minimize the possibility of an encounter with the British, should they sail from New York in pursuit. Washington and Rochambeau, in the meantime, had crossed the Hudson on 24 August, leaving some troops behind as a ruse to delay any potential move on the part of General Clinton to mobilize assistance for Cornwallis.[10] News of de Barras' departure led the British to realize that the Chesapeake was the probable target of the French fleets. By 31 August, Graves had moved his five ships of the line out of New York harbor to meet with Hood's force. Taking command of the combined fleet, now 19 ships, Graves sailed south, and arrived at the mouth of the Chesapeake on 5 September.[10] His progress was slow; the poor condition of some of the West Indies ships (contrary to claims by Admiral Hood that his fleet was fit for a month of service) necessitated repairs en route. Graves was also concerned about some ships in his own fleet; Europe in particular had difficulty manoeuvring.[12]

121

Battle lines form
French and British patrol frigates each spotted the other's fleet around 9:30 am; both at first incorrectly undercounted the size of the other fleet, leading each commander to believe the other fleet was the smaller fleet of Admiral de Barras. When the true size of the fleets became apparent, Graves assumed that de Grasse and de Barras had already joined forces, and prepared for battle; he directed his line toward the bay's mouth, assisted by winds from the north-northeast.[13] [14] De Grasse had detached a few of his ships to blockade the York and James Rivers farther up the bay, and many of the ships at anchor were missing officers, men, and boats when the British fleet was sighted.[13] He faced the difficult proposition of organizing a line of battle while sailing against an incoming tide, with winds and land features that would require him to do so on a tack opposite that of the British fleet.[15] At 11:30 am, 24 ships of the French fleet cut their anchor lines and began sailing out of the bay with the noon tide, leaving behind the shore contingents and ships' boats.[13] Some ships were so seriously undermanned, missing as many as 200 men, that not all of their guns could be manned.[16] De Grasse had ordered the ships to form into a line as they exited the bay, in order of speed and without regard to its normal sailing order.[17] Admiral Louis de Bougainville's Auguste was one of the first ships out. With a squadron of three other ships Bougainville ended up well ahead of the rest of the French line; by 3:45 pm the gap was large enough that the British could have cut his squadron off from the rest of the French fleet.[18] By 1:00 pm, the two fleets were roughly facing each other, but sailing on opposite tacks.[19] In order to engage, and to avoid some shoals (known as the Middle Ground) near the mouth of the bay, Graves around 2:00 pm ordered his whole fleet to wear, a manoeuvre that reversed his line of battle, but enabled it to line up with the French fleet as its ships exited the bay.[20] This placed the squadron of Hood, his most aggressive commander, at the rear of the line, and that of Admiral Francis Samuel Drake in the van.[19] [21] At this point, both fleets were sailing generally east, away from the bay, with winds from the north-northeast.[13] The two lines were approaching at an angle so that the leading ships of the vans of both lines were within range of each other, while the ships at the rear were too far apart to engage. The French had a firing advantage, since the wind conditions meant
Formation of fleets: British ships are black, French ships are white. The Middle Ground to the left are the shoals that Graves tacked to avoid.

Battle of the Chesapeake they could open their lower gun ports, while the British had to leave theirs closed to avoid water washing onto the lower decks. The French fleet, which was in a better state of repair than the British fleet, outnumbered the British in the number of ships and total guns, and had heavier guns capable of throwing more weight.[19] In the British fleet, Ajax and Terrible, two ships of the West Indies squadron that were among the most heavily engaged, were in quite poor condition.[22] Graves at this point did not press the potential advantage of the separated French van; as the French centre and rear closed the distance with the British line, they also closed the distance with their own van. One British observer wrote, "To the astonishment of the whole fleet, the French center were permitted without molestation to bear down to support their van."[23] The need for the two lines to actually reach parallel lines so they might fully engage led Graves to give conflicting signals that were critically interpreted differently by Admiral Hood, directing the rear squadron, than Graves intended. None of the options for closing the angle between the lines presented a favourable option to the British commander: any maneouvre to bring ships closer would limit its firing ability to its bow guns, and potentially expose its decks to raking or enfilading fire from the enemy ships. Graves hoisted two signals: one for "line ahead", under which the ships would slowly close the gap and then straighten the line when parallel to the enemy, and one for "close action", which normally indicated that ships should turn to directly approach the enemy line, turning when the appropriate distance was reached. This combination of signals resulted in the piecemeal arrival of his ships into the range of battle.[24] Admiral Hood interpreted the instruction to maintain line of battle to take precedence over the signal for close action, and as a consequence his squadron did not close rapidly and never became significantly engaged in the action.[25]

122

Battle
It was about 4:00 pm, over 6 hours since the two fleets had first sighted each other, when the British—who had the weather gage, and therefore the initiative—opened their attack.[19] The battle began with HMS Intrepid opening fire against the Marseillais, its counterpart near the head of the line. The action very quickly became general, with the van and center of each line fully engaged.[19] The French, in a practice they were known for, tended to aim at British masts and rigging, with the intent of crippling their opponent's mobility. The effects of this tactic were apparent in the engagement: Shrewsbury and HMS Intrepid, at the head of the British line, became virtually impossible to manage, and eventually fell out of the line.[26] The rest of Admiral Drake's squadron also suffered heavy damage, but the casualties were not as severe as those taken on the first two ships. The angle of approach of the British line also played a role in the damage they sustained; ships in their van were exposed to raking fire when only their bow guns could be brought to bear on the French.[27] The French van also took a beating, although it was less severe. Captain de Boades of the Réfléchi was killed in the opening broadside of Admiral Drake's Princessa, and the four ships of the French van were, according to a French observer, "engaged with seven or eight vessels at close quarters."[27] The Diadème, according to a French officer "was utterly unable to keep up the battle, having only four thirty-six-pounders and nine eighteen-pounders fit for use" and was badly shot up; she was rescued by the timely intervention of the Saint-Esprit.[27] The Princessa and Bougainville's Auguste at one point were close enough that the French admiral considered a boarding action; Drake managed to pull away, but this gave Bougainville the chance to target the Terrible. Her foremast, already in bad shape before the battle, was struck by several French cannonballs, and her pumps, already overtaxed in an attempt to keep her afloat, were badly damaged by shots "between wind and water".[28] Around 5:00 pm the wind began to shift, to British disadvantage. De Grasse gave signals for the van to move further ahead so that more of the French fleet might engage, but Bougainville, fully engaged with the British van at musket range, did not want to risk "severe handling had the French presented the stern."[29] When he did finally begin pulling away, British leaders interpreted it as a retreat: "the French van suffered most, because it was obliged to bear away."[30] Rather than follow, the British hung back, continuing to fire at long range; this prompted one French officer to write that the British "only engaged from far off and simply in order to be able to say that they had

Battle of the Chesapeake fought."[30] Sunset brought an end to the firefight, with both fleets continuing on a roughly southeast tack, away from the bay.[31] The center of both lines was engaged, but the level of damage and casualties suffered was noticeably less. Ships in the rear squadrons were almost entirely uninvolved; Admiral Hood reported that three of his ships fired a few shots.[32] The ongoing conflicting signals left by Graves, and discrepancies between his and Hood's records of what signals had been given and when, led to immediate recriminations, written debate, and an eventual formal inquiry.[33]

123

Standoff
That evening Graves did a damage assessment. He noted that "the French had not the appearance of near so much damage as we had sustained", and that five of his fleet were either leaking or virtually crippled in their mobility.[31] De Grasse wrote that "we perceived by the sailing of the English that they had suffered greatly."[34] Nonetheless, Graves maintained a windward position through the night, so that he would have the choice of battle in the morning.[34] Ongoing repairs made it clear to Graves that he would be unable to attack the next day. On the night of 6 September he held council with Hood and Drake. During this meeting Hood and Graves supposedly exchanged words concerning the conflicting signals, and Hood proposed turning the fleet around to make for the Chesapeake. Graves rejected the plan, and the fleets continued to drift eastward, away from Cornwallis.[35] On 8 and 9 September the French fleet at times gained the advantage of the wind, and briefly threatened the British with renewed action.[36] French scouts spied de Barras' fleet on 9 September, and de Grasse turned his fleet back toward Chesapeake Bay that night. Arriving on 12 September, he found that de Barras had arrived two days earlier.[37] Graves ordered the Terrible to be scuttled on 11 September due to her leaky condition, and was notified on 13 September that the French fleet was back in the Chesapeake; he still did not learn that de Grasse's line had not included the fleet of de Barras, because the frigate captain making the report had not counted the ships.[38] In a council held that day, the British admirals decided against attacking the French, due to "the truly lamentable state we have brought ourself."[39] Graves then turned his battered fleet toward New York,[40] [41] arriving off Sandy Hook on 20 September.[40]

Aftermath
The British fleet's arrival in New York set off a flurry of panic amongst the Loyalist population.[42] The news of the defeat was also not received well in London. King George III wrote (well before learning of Cornwallis's surrender) that "after the knowledge of the defeat of our fleet [...] I nearly think the empire ruined."[43] The French success left them firmly in control of Chesapeake Bay, completing the encirclement of Cornwallis.[44] In addition to capturing a number of smaller British vessels, de Grasse and de Barras assigned their smaller vessels to assist in the transport of Washington's and Rochambeau's forces from Head of Elk to Yorktown.[45] It was not until 23 September that Graves and Clinton learned that the French fleet in the Chesapeake
The surrender of Lord Cornwallis, October 19, 1781 at Yorktown.

numbered 36 ships. This news came from a dispatch sneaked out by Cornwallis on the 17 September, accompanied by a plea for help: "If you cannot relieve me very soon, you must be prepared to hear the worst."[46] After effecting

Battle of the Chesapeake repairs in New York, Admiral Graves sailed from New York on 19 October with 25 ships of the line and transports carrying 7,000 troops to relieve Cornwallis.[47] It was two days after Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown.[48] General Washington acknowledged to de Grasse the importance of his role in the victory: "You will have observed that, whatever efforts are made by the land armies, the navy must have the casting vote in the present contest."[49] The eventual surrender of Cornwallis led to peace two years later and British recognition of the independent United States of America.[48] Admiral de Grasse returned with his fleet to the West Indies. In a major engagement that ended Franco-Spanish plans for the capture of Jamaica in 1782, he was defeated and taken prisoner by Rodney in the Battle of the Saintes.[50] His flagship Ville de Paris was lost at sea in a storm while being conducted back to England as part of a fleet commanded by Admiral Graves. Graves, despite the controversy over his conduct in this battle, continued to serve, rising to full admiral and receiving an Irish peerage.[51]

124

Analysis
Many aspects of the battle have been the subject of both contemporary and historical debate, beginning right after the battle. On 6 September, Admiral Graves issued a memorandum justifying his use of the conflicting signals, indicating that "[when] the signal for the line of battle ahead is out at the same time with the signal for battle, it is not to be understood that the latter signal shall be rendered ineffectual by a too strict adherence to the former."[52] Hood, in commentary written on the reverse of his copy, observed that this eliminated any possibility of engaging an enemy who was disordered, since it would require the British line to also be disordered. Instead, he maintained, "the British fleet should be as compact as possible, in order to take the critical moment of an advantage opening ..."[52] Others criticise Hood because he "did not wholeheartedly aid his chief", and that a lesser officer "would have been court-martialled for not doing his utmost to engage the enemy."[53] One contemporary writer critical of the scuttling of the Terrible wrote that "she made no more water than she did before [the battle]", and, more acidly, "If an able officer had been at the head of the fleet, the Terrible would not have been destroyed."[39] Admiral Rodney was critical of Graves' tactics, writing, "by contracting his own line he might have brought his nineteen against the enemy's fourteen or fifteen, [...] disabled them before they could have received succor, [... and] gained a complete victory."[43] Defending his own behaviour in not sending his full fleet to North America, he also wrote that "[i]f the admiral in America had met Sir Samuel Hood near the Chesapeake", that Cornwallis's surrender might have been prevented.[54] United States Navy historian Frank Chadwick believed that de Grasse could have thwarted the British fleet simply by staying put; his fleet's size would have been sufficient to impede any attempt by Graves to force a passage through his position. Historian Harold Larrabee points out that this would have exposed Clinton in New York to blockade by the French if Graves had successfully entered the bay; if Graves did not do so, de Barras (carrying the siege equipment) would have been outnumbered by Graves if de Grasse did not sail out in support.[55]

Memorial
At the Cape Henry Memorial located at Fort Story in Virginia Beach, Virginia, there is monument commemorating the contribution of de Grasse and his sailors to the cause of American independence. The memorial and monument are part of the Colonial National Historical Park and are maintained by the National Park Service.[56]

Order of battle

Battle of the Chesapeake

125

British fleet Ship Rate Guns Commander Killed Casualties Wounded Total Notes

Van (rear during the battle) Alfred Third rate 74 Captain William Bayne Captain James Brine Captain Charles Saxton Captain Alexander Hood Captain Francis Reynolds Captain John Nicholson Inglefield Centre America Third rate 64 Captain Samuel Thompson Captain Thomas Graves Captain Lord Robert Manners Captain David Graves 0 0 0 0 0 0

Belliqueux Invincible

Third rate Third rate

64 74

0 0

0 0

0 0

Barfleur

Second rate

98

0

0

0 Van flag, Rear Admiral of the Blue Samuel Hood 0

Monarch

Third rate

74

0

0

Centaur

Third rate

74

0

0

0

Bedford

Third rate

74

0

0

0

Resolution

Third rate

74

3

16

19

London

Second rate

98

4

18

22 Fleet flag, Rear Admiral of the Red Sir Thomas Graves 9

Royal Oak

Third rate

74

Captain John Plumer Ardesoif Captain George Bowen Captain Smith Child

4

5

Montagu

Third rate

74

8

22

30

Europe

Third rate

64

9

18

27

Rear (van during the battle) Terrible Third rate 74 Captain William Clement Finch Captain Nicholas Charrington Captain Charles Knatchbull 4 21 [57] 11 scuttled after the battle

Ajax

Third rate

74

7

16

23

Princessa

Third rate

70

6

11

17 Rear flag, Rear Admiral of the Blue Sir Francis Samuel Drake 20

Alcide

Third rate

74

Captain Charles Thompson Captain Anthony James Pye Molloy Captain Mark Robinson Casualty summary

2

18

Intrepid

Third rate

64

21

35

56

Shrewsbury

Third rate

74

14

52

66

90

246

336

Battle of the Chesapeake

126

Unless otherwise cited, table information is from The Magazine of American History With Notes and Queries, Volume 7, p. 370. The names of the ship captains are from Allen, p. 321.

Sources consulted (including de Grasse's memoir, and works either dedicated to the battle or containing otherwise detailed orders of battle, like Larrabee (1964) and Morrissey (1997)) do not list per-ship casualties for the French fleet. Larrabee reports the French to have suffered 209 casualties;[34] Bougainville recorded 10 killed and 58 wounded aboard Auguste alone.[28] The exact order in which the French lined up as the exited the bay is also uncertain. Larrabee notes that many observers wrote up different sequences when the line was finally formed, and that Bougainville recorded several different configurations.[20]
French fleet Ship Rate Guns Commander Notes

Van Pluton Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate 74 [58] Captain François-Hector, Comte d'Albert de Rions [59]

Marseillois

74

Captain Henri-César, Marquis de Castellane Masjastre [60]

Bourgogne

74

Captain Charles, Comte de Charitte

Diadème

74

Captain Louis-Augustin Monteclerc

[61]

Réfléchi

64

Captain Jean-François-Emmanuel de Brune de [62] Boades † Captain Pierre-Joseph, Chevalier de Castellan [63] Van flag, Admiral Louis Antoine de Bougainville

Auguste

80

Saint-Esprit

80

Captain Joseph-Bernard, Marquis de Chabert Captain Framond

[60]

Caton

64

Centre César Third rate Third rate First rate 74 [64] Brigadier Jean-Charles-Régis-Coriolis d'Espinouse

Destin

74

Captain François-Louis-Edme-Gabriel, Comte du Maitz [65] de Goimpy Captain Albert Cresp de Saint-Cezaire [66] Centre flag, Admiral Latouche-Tréville Fleet flag, Admiral François Joseph Paul de Grasse

Ville de Paris

110

Victoire

Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate

74

Captain François d'Albert de Saint-Hyppolyte

Sceptre

74

Captain Louis-Philippe de Rigaud, Marquis de [67] Vaudreuil Captain Bon-Chrétien, Marquis de Bricqueville [68]

Northumberland

74

Palmier

74

[65] Captain Jean-François, Baron d'Arros d'Argelos

Battle of the Chesapeake

127
64 Captain Comte de Cicé-Champion

Solitaire

Third rate Third rate

Citoyen

74

Captain d'Alexandre, Comte d'Ethy

Rear Scipion Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate 74 Captain Pierre-Antoine, Comte de Clavel [69]

Magnanime

74

Captain Jean-Antoine, Comte Le Bègue

[70]

Hercule

74

Captain Jean-Baptiste Turpin du Breuil

[71]

Languedoc

80

Captain Hervé-Louis-Joseph-Marie, Comte [72] Duplessis-Parscau Captain Balthazar de Gras-Préville [73]

Rear flag, Chef d'Escadre François-Aymar, Comte [67] de Monteil

Zélé

74

Hector

74

[63] Captain Laurent-Emanuel de Renaud d'Aleins [58]

Souverain

74

Captain Jean-Baptiste, Baron de Glandevès

Unless otherwise cited, table content is from Larrabee, p. 284

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Weigley, p. 240 Ketchum, pp. 126–157 Grainger, pp. 44,56 Ketchum, p. 197 Linder, p. 15 Mahan, p. 387 Mahan, p. 388

[8] Ketchum, pp. 178–206 [9] Mahan, p. 391 [10] Mahan, p. 389 [11] Grainger, p. 51 [12] Larrabee, p. 185 [13] Morrissey, p. 54 [14] Larrabee, pp. 186, 189 [15] Larrabee, p. 189 [16] Larrabee, p. 188 [17] Larrabee, p. 191 [18] Larrabee, p. 192 [19] Morrissey, p. 55 [20] Larrabee, p. 193 [21] Grainger, p. 70 [22] Larrabee, p. 195 [23] Larrabee, p. 196 [24] Larrabee, p. 197 [25] Grainger, p. 73 [26] Larrabee, p. 200 [27] Larrabee, p. 201 [28] Larrabee, p. 202 [29] Larrabee, p. 204 [30] Larrabee, p. 205

Battle of the Chesapeake
[31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] Larrabee, p. 211 Larrabee, p. 206 Larrabee, pp. 207–208 Larrabee, p. 212 Larrabee, pp. 213–214 de Grasse, p. 157 de Grasse, p. 158 Larrabee, pp. 220–222 Larrabee, p. 220 Morrissey, p. 57 Allen, p. 323 Larrabee, p. 225 Larrabee, p. 272 Ketchum, p. 208 Morrissey, p. 53 Larrabee, p. 227 Grainger, p. 135 Grainger, p. 185 Larrabee, p. 270 Larrabee, p. 277 Larrabee, p. 274 Larrabee, p. 275 Larrabee, p. 276 Larrabee, p. 273 Larrabee, p. 190 National Park Service – Cape Henry Memorial Misprinted in source as 11. Gardiner, p. 119 Gardiner, p. 129 Gardiner, p. 112 d'Hozier, p. 305 Bulletin de la Société d'etudes scientifiques et archéologiques de Draguignan et du Var, Volumes 25-26, p. 405 Gardiner, p. 136 Gardiner, p. 127 Gardiner, p. 128 d'Hozier, p. 201 Gardiner, p. 116 Revue maritime et coloniale, Volume 75, p. 163 Gardiner, p. 133 Gardiner, p. 130 Lacour-Gáyet, p. 625 Annales maritimes et coloniales / 1, Volume 3, p. 32 Coppolani et al, p. 190

128

References
• Allen, Joseph (1852). Battles of the British Navy (http://books.google.com/books?id=PVE2AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA25&lpg=PA25#PPA322,M1). London: Henry G. Bohn. OCLC 5852951. • Castex, Jean-Claude (2004). Dictionnaire des Batailles Navales Franco-Anglaises. Presses Université Laval. ISBN 2-7637-8061-X. • Coppolani, Jean-Yves; Gégot, Jean-Claude; Gavignaud, Geneviève; Gueyraud, Paul (1980) (in French). Grands Notables du Premier Empire, Volume 6. Paris: CNRS. ISBN 9782222027201. OCLC 186549044. • Davis, Burke (2007). The Campaign that Won America. New York: HarperCollins. OCLC 248958859. • Gardiner, Asa Bird (1905). The Order of the Cincinnati in France (http://books.google.com/ books?id=J_hl5NVWljwC&pg=PA112-IA14#v=onepage&f=false). United States: Rhode Island State Society of Cincinnati. OCLC 5104049.

Battle of the Chesapeake • Grainger, John (2005). The Battle of Yorktown, 1781: A Reassessment. Rochester, NY: Boydell Press. ISBN 9781843831372. • de Grasse, François Joseph Paul, et al (1864). The Operations of the French fleet under the Count de Grasse in 1781–2 (http://books.google.com/books?id=aO0_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA157#v=onepage&f=false). New York: The Bradford Club. OCLC 3927704. • d'Hozier, Louis (1876) (in French). L'Impot du Sang: ou, La Noblesse de France sur les Champs de Bataille, Volume 2, Part 2 (http://books.google.com/books?id=IcBCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA306#v=onepage&q& f=false). Paris: Cabinet Historique. OCLC 3382096. • Ketchum, Richard M (2004). Victory at Yorktown: the Campaign That Won the Revolution. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 9780805073966. OCLC 54461977. • Lacour-Gáyet, Georges (1905) (in French). La marine militaire de la France sous le règne de Louis XVI (http:// books.google.com/books?id=R9tnAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA625#v=onepage&q=turpin&f=false). Paris: H. Champion. OCLC 2962049. • Larrabee, Harold A (1964). Decision at the Chesapeake. New York: Clarkson N. Potter. OCLC 426234. • Linder, Bruce (2005). Tidewater's Navy: an Illustrated History. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781591144656. OCLC 60931416. • Mahan, Alfred Thayer (1890). Influence of sea power upon history, 1660–1783 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=eh0MAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA388#v=onepage&q&f=false). Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 8673260. • Ministère de la Marine et des Colonies (in French). Revue Maritime et Coloniale, Volume 75. Paris: Berger-Levrault. OCLC 21397730. • Morrissey, Brendan (1997). Yorktown 1781: the World Turned Upside Down. London: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781855326880. • Weigley, Russell (1991). The Age of Battles: The Quest For Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-7126-5856-4. • (in French) Annales maritimes et coloniales / 1, Volume 3 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=W6BAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA32#v=onepage&f=false). Paris: L'Imprimerie Royale. 1818. OCLC 225629817. • (in French) Bulletin de la Société d'Etudes Scientifiques et Archéologiques de Draguignan et du Var, Volumes 25–26 (http://books.google.com/books?id=NaovAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA405#v=onepage&f=false). Draguignan: Latil Frères. 1907. OCLC 2469811. • "National Park Service – Cape Henry Memorial" (http://www.nps.gov/came/index.htm). National Park Service. Retrieved 2010-08-03. • The Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries, Volume 7 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=hL5Xz5l5FHQC&pg=PA367#v=onepage&f=false). New York: A. S. Barnes. 1881. OCLC 1590082.

129

External links
• War for Independence—Battle of the Capes on u-s-history.com (http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1320. html) • Center of Military History, Battle of the Virginia Capes (http://www.hmsrichmond.org/degrasse.htm)

Battle of Cowpens

130

Battle of Cowpens
The Battle of Cowpens (January 17, 1781) was a decisive victory by Patriot Revolutionary forces under Brigadier General Daniel Morgan, in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War. It was a turning point in the reconquest of South Carolina from the British.

Background
On October 14, 1780, George Washington chose Nathanael Greene to be commander of the Southern Department of the Continental forces.[1] Greene's task was not an easy one. The Carolinas had seen a long string of disasters in 1780, the worst being the capture of one American army at the Siege of Charleston and the destruction of another at the Battle of Camden. A victory of Patriot militia over their Loyalist counterparts at the Battle of Kings Mountain in October had bought time, but most of South Carolina was still under British occupation. When Greene took command the southern army numbered only 2,300 men, of whom just 949 were Continental regulars.[2] On December 3, Daniel Morgan reported for duty to Greene's headquarters at Charlotte, North Carolina.[3] At the start of the Revolution, Morgan, whose military experience dated back to the French and Indian War, had served at the Siege of Boston.[4] Later he participated in the 1775 invasion of Canada and its climactic battle, the Battle of Quebec. That battle, on December 31, 1775, ended in defeat and Morgan's capture by the British.[5] Morgan was exchanged in January 1777 and placed by George Washington in command of a picked force of 500 trained riflemen. Morgan and his men played a key role in the victory at Saratoga that proved to be a turning point of the entire war.[6] Bitter after being passed over for promotion and plagued by severe attacks of sciatica, Morgan left the army in 1779, but a year later he was promoted to Brigadier General and returned to service in the Southern Department.[7] Greene decided that his weak army was unable to meet the British in a standup fight. He then made the unconventional decision to divide his army, sending a detachment west of the Catawba River to raise the morale of the locals and find supplies beyond the limited amounts available around Charlotte.[8] Greene gave Morgan command of this wing and instructed him to join with the militia west of the big Catawba and take command of them.[9] Morgan headed west on December 21, charged with taking position between the Broad River and Pacolet River and protecting the civilians in that area. He had 600 men, some 400 of which were Continentals, the rest being Virginia militia with experience as Continentals.[10] By Christmas Day Morgan had reached the Pacolet River. There he was joined by 60 South Carolina militia led by the experienced partisan Andrew Pickens.[11] Other militia from Georgia and the Carolinas joined Morgan's camp.[12] Meanwhile, Lord Cornwallis was planning to return to North Carolina and conduct the invasion that he had postponed after the defeat at Kings Mountain.[13] Morgan's force represented a threat to his left. Additionally, Cornwallis received incorrect intelligence claiming that Morgan was going to attack the important British fort at Ninety Six, South Carolina. Seeking to save the fort and defeat Morgan's command, Cornwallis on January 2 ordered Lt. Col. Banastre Tarleton west. Tarleton was only 26 years old but had enjoyed a spectacular career that began when he and a small party surprised and captured Patriot Gen. Charles Lee in New Jersey in December 1776. He served with distinction at the Siege of Charleston and the Battle of Camden. Commanding the British Legion, a mixed infantry/cavalry force that constituted some of the best British troops in the Carolinas, Tarleton won decisive victories at Monck's Corner and Fishing Creek. He became infamous amongst Patriots after his victory at the Battle of Waxhaws, when his men killed American soldiers after they had surrendered. Tarleton and the Legion marched to Ninety Six and found that Morgan was not there, but Tarleton decided to pursue Morgan anyway. Tarleton asked for reinforcements of British regulars, which Cornwallis sent. Tarleton then set out with his enlarged command to drive Morgan across the Broad River.[14] On January 12 he received accurate news of Morgan's location and continued with hard marching, building boats to cross rivers that were flooding with winter

Battle of Cowpens rains.[15] Morgan, receiving word that Tarleton was in hot pursuit, retreated north, attempting to avoid being trapped between Tarleton and Cornwallis.[16] By the afternoon of the 16th Morgan was approaching the Broad River, which was high with flood waters and reported difficult to cross. He knew Tarleton was close behind. By nightfall he had reached a place called the Cowpens, a well-known grazing area for local cattle. Pickens, who had been patrolling, arrived that night with a large body of militia. Morgan then decided to stand and fight rather than continue to retreat and risk being caught by Tarleton while fording the Broad River. Tarleton, for his part, received word of Morgan's location and made haste, marching at 3 a.m. instead of camping for the night.[17]

131

Prelude
The Continental force
The size of the American force at Cowpens remains in dispute. Although Morgan claimed in his official report to have had only a few over 800 men at Cowpens, historian Lawrence Babits, in his detailed study of the battle, estimates the real numbers as: • A battalion of Continental infantry under Lt-Col John Eager Howard, with one company from Delaware, one from Virginia and three from Maryland; each with a strength of sixty men (300)[18] • A company of Virginia State troops under Captain John Lawson[19] (75)[20] • A company of South Carolina State troops under Bill Clinton (60)[21] • A small company of North Carolina State troops under Captain Henry Connelly (number not given)[19] • A Virginia Militia battalion under Frank Triplett[22] (160)[23] • Two companies of Virginia Militia under Major David Campbell (50)[24] • A battalion of North Carolina Militia under Colonel Joseph McDowell (260–285)[25] • A brigade of four battalions of South Carolina Militia under Colonel Andrew Pickens, comprising a three-company battalion of the Spartan Regiment under Lt-Col Benjamin Roebuck; a four-company battalion of the Spartan Regiment under Col John Thomas; five companies of the Little River Regiment under Lt-Col Joseph Hayes and seven companies of the Fair Forest Regiment under Col Thomas Brandon. Babits states[26] that this battalion “ranged in size from 120 to more than 250 men”. If Roebuck’s three companies numbered 120 and Brandon’s seven companies numbered 250, then Thomas’s four companies probably numbered about 160 and Hayes’s five companies about 200, for a total of (730) • Three small companies of Georgia Militia commanded by Major Cunningham[27] who numbered (55)[28] • A detachment of the 1st and 3rd Continental Light Dragoons under Lt-Col William Washington (82). Washington was second cousin to Gen. George Washington.[29] • Detachments of state dragoons from North Carolina and Virginia (30)[30] • A detachment of South Carolina State Dragoons, with a few mounted Georgians, commanded by Major James McCall (25)[31] • A company of newly raised volunteers from the local South Carolina Militia commanded by Major Benjamin Jolly (45)[32] The figures given by Laurence E. Babits total 82 Continental light dragoons; 55 state dragoons; 45 militia dragoons; 300 Continental infantry; about 150 state infantry and 1,255-1,280 militia infantry, for a total of 1,887–1,912 officers and men. Broken down by state, there were about 855 South Carolinians; 442 Virginians; 290–315 North
Brig. Gen. Daniel Morgan

Battle of Cowpens Carolinians; 180 Marylanders; 60 Georgians and 60 Delawareans. Historian John Buchanan disagrees, stating that the total was closer to Morgan's estimate, somewhere between 800 and 1000 men.[33] Whatever their total size, Morgan's Continentals were veterans, and many of his militia, which included some Overmountain Men, had seen service at the Battle of Musgrove Mill and the Battle of Kings Mountain.

132

The British force
Tarleton's force included: • The British Legion: 250 cavalry and 200 infantry,[34] • A troop of the 17th Light Dragoons (50), • A battery of the Royal Artillery (24) with two 3-pounder cannons[35] • The 7th Royal Fusiliers Regiment (177) • The light infantry company of the 16th Regiment (42) • The 71st (Fraser's Highlanders) Regiment under Major Arthur MacArthur (334) • The light company of the Loyalist Prince of Wales' American Regiment (31) • A company of Loyalist guides (50) A total of over 1,150 officers and men.[36] Broken down by troop classification, there were 300 cavalry, 553 regulars, 24 artillerymen and 281 militia. Tarleton’s men from the Royal Artillery, 17th Light Dragoons, 16th Regiment and 71st Regiment were reliable and good "Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton" soldiers: but the detachment of the 7th Regiment were raw recruits who had by Sir Joshua Reynolds. been intended to reinforce the garrison of Fort Ninety-Six where they could receive further training rather than go straight into action.[37] Tarleton's own unit, the British Legion were formidable "in a pursuit situation"[38] but had an uncertain reputation "when faced with determined opposition".[38]

Morgan's plan
Daniel Morgan knew that he should use the unique landscape of Cowpens and the time available before Tarleton's arrival to his advantage. Furthermore, he knew his men and his opponent, knew how they would react in certain situations, and used this knowledge to his advantage.[39] He defied convention by placing his army between the Broad and Pacolet River, thus making escape impossible if the army was routed. His reason for doing so was to ensure that the untrained militiamen would not, as they had been accustomed to do, turn in flight at the first hint of battle and abandon the regulars.[40] (The Battle of Reenactors at Cowpens Battlefield Camden had ended in disaster when the militia, which was half of the American force, broke and ran as soon as the shooting started.) Selecting a low hill as the center of his position, he placed his Continental infantry on it,[41] deliberately leaving his flanks exposed to his opponent. Morgan reasoned that Tarleton would attack him head on, and he made his tactical preparations accordingly. He set up three lines of soldiers: one of skirmishers (sharpshooters); one of militia; and a main one. The 150 select skirmishers were from North Carolina (Major McDowell) and Georgia (Major Cunningham). The second line, behind the skirmishers but in front of the third line of Continentals, consisted of 300 militiamen under the command of Andrew Pickens.

Battle of Cowpens

133

Realizing that poorly trained militia were unreliable in battle, especially when they were under attack from cavalry, Morgan did not tell them to stand and fight. Instead, he asked the militia to fire two volleys and then withdraw around the left, so he could have them re-form in the rear, behind the third line, under cover of the reserve (light dragoons commanded by William Washington and James McCall). The movement of the militia in the second line would mask the third line to the British. The third line, on the hill, was manned by his best troops: about 550 men consisting of Continentals from Battle of Cowpens Reenactment, 225th Delaware and Maryland, and experienced militiamen from Georgia and anniversary, January 14, 2006. Virginia. Colonel John Eager Howard commanded the Continentals and Colonels Tate and Triplett the militia. The goal of this strategy was to weaken and disorganize Tarleton's forces (which would be attacking the third line uphill) before attacking and defeating them. Howard’s men would not be unnerved by the militia’s expected move, and unlike the militia they would be able to stand and hold, especially since the first and second lines, Morgan felt, would have inflicted both physical and psychological damage on the advancing British before the third line came into action. With a ravine on their right flank and a creek on their left flank, Morgan's forces were protected against British flanking maneuvers at the beginning of the battle. Morgan insisted,[42] "the whole idea is to lead Benny [Tarleton] into a trap so we can beat his cavalry and infantry as they come up those slopes. When they've been cut down to size by our fire, we'll attack them." In developing his tactics at Cowpens, as historian John Buchanan wrote, Morgan may have been "the only general in the American Revolution, on either side, to produce a significant original tactical thought.”[43]

Tarleton's approach
At 2:00 a.m. on January 17, 1781, Tarleton roused his troops and continued his march to Cowpens. Lawrence Babits states that, "in the five days before Cowpens, the British were subjected to stress that could only be alleviated by rest and proper diet". He points out that “in the forty-eight hours before the battle, the British ran out of food and had less than four hours’ sleep”.[44] Over the whole period, Tarleton’s brigade did a great deal of rapid marching across difficult terrain. Babits concludes that they reached the battlefield exhausted and malnourished. Tarleton sensed victory and nothing would persuade Battle of Cowpens Reenactment, 225th him to delay. His Tory scouts had told him of the countryside Morgan anniversary, January 14, 2006 was fighting on, and he was certain of success because Morgan's soldiers, mostly militiamen, seemed to be caught between mostly experienced British troops and a flooding river.[45] As soon as he reached the spot, he formed a battle line, which consisted of dragoons on his flanks, with his two grasshopper cannon in between the British Regulars and American Loyalists. Tarleton’s plan was simple and direct. Most of his infantry (including that of the Legion) would be assembled in linear formation and move directly upon Morgan. The right and left flanks of this line would be protected by dragoon units. In reserve were the 250-man battalion of Scottish Highlanders (71st Regiment of Foot), commanded by Major Arthur MacArthur, a professional soldier of long experience who had served in the Dutch Scotch Brigade. Finally, Tarleton kept the 200-man cavalry contingent of his Legion ready to be unleashed when the Americans broke and ran.

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Battle
Morgan's strategy worked perfectly. The British drove in successive lines, anticipating victory only to encounter another, stronger line after exerting themselves and suffering casualties. The depth of the American lines gradually soaked up the shock of the British advance. At approximately 6:45 a.m., which was a few minutes before sunrise, Tarleton's van emerged from the woods in front of the American position.[45] Tarleton ordered his dragoons to attack the first line of skirmishers, who opened fire and dropped fifteen dragoons. The dragoons promptly retreated, whereupon Tarleton immediately ordered an infantry charge, without pausing to study the American deployment or to allow the rest of his infantry and his cavalry reserve to make it out of the woods. Tarleton attacked the skirmish line without pausing, deploying his main body and his two grasshopper cannon. The American skirmishers kept firing as they withdrew to join the second line manned by Pickens' militia.[46] The British attacked again, this time reaching the militiamen, who (as ordered) poured two volleys into the enemy. The British—with 40% of their casualties being officers—were astonished and confused. They reformed and continued to advance. Tarleton ordered one of his officers, Ogilvie, to charge with some dragoons into the "defeated" Americans. His men moved forward in regular formation and were momentarily checked by the militia musket fire but continued to advance. Pickens' militia filed around the American left to the rear as planned after getting off their second volley.[47] Taking the withdrawal of the first two lines as a full blown retreat, the British advanced headlong into the third and final line of disciplined regulars which awaited them on the hill. The 71st Highlanders were ordered to flank the American right. John Eager Howard spotted the flanking movement and ordered the Virginia militiamen manning the American right to turn and face the Scots. However, in the noise of battle Howard's order was misunderstood and the militiamen began to withdraw. It was now 7:45 am and the British had been fighting for nearly an hour. They were tired and disorganized, but they saw the militia withdrawing and believed the Americans were on the run. They charged, breaking formation and advancing in a chaotic mass. Morgan ordered a volley. Howard's militia stopped their withdrawal and made an about-face. The Virginians fired into the British at a range of no more than thirty yards, with deadly effect, causing the confused British to lurch to a halt. John Eager Howard then shouted "Charge bayonets!"[48]

British attack at Cowpens, the first phase of the Battle of Cowpens

American counterattack at Cowpens, the second phase of the Battle of Cowpens

Battle of Cowpens

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The Continentals, as ordered, then mounted a bayonet charge. Tarleton's force, faced with a terrible surprise, began to collapse; some surrendering on the spot, while others turned and ran. Howard's men charged forward and seized the British cannons. Washington's cavalry came around from behind the American left to hit the British on their right flank and rear. Pickens' militia, having re-formed, charged out from behind the hill—completing a 360-degree circle around the American position—to hit the 71st Highlander Scots on the British left flank and rear. Howard ordered the Virginia militia, whose withdrawal had brought on the British charge, to turn about and attack the Scots from the other direction. The shock of the sudden charge, coupled with the reappearance of the American militiamen on the left flank where Tarleton's exhausted men expected to see their own cavalry, proved too much for the British. Nearly half of the British and Loyalist infantrymen fell to the ground whether they were wounded or not. Their ability Battle of Cowpens 17 January 1781. Right to fight had gone. Historian Lawrence Babits diagnoses "combat flank(cavalry) of Lt. Col.William Washington and (left shock" as the cause for this abrupt British collapse—the effects of flank) the militia returned to enfilade exhaustion, hunger and demoralization suddenly catching up with them.[49] Caught in a clever double envelopment that has been compared with the Battle of Cannae,[50] many of the British surrendered. With Tarleton's right flank and center line collapsed, there remained only a minority of the 71st Highlanders who were still putting up a fight against part of Howard's line. Tarleton, realizing the desperate seriousness of what was occurring, rode back to his one remaining unit that was in one piece, the Legion Cavalry. He ordered them to charge, but they refused and fled the The flag flown during the battle became known as the field.[51] The Highlanders, surrounded by militia and Continentals, Cowpens flag surrendered. Desperate to save something, Tarleton managed to find about forty cavalrymen and with them tried to save the two cannons he had brought with him, but they had been taken. Tarleton with a few remaining horsemen rode back into the fight, but after clashing with Washington’s men, he too retreated from the field.[52] He was stopped by Colonel Washington, who attacked him with his saber, calling out, "Where is now the boasting Tarleton?". A Cornet of the 17th, Thomas Patterson, rode up to strike Washington but was shot by Washington's orderly trumpeter. Tarleton then shot Washington's horse from under him and fled, ending the battle.[53] It was 8 a.m. and the Battle of Cowpens had lasted approximately one hour.[52]

Battle of Cowpens

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Aftermath
Morgan's army took 712 prisoners, which included 200 wounded. Even worse for the British, the forces lost (especially the British Legion and the dragoons) constituted the cream of Cornwallis' army. Additionally, 110 British soldiers were killed in action. Tarleton suffered an 86 percent casualty rate, and his brigade had been all but wiped out as a fighting force.[52] John Eager Howard quoted Maj. McArthur of the 71st Highlanders, now a prisoner of the Americans, as saying that "he was an officer before Tarleton Reenactors playing Patriot troops march into battle at was born; that the best troops in the service were put under 'that Cowpens boy' to be sacrificed."[54] An American prisoner later told that when Tarleton reached Cornwallis and reported the disaster, Cornwallis placed his sword tip on the ground and leaned on it until the blade snapped.[55] Historian Lawrence Babits has demonstrated that Morgan's official report of 73 casualties appears to have only included his Continental troops. From surviving records, he has been able to identify by name 128 Patriot soldiers who were either killed or wounded at Cowpens. He also presents an entry in the North Carolina State Records that shows 68 Continental and 80 Militia casualties. It would appear that both the number of Morgan's casualties and the total strength of his force were about double what he officially reported.[56] Tarleton's apparent recklessness in pushing his command so hard in pursuit of Morgan that they reached the battlefield in desperate need of rest and food may be explained by the fact that, up until Cowpens, every battle that he and his British Legion had fought in the South had been a relatively easy victory. He appears to have been so concerned with pursuing Morgan that he quite forgot that it was necessary for his men to be in a fit condition to fight a battle once they caught him. Nevertheless, Daniel Morgan, known affectionately as "The Old Waggoner" to his men, had fought a masterly battle. His tactical decisions and personal leadership had allowed a force consisting mainly of militia to fight according to their strengths to win one of the most complete victories of the war. Coming in the wake of the American debacle at Camden, Cowpens was a surprising victory and a turning point that changed the psychology of the entire war—"spiriting up the people", not only those of the backcountry Carolinas, but those in all the Southern states. As it was, the Americans were encouraged to fight further, and the Loyalists and British were demoralized. Furthermore, its strategic result—the destruction of an important part of the British army in the South—was incalculable toward ending the war. Along with the British defeat at the Battle of Battlefield monument Kings Mountain, Cowpens was a decisive blow to Cornwallis, who might have defeated much of the remaining resistance in South Carolina had Tarleton won at Cowpens. Instead, the battle set in motion a series of events leading to the end of the war. Cornwallis abandoned his pacification efforts in South Carolina, stripped his army of its excess baggage, and pursued Greene's force into North Carolina. Skirmishes occurred at the Catawba River (February 1, 1781) and other fords. Yet, after a long chase Cornwallis met Greene at Guilford Court House, winning a pyrrhic victory that so damaged his army that he withdrew to Yorktown, Virginia, to rest and refit. Washington seized this opportunity to trap and defeat Cornwallis at the Battle of Yorktown, which caused the British to give up their efforts to defeat the Americans. In the opinion of John Marshall,[57] "Seldom has a battle, in which greater numbers were not engaged, been so important in its consequences as that of Cowpens." It gave General Nathanael Greene his chance to conduct a campaign of "dazzling shiftiness" that led Cornwallis by "an unbroken chain of consequences to the catastrophe at

Battle of Cowpens Yorktown which finally separated America from the British crown."[58]

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Memorials
• The battle site is preserved at Cowpens National Battlefield. • Two ships of the U.S. Navy have been named USS Cowpens in honor of the battle.

The battle on film
• The final battle at the end of the 2000 film The Patriot drew its inspiration from two specific battles from the American Revolution: Cowpens and Guilford Courthouse. The Americans used the same basic tactics in both battles. The name of the battle, as well as the winning side, were taken from the Cowpens battle. The size of the armies, as well as the presence of Generals Nathanael Greene and Lord Cornwallis, come from the Guilford Courthouse battle. • The Alan Alda directed movie, Sweet Liberty, parodies how a film company takes great liberty with the depiction of the Battle of Cowpens.

Notes
[1] Buchanan, 275 [2] Buchanan, 288 [3] Buchanan, 276 [4] Buchanan, 280 [5] Buchanan, 280-4 [6] Buchanan, 285 [7] Buchanan 287-8 [8] Buchanan, 292 [9] Buchanan, 293 [10] Buchanan, 296 [11] Buchanan 298-9 [12] Buchanan, 301-2 [13] Buchanan, 306-7 [14] Buchanan, 309 [15] Buchanan, 311 [16] Buchanan, 312 [17] Buchanan, 314-5 [18] Babits, pages 27–29. [19] Babits, page 28. [20] Babits, page 77. [21] Babits, page 73. [22] Babits, page 33. [23] Babits, page 104. [24] Babits, page 34. [25] Babits, pages 35–36. [26] Babits, page 36. [27] Babits, page 40. [28] Babits, page 187, Note 14. [29] Babits, page 40–41. [30] Babits, page 175, Note 101. [31] Babits, pages 41–42 and page 175, Note 101. [32] Babits, pages 41–42. [33] Buchanan, page 319 [34] Babits, page 46, “British Legion Infantry strength at Cowpens was between 200 and 271 enlisted men”. However, this statement is referenced to a note on pages 175–176, which says, “The British Legion infantry at Cowpens is usually considered to have had about 200–250 men, but returns for the 25 December 1780 muster show only 175. Totals obtained by Cornwallis, dated 15 January, show that the whole legion had 451 men, but approximately 250 were dragoons”. There would therefore appear to be no evidence for putting the total strength of

Battle of Cowpens
the five British Legion Light Infantry companies at more than 200. [35] Bearss, Edwin C., Battle of Cowpens, Originally published by Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, October 15, 1967, ISBN 1-57072-045-2. Reprinted 1996 by The Overmountain Press. Found at http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ cowp/ bearss/ chap1. htm . [36] All unit strengths from Babits. [37] "70th Congress, 1st Session House Document No. 328: Historical Statements Concerning the Battle of King’s Mountain and the Battle of the Cowpens". Washington: United States Government Printing Office. 1928. p. 53 url = http:/ / www. history. army. mil/ books/ revwar/ KM–Cpns/ AWC–KM–FM. htm. [38] Babits, page 46. [39] Fowler, V.G. (2005). "Brigadier General Daniel Morgan" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ cowp/ dmorgan. htm). U.S. Department of the Interior: National Park Service: Cowpens National Battlefield South Carolina. . Retrieved 2007-12-10. [40] Buchanan, 328 [41] Buchanan, 317 [42] Brooks, Victor; Robert Hohwald (1999). How America Fought Its Wars: Military Strategy from the American Revolution to the Civil War. Da Capo Press. p. 134. ISBN 1580970028. [43] Buchanan, 316 [44] Babits, page 156. [45] Buchanan, 320 [46] Buchanan, 321 [47] Buchanan, 322 [48] Buchanan, 324 [49] Babits discusses this phenomenon fully on pages 155–159 [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] "The Army Chaplaincy", Winter 1998 (http:/ / www. usachcs. army. mil/ TACarchive/ Acwin98i/ Hourihan. htm) Buchanan, 325 Buchanan, 326 Historical record of the 17th Light dragoons (http:/ / www. replications. com/ 17LD/ 17hist. htm) Buchanan, 327 Buchanan, 332 Babits, pages 150–152. Marshall, Volume I, page 404. Trevelyan, Volume II, page 141.

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References
• Alden, John R. (1989). A History of the American Revolution. • Babits, Lawrence E. (1998). A Devil of a Whipping: The Battle of Cowpens. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2434-8. • Bearss, Edwin. C. (1996). The Battle of Cowpens: A Documented Narrative and Troop Movement Maps. Johnson City, Tennessee: Overmountain Press. ISBN 1570720452. • Boatner, Mark Mayo (1966). Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence, 1763–1783. London: Cassell. ISBN 0304292966. • Buchanan, John (1997). The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas. New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-16402-X. • Davis, Burke (2002). The Cowpens-Guilford Courthouse Campaign. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812218329. • Fleming, Thomas J. (1988). Cowpens: Official National Park Handbook. National Park Service. ISBN 0912627336. • Marshall, John (1832). The Life of George Washington: Commander in Chief of the American Forces, During the War Which Established the Independence of his Country, and First President of the United States. Second Edition, Revised and Corrected by the Author. Philadelphia: James Crissy. • Roberts, Kenneth (1958). The Battle of Cowpens: The Great Morale-Builder. Garden City: Doubleday and Company. • Swager, Christine R. (2002). Come to the Cow Pens!: The Story of the Battle of Cowpens January 17, 1781. Hub City Writers Project. ISBN 1891885316.

Battle of Cowpens • Trevelyan, Sir George Otto (1914). George the Third and Charles Fox: The Concluding Part of The American Revolution. New York and elsewhere: Longmans, Green and Co. • Ward, Christopher. War of the Revolution 2 Volumes, MacMillan, New York, 1952

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External links
• Hourihan, William J. (Winter 1998). "Historical Perspective: The Cowpens Staff Ride: A Study in Leadership" (http://web.archive.org/web/20070624212824/http://www.usachcs.army.mil/TACarchive/Acwin98i/ Hourihan.htm). The Army Chaplaincy. Archived from the original (http://www.usachcs.army.mil/ TACarchive/Acwin98i/Hourihan.htm) on 2007-06-24. Retrieved 2007-12-10. • Moncure, Lieutenant Colonel John (1996). "The Cowpens Staff Ride and Battlefield Tour" (http://cgsc. leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/Moncure/moncure.asp). Command and General Staff College: Combined Arms Research Library. Retrieved 2007-12-10. • Parker, John W. "Historical Record of the Seventeenth Regiment of Light Dragoons, Lancers: Containing an Account of the Formation of the Regiment in 1759 and of Its Subsequent Services to 1841" (http://www. replications.com/17LD/17hist.htm). Replications Company. Retrieved 2007-12-10. • Webb, Jonathan (2009). "Battle of Cowpens animated battle map" (http://www.theartofbattle.com/ battle-of-cowpens-1781.htm). The Art of Battle. Retrieved 2009-06-12. • Withrow, Scott (2005). "The Battle of Cowpens" (http://www.nps.gov/cowp/batlcowp.htm). U.S. Department of the Interior: National Park Service: Cowpens National Battlefield South Carolina. Retrieved 2007-12-10. • Cagney, James (2010). "Animated History of the Battle of Cowpens" (http://www.revolutionarywaranimated. com/the-southern-strategy). HistoryAnimated.com. Retrieved 2010-06-25.

Battle of Guilford Court House
The Battle of Guilford Court House was a battle fought on March 15, 1781 in Greensboro, the county seat of Guilford County, North Carolina, during the American Revolutionary War. A force of 1,900 British troops under the command of Lieutenant General Charles Cornwallis defeated an American force of 4,000 under Rhode Island native, Major General Nathanael Greene. Despite the relatively small numbers of troops involved, the battle is considered pivotal to the American victory in the Revolution. Before the battle, the British appeared to have had great success in conquering much of Georgia and South Carolina with the aid of strong Loyalist factions, and thought that North Carolina might be within their grasp. In the wake of the battle, Greene moved into South Carolina, while Cornwallis chose to march into Virginia and attempt to link up with roughly 3500 men under British Major General Phillips and American turncoat Benedict Arnold. These decisions allowed Greene to unravel British control of the South, while leading Cornwallis to Yorktown and eventual surrender to Lt.General George Washington and Comte de Rochambeau. The battle is commemorated at Guilford Courthouse National Military Park.

Prelude
Following the Battle of Cowpens in South Carolina, Lt. General Charles Cornwallis was determined to destroy Greene's army. But the loss of his light infantry at Cowpens led him to burn his supplies so that his army would be nimble enough for pursuit. He chased Greene in the "Race to the Dan", but Greene escaped across the flooded Dan River to safety in Virginia. Cornwallis established camp at Hillsborough, foraged for supplies and recruited North Carolina Tories. However, the bedraggled state of his army and Pyle's massacre deterred Loyalists from turning out. Due to the fighting, thousands of slaves had escaped from plantations in South Carolina and other southern states, many joining the British to fight for their personal freedom. In the waning months of the war, the British evacuated

Battle of Guilford Court House more than 3,000 freedmen to Nova Scotia, with others going to London and Jamaica. Northern slaves escaped to the British lines in occupied cities such as New York. On March 14, 1781, while encamped in the forks of the Deep River, Cornwallis was informed that Greene was encamped at the Guilford Court House. With him was a body of North Carolina militia, plus reinforcements from Virginia, consisting of 3,000 Virginia militia, a Virginia State regiment, a corps of Virginian eighteen-month men and recruits for the Maryland Line, totaling between 4,000-5,000 men. Cornwallis decided to give battle, though he had only 1,900 men at his disposal. He detached his baggage train, 100 infantry and 20 cavalry under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Hamilton, to Bell's Mills further down the Deep River. Before breakfast could be eaten, Cornwallis set off with his main force, arriving at Guilford at midday.

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Battle
The advance guard met near the Quaker New Garden Meeting House. Dragoons from Banastre Tarleton's British Legion were briefly engaged by Light Horse Harry Lee's Dragoons about 4 miles (6 km) from the Guilford Court House. The British 23rd Regiment of Foot sent reinforcements forward and Lee withdrew, ordering a retreat to Greene's main body. Cornwallis found the Americans in position on rising ground about one and a half miles (2.5 km) from the court house. He was unable to gain much information from his prisoners or the local residents as to the American disposition. To his front he saw a plantation with a large field straddling both sides of the road, with two more further over on the left separated by 200 yards or so of woodland. To his right beyond the fields Map of the Guilford Court House Battleground, based on c. 2006 the woodland extended for several miles. On the far National Park Service map side of the first field was a fenced wood, 1 mile (1.6 km) in depth, through which the road passed into an extensive cleared area around the court house. Along the edge of this woodland was a fence forming the American first line of defense and a 6-pound cannon on each side of the road. Greene had prepared his defense in three lines. North Carolina militia formed the first line, with backwoods riflemen on the left and right flanks to snipe advancing British. In the second line, he placed the Virginia militia. Two more 6-pound cannons were sited in the center of the line. His third and strongest line consisting of his regulars, included the Virginian Regiment, Delaware infantry, and the 1st and 2nd Maryland regiments was a further 400 yards further on, though placed at an angle to the west of the road. While superficially resembling the deployment successfully used by Daniel Morgan at Cowpens, the lines were hundreds of yards apart and could not support one another.

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Since the east side of the road was mostly open, Cornwallis opted to attack up the west side and, following a short barrage of cannon shot on the cannon positions of the first line, at 1:30 p.m., Cornwallis moved his men forward. When they were about 150 yards short of the fence, a volley was fired from the Americans, whose long guns had a greater range than British muskets, but the British continued until they were within musket shot then fired their own volley in return. On a command from Webster, they then charged forward, coming to a halt 50 paces from the American lines because the North Carolina Militia, as noted by Sergeant Lamb of the 23rd Regiment "had their arms presented and resting on the picket fence...they were taking aim with nice precision". Urged onwards by Lieutenant Colonel James Webster of the 33rd Regiment of Foot, the British continued to advance. The North Carolina Militia, to the west of the road, fired their muskets then turned and fled back through the woods, discarding their personal equipment as they ran. The British advanced on the second line. Heavy resistance was shown, but Webster pushed around the flank and on to the American 3rd line. The woodland was too dense to allow practical use of the bayonets. The British army forced its way through the first two lines with significant losses.

1893 Map of the battlefield, Guilford Courthouse Battleground Company

The 71st Regiment, Grenadiers and 2nd Guards moved up the center, following the musket shots from the 33rd and 23rd Regiments to their left. To the right, the 1st Guards and Hessians were being harried by Lee's Legion. The British guns and Tarleton’s Light Dragoons moved forward along the road keeping pace. The 2nd Guards in the centre found themselves coming out into open ground around the court house to the left of the Salisbury road. They spotted a large force of Continental Infantry and immediately attacked them and captured two 6-pounders. They then pursued the Continentals into the wood and were repulsed by Lt. Col. William Washington's Light Dragoons, and the 1st Maryland Regiment, abandoning the two guns they had just captured. Lieutenant Macleod, in command of two British 3-pounders, had just arrived and was directed to fire on the Dragoons. While many British soldiers were killed from friendly fire, the Americans broke off and retreated from the field. Cornwallis ordered the 23rd and 71st Regiments with part of the Cavalry to pursue the Americans, though not for any great distance. Tarleton and the remainder of the Dragoons were sent off to the right flank to join Bose and put an end to the action from Washington. During the battle, Cornwallis had a horse shot from under him. American Colonel Benjamin Williams was later decorated for his personal bravery at Guilford Courthouse.

Aftermath
The battle had lasted only ninety minutes, and although the British technically defeated the American force, they lost over a quarter of their own men. The British, by taking ground with their accustomed tenacity when engaged with superior numbers, were tactically victors. Seeing this as a classic Pyrrhic victory, British Whig Party leader and war critic Charles James Fox echoed Plutarch's famous words by saying, "Another such victory would ruin the British Army!"[1]

Non-standard American flag believed to have been carried in battle, although its validity is questioned.

In a letter to Lord George Germain, delivered by his aide-de-camp, Captain Broderick, Cornwallis commented: "From our observation, and the best accounts we could procure, we did not doubt but the strength of the enemy

Battle of Guilford Court House exceeded 7,000 men... I cannot ascertain the loss of the enemy, but it must have been considerable; between 200 and 300 dead were left on the field of battle.... many of their wounded escaped.... Our forage parties have reported to me that houses in a circle six to eight miles around us are full of others.... We took few prisoners". He further went on to comment on the British force: "The conduct and actions of the officers and soldiers that composed this little army will do more justice to their merit than I can by words. Their persevering intrepidity in action, their invincible patience in the hardships and fatigues of a march of above 600 miles, in which they have forded several large rivers and numberless creeks, many of which would be reckoned large rivers in any other country in the world, without tents or covering against the climate, and often without provisions, will sufficiently manifest their ardent zeal for the honour and interests of their Sovereign and their country." After the battle, the British were spread across a large expanse of woodland without food and shelter, and during the night torrential rains started. Fifty of the wounded died before sunrise. Had the British followed the retreating Americans they might have come across their baggage and supply wagons, which had been left where the Americans had camped on the west of the Salisbury road prior to the battle. On March 17, two days after the battle, Cornwallis reported his casualties as 5 officers and 88 other ranks killed and 24 officers and 389 other ranks wounded, with a further 26 men missing in action.[2] Webster was wounded during the battle, and he died a fortnight later. Greene reported his casualties as 57 killed, 111 wounded and 161 missing for the Continental troops and 22 killed, 74 wounded and 885 missing for the militia: a total of 79 killed, 185 wounded and 1,046 missing.[] Of those reported missing, 75 were wounded men who were captured by the British.[3] When Cornwallis resumed his march, these 75 wounded prisoners were left behind at Cross Creek,[] Cornwallis having earlier left 70 of his own most severely wounded men at the Quaker settlement of New Garden[4] near Snow Camp. To avoid another Camden, Greene retreated with his forces intact. With his small army, less than 2,000 strong, Cornwallis declined to follow Greene into the back country. Retiring to Hillsborough, he raised the royal standard, offered protection to the inhabitants, and for the moment appeared to be master of Georgia and the two Carolinas. In a few weeks, however, he abandoned the heart of the state and marched to the coast at Wilmington, North Carolina, to recruit and refit his command. At Wilmington, the British general faced a serious problem. Instead of remaining in North Carolina, he determined to march into Virginia, justifying the move on the ground that until Virginia was reduced, he could not firmly hold the more southern states he had just overrun. General Clinton sharply criticized the decision as unmilitary, and as having been made contrary to his instructions. To Cornwallis, he wrote in May: "Had you intimated the probability of your intention, I should certainly have endeavoured to stop you, as I did then as well as now consider such a move likely to be dangerous to our interests in the Southern Colonies." For three months, Cornwallis raided every farm or plantation he came across, from which he took hundreds of horses for his Dragoons. He converted another 700 infantry to mounted duties. During these raids, he freed thousands of slaves, of whom 12,000 joined his own force. General Greene boldly pushed down towards Camden and Charleston, South Carolina, with a view to drawing his antagonist after him to the points where he was the year before, as well as to driving back Lord Rawdon, whom Cornwallis had left in that field. In his main object—the recovery of the southern states—Greene succeeded by the close of the year, but not without hard fighting and repeated reverses. "We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again," were his words.

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Battle of Guilford Court House

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Legacy
Every year, on or about March 15, re-enactors in period costumes present a tactical demonstration of Revolutionary War fighting techniques on or near the battle site, major portions of which are preserved in the Guilford Courthouse National Military Park, established in 1917. Recent research has shown that the battlefield extended into the area now within the boundaries of the adjacent Greensboro Country Park to the east.

Smoke fills the air at an annual re-enactment

In popular culture
• In the 2000 historical epic The Patriot, the final battle was inspired by the battles of Cowpens and Guilford Courthouse. The Americans used the same tactics in both battles. In the film, the name of the battle, as well as the winning side, was taken from the Cowpens battle. The sizes of the armies, as well as their being led by generals Greene and Cornwallis, come from the Guilford Courthouse battle. The scene where Cornwallis orders his artillery to "concentrate on the center," during which they killed both Continentals and his own troops, took place at Guilford Courthouse.

References
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
[1] Thomas E. Baker, Another Such Victory, Eastern Acorn Press, 1981, ISBN 0-915992-06-x [2] Guilford Courthouse: A Pivotal Battle in the War for Independence [3] Conrad, The Papers of General Nathanael Greene, Volume VII, page 441, referring to a letter sent by Major Charles Magill to Governor Thomas Jefferson of Virginia on March 19, 1781 [4] Buchanan, The Road to Guilford Courthouse, page 382

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Further reading
• Agniel, Lucien. The late affair has almost broke my heart;: The American Revolution in the South, 1780-1781 Chatham Press, 1972, ISBN 0856990361. • Babits, Lawrence E. and Howard, Joshua B. Long, Obstinate, and Bloody: The Battle of Guilford Courthouse University of North Carolina Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0807832660 • Baker, Thomas E. Another Such Victory: The Story of the American Defeat at Guilford Courthouse that Helped Win the War for Independence Eastern National, 1999, ISBN 091599206X. • Buchanan, John. The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution in the Carolinas Wiley, 1999, ISBN 0471327166. • Chidsey, Donald Barr. The war in the South: The Carolinas and Georgia in the American Revolution Crown Publishers, 1971. • Conrad, Dennis M. (ed.), The Papers of General Nathanael Greene, Volume VII: 26 December 1780-29 March 1781, 1994, University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, ISBN 978-0-8078-2094-0. • Davis, Burke. The Cowpens-Guilford Courthouse Campaign University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, ISBN 0812218329. • Hairr, John. Guilford Courthouse Da Capo Press, 2002, ISBN 0306811715. • Konstam, Angus. Guilford Courthouse 1781: Lord Cornwallis's Ruinous Victory Osprey Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1841764116. • Lumpkin, Henry. From Savannah to Yorktown: The American Revolution in the South Paragon House, 1987, ISBN 0595000975. • Trevelyan, Sir George O. "George the Third and Charles Fox: The Concluding Part of The American Revolution". New York and elsewhere: Longmans, Green and Co., 1914 • Ward, Christopher. War of the Revolution (two volumes), MacMillan, New York, 1952
Letter from George Washington to Comte of Rochambeau (31 March 1781), in which Washington reports he is hearing first reports from the Battle of Guilford Court House

External links
• Guilford Courthouse National Military Park website (http://www.nps.gov/guco/)

Battle of Kings Mountain

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Battle of Kings Mountain
The Battle of Kings Mountain was a decisive battle between the Patriot and Loyalist militias in the Southern campaign of the American Revolutionary War. The actual battle took place on October 7 1780, nine miles south of the present-day town of Kings Mountain, North Carolina in rural York County, South Carolina, where the Patriot militia defeated the Loyalist forces commanded by British Major Patrick Ferguson of the 71st Foot. Ferguson had arrived in North Carolina in early September 1780 with the purpose of recruiting for the Loyalist militia and protecting the flank of Lord Cornwallis' main force. Ferguson issued a challenge to the rebel militias to lay down their arms or suffer the consequences; in response, the Patriot militias led by James Johnston, William Campbell, John Sevier, Joseph McDowell and Isaac Shelby rallied for an attack on Ferguson. After receiving intelligence on the oncoming attack, Ferguson elected to retreat to the safety of Lord Cornwallis' host; however, the Patriots caught up with the Loyalists at Kings Mountain on the border with South Carolina. Having achieved surprise on the Loyalists, the Patriots attacked and surrounded the Loyalists, inflicting heavy casualties. After an hour of battle, Ferguson was shot dead while trying to break the rebel ring, after which the Loyalists surrendered. Wanting to avenge the events of the Battle of Waxhaws, the Patriot soldiers gave no quarter to the surrendering Loyalists until the rebel officers re-established control over their men. Although victorious, the Patriots had to quickly move from the area for fear of Cornwallis' advance. The battle was a pivotal moment in the Southern campaign; the surprising victory over the Loyalist American militia came after a string of rebel defeats at the hands of Lord Cornwallis, and greatly raised morale among the Patriots. With Ferguson dead and his militia destroyed, Cornwallis was forced to abandon plans to invade North Carolina and retreated into South Carolina.

Prelude to battle
Major Ferguson was appointed Inspector of Militia on May 22, 1780. His tasking was to march to Tryon County, North Carolina, raise and organize Loyalist units from the Tory population of the Carolina Backcountry, and protect the left flank of Lord Cornwallis' main body at Charlotte, North Carolina.[1] [2] On September 2, he and what militia he had already recruited marched west, heading for the Appalachian Mountain hill country along what is now the Tennessee/North Carolina border.[3] By September 10, he had established a base camp at Gilbert Town, North Carolina and issued a challenge to the Patriot leaders to lay down their arms or he would "lay waste to their country with fire and sword."[4] North Carolina Patriot militia leaders Isaac Shelby and John Sevier, from the Washington District (now present day northeast Tennessee), met after receiving Ferguson's "fire and sword" message and agreed to lead their militia against him.[5] After the Patriot surrender at Charleston, South Carolina, the British Army under Lord Cornwallis made its way toward Charlotte, North Carolina, where it planned to put an end to the Patriot uprising in the Carolinas. Colonel Cleveland dispatched Martin Gambill with a request for help to the men living in the Holston Valley of Virginia. Gambill carried the message approximately one hundred miles on horseback across country dangerously infested with Tories. Enroute, Captain Gambill stopped at Captain Enoch Osborne's homestead on New River to get a fresh horse. Legend relates "that Enoch took his horse loose from the plow and loaned it to him to go on with the message." On his return to the Yadkin Valley, Gambill found that Cleveland had been wounded, and that he had been selected to lead Cleveland's "Company of Men" into the developing conflict. Patriot leaders also sent a message to Virginia militia leader, William Campbell, asking him to join them.[5] Campbell, in turn, called on Benjamin Cleveland to bring his South Carolina militia to join the rendezvous.[6] The detachments of Shelby, Sevier and Campbell were joined by 160 North Carolina militiamen led by Charles

Battle of Kings Mountain McDowell and his brother Joseph.[6] Campbell's cousin, Arthur, brought 200 more Virginians.[7] Some 1,100 volunteers from southwest Virginia and present-day northeast Tennessee, known as the "Overmountain Men" (so named because they had settled into the wilderness west of the Appalachian Mountains ridgeline), mustered at the rendezvous at Sycamore Shoals near present day Elizabethton, Tennessee on September 25, 1780. Their movement had been permitted by easing tensions with the Cherokee, thanks to diplomacy by Benjamin Cleveland's brother-in-law, Indian agent Joseph Martin.[8] [9] [10] The Overmountain Men crossed over Roan Mountain the next day, and proceeded in a southerly direction for about thirteen days in anticipation of encountering the British Loyalist force. By Sept. 30 they had reached Quaker Meadows, the Burke County, North Carolina home of the McDowell brothers, where they were joined by Benjamin Cleveland and 350 men.[11] Now 1400 strong, they marched south to South Mountain, North Carolina,[12] The five colonels leading the Patriot force (Shelby, Sevier, William Campbell, Joseph McDowell and Cleveland) then named Campbell the nominal commander but agreed that all five would act in council to command their pickup army.[13] Meanwhile, two deserters from the Patriot force reached Patrick Ferguson and informed him that a large body of militia was advancing towards him. After waiting three days for reasons that remain unclear, Ferguson elected to retreat back to Lord Cornwallis and the British main body in Charlotte, meanwhile sending a message to Cornwallis asking for reinforcements. The message did not reach Cornwallis until it Gathering of Overmountain Men at Sycamore Shoals, a black and white was too late, one day after the battle. On reproduction of Lloyd Branson's 1915 depiction of the Patriot militias joining up. October 1 Ferguson reached North Carolina's Broad River, where he issued another pugnacious public letter, calling for local militia to join him lest they be "pissed upon by a set of mongrels" (the Overmountain Men).[14] The Patriot militia pursuing Ferguson reached his former camp at Gilbert Town on October 4,[15] where thirty Georgian partisans joined their camp, looking for action.[16] On October 6, they had reached Cowpens, South Carolina (which was the site of the future Battle of Cowpens), they received word from local sympathizers that Ferguson was east of them, heading towards Charlotte and Cornwallis. They would have to hurry to catch him.[17] Rebel spies reported that Ferguson was making camp atop Kings Mountain with some 1500 men.[18] The intelligence was accurate. Ferguson, rather than pushing on until he reached Charlotte and safety (just a day's march away), camped out at Kings Mountain and sent Cornwallis another letter asking for reinforcements (which was also received too late).[19] Kings Mountain was one of many rocky forested hills in the upper Piedmont near the border between North and South Carolina. It is shaped like a footprint with the highest point at the heel, a narrow instep, and a broad rounded toe. The Loyalists were encamped on a ridge to the West of Kings Pinnacle, the highest point of Kings Mountain. Needing to make haste, the Patriot militia put some 900 men on horseback and made for Kings Mountain.[18] They set out immediately, marching through the night of the 6th and morning of the 7th. It rained all night and through the morning. By sunrise on the 7th, they were fording the Broad River, fifteen miles from Kings Mountain.[20] By early afternoon they had reached their goal, whereupon they surrounded the ridge where the Loyalists were encamped and attacked.[21]

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Battle
The battle opened on October 7, 1780, around 3 p.m.[22] when 900 Patriots (including John Crockett, the father of Davy Crockett), approached the steep base of the Western ridge of Kings Mountain. The rebels formed eight groups of 100 to 200 men. Ferguson, completely unaware that the rebels had caught up to him, was at the top of the ridge with some 1,100 men. Ferguson was the only Briton in his command, which consisted entirely of Loyalist militia, save for around 100 red-uniformed Loyalist soldiers from New York state. Most of the Loyalists were of both Carolinas' origin. He had not built any fortifications on his position.[23] As the screaming Patriots charged up the hill, Captain DePeyster turned to Ferguson and said "These things are ominous—these are the damned yelling boys!".[22] Two parties, led by Colonels John Sevier and William Campbell, assaulted the "high heel" of the wooded mountain, the smallest area but highest point, while the other seven groups, led by Colonels Shelby, Williams, Lacey, Cleveland, Hambright, Winston and McDowell attacked the main Loyalist position by surrounding the "ball" base beside the "heel" crest of the mountain.[24] They caught the Loyalists by surprise; Tory officer Alexander Chesney admitted that he didn't know the Patriots were in the vicinity until the shooting started.[23] No one amongst the Patriot army was in command once the fighting commenced; each group fought independently in accordance with the plan to surround and destroy the Loyalists.[25] The Patriots crept up the hill and fired on the Loyalists from behind rocks and trees. Ferguson rallied his troops and launched a bayonet charge against Campbell and Sevier's men. With no bayonets of their own, the rebels retreated down the hill and into the woods. Campbell rallied his troops, returned to the base of the hill, and resumed firing. Ferguson launched two more bayonet charges during the course of the battle. This became the pattern of the battle all around the Loyalist position; when the Patriots would charge up the hill, the Tories would form and charge down the hill with fixed bayonets, driving whatever Patriots they found down the hill and into the woods. Whereupon the Tories would withdraw when the charge was spent, and the scattered Patriots would reform in the woods, return to the base of the hill, and charge back up the hill again.[25] During one of the charges, Colonel Williams was killed and Colonel McDowell was wounded. It was hard for the Loyalists to find a target because the Patriots were constantly moving and using cover and concealment. Additionally, the downhill angle of the hill caused the Loyalists to overshoot.[26] After an hour of combat,[27] Loyalist casualties were heavy. Ferguson rode back and forth across the hill, blowing a silver whistle he used to signal charges. Shelby, Sevier and Campbell reached the top of the hill behind the Loyalist position and attacked Ferguson's rear. The Loyalists were driven back into their camp at the toe of the hill, where they began to surrender. Ferguson drew his sword and hacked down the white flags that he saw popping up, but he apparently knew that the end was near. In an attempt to rally his faltering men, Ferguson shouted out "Hurrah, brave boys, the day is ours!",[28] gathered a few officers together and attempted to cut through the Patriot ring, but Sevier's men fired a volley and Ferguson was shot dead from his horse.[29] When the rebels found his corpse they counted seven bullet wounds.[30] Seeing their leader fall, the Loyalists began to surrender. Captain Abraham DePeyster, in command after Ferguson was killed, asked for quarter. Eager to avenge the Waxhaw Massacre, where Banastre Tarleton's men had killed a sizeable amount of Abraham Buford's Continental soldiers after the latter had surrendered, some rebels did not initially want to take prisoners while others were unaware that the Loyalists had surrendered.[28] The Patriots rejected DePeyster's white flag and continued firing, many of them shouting, "Give 'em Tarleton's Quarter!" and "Give them Buford's play!". After a few more minutes of bloodletting in which a significant amount of the surrendering Loyalists were killed,[31] DePeyster sent out a second white flag and a few rebel officers, including Campbell and Sevier, ran forward and took control by ordering their men to cease fire,[32] giving quarter to around 700 Loyalists.

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Aftermath
The Battle of Kings Mountain lasted 65 minutes.[33] The Loyalists suffered 244 killed, 163 wounded, and 668 taken prisoner. The Patriot militia suffered 29 killed and 58 wounded. The Patriots had to move out quickly for fear that Cornwallis would advance to meet them.[34] Loyalist prisoners well enough to walk were herded to camps several miles from the battlefield. The dead were buried in shallow graves and wounded were left on the field. Ferguson's corpse was later reported to have been mangled and wrapped in oxhide before burial.[35] Both victors and vanquished came near to starvation on the march due to a lack of supplies in the hastily organized Patriot army.[34]

Map spot for Blacksburg, South Carolina.

On October 14, the retreating Patriot force held drumhead courtmartials of various Loyalists on various charges (treason, desertion from Patriot militias, incitement of Indian rebellion), mostly due to a desire for revenge. Passing through the Sunshine community in what is now Rutherford County, N.C., the retreat halted, perhaps not coincidentally on the property of the Biggerstaff family. Aaron Biggerstaff, a Loyalist, had fought in the battle and been mortally wounded. His brother Benjamin was a Patriot and was being held as a prisoner of war on a British ship docked at Charleston, S.C. Their cousin John Moore was the Loyalist commander at the earlier Battle of Ramsour's Mill (modern Lincolnton, N.C.), in which many of the same troops had participated on both sides. While stopped on the Biggerstaff land, 36 Loyalist prisoners, many of whom were recognized by several Patriots whom previously fought alongside and later changed sides, were convicted and nine were hanged before Isaac Shelby brought an end to the proceedings.[36] His decision to halt the proceedings came after an impassioned plea for mercy from one of the Biggerstaff women, although accounts vary as to whether it was Martha Biggerstaff, Aaron's wife, or Mary Van Zant Biggerstaff, Benjamin's wife.[37] As the Patriot army dispersed, all but 130 Loyalist prisoners escaped over the next few days before the column finally reached camp at Salem, North Carolina; they were able to escape having been moved through wooded areas in a single line.[38] Kings Mountain was a pivotal moment in the history of the American Revolution. Coming after a series of disasters and humiliations in the Carolinas—the fall of Charleston and capture of the American army there, the destruction of another American army at the Battle of Camden, the Waxhaws Massacre—the surprising, decisive victory at Kings Mountain was a great boost to Patriot morale. The Tories of the Carolina Back Country were broken as a military force.[39] Additionally, the destruction of Ferguson's command and the looming threat of Patriot militia in the mountains caused Lord Cornwallis to cancel his plans to invade North Carolina; he instead evacuated Charlotte and retreated to South Carolina.[39] He would not return to North Carolina until early 1781, when he was chasing Nathanael Greene after the Americans had dealt British arms another devastating defeat at the Battle of Cowpens. In The Winning of the West, Theodore Roosevelt wrote of Kings Mountain, "This brilliant victory marked the turning point of the American Revolution." Thomas Jefferson called it, "The turn of the tide of success." Herbert Hoover's address at Kings Mountain said, "This is a place of inspiring memories. Here less than a thousand men, inspired by the urge of freedom, defeated a superior force intrenched in this strategic position. This small band of Patriots turned back a dangerous invasion well designed to separate and dismember the united Colonies. It was a little army and a little battle, but it was of mighty portent. History has done scant justice to its significance, which rightly should place it beside Lexington, Bunker Hill, Trenton and Yorktown."[40] In 1931, the Congress of the United States created the Kings Mountain National Military Park on the site of the battle. The park headquarters is in Blacksburg, South Carolina, and hosts hundreds of thousands of people each year.[41]

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Footnotes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Buchanan, 202 Dameron, 22 Buchanan, 204 Buchanan, 208 Buchanan, 210–211 Buchanan, 212 Buchanan, 213 Fleenor, Lawrence J. (January 2001). "General Joseph Martin" (http:/ / www. danielboonetrail. com/ historicalsites. php?id=89). DanielBooneTrail.com. . Retrieved 2010-10-05. [9] The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=zV4oAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA240& lpg=PA240& dq="col. + william+ martin"+ tennessee& q="col. william martin" tennessee). James T. White & Company. 1897. . Retrieved 2010-08-05. [10] Publications of the Southern History Association, Volume 4 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=vdQRAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA443& lpg=PA443& dq="col. + william+ martin"+ tennessee& q="col. william martin" tennessee). Southern History Association. 1900. . Retrieved 2010-08-05. [11] Buchanan, 215 [12] Buchanan, 217 [13] Buchanan, 218 [14] Buchanan, 219 [15] Buchanan, 220 [16] "Kings Mountain Georgia Participants" (http:/ / www. georgiasocietysar. org/ KM_GA_Participants. htm). Georgia Sons of the American Revolution. . Retrieved October 16, 2010. [17] Buchanan, 221 [18] Buchanan, 223 [19] Buchanan, 225 [20] Buchanan, 225-6 [21] Buchanan, 227 [22] Dameron, 57 [23] Buchanan, 229 [24] "The Battle of King's Mountain 1780" (http:/ / www. britishbattles. com/ kings-mountain. htm). British battles. . Retrieved October 16, 2010. [25] Buchanan, 230 [26] Buchanan, 231-2 [27] "The Battle of King's Mountain" (http:/ / www. tngenweb. org/ revwar/ kingsmountain. html). Tennesseans in the Revolutionary War. TNGen Web Project. . Retrieved October 16, 2010. [28] Hibbert, 292 [29] Buchanan, 232 [30] Buchanan, 234 [31] Wallace, 229 [32] Buchanan, 233 [33] Dameron, 75 [34] Buchanan, 237 [35] Hibbert, 293 [36] Buchanan, 238-9 [37] http:/ / www. overmountainvictory. org/ Gtown. htm [38] Buchanan, 240, 340 [39] Buchanan, 241 [40] Herbert Hoover address at Kings Mountain (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=22379), Oct. 7, 1930, at The American Presidency Project [41] "Kings Mountain National Military Park" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ kimo/ index. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved October 16, 2010.

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References
• Buchanan, John (1997). The Road To Guilford Court House: The American Revolution in the Carolinas. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0471327166. • Dameron, J. David (2003). Kings Mountain: The Defeat of the Loyalists, October 7, 1780. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306811944. • Hibbert, Christopher (1990). Redcoats and Rebels: The war for America 1770–1781. New York: Norton/Grafton. ISBN 039302895X. • Russell, C. P. (July 1940). "The American Rifle: At the Battle of Kings Mountain" (http://www.nps.gov/ history/history/online_books/popular/12/ps12-2.htm). The Regional Review (Richmond, Va: National Park Service, Region One) V (1): 15–21. • Wallace, Willard (1964). Appeal to Arms: A Military History of the American Revolution. Chicago: Quadrangle.

Further reading
• Howard, Kate (July 4, 2006). "Kings Mountain Messenger' bravery remembered by few". The Tennessean. • Sweeney, Bob (January 18, 2004). "Overmountain Victory Organization the Patriot Army at King's Mountain" (http://www.overmountainvictory.org/army.htm). • Ward, Christopher (1952). War of the Revolution (2 Volumes). New York: MacMillan. OCLC 425995. • Every Insult and Indignity: The Life, Genius and Legacy of Major Patrick Ferguson (http://www. everyinsultandindignity.com/)

External links
• King's Mountain and Its Heroes: History of the Battle of King's Mountain, Lyman Copeland Draper, Peter G. Thompson, Publisher, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1881 (http://books.google.com/books?id=uXkFAAAAQAAJ& printsec=frontcover&dq="king's+mountain+and+its+heroes"+lyman+copeland+draper&source=bl& ots=jbqJz_LoN_&sig=QeITbwGWcGlqdAUHLZM6upsMdWE&hl=en&ei=TA7JS9vKHoScsgOejaz1BA& sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CAgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) • Roan Mountain (Tennessee) Citizens Club – Overmountain Men Celebration (http://www.roanmountain.com/ club.htm) • Georgia Participants at Kings Mountain (offered by Georgia Society, Sons of the American Revolution) (http:// kingsmountain.gassar.org) • Lord Cornwallis and Major Ferguson NC state signs (offered by the American Revolutionary War Living History Center) with annual events held by the Town of Grover where Major Ferguson is celebrated as having camped and a NC state historical marker exists for such (http://www.thebattleofkingsmountain.com) • Every Insult and Indignity: The Life, Genius and Legacy of Major Patrick Ferguson (http://www. everyinsultandindignity.com/)

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Battles of Lexington and Concord
The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War.[1] [2] They were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy (present-day Arlington), and Cambridge, near Boston. The battles marked the outbreak of open armed conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and its thirteen colonies in the mainland of British North America. About 700 British Army regulars, under Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith, were given secret orders to capture and destroy military supplies that were reportedly stored by the Massachusetts militia at Concord. Through effective intelligence gathering, Patriot colonials had received word weeks before the expedition that their supplies might be at risk and had moved most of them to other locations. They also received details about British plans on the night before the battle and were able to rapidly notify the area militias of the enemy movement. The first shots were fired just as the sun was rising at Lexington. The militia were outnumbered and fell back, and the regulars proceeded on to Concord, where they searched for the supplies. At the North Bridge in Concord, approximately 500 militiamen fought and defeated three companies of the King's troops. The outnumbered regulars fell back from the minutemen after a pitched battle in open territory. More militiamen arrived soon thereafter and inflicted heavy damage on the regulars as they marched back towards Boston. Upon returning to Lexington, Smith's expedition was rescued by reinforcements under Brigadier General Hugh Percy. The combined force, now of about 1,700 men, marched back to Boston under heavy fire in a tactical withdrawal and eventually reached the safety of Charlestown. The accumulated militias blockaded the narrow land accesses to Charlestown and Boston, starting the Siege of Boston. Ralph Waldo Emerson, in his "Concord Hymn", described the first shot fired by the Patriots at the North Bridge as the "shot heard 'round the world."[3]

Background
Further information: Minutemen and Boston campaign The British Army's infantry, nicknamed "redcoats" and sometimes "devils" by the colonists, had occupied Boston since 1768 and had been augmented by naval forces and marines to enforce the Intolerable Acts, which had been passed by the British Parliament to punish the Province of Massachusetts Bay for the Boston Tea Party and other acts of protest. General Thomas Gage, the military governor of Massachusetts and commander-in-chief of the roughly 3,000 British military forces garrisoned in Boston, had no control over Massachusetts outside of Boston, where implementation of the Acts had increased tensions between the Patriot Whig majority and the Tory minority. Gage's plan was to avoid conflict by removing military supplies from the Whig militias using small, secret and rapid strikes. This struggle for supplies led to one British success and then to several Thomas Gage Patriot successes in a series of nearly bloodless conflicts known as the Powder Alarms. Gage considered himself to be a friend of liberty and attempted to separate his duties as Governor of the colony and as General of an occupying force. Edmund Burke described Gage's conflicted relationship with Massachusetts by saying in Parliament, "An Englishman is the unfittest person on Earth to argue another Englishman into slavery."[4]

Battles of Lexington and Concord The colonists had been forming militias of various sorts since the 17th century, at first primarily for defense against local native attacks. These forces were also mustered to action in the French and Indian War in the 1750s and 1760s. They were generally local militias, nominally under the jurisdiction of the provincial government.[5] When the political situation began to deteriorate, in particular when Gage effectively dissolved the Provincial government under the terms of the Massachusetts Government Act, these existing connections were employed by the colonists under the Massachusetts Provincial Congress for the purpose of resistance to the perceived military threat.[6]

152

British preparations
On April 14, 1775, Gage received instructions from Secretary of State William Legge, Earl of Dartmouth, to disarm the rebels, who were known to have hidden weapons in Concord, among other locations, and to imprison the rebellion's leaders, especially Samuel Adams and John Hancock. Dartmouth gave Gage considerable discretion in his commands.[7] [8] On the morning of April 18, Gage ordered a mounted patrol of about 20 men under the command of Major Mitchell of the 5th Regiment of Foot into the surrounding country to intercept messengers who might be out on horseback.[9] This patrol behaved differently from patrols sent out from Boston in the past, staying out after dark and asking travelers about the location of Adams and Hancock. This had the unintended effect of alarming many residents and increasing their preparedness. The Lexington militia in particular began to muster early Francis Smith, commander of the military that evening, hours before receiving any word from Boston. A well expedition, in a 1763 portrait known story alleges that after nightfall one farmer, Josiah Nelson, mistook the British patrol for the colonists and asked them, "Have you heard anything about when the regulars are coming out?", upon which he was slashed on his scalp with a sword. However, the story of this incident was not published until over a century later, which suggests that it may be little more than a family myth.[10] Lieutenant Colonel Francis Smith received orders from Gage on the afternoon of April 18 with instructions that he was not to read them until his troops were underway. He was to proceed from Boston "with utmost expedition and secrecy to Concord, where you will seize and destroy... all Military stores... But you will take care that the soldiers do not plunder the inhabitants or hurt private property." Gage used his discretion and did not issue written orders for the arrest of rebel leaders, as he feared doing so might spark an uprising.[11]

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American preparations
The rebellion's ringleaders—with the exception of Paul Revere and Joseph Warren—had all left Boston by April 8. They had received word of Dartmouth's secret instructions to General Gage from sources in London well before they reached Gage himself.[12] Adams and Hancock had fled Boston to the home of one of Hancock's relatives in Lexington where they thought they would be safe from the immediate threat of arrest.[13] The Massachusetts militias had indeed been gathering a stock of weapons, powder, and supplies at Concord, as well as an even greater amount much further west in Worcester, but word reached the rebel leaders that British officers had been observed examining the roads to Concord.[14] On April 8, Paul Revere rode to Concord to warn the inhabitants that the British appeared to be planning an expedition. The townspeople decided to remove the stores and distribute them among other towns nearby.[15]

Margaret Kemble Gage may have given military intelligence to the rebels

The colonists were also aware of the upcoming mission on April 19, despite it having been hidden from all the British rank and file and even from all the officers on the mission. There is reasonable speculation, although not proven, that the confidential source of this intelligence was Margaret Gage, General Gage's New Jersey-born wife, who had sympathies with the Colonial cause and a friendly relationship with Warren.[16] Between 9 and 10 pm on the night of April 18, 1775, Joseph Warren told William Dawes and Paul Revere that the King's troops were about to embark in boats from Boston bound for Cambridge and the road to Lexington and Concord. Warren's intelligence suggested that the most likely objectives of the regulars' movements later that night would be the capture of Adams and Hancock. They did not worry about the possibility of regulars marching to Concord, since the supplies at Concord were safe, but they did think their leaders in Lexington were unaware of the potential danger that night. Revere and Dawes were sent out to warn them and to alert colonial militias in nearby towns.[17]

Militia forces
Further information: Old North Church Dawes covered the southern land route by horseback across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge to Lexington.[18] Revere first gave instructions to send a signal to Charlestown and then he traveled the northern water route. He crossed the Charles River by rowboat, slipping past the British warship HMS Somerset at anchor. Crossings were banned at that hour, but Revere safely landed in Charlestown and rode to Lexington, avoiding a British patrol and later warning almost every house along the route. The Charlestown colonists dispatched additional riders to the north.[19] After they arrived in Lexington, Revere, Dawes, Hancock, and Adams discussed the situation with the militia assembling there. They believed that the forces leaving the city were too large for the sole task of arresting two men and that Concord was the main target. The Lexington men dispatched riders to the surrounding towns, and Revere and Dawes continued along the road to Concord accompanied by Samuel Prescott. In Lincoln, they ran into the British patrol led by Major Mitchell. Revere was captured, Dawes was thrown from his horse, and only Prescott escaped to reach Concord.[20] Additional riders were sent out from Concord. The ride of Revere, Dawes, and Prescott triggered a flexible system of "alarm and muster" that had been carefully developed months before, in reaction to the colonists' impotent response to the Powder Alarm. This system was an improved version of an old network of widespread notification and fast deployment of local militia forces in times of emergency. The colonists had periodically used this system all the way back to the early years of Indian wars in the

Battles of Lexington and Concord colony, before it fell into disuse in the French and Indian War. In addition to other express riders delivering messages, bells, drums, alarm guns, bonfires and a trumpet were used for rapid communication from town to town, notifying the rebels in dozens of eastern Massachusetts villages that they should muster their militias because the regulars in numbers greater than 500 were leaving Boston, with possible hostile intentions. This system was so effective that people in towns 25 miles (40 km) from Boston were aware of the army's movements while they were still unloading boats in Cambridge.[21] These early warnings played a crucial role in assembling a sufficient number of colonial militia to inflict heavy damage on the British regulars later in the day. Adams and Hancock were eventually moved to safety, first to what is now Burlington and later to Billerica.[22]

154

A National Park Service map showing the routes of the initial Patriot messengers and of the British expedition

British advance
Around dusk, General Gage called a meeting of his senior officers at the Province House. He informed them that orders from Lord Dartmouth had arrived, ordering him to take action against the colonials. He also told them that the senior colonel of his regiments, Lieutenant Colonel Smith, would command, with Major John Pitcairn as his executive officer. The meeting adjourned around 8:30 pm, after which Lord Percy mingled with town folk on Boston Common. According to one account, the discussion among people there turned to the unusual movement of the British soldiers in the town. When Percy questioned one man further, the man replied, "Well, the regulars will miss their aim". "What aim?" asked Percy. "Why, the cannon at Concord" was the reply.[16] Upon hearing this, Percy quickly returned to Province House and relayed this information to General Gage. Stunned, Gage issued orders to prevent messengers from getting out of Boston, but these were too late to prevent Dawes and Revere from leaving.[23]

Battles of Lexington and Concord

155 The British regulars, around 700 infantry, were drawn from 11 of Gage's 13 occupying infantry regiments. For this expedition, Major John Pitcairn commanded ten elite light infantry companies, and Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin Bernard commanded 11 grenadier companies, under the overall command of Lieutenant Colonel Smith.[24]

Of the troops assigned to the expedition, 350 were from grenadier companies drawn from the 4th (King's Own), 5th, 10th, 18th (Royal Irish), 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd and 59th Regiments of Foot, and the 1st Battalion of His Majesty's Marine Forces. Protecting the 1775 map of the battles and of the Siege of Boston grenadier companies were about 320 light infantry from the 4th, 5th, 10th, 23rd, 38th, 43rd, 47th, 52nd and 59th Regiments, and the 1st Battalion of the Marines. Each company had its own lieutenant, but the majority of the captains commanding them were volunteers attached to them at the last minute, drawn from all of the regiments stationed in Boston. This lack of bond between commander and company would turn out to be problematic.[25] The British began to awaken their troops at 9 pm on the night of April 18 and assembled them on the water's edge on the western end of Boston Common by 10 pm. The British march to and from Concord was a disorganized experience from start to finish. Colonel Smith was late in arriving, and there was no organized boat-loading operation, resulting in confusion at the staging area. The boats used were naval barges that were packed so tightly that there was no room to sit down. When they disembarked at Phipps Farm in Cambridge, it was into waist-deep water at midnight. After a lengthy halt to unload their gear, the regulars began their 17 miles (27 km) march to Concord at about 2 am.[24] During the wait they were provided with extra ammunition, cold salt pork, and hard sea biscuits. They did not carry knapsacks, since they would not be encamped. They carried their haversacks (food bags), canteens, muskets, and accoutrements, and marched off in wet, muddy shoes and soggy uniforms. As they marched through Menotomy, sounds of the colonial alarms throughout the countryside caused the few officers who were aware of their mission to realize they had lost the element of surprise.[26] One of the regulars recorded in his journal, “We got all over the bay and landed on the opposite shore betwixt twelve and one OClock and was on our March by one, which was at first through some swamps and slips of the Sea till we got into the Road leading to Lexington soon after which the Country people begun to fire their alarm guns light their Beacons, to raise the Country. ... To the best of my recollection about 4 oClock in the morning being the 19th of April the 5 front Compys. was ordered to Load which we did.”[27] At about 3 am, Colonel Smith sent Major Pitcairn ahead with six companies of light infantry under orders to quick march to Concord. At about 4 am he made the wise but belated decision to send a messenger back to Boston asking for reinforcements.[28]

Battles of Lexington and Concord

156

The Battles
Lexington
Though often styled a battle, in reality the engagement at Lexington was a minor brush or skirmish.[29] As the regulars' advance guard under Pitcairn entered Lexington at sunrise on April 19, 1775, about 80 Lexington militiamen emerged from Buckman Tavern and stood in ranks on the village common watching them, and between 40 and 100 spectators watched from along the side of the road.[] [] [30] Their leader was Captain John Parker, a veteran of the French and Indian War, who was suffering from tuberculosis and was at times difficult to hear. Of the militiamen who lined up, nine had the surname Harrington, seven Munroe (including the company's orderly sergeant, William Munroe), four Parker, three Tidd, three Locke, and three Reed; fully one quarter of them were related to Captain Parker in some way.[31] This group of militiamen was part of Lexington's "training band", a way of organizing local militias dating back to the Puritans, and not what was styled a minuteman company.[32] After having waited most of the night with no sign of any British troops (and wondering if Paul Revere's warning was true), at about 4:15 a.m., Parker got his confirmation.[33] Thaddeus Bowman, the last scout that Parker had sent out, rode up at a gallop and told him that they were not only coming, but coming in force and they were close.[34] Captain Parker was clearly aware that he was outmatched in the confrontation and was not prepared to sacrifice his men for no purpose. He knew that most of the colonists' powder and military supplies at Concord had already been hidden. No war had been declared. (The Declaration of Independence would not even be written for another year). He also knew the British Army had gone on such expeditions before in Massachusetts, found nothing, and marched back to Boston.[35] Parker had every reason to expect that to occur again. The Regulars would march to Concord, find nothing, and return to Boston, tired but empty-handed. He positioned his company carefully. He placed them in parade-ground formation, on Lexington Green. They were in plain sight (not hiding behind walls), but not blocking the road to Concord. They made a show of political and military determination, but no effort to prevent the march of the Regulars.[36] Many years later, one of the participants recalled Parker's words as being what is now engraved in stone at the site of the battle: "Stand your ground; don't fire unless fired upon, but if they mean to have a war, let it begin here."[37] According to his sworn deposition taken after the battle: “I ... ordered our Militia to meet on the Common in said Lexington to consult what to do, and concluded not to be discovered, nor meddle or make with said Regular Troops (if they should approach) unless they should insult or molest us; and, upon their sudden Approach, I immediately ordered our Militia to disperse, and not to fire:—Immediately said Troops made their appearance and rushed furiously, fired upon, and killed eight of our Party without receiving any Provocation therefor from us.”[38] [39] — John Parker Rather than turn left towards Concord, Marine Lieutenant Jesse Adair, who was at the head of the advance guard, decided on his own to protect the flank of the troops by first turning right and then leading the companies down the common itself in a confused effort to surround and disarm the militia. These men ran towards the Lexington militia loudly crying "Huzzah!" to rouse themselves and to confuse the militia, as they formed a battle line on the common.[40] Major Pitcairn arrived from the rear of the advance force and led his three companies to the left and halted them. The remaining companies under Colonel Smith lay further down the road toward Boston.[41] First shot A British officer, probably Pitcairn, but accounts are uncertain, as it may also have been Lieutenant William Sutherland, then rode forward, waving his sword, and called out for the assembled throng to disperse, and may also have ordered them to "lay down your arms, you damned rebels!"[42] Captain Parker told his men instead to disperse and go home, but, because of the confusion, the yelling all around, and due to the raspiness of Parker's tubercular voice, some did not hear him, some left very slowly, and none laid down their arms. Both Parker and Pitcairn

Battles of Lexington and Concord ordered their men to hold fire, but a shot was fired from an unknown source.[42] ”[A]t 5 o’clock we arrived [in Lexington], and saw a number of people, I believe between 200 and 300, formed in a common in the middle of town; we still continued advancing, keeping prepared against an attack through without intending to attack them; but on our coming near them they fired on us two shots, upon which our men without any orders, rushed upon them, fired and put them to flight; several of them were killed, we could not tell how many, because they were behind walls and into the woods. We had a man of the 10th light Infantry wounded, nobody else was hurt. We then formed on the Common, but with some difficulty, the men were so wild they could hear no orders; we waited a considerable time there, and at length proceeded our way to Concord.”[43]

157

The first of four engravings by Amos Doolittle from 1775. Doolittle visited the battle sites and interviewed soldiers and witnesses. Contains controversial elements, possibly inaccuracies. Fire from the militia may have occurred but is not depicted.

— Lieutenant John Barker, 4th Regiment of Foot According to one member of Parker's militia none of the Americans had discharged their muskets as they faced the oncoming British troops. The British did suffer one casualty, a slight wound, the particulars of which were corroborated by a deposition made by Corporal John Munroe. Munroe stated that: "After the first fire of the regulars, I thought, and so stated to Ebenezer Munroe ...who stood next to me on the left, that they had fired nothing but powder; but on the second firing, Munroe stated they had fired something more than powder, for he had received a wound in his arm; and now, said he, to use his own words, 'I'll give them the guts of my gun.' We then both took aim at the main body of British troops the smoke preventing our seeing anything but the heads of some of their horses and discharged our pieces."[44] Some witnesses among the regulars reported the first shot was fired by a colonial onlooker from behind a hedge or around the corner of a tavern. Some observers reported a mounted British officer firing first. Both sides generally agreed that the initial shot did not come from the men on the ground immediately facing each other.[45] Speculation arose later in Lexington that a man named Solomon Brown fired the first shot from inside the tavern or from behind a wall, but this has been discredited.[46] Some witnesses (on each side) claimed that someone on the other side fired first; however, many more witnesses claimed to not know. Yet another theory is that the first shot was one fired by the British, that killed Asahel Porter, their prisoner who was running away (he had been told to walk away and he would be let go, though he panicked and began to run). Historian David Hackett Fischer has proposed that there may actually have been multiple near-simultaneous shots.[47] Historian Mark Urban claims the British surged forward with bayonets ready in an undisciplined way, provoking a few scattered shots from the militia. In response the British troops, without orders, fired a devastating volley. This lack of discipline among the British troops had a key role in the escalation of violence.[48] Nobody except the person responsible ever knew with certainty, who fired the first shot of the American Revolutionary War. Witnesses at the scene described several intermittent shots fired from both sides before the lines of regulars began to fire volleys without receiving orders to do so. A few of the militiamen believed at first that the regulars were only firing powder with no ball, but when they realized the truth, few if any of the militia managed to load and return fire. The rest wisely ran for their lives.[49]

Battles of Lexington and Concord “We Nathaniel Mulliken, Philip Russell, [and 32 other men ...] do testify and declare, that on the nineteenth in the morning, being informed that... a body of regulars were marching from Boston towards Concord. ... About five o’clock in the morning, hearing our drum beat, we proceeded towards the parade, and soon found that a large body of troops were marching towards us, some of our company were coming to the parade, and others had reached it, at which time, the company began to disperse, whilst our backs were turned on the troops, we were fired on by them, and a number of our men were instantly killed and wounded, not a gun was fired by any person in our company on the regulars to our knowledge before they fired on us, and continued firing until we had all made our escape.”[38] The regulars then charged forward with bayonets. Captain Parker's cousin Jonas was run through. Eight Massachusetts men were killed and ten were wounded; only one British soldier of the 10th Foot wounded. The eight colonists killed were John Brown, Samuel Hadley, Caleb Harrington, Jonathon Harrington, Robert Munroe, Isaac Muzzey, Asahel Porter, and Jonas Parker. Jonathon Harrington, fatally wounded by a British musket ball, managed to crawl back to his home, and died on his own doorstep. One wounded man, Prince Estabrook, was a black slave who was serving in the militia.[50] The companies under Pitcairn's command got beyond their officers' control in part because they were unaware of the actual purpose of the day's mission. They fired in different directions and prepared to enter private homes. Colonel Smith, who was just arriving with the remainder of the regulars, heard the musket fire and rode forward from the grenadier column to see the action. He quickly found a drummer and ordered him to beat assembly. The grenadiers arrived shortly thereafter, and once order was restored the light infantry were permitted to fire a victory volley, after which the column was reformed and marched on toward Concord.[51]

158

Concord
The militiamen of Concord and Lincoln, in response to the raised alarm, had mustered in Concord. They received reports of firing at Lexington, and were not sure whether to wait until they could be reinforced by troops from towns nearby, or to stay and defend the town, or to move east and greet the British Army from superior terrain. A column of militia marched down the road toward Lexington to meet the British, traveling about 1.5 miles (2 km) until they met the approaching column of regulars. As the regulars numbered about 700 and the militia at this The second of four engravings by Amos Doolittle from 1775, time only numbered about 250, the militia column turned depicting the British entering Concord around and marched back into Concord, preceding the regulars by a distance of about 500 yards (457 m).[52] The militia retreated to a ridge overlooking the town and the command discussed what to do next. Caution prevailed, and Colonel James Barrett surrendered the town of Concord and led the men across the North Bridge to a hill about a mile north of town, where they could continue to watch the troop movements of the British and the activities in the center of town. This step proved fortuitous, as the ranks of the militia continued to grow as minuteman companies arriving from the western towns joined them there.[53]

Battles of Lexington and Concord The search for militia supplies When the troops arrived in the village of Concord, Smith divided them to carry out Gage's orders. The 10th Regiment's company of grenadiers secured South Bridge under Captain Mundy Pole, while seven companies of light infantry under Captain Parsons, numbering about 100, secured the North Bridge near Barrett's force. Captain Parsons took four companies from the 5th, 23rd, 38th and 52nd Regiments up the road 2 miles (3.2 km) beyond the North Bridge to search Barrett's Farm, where intelligence indicated supplies would be found.[54] Two companies from the 4th and 10th were stationed to guard their return route, and one company from the 43rd remained guarding the bridge itself. These companies, which were under the relatively inexperienced command of Captain Walter Laurie, were aware that they were significantly outnumbered by the 400-plus militia men that were only a few hundred yards away. The concerned Captain Laurie sent a messenger to Smith requesting reinforcements.[55] Using detailed information provided by Loyalist spies, the grenadier companies searched the small town for military supplies. When they arrived at Ephraim Jones's tavern, by the jail on the South Bridge road, they found the door barred shut, and Jones refused them entry. According to reports provided by local Tories, Pitcairn knew cannon had been buried on the property. Jones was ordered at gunpoint to show where the guns were buried. These turned out to be three massive pieces, firing 24-pound shot, that were much too heavy to use defensively, but very effective against fortifications, with sufficient range to bombard the city of Boston from other parts of nearby mainland.[56] The grenadiers smashed the trunnions of these three guns so they could not be mounted. They also burned some gun carriages found in the village meetinghouse, and when the fire spread to the meetinghouse itself, local resident Martha Moulton persuaded the soldiers to help in a bucket brigade to save the building.[57] Nearly a hundred barrels of flour and salted food were thrown into the millpond, as were 550 pounds of musket balls. Of the damage done, only that done to the cannon was significant. All of the shot and much of the food was recovered after the British left. During the search, the regulars were generally scrupulous in their treatment of the locals, including paying for food and drink consumed. This excessive politeness was used to advantage by the locals, who were able to misdirect searches from several smaller caches of militia supplies.[58] Barrett's Farm had been an arsenal weeks before but few weapons remained now, and these were, according to family legend, quickly buried in furrows to look like a crop had been planted. The troops sent there did not find any supplies of consequence.[59] The North Bridge Colonel Barrett's troops, upon seeing smoke rising from the village square, and seeing only a few companies directly below them, decided to march back toward the town from their vantage point on Punkatasset Hill to a lower, closer flat hilltop about 300 yards (274 m) from the North Bridge. As the militia advanced, the two British companies from the 4th and 10th that held the position near the road retreated to the bridge and yielded the hill to Barrett's men.[60] Five full companies of Minutemen and five more of militia from The reconstructed North Bridge in Minute Man Acton, Concord, Bedford and Lincoln occupied this hill as more National Historical Park, Concord groups of men streamed in, totaling at least 400 against Captain Laurie's light infantry companies, a force totaling 90–95 men. Barrett ordered the Massachusetts men to form one long line two deep on the highway leading down to the bridge, and then he called for another consultation. While overlooking North Bridge from the top of the hill, Barrett, Lt. Col. John Robinson of Westford and the other Captains discussed possible courses of action. Captain Isaac Davis of Acton, whose troops had arrived late, declared his willingness to defend a town not their own by saying, "I'm not afraid to go, and I haven't a man that's afraid to go."[61]

159

Battles of Lexington and Concord Barrett told the men to load their weapons but not to fire unless fired upon, and then ordered them to advance. Laurie ordered the British companies guarding the bridge to retreat across it. One officer then tried to pull up the loose planks of the bridge to impede the colonial advance, but Major Buttrick began to yell at the regulars to stop harming the bridge. The Minutemen and militia advanced in column formation on the light infantry, keeping to the road, since it was surrounded by the spring floodwaters of the Concord River.[62] Captain Laurie then made a poor tactical decision. Since his summons for help had not produced any results, he ordered his men to form positions for "street firing" behind the bridge in a column running perpendicular to the river. This formation was appropriate for sending a large volume of fire into a narrow alley between the buildings of a city, but not for an open path behind a bridge. Confusion reigned as regulars retreating over the bridge tried to form up in the street-firing position of the other troops. Lieutenant Sutherland, who was in the rear of the formation, saw Laurie's mistake and ordered flankers to be sent out. But as he was from a company different from the men under his command, only three soldiers obeyed him. The remainder tried as best they could in the confusion to follow the orders of the superior officer.[63] A shot rang out, and this time there is certainty from depositions taken from men on both sides afterwards that it came from the Army's ranks. It was likely a warning shot fired by a panicked, exhausted British soldier from the 43rd, according to Laurie's letter to his commander after the fight. Two other regulars then fired immediately after that, shots splashing in the river, and then the narrow group up front, possibly thinking the order to fire had been given, fired a ragged volley before Laurie could stop them.[64] Two of the Acton Minutemen, Private Abner Hosmer and depicting the engagement at the North Bridge Captain Isaac Davis, who were at the head of the line marching to the bridge, were hit and killed instantly. Four more men were wounded, but the militia only halted when Major Buttrick yelled "Fire, for God's sake, fellow soldiers, fire!"[64] [65] At this point the lines were separated by the Concord River and the bridge, and were only 50 yards (46 m) apart. The few front rows of colonists, bound by the road, and blocked from forming a line of fire, managed to fire over each others' heads and shoulders at the regulars massed across the bridge. Four of the eight British officers and sergeants, who were leading from the front of their troops, were wounded by the volley of musket fire. At least three privates (Thomas Smith, Patrick Gray and James Hall, all from the 4th) were killed or mortally wounded, and nine were wounded.[66] The regulars found themselves trapped in a situation where they were both outnumbered and outmaneuvered. Lacking effective leadership and terrified at the superior numbers of the enemy, with their spirit broken, and likely not having experienced combat before, they abandoned their wounded, and fled to the safety of the approaching grenadier companies coming from the town center, isolating Captain Parsons and the companies searching for arms at Barrett's Farm.[65]
The third of four engravings by Amos Doolittle from 1775,

160

Battles of Lexington and Concord After the fight The colonists were stunned by their success. No one had actually believed either side would shoot to kill the other. Some advanced; many more retreated; and some went home to see to the safety of their homes and families. Colonel Barrett eventually began to recover control. He moved some of the militia back to the hilltop 300 yards (274 m) away and sent Major Buttrick with others across the bridge to a defensive position on a hill behind a stone wall.[66] Lieutenant Colonel Smith heard the exchange of fire from his position in the town moments after he received the request for reinforcements from Laurie. He quickly assembled two companies of grenadiers to lead toward the North Bridge himself. As these troops marched, they met the shattered remnants of the three light infantry companies running towards them. Smith was concerned about the four companies that had been at Barrett's, since their route to town was now unprotected. When he saw the Minutemen in the distance behind their wall, he Statue memorializing the battle at the halted his two companies and moved forward with only his officers to take a North Bridge, inscribed with verse from Emerson's "Concord Hymn" closer look. One of the Minutemen behind that wall observed, "If we had fired, I believe we could have killed almost every officer there was in the front, but we had no orders to fire and there wasn't a gun fired."[67] During a tense standoff lasting about 10 minutes, a mentally ill local man named Elias Brown wandered through both sides selling hard cider.[67] At this point, the detachment of regulars sent to Barrett's farm marched back from their fruitless search of that area. They passed through the now mostly-deserted battlefield, and saw dead and wounded comrades lying on the bridge. There was one who looked to them as if he had been scalped, which angered and shocked the British soldiers. They crossed the bridge and returned to the town by 11:30 am, under the watchful eyes of the colonists, who continued to maintain defensive positions. The regulars continued to search for and destroy colonial military supplies in the town, ate lunch, reassembled for marching, and left Concord after noon. This delay in departure gave colonial militiamen from outlying towns additional time to reach the road back to Boston.[68]

161

Return march
An interactive mural describing this stage of the battle may be found at the National Park Service site [69] for the Minute Man National Historical Park. Concord to Lexington Lieutenant Colonel Smith, concerned about the safety of his men, sent A National Park Service map showing the retreat from Concord and Percy's rescue flankers to follow a ridge and protect his forces from the roughly 1,000 colonials now in the field as they marched east out of Concord. This ridge ended near Meriam's Corner, a crossroads and a small bridge about a mile (2 km) outside the village of Concord. To cross the narrow bridge, the army column had to stop, dress its line, and close its rank to a mere three soldiers abreast. Colonial militia companies arriving from the north and east had converged at this point, and presented a clear numerical advantage over the regulars. As the last of the army column marched over the bridge, colonial militiamen from the Reading militia fired, the regulars turned and fired a volley, and the colonists returned fire. Two regulars were killed and perhaps six wounded, with no

Battles of Lexington and Concord colonial casualties. Smith sent out his flanking troops again after crossing the small bridge.[70] Nearly 500 militiamen from Chelmsford had assembled in the woods on Brooks Hill about 1 mile (1.6 km) past Meriam's Corner. Smith's leading forces charged up the hill to drive them off, but the colonists did not withdraw, inflicting significant casualties on the attackers. The bulk of Smith's force proceeded along the road until it reached Brooks Tavern, where they engaged a single militia company from Framingham, killing and wounding several of them. Smith withdrew his men from Brooks Hill and moved across another small bridge into Lincoln.[70] The regulars soon reached a point in the road where there was a rise and a curve through a wooded area. At this point, now known as the "Bloody Angle", 200 men, mostly from the towns of Bedford and Lincoln, had positioned themselves behind trees and walls in a rocky, tree-filled pasture for an ambush. Additional militia joined in from the other side of the road, catching the British in a crossfire in the wooded swamp, while the Concord militia closed from behind to attack. Thirty soldiers and four colonial militia were killed.[71] The soldiers escaped by Statue depicting John Parker, captain breaking into a trot, a pace that the colonials could not maintain through the of the Lexington militia woods and swampy terrain. Colonial forces on the road itself behind the British were too densely packed and disorganized to mount an attack.[71] Militia forces by this time had risen to about 2,000, and Smith sent out flankers again. When three companies of militia ambushed the head of his main force near either Ephraim Hartwell's or (more likely) Joseph Mason's Farm, the flankers closed in and trapped the militia from behind. Flankers also trapped the Bedford militia after a successful ambush near the Lincoln–Lexington border, but British casualties were mounting from these engagements and from persistent long-range fire, and the exhausted British were running out of ammunition.[71] On the Lexington side of the border, Captain Parker, according to only one uncorroborated source (Ebenezer Munroe's memoir of 1824), waited on a hill with the reassembled Lexington Training Band, some of them bandaged up from the encounter in Lexington earlier in the day. These men, according to this account written only many years later, did not begin the ambush until Colonel Smith himself came into view. Smith was wounded in the thigh sometime on the way back to Lexington, and the entire British column was halted in this ambush now known as "Parker's Revenge". Major Pitcairn sent light infantry companies up the hill to clear out any militia sniping at them.[72] The light infantry cleared two additional hills—"The Bluff" and "Fiske Hill"— and took casualties from ambushes. Pitcairn fell from his horse, which was injured by colonists firing from Fiske Hill. Now both principal leaders of the expedition were injured or unhorsed, and their men were tired and thirsty. A few surrendered; most now broke formation and ran forward in a mob. Their organized, planned withdrawal had turned into a rout. "Concord Hill" remained before Lexington Center, and a few uninjured officers turned and supposedly threatened their own men with their swords if they would not reform in good order.[72] Only one British officer remained uninjured in the leading three companies. He was considering surrendering his men when he heard cheering further ahead. A full brigade, about 1,000 men with artillery under the command of Earl Percy, had arrived to rescue them. It was about 2:30 pm.[73] During this part of the march, the colonists fought where possible in large ordered formations (using short-range, smoothbore muskets) at least eight times. This is contrary to the widely-held myth of scattered individuals firing with longer-range rifles from behind walls and fences. Although scattered fire had also occurred on this march, these long-range tactics proved useful later in the war. Nobody at Lexington or Concord—indeed, anywhere along the Battle Road or later at Bunker Hill—had a rifle, according to the historical records.[74]

162

Battles of Lexington and Concord Percy's rescue General Gage had left orders for reinforcements to assemble in Boston at 4 am, but in his obsession for secrecy, he had sent only one copy of the orders to the adjutant of the 1st Brigade, whose servant left the envelope on a table. At about 5 am, Smith's request for reinforcements was finally received, and orders were sent for 1st Brigade consisting of the line companies of infantry (the 4th, 23rd, and 47th) and a battalion of British Marines to assemble. Unfortunately, once again only one copy of the orders were sent to each commander, and the order for the Marines was delivered to the desk of Major Pitcairn, who was on the Lexington Common at the time. After these delays, Percy's brigade, about 1,000 strong, left Boston at about 8:45 am. His troops marched out toward Lexington. Along the way they marched to the tune of "Yankee Doodle" to taunt the inhabitants of the area.[1] [75] By the Battle of Bunker Hill less than two months later, the song had become a popular anthem for the colonial forces.[76] Percy took the land route across Boston Neck and over the Great Bridge, which some enterprising colonists had stripped of its planking to delay their way.[77] His men then came upon an absent-minded tutor at Harvard College and asked him which road would take them to Lexington. The Harvard man, apparently oblivious to the reality of what was happening around him, showed him the proper road without thinking. (He was later compelled to leave the country for inadvertently supporting the enemy.)[78] Percy's troops arrived in Lexington at about The fourth of four engravings by Amos Doolittle from 1775, 2:00 pm. They could hear gunfire in the distance as they showing Percy's rescue in Lexington. set up their cannon and lines of regulars on high ground with commanding views of the town. Colonel Smith's men approached like a fleeing mob with the full complement of colonial militia in close formation pursuing them. Percy ordered his artillery to open fire at extreme range, dispersing the colonial militiamen. Smith's men collapsed with exhaustion once they reached the safety of Percy's lines.[79] Against the advice of his Master of Ordnance, Percy had left Boston without spare ammunition for his men or for the two artillery pieces they brought with them, thinking the extra wagons would slow him down. Each man in Percy's brigade had only 36 rounds, and each artillery piece was supplied with only a few rounds carried in side-boxes.[80] [81] After Percy had left the city, Gage directed two ammunition wagons guarded by one officer and thirteen men to follow. This convoy was intercepted by a small party of older, former militiamen, still on the "alarm list" who could not join their militia companies because they were well over 60. These men rose up in ambush and demanded the surrender of the wagons, but the regulars ignored them and drove their horses on. The old men opened fire, shot the lead horses, killed two sergeants, and wounded the officer.[80] The survivors ran, and six of them threw their weapons into a pond before they surrendered.[81] Lexington to Menotomy Percy assumed control of the combined forces of about 1,700 men and let them rest, eat, drink, and have their wounds tended at field headquarters (Munroe Tavern) before resuming the march. They set out from Lexington at about 3:30 pm, in a formation that emphasized defense along the sides and rear of the column.[82] Wounded regulars rode on the cannon and were forced to hop off when they were fired at by gatherings of militia. Percy's men were often surrounded, but they

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Percy's return to Charlestown (detail from 1775 map of the battle).

Battles of Lexington and Concord had the tactical advantage of interior lines. Percy could shift his units more easily to where they were needed, while the colonial militia were required to move around the outside of his formation. Percy placed Smith's men in the middle of the column, while the 23rd Regiment's line companies made up the column's rear guard. Because of information provided by Smith and Pitcairn about how the Americans were attacking, Percy ordered the rear guard to be rotated every mile or so, to allow some of his troops to rest briefly. Flanking companies were sent to both sides of the road, and a powerful force of Marines acted as the vanguard to clear the road ahead.[82] During the respite at Lexington, Brigadier General William Heath arrived and took command of the militia. Earlier in the day, he had traveled first to Watertown to discuss tactics with Joseph Warren, who had left Boston that morning, and other members of the Massachusetts Committee of Safety. Heath and Warren reacted to Percy's artillery and flankers by ordering the militias to avoid close formations that would attract cannon fire. Instead, they surrounded Percy's marching square with a moving ring of skirmishers at a distance to inflict maximum casualties at minimum risk to individual militiamen.[83] A few mounted militiamen on the road would dismount, fire muskets at the approaching regulars, then remount and gallop ahead to repeat the tactic. Unmounted militia would often fire from long range, in the hope of hitting somebody in the main column of soldiers on the road and surviving, since both British and colonials used muskets with an effective combat range of about 50 yards (46 m). Infantry units would apply pressure to the sides of the British column. When it moved out of range, those units would move around and forward to re-engage the column further down the road. Heath sent messengers out to intercept arriving militia units, directing them to appropriate places along the road to engage the regulars. Some towns sent supply wagons to assist in feeding and rearming the militia. Heath and Warren did lead skirmishers in small actions into battle themselves, but it was the presence of effective leadership that probably had the greatest impact on the success of these tactics.[83] Percy wrote of the colonial tactics, "The rebels attacked us in a very scattered, irregular manner, but with perseverance and resolution, nor did they ever dare to form into any regular body. Indeed, they knew too well what was proper, to do so. Whoever looks upon them as an irregular mob, will find himself very much mistaken."[84] The fighting grew more intense as Percy's forces crossed from Lexington into Menotomy. Fresh militia poured gunfire into the British ranks from a distance, and individual homeowners began to fight from their own property. Some homes were also used as sniper positions, turning the situation into a soldier's nightmare: house-to-house fighting. Jason Russell pleaded for his friends to fight alongside him to defend his house by saying, "An Englishman's home is his castle."[85] He stayed and was killed in his doorway. His friends, depending on which account is to be believed, either hid in the cellar, or died in the The Jason Russell House in Arlington. house from bullets and bayonets after shooting at the soldiers who followed them in. The Jason Russell House still stands and contains bullet holes from this fight. A militia unit that attempted an ambush from Russell's orchard was caught by flankers, and eleven men were killed, some allegedly after they had surrendered.[85] Percy lost control of his men, and British soldiers began to commit atrocities to repay for the supposed scalping at the North Bridge and for their own casualties at the hands of a distant, often unseen enemy. Based on the word of Pitcairn and other wounded officers from Smith's command, Percy had learned that the Minutemen were using stone walls, trees and buildings in these more thickly settled towns closer to Boston to hide behind and shoot at the column. He ordered the flank companies to clear the colonial militiamen out of such places.[86] Many of the junior officers in the flank parties had difficulty stopping their exhausted, enraged men from killing everyone they found inside these buildings. For example, two innocent drunks who refused to hide in the basement of a tavern in Menotomy were killed only because they were suspected of being involved with the day's events.[87] Although many of the accounts of ransacking and burnings were exaggerated later by the colonists for propaganda

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Battles of Lexington and Concord value (and to get financial compensation from the colonial government), it is certainly true that taverns along the road were ransacked and the liquor stolen by the troops, who in some cases became drunk themselves. One church's communion silver was stolen but was later recovered after it was sold in Boston.[86] Aged Menotomy resident Samuel Whittemore killed three regulars before he was attacked by a British contingent and left for dead. (He recovered from his wounds and later died in 1793 at age 98.)[88] All told, far more blood was shed in Menotomy and Cambridge than elsewhere that day. The colonists lost 25 men killed and nine wounded there, and the British lost 40 killed and 80 wounded, with the 47th Foot and the Marines suffering the highest casualties. Each was about half the day's fatalities.[89] Menotomy to Charlestown The British troops crossed the Menotomy River (today known as Alewife Brook) into Cambridge, and the fight grew more intense. Fresh militia arrived in close array instead of in a scattered formation, and Percy used his two artillery pieces and flankers at a crossroads called Watson's Corner to inflict heavy damage on them.[86] Earlier in the day, Heath had ordered the Great Bridge to be dismantled. Percy's brigade was about to approach the broken-down bridge and a riverbank filled with militia when Percy directed his troops down a narrow track (near present-day Porter Square) and onto the road to Charlestown. The militia (now numbering about 4,000) were unprepared for this movement, and the circle of fire was broken. An American force moved to occupy Prospect Hill (in modern-day Somerville), which dominated the road, but Percy moved his cannon to the front and dispersed them with his last rounds of ammunition.[86] A large militia force arrived from Salem and Marblehead. They might have cut off Percy's route to Charlestown, but these men halted on nearby Winter Hill and allowed the British to escape. Some accused the commander of this force, Colonel Timothy Pickering, of permitting the troops to pass because he still hoped to avoid war by preventing a total defeat of the regulars. Pickering later claimed that he had stopped on Heath's orders, but Heath denied this.[86] It was nearly dark when Pitcairn's Marines defended a final attack on Percy's rear as they entered Charlestown. The regulars took up strong positions on the hills of Charlestown. Some of them had been without sleep for two days and had marched 40 miles (64 km) in 21 hours, eight hours of which had been spent under fire. But now they held high ground protected by heavy guns from the HMS Somerset. Gage quickly sent over line companies of two fresh regiments—the 10th and 64th—to occupy the high ground in Charlestown and build fortifications. Although they were begun, the fortifications were never completed and would later be a starting point for the militia works built two months later in June before the Battle of Bunker Hill. General Heath studied the position of the British Army and decided to withdraw the militia to Cambridge.[90]

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Aftermath
In the morning, Boston was surrounded by a huge militia army, numbering over 15,000, which had marched from throughout New England.[91] Unlike the Powder Alarm, the rumors of spilled blood were true, and the Revolutionary War had begun. The militia army continued to grow as surrounding colonies sent men and supplies. The Second Continental Congress adopted these men into the beginnings of the Continental Army. Even now, after open warfare had started, Gage still refused to impose martial law in Boston. He persuaded the town's selectmen to surrender all private weapons in return for promising that any inhabitant could leave town.[92] The battle was not a major one in terms of tactics or casualties. However, in terms of supporting the British political strategy behind the Intolerable Acts and the military strategy behind the Powder Alarms, the battle was a significant failure because the expedition contributed to the fighting it was intended to prevent, and because few weapons were actually seized.[84] The battle was followed by a war for British political opinion. Within four days of the battle, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress had collected scores of sworn testimonies from militiamen and from British prisoners. When word leaked out a week after the battle that Gage was sending his official description of events to London, the

Battles of Lexington and Concord Provincial Congress sent over 100 of these detailed depositions on a faster ship. They were presented to a sympathetic official and printed by the London newspapers two weeks before Gage's report arrived.[91] Gage's official report was too vague on particulars to influence anyone's opinion. George Germain, no friend of the colonists, wrote, "the Bostonians are in the right to make the King's troops the aggressors and claim a victory."[93] Politicians in London tended to blame Gage for the conflict instead of their own policies and instructions. The British troops in Boston variously blamed General Gage and Colonel Smith for the failures at Lexington and Concord.[94] The day after the battle, John Adams left his home in Braintree to ride along the battlefields. He became convinced that "the Die was cast, the Rubicon crossed."[95] Thomas Paine in Philadelphia had previously thought of the argument between the colonies and the Home Country as "a kind of law-suit", but after news of the battle reached him, he "rejected the hardened, sullen-tempered Pharaoh of England forever."[96] George Washington received the news at Mount Vernon and wrote to a friend, "the once-happy and peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched in blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative! But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice?"[96] A group of hunters on the frontier named their campsite Lexington when they heard news of the battle in June. It eventually became the city of Lexington, Kentucky.[97]

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Legacy
It was important to the early American government that an image of British fault and American innocence be maintained for this first battle of the war. The history of Patriot preparations, intelligence, warning signals, and uncertainty about the first shot was rarely discussed in the public sphere for decades. The story of the wounded British soldier at the North Bridge, hors de combat, struck down on the head by a Minuteman using a hatchet, the purported "scalping", was strongly suppressed. Depositions mentioning some of these activities were not published and were returned to the participants (this notably happened to Paul Revere[98] ). Paintings portrayed the Lexington fight as an unjustified slaughter.[98] The issue of which side was to blame grew during the early nineteenth century. For example, older participants' testimony in later life about Lexington and Concord differed greatly from their depositions taken under oath in 1775. All now said the British fired first at Lexington, whereas fifty or so years before, they weren't sure. All now said they fired back, but in 1775, they said few were able to. The "Battle" took on an almost mythical quality in the American consciousness. Legend became more important than truth. A complete shift occurred, and the Patriots were portrayed as actively fighting for their cause, rather than as suffering innocents. Paintings of the Lexington skirmish began to portray the militia standing and fighting back in defiance.[99]
By the rude bridge that arched the flood Their flag to April's breeze unfurled Here once the embattled farmers stood And fired the shot heard round the world. a verse from Ralph Waldo Emerson's "Concord Hymn"

Ralph Waldo Emerson immortalized the events at the North Bridge in his 1837 "Concord Hymn". "Concord Hymn" became important because it commemorated the beginning of the American Revolution, and that for much of the 19th century it was a means by which Americans learned about the Revolution, helping to forge the identity of the nation.[100] After 1860, several generations of schoolchildren memorized Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's poem "Paul Revere's Ride". Historically it is inaccurate (for example, Paul Revere never made it to Concord), but it captures the idea that an individual can change the course of history.[101] In the 20th century, popular and historical opinion varied about the events of the historic day, often reflecting the political mood of the time. Isolationist anti-war sentiments before the World Wars bred skepticism about the nature

Battles of Lexington and Concord of Paul Revere's contribution (if any) to the efforts to rouse the militia. Anglophilia in the United States after the turn of the twentieth century led to more balanced approaches to the history of the battle. During World War I, a film about Paul Revere's ride was seized under the Espionage Act of 1917 for promoting discord between the United States and Britain.[102] During the Cold War, Revere was used not only as a patriotic symbol, but also as a capitalist one. In 1961, novelist Howard Fast published April Morning, an account of the battle from a fictional 15-year-old's perspective, and reading of the book has been frequently assigned in American secondary schools. A film version was produced for television in 1987, starring Chad Lowe and Tommy Lee Jones. In the 1990s, parallels were drawn between American tactics in the Vietnam War and those of the British Army at Lexington and Concord.[103] The site of the battle in Lexington is now known as the Lexington Battle Green, has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and is a National Historic Landmark. Several memorials commemorating the battle have been established there. The lands surrounding the North Bridge in Concord, as well as approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) of the road along with surrounding lands and period buildings between Merriam's Corner and western Lexington are part of Minuteman National Historical Park. There are walking trails with interpretive displays along routes that the colonists might have used that skirted the road, and the Park Service often has personnel (usually dressed in period dress) offering descriptions of the area and explanations of the events of the day.[104] A bronze bas relief of Major Buttrick, designed by Daniel Chester French and executed by Edmond Thomas Quinn in 1915, is in the park, along with French's Minute Man statue.[105]

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Commemorations
Patriots' Day is celebrated annually in honor of the battle in Massachusetts, Maine, and by the Wisconsin public schools, on the third Monday in April.[106] [107] [108] Re-enactments of Paul Revere's ride are staged, as are the battle on the Lexington Green, and ceremonies and firings are held at the North Bridge.

Centennial commemoration
On April 19, 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant and members of his cabinet joined 50,000 people to mark the 100th anniversary of the battles. The sculpture by Daniel Chester French, The Minute Man, located at the North Bridge, was unveiled on that day. A formal ball took place in the evening at the Agricultural Hall in Concord.[109]

Sesquicentennial commemoration
In April 1925 the United States Post Office issued three stamps commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Battles at Lexington and Concord. The Lexington—Concord Daniel Chester French's Minute Man commemoratives were the first of many commemoratives issued to honor the 150th anniversaries of events that surrounded America's War of Independence. The three stamps were first placed on sale in Washington, D.C. and in five Massachusetts cities and towns that played major roles in the Lexington and Concord story:

Battles of Lexington and Concord Lexington, Concord, Boston, Cambridge, and Concord Junction (as West Concord was then known).[110] This is not to say that other locations were not involved in the battles.

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George WashingtonWashington at Cambridgeissue of 1925.

Shot heard round the WorldBirth of Libertyissue of 1925

The Minute Manby Daniel Chester Frenchissue of 1925

Bicentennial commemoration
The Town of Concord invited 700 prominent U.S. citizens and leaders from the worlds of government, the military, the diplomatic corps, the arts, sciences, and humanities to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the battles. On April 19, 1975, as a crowd estimated at 110,000 gathered to view a parade and celebrate the Bicentennial in Concord, President Gerald Ford delivered a major speech near the North Bridge, which was televised to the nation.[111] Freedom was nourished in American soil because the principles of the Declaration of Independence flourished in our land. These principles, when enunciated 200 years ago, were a dream, not a reality. Today, they are real. Equality has matured in America. Our inalienable rights have become even more sacred. There is no government in our land without consent of the governed. Many other lands have freely accepted the principles of liberty and freedom in the Declaration of Independence and fashioned their own independent republics. It is these principles, freely taken and freely shared, that have revolutionized the world. The volley fired here at Concord two centuries ago, 'the shot heard round the world', still echoes today on this anniversary.[112] — President Gerald R. Ford

Notes
[1] French, pp. 2, 272-273 [2] A controversial interpretation holds that the Battle of Point Pleasant, six months earlier, was the initial military engagement of the Revolutionary War. Despite a 1908 United States Senate resolution designating it as such, few, if any, historians subscribe to this interpretation. (http:/ / www. wvculture. org/ history/ journal_wvh/ wvh56-5. html) [3] Emerson's Concord Hymn [4] Fischer, p. 30 [5] Brooks, pp. 30–31 [6] Fischer, p. 51 [7] Fischer, pp. 75–76 [8] Brooks, pp. 37–38 [9] Fischer, p. 89 [10] Hafner discusses this incident in detail. [11] Fischer, p. 85 [12] Tourtellot, pp. 71–72 (colonists have intelligence in late March) & p. 87 (Gage receives instructions April 16) [13] Tourtellot, p. 70 [14] Fischer, pp. 80–85 [15] Fischer, p. 87 [16] Fischer, p. 96 [17] Brooks, pp.41–42

Battles of Lexington and Concord
[18] Fischer, p. 97 [19] Brooks, pp. 42–44 [20] Brooks, p. 50 [21] Fischer, pp. 138–145 [22] Frothingham, p. 60 [23] Frothingham, p. 58 [24] Tourtellot, pp. 105–107 [25] Fischer, pp. 70, 121 [26] Tourtellot, pp. 109–115 [27] Jeremy Lister's Journal [28] Fischer, pp. 127–128 [29] The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (1994) p. 122 [30] Fischer, p. 400 [31] Fischer, p. 158 [32] Fischer, p. 153 [33] Fischer, David Hackett, Paul Revere's Ride, p. 151, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1994. [34] Tourtellot, Arthur Bernon, William Diamond's Drum: The Beginning of the War of the American Revolution, pp. 116-126, Doubleday & Co., Inc., Garden City, New York, 1959. [35] Fischer, David Hackett, Paul Revere's Ride, pp. 43, 75-86, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1994. [36] Galvin, Gen. John R., US Army, The Minutemen - The First Fight: Myths and Realities of the American Revolution, 2nd edition, pp. 120-124, Pergamon-Brassey's International Defense Publishers, Inc., Washington, D.C., 1989. [37] Coburn, p. 63 [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] Isaiah Thomas deposition Tourtellot, p. 123 Brooks pp. 52–53 Fischer, pp. 189–190 Fischer, pp.190–191 John Barker's Diary, p. 32 http:/ / www. motherbedford. com/ Chronology06. htm Fischer, p. 193 Fischer, p. 402 Fischer discusses the shot on pp. 193–194, with detailed footnotes on pp. 399–403, in which he discusses some of the testimony in detail. Urban, pp. 19–20 Fischer, pp. 194–195 Brooks, pp. 55–56 Fischer, pp. 198–200 Tourtellot, p. 152 Tourtellot, p. 154 Frothingham, p. 67 Fischer, p. 215 Fischer p.207 Martha Moulton deposition Tourtellot, pp. 155–158 French, p. 197 Fischer, p. 208 Fischer, p. 209 Fischer, pp. 209–212 Fischer, p. 212 Brooks, p. 67 Tourtellot, pp. 165–166 Fischer, p. 214 Fischer, p. 216 Tourtellot, pp. 166–168 http:/ / www. nps. gov/ mima/ brvc/ mural. htm Brooks, p. 71 Fischer, pp. 226–227

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[72] Brooks, pp. 72–73 [73] Fischer, p. 232 [74] Fischer, p. 161

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[75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83] [84] [85] [86] [87] [88] [89] [90] [91] [92] [93] [94] [95] [96] Brooks, p. 79 Frothingham, p. 178 Tourtellot, pp. 184–185 Tourtellot, p. 185 Fischer, pp. 241–242 Brooks, pp. 81–82 Fischer, pp. 243–244 Fischer, pp. 245–246 Fischer, pp. 250–251 Tourtellot, p. 203 Fischer, p. 256 Fischer, p. 258 Tourtellot, p. 197 Fischer, p. 257 Hurd, p. 181 Fischer, p. 261 Brooks, p. 96 Fischer, p. 265 Fischer, pp. 275–276 Fischer, p. 263 Fischer, p. 279 Fischer, p. 280

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[97] Fischer, p. 271 [98] Fischer, pp. 327-328 [99] Fischer, p. 329 [100] Napierkowski [101] Fischer, pp. 331–333 [102] Fischer, pp. 336–338 [103] Fischer, pp. 340–342 [104] Minuteman National Historical Park Things To Do [105] "John Buttrick Memorial" (http:/ / siris-artinventories. si. edu/ ipac20/ ipac. jsp?session=1W80430D191F9. 6618& profile=ariall& source=~!siartinventories& view=subscriptionsummary& uri=full=3100001~!340743~!0& ri=5& aspect=Browse& menu=search& ipp=20& spp=20& staffonly=& term=Quinn,+ Edmond+ Thomas,+ 1868-1929,+ sculptor. & index=AUTHOR& uindex=& aspect=Browse& menu=search& ri=5). Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2010-08-12. [106] Massachusetts Legal Holidays [107] Maine Legal Holidays [108] Wisconsin School Observance Days [109] Concord Centennial Celebration Report [110] Scott's United States Stamp Catalog: First Day Covers [111] Time Magazine, April 25, 1974 [112] New York Times on Ford's appearance

References
• Bradford, Charles H (1996). The Battle Road: Expedition to Lexington and Concord (http://books.google.com/ books?id=EGdIAAAACAAJ). Eastern National. ISBN 1-888213-01-9. • Brooks, Victor (1999). The Boston Campaign. Combined Publishing. ISBN 9780585234533. • Chidsey, Donald Barr (1966). The Siege of Boston: An on-the-scene Account of the Beginning of the American Revolution. New York: Crown. OCLC 890813. • Coburn, Frank Warren (1922). The Battle of April 19, 1775: In Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Arlington, Cambridge, Somerville, and Charlestown, Massachusetts (http://books.google.com/books?id=Cv1IIopyP-kC). The Lexington historical society. OCLC 2494350. • Dana, Elizabeth Ellery (1924). The British in Boston: Being the Diary of Lieutenant John Barker of the King’s Own Regiment from November 15, 1774 to May 31, 1776. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. OCLC 3235993. • Davis, Kenneth C. (2009). America's Hidden History. London: Collins. ISBN 0061118192.

Battles of Lexington and Concord • Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1837). "Emerson's Concord Hymn" (http://www.nps.gov/archive/mima/hymn.htm). National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-10-02. • Emerson, Ralph Waldo; Curtis, George William (1875). Proceedings at the Centennial Celebration of Concord Fight, April 19, 1875 (http://books.google.com/books?id=hXGkkYf3vQQC). Town of Concord. OCLC 4363293. • Fischer, David Hackett (1994). Paul Revere's Ride (http://books.google.com/books?id=knC-kTFI9_gC). Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-508847-6. This book is extensively footnoted, and contains a voluminous list of primary resources concerning all aspects of these events. • Ford, Gerald R. (April 19, 1975). "Remarks at the Old North Bridge, Concord, Massachusetts" (http://www. presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=4847). The American Presidency Project. Retrieved 2008-09-22. • French, Allen (1925). The Day of Concord and Lexington (http://books.google.com/ books?id=LdorAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Boston: Little, Brown & Co. • Frothingham, Jr, Richard (1903). History of the Siege of Boston and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill (http://books.google.com/books?id=Cu9BAAAAIAAJ). Little and Brown. OCLC 221368703. • Hafner, Donald L. (2006). "The First Blood Shed in the Revolution" (http://escholarship.bc.edu/cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?article=1006&context=hrij_facp). Boston College. Retrieved 2007-12-21. • Hurd, Duane Hamilton (1890). History of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, Volume 1: With Biographical Sketches of Many of Its Pioneers and Prominent Men. J. W. Lewis & co. OCLC 2155461. • Kifner, John, Special to the New York Times (1975-04-20). "160,000 Mark Two 1775 Battles; Concord Protesters Jeer Ford :President Greeted Warmly in Lexington 160,000 Observe Date of Battles in 1775 at Lexington and Concord" (http://www.proquest.com/). New York Times (1857-Current file). p. 1. Proquest Document ID=1045581292. Retrieved 2008-11-04. • Lister, Jeremy (1931). Concord Fight. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 1430477520. • Massachusetts Provincial Congress (1775). A Narrative of the Excursion and Ravages of the King’s Troops. Worcester: Isaiah Thomas. OCLC http://books.google.com/books?id=XyIcOgAACAAJ. • Morrissey, Brendan (1995). Boston 1775 (http://books.google.com/books?id=dJlAdSPLi5MC). Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-362-1. • Moulton, Martha. "Martha Moulton's testimony and reward, 4 Feb 1776" (http://www.nps.gov/mima/ forteachers/upload/Martha Moulton.pdf) (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2007-12-21. • Napierkowski, Marie Rose; Ruby, Mary K (1998). Poetry for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context and Criticism on Commonly Studied Poetry. Gale Research. ISBN 9780787627249. • Tourtellot, Arthur B (1959). Lexington and Concord (http://books.google.com/books?id=6WB5HgAACAAJ). New York: Norton. ISBN 0-393-00194-6. • Urban, Mark (2007). Fusiliers: Eight Years with the Red Coats in America. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 9780571224869. OCLC 153556036. • "Maine Legal Holidays" (http://www.maine.gov/bhr/rules_policies/policy_manual/12_5.htm). Human Resources Policy and Practices Manual. Maine Bureau of Human Resources. Retrieved 2009-02-25. • "Massachusetts Legal Holidays" (http://www.sec.state.ma.us/cis/cishol/holidx.htm). Citizen Information Service. Secretary of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Retrieved 2009-02-25. • "Minute Man NHP Things To Do" (http://www.nps.gov/mima/planyourvisit/placestogo.htm). National Park Service. Retrieved 2008-11-03. • "NPS Museum Collections "American Revolutionary War": Riflemen" (http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/ exhibits/revwar/vafo/vaforifle.html). Valley Forge National Historical Park. National Park Service Museum Collections. Retrieved 2007-04-19. • "Time Magazine, April 25, 1975" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,917381,00.html). Time Magazine. 1975-04-25. Retrieved 2008-11-04.

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Battles of Lexington and Concord • "Wisconsin Public School Observance Days" (http://dpi.wi.gov/eis/observe.html). Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. Retrieved 2009-02-25.

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External links
• National Park Service site for Minute Man National Historical Park (http://www.nps.gov/mima/) • Why We Remember Lexington and Concord and the 19th of April (http://rjohara.net/gen/wars/minuteman) • Rescued cannon returns to Concord (http://www.nps.gov/mima/My Webs/myweb/The Hancock Returns. htm) • Battles of Lexington and Concord (http://www.generalatomic.com/AmericanHistory/lexington.html) • Articles about the Concord Fight in Concord Magazine (http://www.concordma.com/concordfight/toc.html) • Animated History of the Battles of Lexington and Concord (http://www.revolutionarywaranimated.com/lex) • Concord Massachusetts (http://www.revolutionaryday.com/usroute20/concord/default.htm) • Merriam's Corner (http://www.justice101us.com/merriam.htm) • "Colonial towns, by the numbers" (http://www.wickedlocal.com/lexington/fun/entertainment/arts/ x1605763724). Retrieved 2010-04-25. Facts and figures on Acton, Bedford, Concord and Lexington of the period, including the rosters of the towns' Minute Men and Militia • Statements of American combatants at Lexington and Concord (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20636/ 20636-8.txt) contained in supplement “Official Papers Concerning the Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord” to The Military Journals of Private Soldiers, 1758-1775, by Abraham Tomlinson for the Poughkeepsie, NY museum, 1855. • Teach this article at the Wikischool (http://www.wikischool.us/instructor_pages/vol_1_files/Page315.htm)

Battle of Long Island
The Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn or the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, fought on August 27, 1776, was the first major battle in the American Revolutionary War following the United States Declaration of Independence, the largest battle of the entire conflict, and the first battle in which an army of the United States engaged, having declared itself a nation only the month before. After defeating the British in the Siege of Boston on March 17, 1776, General George Washington, Commander-in-Chief, brought the Continental Army to defend New York City, then limited to the southern end of Manhattan Island. There he established defenses and waited for the British to attack. In July the British, under the command of General William Howe, landed a few miles across the harbor on Staten Island, where they were slowly reinforced by ships in Lower New York Bay over the next month and a half, bringing their total force to 32,000 men. With the British fleet in control of the entrance to New York Harbor, Washington knew the difficulty in holding the city. Believing Manhattan would be the first target, he moved the bulk of his forces there. On August 22, the British landed on the western end of Long Island, across The Narrows from Staten Island, more than a dozen miles south from the East River crossings to Manhattan. After five days of waiting, the British attacked American defenses on the Guana (Gowanus) Heights. Unknown to the Americans, however, Howe had brought his main army around their rear and attacked their flank soon after. The Americans panicked, although a stand by 400 Maryland troops prevented most of the army from being captured. The remainder of the army fled to the main defenses on Brooklyn Heights. The British dug in for a siege but, on the night of August 29–30, Washington evacuated the entire army to Manhattan without the loss of material or a single life. Washington and the Continental Army were driven out of New York entirely after several more defeats and forced to retreat through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania.

Battle of Long Island

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Background
Boston to New York
Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775, the British Army was trapped in Boston. On March 4, 1776, General George Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, had artillery placed on Dorchester Heights.[1] The British Commander, William Howe, knew that he could not hold the city, with the artillery on the heights that would threaten the British Fleet in Boston Harbor. Two weeks later, on March 17, Howe had the army evacuate the city and they headed for Halifax, Nova Scotia.[2] After the British abandoned Boston, Washington began to send regiments to New York City where he believed that the British would attack next because of its strategic importance.[3] [4] Washington left on April 4. The army took a route through Rhode Island and Connecticut, and civilians came out to cheer and offer food and drink to the soldiers.[5] On April 5, the army paraded into Providence and thousands of civilians came out to see Washington and the army. Eight days later, on April 13, Washington arrived in New York.[6] Washington took up headquarters on Broadway and quickly set to work. In February, Washington had sent his second in command, Charles Lee, to New York to build the defenses for the city.[7] Lee remained in control of the city's defenses until Congress sent him to South Carolina in March, and the job of preparing the defenses was left to General William Alexander (Lord Stirling).[6] Because Lee and Stirling had too few troops to do the job, Washington found the defenses only half done.[8] Lee had concluded that if the British commanded the sea it would be impossible to hold the city, so he built his defenses so as to force the British to pay with heavy casualties if they were to take any ground from the Americans.[7] Lee had barricades and redoubts established in and around the city along with a bastion, called Fort Stirling, on Brooklyn Heights.[9] While in New York, Lee sent out troops to clear Long Island of Loyalists.[10]

Defenses and discipline
Washington began moving troops to Long Island in early May.[11] Within a short time, there were a few thousand men on Long Island. On the eastern side of the hamlet of Brooklyn, three more forts were under construction to support Fort Stirling, which was to the west of the hamlet. The three forts were named Fort Putnam (for Rufus Putnam), Fort Greene (for Nathanael Greene) and Fort Box (for Major Daniel Box).[12] Fort Putnam was furthest to the north, with Greene slightly to the southwest and Box slightly further southwest. All of these forts were surrounded by a large ditch and they were all connected by a line of entrenchments. The forts had 36 cannons total, mostly 18-pounders.[13] Fort Defiance was also being built at this time, located further southwest, past Fort Box, near present day Red Hook.[12] In addition to these new forts, a mounted battery was Infantry of the Continental Army. established on Governors Island, cannons were placed at Fort George and more cannons placed at the Whitehall Dock, which sat on the East River.[14] Hulks were sunk at strategic locations to deter the British from entering the East River and other waterways.[15] Washington had been authorized by Congress to recruit an army of up to 28,500 men; he had, however, only 19,000 troops when he arrived in New York.[16] There was almost no discipline in the army and simple orders had to be repeated constantly. Men fired their muskets off in camp, ruined their flints, used their bayonets as knives to cut food, and often did not bother to clean their muskets.[17] As this was the first time most men had seen others from different regions, there were occasional differences that caused conflict.[18]

Battle of Long Island Due to a shortage of artillerymen, the commander of the artillery, Henry Knox, persuaded Washington to transfer 500 or 600 men who lacked muskets to the artillery.[14] In early June, Knox and Greene inspected the land at the north end of Manhattan and decided to establish Fort Washington there. Another fort, Fort Constitution, later named Fort Lee, was planned for the other side of the Hudson River from Fort Washington.[14] The purpose of these forts was to stop British ships from sailing up the Hudson.[14]

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British arrival
On June 28, Washington learned that the British fleet had set sail from Halifax on June 9 and were heading toward New York.[19] On June 29, signals were sent from men stationed on Staten Island that the British fleet had appeared. Within a few hours 45 British ships dropped anchor in Lower New York Bay.[20] Less than a week later, there were 130 ships off Staten Island under the command of Richard Howe, the brother of the General.[21] The population of New York went into panic at the sight of the British ships, alarms went off and troops immediately rushed to their posts.[20] On July 2, British troops began to land on Staten Island. The Continental regulars on the island took a few shots at the British before fleeing and the citizen's militia switched over to the British side.[21]

"The British fleet in the lower bay" (Harpers Magazine, 1876) depicts the British fleet amassing off the shores of Staten Island in the summer of 1776.

On July 6, news reached New York that Congress had voted for independence four days earlier.[22] On Tuesday, July 9, at 6:00 in the evening, Washington had several brigades march onto the Commons of the City to hear the Declaration of Independence read. After the end of the reading, a mob ran down to Bowling Green, where, with ropes and bars, they tore down the gilded lead statue of George II of Great Britain on his horse.[23] In their fury the crowd cut off the statue's head, severed the nose, and mounted what remained of the head on a spike outside a tavern, and the rest of the statue was dragged to Connecticut and melted down into musket balls.[24] On July 12, two British ships, the Phoenix and the Rose, sailed up the harbor toward the mouth of the Hudson.[24] The American batteries stationed at Fort George, Red Hook and Governors Island opened fire, but the British returned fire into the city. The ships sailed along the New Jersey shore and continued up the Hudson, sailing past Fort Washington and arriving by nightfall at Tarrytown, the widest part of the Hudson.[25] The goal of the British ships was to cut off American supplies and encourage Loyalist support. The only casualties of the day were six Americans who were killed when their own cannon blew up.[25]

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The next day, July 13, General Howe attempted to open negotiations with the Americans.[26] Howe sent a letter to Washington delivered by Lieutenant Philip Brown, who arrived under the flag of truce. The letter was addressed George Washington, Esq.[26] Brown was met by Joseph Reed, who on Washington's orders had hurried to the waterfront accompanied by Henry Knox and Samuel Webb. Washington asked his officers whether it should be received or not, as it did not recognize his rank as General, and they unanimously said no.[27] Brown was told by British troops in the type of flat-bottomed boat used for the invasion of Long Reed that there was no one in the army with that Island address. On July 16 Howe tried again, this time with the address George Washington, Esq., etc., etc. but it was again declined.[28] The next day Howe sent Captain Nisbet Balfour to ask if Washington would meet with Howe's adjutant face to face, and a meeting was scheduled for July 20.[28] Howe's adjutant was Colonel James Patterson. Patterson told Washington that Howe had come with powers to grant pardons but Washington said, "Those who have committed no fault want no pardon."[28] Patterson departed soon after.[28] Washington's performance during the meeting was praised throughout the United States.[29] Meanwhile, British ships continued to arrive.[30] On August 1, 45 ships with Generals Henry Clinton and Charles Cornwallis arrived, along with 3,000 troops. By August 12, 3,000 more British troops and another 8,000 Hessians had arrived.[31] At this point the British fleet numbered over 400 ships, including 73 war ships, and 32,000 troops were camped on Staten Island. Faced with this large force, Washington was unsure as to where the British would attack.[32] Both Greene and Reed thought that the British would attack Long Island, but Washington felt that a British attack on Long Island might be a diversion for the main attack on Manhattan. Washington broke his army in half, stationing half of it on Manhattan, and the other half on Long Island; the army on Long Island was commanded by Greene.[32] On August 20 Greene became ill and was forced to move to a house in Manhattan where he rested to recover. John Sullivan was placed in command until Greene was well enough to resume command.[33]

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Invasion of Long Island
At 5:10 a.m., on August 22, an advance guard of 4,000 British troops, under the command of Clinton and Cornwallis, left Staten Island to land on Long Island.[34] At 8:00 am, all 4,000 troops landed on the shore of Gravesend Bay, unopposed. Colonel Edward Hand's Pennsylvanian riflemen had been stationed on the shore, but they did not oppose the landings and fell back, killing cattle and burning farmhouses on the way.[35] By noon, 15,000 troops had landed on shore along with 40 pieces of artillery. As hundreds of Loyalists came to greet the British troops, Cornwallis pushed on with the advance guard, advancing six miles on to the island and establishing camp at the

Denyse's Ferry, the first place at which the Hessians and British landed on Long Island August 22, 1776 by A. Brown. This high-point overlooking The Narrows was an American artillery position and bombarded by the British before the invasion, but the actual landing took place further east at Gravesend Bay (around to the left from the perspective of this illustration) where the conditions were more favorable for the small British boats carrying the troops.

village of Flatbush; Cornwallis was given orders to advance no further.[35] [36] Washington received word of the landings the same day they occurred, but was informed that the number was 8,000 to 9,000 troops.[37] This convinced Washington that it was the feint he had predicted and therefore he only sent 1,500 more troops to Brooklyn, bringing the total troops on Long Island to 6,000. On August 24, Washington replaced Sullivan with Israel Putnam who commanded the troops on Long Island.[38] Putnam arrived on Long Island the next day along with six battalions. Also that day the British troops on Long Island received 5,000 Hessian reinforcements, bringing their total to 20,000.[39] Although there was little fighting on the days immediately after the landing, some small skirmishes did take place with American marksmen armed with rifles picking off British troops from time to time.[40]

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The American plan was that Putnam would direct the defenses from Brooklyn Heights while Sullivan and Stirling and their troops would be stationed on the Guana Heights.[41] [42] The heights were up to 150 feet high and blocked the most direct route to Brooklyn Heights.[41] [42] Washington believed by stationing men on the heights that heavy casualties could be inflicted on the British before the troops fell back to the main defenses at Brooklyn Heights.[43] There were three main passes through the heights; the Gowanus Road furthest to the west, the Flatbush Road slightly farther to the east, in the center of the American line where it was expected the British would attack, and the Bedford Road farthest to the east. Stirling was responsible to defend the Gowanus Road with 500 men, and Sullivan was to defend the Flatbush and Bedford Roads where there were 1,000 and The Battle of Long Island, 27 August 1776 800 men respectively.[41] 6,000 troops would remain behind at Brooklyn Heights. There was one lesser-known pass through the heights farther to the east called the Jamaica Pass. This pass was defended by just five militia officers on horses.[44] On the British side, General Clinton learned of the almost undefended Jamaica Pass from local Loyalists.[45] Clinton drew up a plan and gave it to William Erskine to propose to Howe. Clinton's plan had the main army making a night march and going through the Jamaica Pass to turn the American flank while other troops would keep the Americans busy in front.[46] On August 26, Clinton received word from Howe that the plan would be used, and that Clinton was to command the advance guard of the main army of 10,000 men on the march through the Jamaica Pass. While they made the night march, General James Grant's British troops along with some Hessians, a total of 4,000 men, would attack the Americans in front to distract them from the main army coming on their flank.[46] Howe told Clinton to be ready to move out that night, August 26.[46] Washington's defeat revealed his deficiencies as a strategist who split his forces, his inexperienced generals who misunderstood the situation, and his raw troops that fled in disorder at the first shots.[47] On the other hand his daring nighttime retreat has been seen by some historians as one of his greatest military feats.[48] Other historians concentrate on the failure of British naval forces to prevent the withdrawal. Washington had no warships, but did use shore batteries, underwater trees and obstacles, fireships that retarded British movements.[49] Washington brought the Continental Army to defend New York then he waited for the British Attack....

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Battle
Night march
At 9:00 p.m. the British moved out.[50] No one, except the commanders—not even the officers—knew of the plan. Clinton led a crack brigade of light infantry with fixed bayonets in front, followed by Cornwallis who had eight battalions and 14 artillery pieces. Cornwallis was, in turn, followed by Howe and Hugh Percy with six battalions, more artillery, and baggage.[50] The column consisted of 10,000 men who stretched out over two miles. Three Loyalist farmers led the column toward the Jamaica Pass. The British had left their campfires burning to deceive the Americans into thinking that nothing was happening.[50] The column headed northeast until it reached what later became the village of New Lots when it headed directly north, toward the Heights.

1776 map of British troop movements

and battle locations The column had yet to run into any American troops when they reached Howard's Tavern (also known as Howard's Half-Way House), just a few hundred yards from the Jamaica Pass.[51] The tavern keeper William Howard and his son William Jr. were forced to act as guides to show the British the way to the Rockaway Foot Path, an old Indian trail that skirted the Jamaica Pass to the west (located today in the Cemetery of the Evergreens). Five minutes after leaving the tavern, the five American militia officers stationed at the Pass were captured without a shot fired, as they thought the British were Americans.[52] Clinton interrogated the men and they informed him that they were the only troops guarding the pass. By dawn the British were through the pass and and stopped so the troops were could rest.[52] At 9:00 am, they fired two heavy cannons to signal the Hessian troops below Battle Pass to begin their frontal assault against Sullivan's men deployed on the two hills flanking the pass while Clinton's troops simultaneously flanked the American positions from the east.[52] The Rockaway Foot Path

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Lord William Howe

Howard's Tavern as it appeared in 1776; it was demolished in 1880 William Howard Jr. describes meeting General Howe: “It was about 2 o’clock in the morning of the 27th of August that I was awakened by seeing a soldier at the side of my bed. I got up and dressed and went down to the barroom, where I saw my father standing in one corner with three British soldiers before him with muskets and bayonets fixed. The army was then lying in the field in front of the house ...General Howe and another officer were in the barroom. General Howe wore a camlet cloak over his regimentals. After asking for a glass of liquor from the bar, which was given him, he entered into familiar conversation with my father, and among other things said, ‘I must have some one of you to show me over the Rockaway Path around the pass.’ “My father replied, ‘We belong to the other side, General, and can’t serve you against our duty.’ General Howe replied, ‘That is alright; stick to your country, or stick to your principles, but Howard, you are my prisoner and must guide my men over the hill.’ My father made some further objection, but was silenced by the general, who said, ‘You have no alternative. If you refuse I shall shoot you through the head.’”

Opening engagements
In the early morning hours of August 27, 1776, the first shots of the Battle of Brooklyn were fired near the Red Lion Inn (near present-day 39st. and 4th ave.) when a British scouting party from the diversionary force led by General James Grant encountered American pickets stationed at the Red Lion. According to some accounts the British troops were foraging in a watermelon patch. After an initial exchange of musket fire the British initially retreated then returned with reinforcements, the American troops then fled in up the Gowanus Road toward the Vechte-Cortelyou House. Major Edward Burd who had been in command was captured along with a lieutenant and 15 privates.[53]

The Battle Pass area, also known as Flatbush Pass, is located in modern-day Prospect Park. Lithograph, c.1866

Battle of Long Island Colonel Samuel Holden Parsons a lawyer from Connecticut who had recently secured a commission in the Continental Army, and Colonel Samuel Atlee of Pennsylvania, a veteran of the French and Indian War were stationed further north on the Gowanus Road. The two colonels roused from their sleep from the sound of musket fire managed to intercept the troops fleeing from the British at the Red Lion and form them into a skirmish line. At daybreak the Americans would be reinforced with 400 troops sent by General Sullivan stationed at the Flatbush Pass. At 3:00 am, Putnam was awakened by a guard and told that the British were attacking through the Gowanus Pass.[54] Putnam lit signals to Washington who was on Manhattan and then rode south to warn Stirling of the attack.[55] Stirling led two regiments of Delaware and Maryland Continentals, a total of 1,600 troops, taking them to establish line to stop the British advance.[54] [55] The British and the Americans engaged each other from about 200 yards apart, both sides under cannon fire, and the British twice assaulted Stirling's troops on the high ground, but each time they were repulsed. The Americans, however, were unaware that this was not the main British attack.[56] The Hessians, in the center under the command of General von Heister, began to bombard the American lines.[57] The Hessian brigades, however, did not attack and Sullivan sent four hundred of his men to reinforce Stirling. Howe fired his signal guns at 9:00 AM and the Hessians began to advance in front while the main army came at Sullivan from the rear.[57] Sullivan left his advance guard to hold off the Hessians while he turned the rest of his force around to fight the British. Heavy casualties mounted up between the Americans and the British and men on both sides fled out of fear.[57] Sullivan attempted to calm his men and tried to lead a retreat. By this point the Hessians had overrun the advance guard on the heights and the American left had completely collapsed.[58] Hand-to-hand fighting followed with the Americans swinging their muskets and rifles like clubs to save their lives. Many of the Americans who surrendered were bayoneted by the Hessians.[59] Sullivan, despite the chaos, managed to evacuate most of his men to Brooklyn Heights though Sullivan himself was captured.[58]

180

Retreat

The front of the Vechte-Cortelyou House; the Maryland 400 commanded by Lord Stirling charged the house held by over two thousand British troops six times, 256 died in the assaults and over 100 were captured or wounded.

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In Battle of Long Island, 1858 by Alonzo Chappel, Stirling leads the attack of the Maryland 400 while the rest of the American troops escape across the marsh and Gowanus Creek

At 9:00 am, Washington arrived from Manhattan.[60] Washington realized that he had been wrong about a feint on Long Island and he ordered more troops to Brooklyn from Manhattan.[60] Washington's location on the battlefield is not known for sure, because accounts differ, but most likely he was at Brooklyn Heights where he could view the battle.[61] On the American right, to the west, Stirling still held the line against Grant.[61] Stirling held on for four hours, still unaware of the British flanking maneuver, and some of his own troops thought they were winning the day because the British had been unable to take their position. However, by 11:00 am, Grant, reinforced by 2,000 marines, hit Stirling's center and Stirling was attacked on his left by the Hessians.[59] [61] Stirling pulled back but British troops were, at this point, coming at him in his rear too. The only escape route left was across a saltmarsh and Gowanus Creek which was 80 yards wide, on the other side of which was Brooklyn Heights.[62] Stirling ordered all of his troops, except 400 Maryland troops under the command of Major Mordecai Gist, to cross the creek. The 400 Maryland troops attacked the British, trying to buy time for the others to withdraw.[62] Stirling and Gist led the 400 men in six consecutive attacks against the British. After the last assault the remaining troops retreated across the Gowanus Creek. Some of the men who tried to cross the marsh were bogged down in the mud under musket fire and others who could not swim were captured. Stirling was surrounded and, unwilling to surrender to the British, broke through the British lines to von Heister's Hessians and surrendered to them. 256 Maryland troops were killed in the assaults in front of the Old Stone House and over 100 were captured or wounded.[63] Washington, watching from a redoubt on nearby Cobble Hill (intersection of today's Court Street and Atlantic Avenue), was to have said, "Good God, what brave fellows I must this day lose!".[62] [64] Although the troops did not want to stop advancing, Howe ordered all of his troops to halt, against the wishes of many of his officers, who believed that they should push on to Brooklyn Heights. Howe disagreed.[64] Rather than assaulting the entrenched American position, he began more methodical siege operations to penetrate it.[65] Howe's failure to press the attack, and the reasons for it, have been disputed. He may have wished to avoid the casualties his army suffered when attacking the Continentals under similar circumstances at the Battle of Bunker Hill.[65] He may also, in the European gentleman-officer tradition, have been giving Washington an opportunity to conclude his position was hopeless and surrender. Howe wrote that it would have been "inconsiderate and even criminal" to attack the surrounded Americans.[66]

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Aftermath
Escape to Manhattan
Washington and the army were surrounded on Brooklyn Heights with the East River to their backs.[67] As the day went on, the British began to dig trenches, slowly coming closer and closer to the American defenses. By doing this, the British would not have to cross over open ground to assault the American defenses as they did in Boston the year before.[68] Despite this perilous situation, Washington ordered 1,200 more men from Manhattan to Brooklyn on August 28.[67] The men that came over were two U.S. Army - Artillery Retreat from Long Island 1776 (1899) Pennsylvania regiments and Colonel John Glover's regiment from Marblehead, Massachusetts. In command of the Pennsylvania troops was Thomas Mifflin who, after arriving, volunteered to inspect the outer defenses and report back to Washington.[69] In these outer defenses, small skirmishes were still taking place. On the afternoon of August 28, it began to rain and Washington had his cannon bombard the British well into the night.[70] As the rain continued Washington sent a letter instructing General William Heath, who was at Kings Bridge between Manhattan and what is now the Bronx, to send every flat bottomed boat or sloop without delay in case battalions of infantry from New Jersey might come to reinforce their position.[72] At 4:00 p.m., on August 29, Washington held a meeting with his generals. Mifflin advised Washington to retreat to Manhattan while Mifflin and his Pennsylvania Regiments made up the rear guard, holding the line until the rest of the army had withdrawn.[72] The Generals agreed unanimously with Mifflin that retreat was the best option and Washington had orders go out by the evening.[73]

The troops were told that they were to gather up all their ammunition and baggage and prepare for a night attack.[73] By 9:00 p.m., the sick and wounded began to move to the Brooklyn Ferry in preparation for being evacuated. At 11:00 p.m. Glover and his Massachusetts troops, who were sailors and fishermen, began to evacuate the troops.[74]

The Foot of Wall Street And Ferry House - 1746. The Manhattan side of the East River crossing, known then as the Brooklyn Ferry, as it looked in the [71] mid 1700's.

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Washington evacuating Army 175th Anniversary Issue of 1951. Accurate depiction of Fulton Ferry House at right. Flat bottom ferry boats in East River are depicted in background

Retreat at Long Island by J.C. Armytage (1820-1897) depicting Washington personally directing the retreat across the East River on the night of August 29, 1776

As more troops were evacuated, more troops were ordered to withdraw from the lines and march to the ferry landing. Wagon wheels were muffled, and men were forbidden to talk.[74] Mifflin's rear guard was tending campfires to deceive the British and convince them that nothing was going on. At 4:00 am, on August 30, Mifflin was informed that it was his unit's turn to evacuate.[75] Mifflin told the man who had been sent to order him to leave, Major Alexander Scammell, that he must be mistaken, but Scammell insisted that he was not and Mifflin ordered his troops to move out. When Mifflin's troops were within a half mile of the ferry landing Washington rode up and demanded to know why they were not at their defenses. Edward Hand, who was leading the troops, tried to explain what had happened, but Mifflin arrived shortly.[76] Washington exclaimed "Good God! General Mifflin, I am afraid you have ruined us!" Mifflin explained that he had been told that it was his turn to evacuate by Scammell; Washington told him it had been a mistake. Mifflin then led his troops back to the outer defenses.[76] Artillery, supplies, and troops were all being evacuated across the river at this time but it was not going as fast as Washington had anticipated and daybreak soon came.[76] A fog settled in and concealed the evacuation from the British. British patrols noticed that there did not seem to be any American pickets and thus began to search the area. While they were doing this Washington, the last man left, stepped onto the last boat.[68] At 7:00 am, the last American troops landed in Manhattan.[77] All 9,000 troops had been evacuated without a single life lost.[77]

Conclusion of the campaign
The British were stunned to find that Washington and the army had escaped.[77] The next day, August 30, the British troops occupied the American fortifications. When news of the battle reached London, it caused many festivities to take place.[78] Bells were rung across the city, candles were lit in windows and King George III gave General Howe the Order of the Bath.[79] General Howe remained inactive for the next half month, not attacking until September 15 when he landed a force at Kip's Bay.[80] The British quickly occupied the city. On September 21, a fire of uncertain origin

The British fleet in New York Harbor just after the battle.

Battle of Long Island destroyed a quarter of New York City. In the immediate aftermath of the fire Nathan Hale was executed for spying. Although the Continentals were able to mount a victory at Harlem Heights in mid-September, Howe defeated Washington in battle again at White Plains and then again at Fort Washington.[81] Because of these defeats, Washington and the army retreated across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania.[82]

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Casualties
At the time, it was by far the largest battle ever fought in North America.[64] If the Royal Navy is included, over 40,000 men took part in the battle. Howe reported his losses as 59 killed, 268 wounded and 31 missing. The Hessian casualties were 5 killed and 26 wounded.[83] The Americans suffered much heavier losses. About 300 had been killed and over 1,000 captured.[84]

Commemorations
Commemorations of the battle include: • The Minerva Statue: The battle is commemorated with a statue of Minerva near the top of Battle Hill, the highest point of Brooklyn, in Green-wood Cemetery. The statue on the northwest corner of the cemetery looks toward the Statue of Liberty. In 2006, the Minerva statue was evoked in a successful defense to prevent a building from blocking the line of sight from the cemetery to the Statue of Liberty in the harbor.[85] • The Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument: A freestanding Doric column in Fort Greene memorializing all those who died while kept prisoner on the British ships just off the shore of Brooklyn, in Wallabout Bay.[86] • The Old Stone House: A re-constructed farmhouse (c.1699) that was at the center of the Marylander's delaying actions serves as a museum of the battle. It is located in J.J. Byrne Park, at 3rd Street and 5th Avenue, Brooklyn, and features models and maps.[87] • Prospect Park, Brooklyn, Battle Pass: along the eastern side of Center Drive in Prospect Park, Brooklyn is a large granite boulder with a brass plaque affixed, and another marker lies near the road for the Dongan Oak, a very large and old tree felled to block the pass from the British advance. In addition, in the park resides the Line of Defense marker erected by the Sons of the American Revolution, and the Monument& Maryland Memorial [88] corinthian column.[89]

References
Notes
[1] McCullough 2006, p. 94. [2] McCullough 2006, p. 101. [3] McCullough 2006, p. 112. [4] Lengel 2005, p. 128. [5] McCullough 2006, p. 115. [6] McCullough 2006, p. 121. [7] Lengel 2005, p. 129. [8] McCullough 2006, p. 122. [9] Lengel 2005, p. 131. [10] Field 1869, p. 47. [11] McCullough 2006, p. 127. [12] McCullough 2006, p. 128. [13] Field 1869, p. 144. [14] McCullough 2006, p. 129. [15] McCullough 2006 . [16] Lengel 2005, p. 132. [17] [18] [19] [20] Lengel 2005, p. 133. Ellis 2005, p. 159. McCullough 2006, p. 133. McCullough 2006, p. 134.

Battle of Long Island
[21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] Lengel 2005, p. 135. McCullough 2006, p. 135. McCullough 2006, p. 137. McCullough 2006, p. 138. McCullough 2006, p. 139. McCullough 2006, p. 144. Johnston 1878, p. 97. McCullough 2006, p. 145. Lengel 2005, p. 138. McCullough 2006, p. 146. McCullough 2006, p. 148. McCullough 2006, p. 152. McCullough 2006, p. 153. McCullough 2006, p. 156. McCullough 2006, p. 157. Johnston 1878, p. 141. McCullough 2006, p. 158. McCullough 2006, p. 160. McCullough 2006, p. 161. Johnston 1878, p. 152. McCullough 2006, p. 162. Lengel 2005, p. 141

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[43] Lengel 2005, p. 142. [44] McCullough 2006, p. 163. [45] McCullough 2006, p. 165. [46] McCullough 2006, p. 166. [47] Charles Francis Adams, "The Battle of Long Island," American Historical Review Vol. 1, No. 4 (Jul., 1896), pp. 650-670 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1833753) [48] David McCullough, 1776 (2005). ISBN 978-0743226714 [49] William L. Calderhead, "British Naval Failure at Long Island: A Lost Opportunity in the American Revolution," New York History, July 1976, Vol. 57 Issue 3, pp 321-338 [50] McCullough 2006, p. 168. [51] McCullough 2006, p. 169. [52] McCullough 2006, p. 170. [53] John J. Gallagher: Battle Of Brooklyn 1776 p.33 [54] McCullough 2006, p. 171. [55] Lengel 2005, p. 143. [56] McCullough 2006, p. 172. [57] McCullough, p. 173. [58] McCullough 2006, p. 174. [59] Lengel 2005, p. 145. [60] McCullough 2006, p. 175. [61] McCullough 2006, p. 176. [62] McCullough 2006, p. 177. [63] Lengel 2005, p. 146. [64] The 256 dead troops of the Maryland 400 were buried by the British in a mass grave on a hillock on farmer Adrian Van Brunt's land on the outskirts of the marsh. It was from this battle that Maryland gained its' nickname "The Old Line State". McCullough 2006, p. 178. [65] Fischer 2006, p. 99. [66] Gallagher 1995, p. 156. [67] McCullough 2006, p. 182. [68] Lengel 2005, p. 148. [69] McCullough 2006, p. 183. [70] McCullough 2006, p. 184. [71] NYPL Digital Gallery: http:/ / digitalgallery. nypl. org/ nypldigital/ dgkeysearchdetail. cfm?trg=1& strucID=717090& imageID=800078& total=44& num=0& parent_id=717063& word=& s=& notword=& d=& c=& f=& k=0& sScope=& sLevel=& sLabel=& lword=& lfield=& imgs=20& pos=8& snum=& e=r [72] McCullough 2006, p. 185. [73] McCullough 2006, p. 186. [74] McCullough 2006, p. 188.

Battle of Long Island
[75] McCullough 2006, p. 189. [76] McCullough 2006, p. 190. [77] McCullough 2006, p. 191. [78] McCullough 2006, p. 195. [79] McCullough 2006, p. 196. [80] McCullough 2006, p. 209. [81] McCullough 2006, p. 244 [82] McCullough 2006, p. 262. [83] McCullough 2006, p. 179 [84] McCullough 2006, p. 180 [85] Elizabeth Hays (May 7, 2008). "Developer says plan respects Minerva statue's point of view" (http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ ny_local/ brooklyn/ 2008/ 05/ 08/ 2008-05-08_developer_says_plan_respects_minerva_sta. html). New York: NY Daily News. . Retrieved 2009-02-02. [86] Fort Greene Park Conservancy. "Prison Ship Martyrs' Monument" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080802043307/ http:/ / www. centennial2008. org/ index. html). Fort Greene Park Conservancy. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. centennial2008. org/ ) on August 2, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-02-02. [87] NYC Department of Parks and Recreation. "Old Stone House" (http:/ / www. theoldstonehouse. org/ ). NYC Department of Parks and Recreation. . Retrieved 2009-02-02. [88] http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=cr& GScid=2379171& CRid=2379171& pt=Maryland [89] NYC Department of Parks and Recreation. "Prospect Park" (http:/ / www. prospectpark. org/ visit/ history/ timeline). NYC Department of Parks and Recreation. . Retrieved 2009-02-02.

186

Bibliography • Adams, Charles Francis. "The Battle of Long Island," American Historical Review Vol. 1, No. 4 (Jul., 1896), pp. 650–670 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1833753) • Calderhead, William L. "British Naval Failure at Long Island: A Lost Opportunity in the American Revolution," New York History, July 1976, Vol. 57 Issue 3, pp 321–338 • Field, Thomas Warren (1869), The Battle of Long Island (http://books.google.com/?id=GnwsAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA1&dq=battle+of+long+island), Brooklyn: The Long Island Historical Society, p. 600 • Fischer, David Hackett (2006), Washington's Crossing, New York: Oxford University Press US, ISBN 9780195181593 • Gallagher, John J.; Gallagher, John J (1999-10-21), The Battle of Brooklyn 1776 (http://books.google.com/ ?id=0KcOdML0UHcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=battle+of+brooklyn), Brooklyn: Castle Books, p. 226, ISBN 9780785816638 • Johnston, Henry Phelps (1878), The Campaign of 1776 Around New York and Brooklyn (http://books.google. com/?id=cVAOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=battle+of+long+island#PRA1-PA139,M1), Long Island Historical Society, p. 556, ISBN 054834227X • Lengel, Edward (2005), General George Washington (http://books.google.com/?id=yHTGAAAACAAJ& dq=General+George+Washington+Lengel), New York: Random House Paperbacks, p. 522, ISBN 0812969502 • McCullough, David (2006), 1776 (http://books.google.com/?id=R1Jk-A4R5AYC&dq=1776+David), New York: Simon and Schuster Paperback, p. 12, ISBN 0743226720

External links
• Whittimore, Henry "The Heroes of the American Revolution and their Descendants; The Battle of Long Island" 1897 (http://books.google.com/books?id=tGA9AAAAYAAJ&pg=PP55&dq=Delaware+Soldiers+in+the+ American+Revolution&lr=&cd=14#v=snippet&q=Prison SHip&f=false) • The Battle of Long Island (http://www.generalatomic.com/AmericanHistory/battle_of_long_island.html) • The Wild Geese Today Honoring Those who saved Washington's Army (http://www.thewildgeese.com/pages/ revwar.html) • Website on Battle of Long Island (http://www.nyfreedom.com/BattlePass.htm) • "The Old Stone House" museum (http://www.theoldstonehouse.org)

Battle of Long Island • Animated History Map of the Battle of Long Island (http://www.revolutionarywaranimated.com/ the-battle-for-new-york)

187

Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge
The Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge was a battle of the American Revolutionary War fought near Wilmington, North Carolina on February 27, 1776. The victory of North Carolina Patriots over Southern Loyalists helped build political support for the revolution and increased recruitment of additional soldiers into their forces. Loyalist recruitment efforts in the interior of North Carolina began in earnest with news of the Battles of Lexington and Concord, and Patriots in the province also began organizing Continental Army and militia units. When word arrived in January 1776 of a planned British Army expedition to the area, Josiah Martin, the royal governor, ordered the Loyalist militia to muster in anticipation of their arrival. Patriot militia and Continental units mobilized to prevent the junction, blockading several routes until the poorly-armed Loyalists were forced to confront them at Moore's Creek Bridge, about 18 miles (29 km) north of Wilmington. In a brief early-morning engagement, a charge across the bridge by sword-wielding Loyalist Scotsmen was met by a barrage of musket fire. One Loyalist leader was killed, another captured, and the whole force was scattered. In the following days, many Loyalists were arrested, putting a damper on further recruiting efforts. North Carolina was not militarily threatened again until 1780, and memories of the battle and its aftermath negated efforts by Charles Cornwallis to recruit Loyalists in the area in 1781.

Background
British recruiting
In early 1775, with political and military tensions rising in the Thirteen Colonies, North Carolina's royal governor, Josiah Martin, hoped to combine the recruiting of the Scots in the North Carolina interior with that of sympathetic Regulators (a group originally opposed to corrupt colonial administration) and disaffected Loyalists in the coastal areas to build a large Loyalist force to counteract Patriot sympathies in the province.[1] His petition to London to recruit 1,000 men had been rejected, but he continued efforts to rally Loyalist support.[2] At about the same time, Scotsman Allan Maclean successfully lobbied King George III for permission to recruit Loyalist Scots throughout North America. In April, he received royal permission to raise a regiment known as the Royal Highland Emigrants by recruiting retired Scottish soldiers living in North America.[3] One battalion was to be recruited in the northern provinces, including New York, Quebec and Nova Scotia, while a second battalion was to be raised in North Carolina and other southern provinces, where a large number of these soldiers had been given land. After receiving his commissions from General Thomas Gage in June, Maclean sent Donald MacLeod and Donald MacDonald, two veterans of the June 17 Battle of Bunker Hill, south to lead the recruitment drive there. These recruiters were also aware that Allan MacDonald, husband of the famous Jacobite heroine Flora MacDonald was already actively recruiting in North Carolina.[4] Their arrival at New Bern was cause for suspicion by members of North Carolina's Committee of Safety, but they were not arrested.[5] On January 3, 1776, Martin learned that an expedition of more than 2,000 troops under the command of General Henry Clinton was planned for the southern colonies and that their arrival was expected in mid-February.[6] He sent word to the recruiters that he expected them to deliver recruits to the coast by February 15, and dispatched Alexander Mclean to Cross Creek (present-day Fayetteville) to coordinate activities in that area. Mclean optimistically reported to Martin that he would raise and equip 5,000 Regulators and 1,000 Scots.[1] [7] In a meeting of Scots and Regulator leaders at Cross Creek on February 5, there was disagreement on how to proceed. The Scots wanted to wait until the British troops had actually arrived before mustering, while the

Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge Regulators wanted to move immediately. The views of the latter prevailed since they claimed to be able to raise 5,000 men, while the Scots believed they would only raise 700 to 800.[1] When the forces mustered on February 15, there were about 3,500 men, but the number rapidly dwindled over the next few days. Many men had expected to be met and escorted by British troops and did not relish the possibility of having to fight their way to the coast. When they marched three days later, Brigadier General Donald MacDonald led between 1,400 and 1,600 men, predominantly Scots.[8] [9] This number was further reduced over the coming days as more men deserted the column.[10]

188

Patriot reaction
Word of the Cross Creek meeting reached members of the Patriot North Carolina Provincial Congress a few days after it happened. Pursuant to resolutions of the Second Continental Congress, the provincial congress had raised the 1st North Carolina Regiment of the Continental Army in fall 1775, and given command to Colonel James Moore. Local committees of safety in Wilmington and New Bern also had active militia organizations, led by Alexander Lillington and Richard Caswell respectively. On February 15 the Patriot forces began to mobilize.[9] Moore led 650 Continentals out of Wilmington with the objective of preventing the Loyalists from reaching the coast. They camped on the southern shore of Rockfish Creek on February 15, about 7 miles (11 km) from the Loyalist camp. General MacDonald learned of their arrival, and sent Moore a copy of a proclamation issued by Governor Martin and a letter calling on the rebels to lay down their arms. Moore responded with his own call that the Loyalists lay down their arms and support the cause of Congress.[9] In the meantime, Caswell led 800 New Bern militiamen toward the area.[11]
Map depicting preliminary movements: A: Moore moves from Wilmington to Rockfish Creek B: MacDonald moves to Corbett's Ferry C: Caswell moves from New Bern to Corbett's Ferry |alt=Moore moves from Wilmington, in the southeast of the state, northwest toward Cross Creek in the south central part of the state. Caswell moves south from New Bern, inland from the middle of the North Carolina coast, toward Corbett's Ferry. MacDonald moves over the Cape Fear River and then southeast toward Corbett's Ferry.

Loyalist march

MacDonald, his preferred road blocked by Moore, chose an alternate route that would eventually bring his force to the Widow Moore's Creek Bridge, about 18 miles (29 km) from Wilmington. On February 20 he crossed the Cape Fear River at Cross Creek and destroyed the boats in order to deny Moore their use.[11] His forces then crossed the South River, heading for Corbett's Ferry, a crossing of the Black River. On orders from Moore, Caswell reached the ferry first, and set up a blockade there.[12] Moore, as a precaution against Caswell being defeated or circumvented, detached Lillington with 150 Wilmington militia and 100 men under Colonel John Ashe from the New Hanover Volunteer Company of Rangers to take up a position at the Widow Moore's Creek Bridge. These men, moving by forced marches, traveled down the southern bank of the Cape Fear River to Elizabethtown, where they crossed to the north bank. From there they marched down to the confluence of the Black River and Moore's Creek, and began entrenching on the east bank of the creek. Moore detached other militia companies to occupy Cross Creek, and followed Lillington and Ashe with the slower Continentals. They followed the same route, but did not arrive until after the battle.[11]

Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge When MacDonald and his force reached Corbett's Ferry, they found the crossing blocked by Caswell and his men.[12] MacDonald prepared for battle, but was informed by a local slave that there was a second crossing a few miles up the Black River that they could use. On February 26, he ordered his rearguard to make a demonstration as if they were planning to cross while he led his main body up to this second crossing and headed for the bridge at Moore's Creek.[11] Caswell, once he realized that MacDonald had given him the slip, hurried his men the 10 miles (16 km) to Moore's Creek, and beat MacDonald there by only a few hours.[13] MacDonald sent one of his men into the Patriot camp under a flag of truce to demand their surrender, and to examine the defenses. Caswell refused, and the envoy returned with a detailed plan of the Patriot fortifications.[14] Caswell had thrown up some entrenchments on the west side of the bridge, but these were not located to Patriot advantage. Their position required the Patriots to defend a position whose only line of retreat was across the narrow bridge, a distinct disadvantage that MacDonald recognized when he saw the plans.[13] In a council held that night, the Loyalists decided to attack, since the alternative of finding another crossing might give Moore time to reach the area. During the night, Caswell decided to abandon that position and instead take up a position on the far side of the creek. To further complicate the Loyalists' use of the bridge, the militia took up its planking and greased the support rails.[10]

189

Battle

By the time of their arrival at Moore's Creek, the Loyalist contingent had shrunk to between 700 and 800 men. About 600 of these were Scots and the remainder were Regulators.[15] Furthermore, the marching had taken its toll on the elderly MacDonald; he fell ill and turned command over to Lieutenant Colonel Donald MacLeod. The Loyalists broke camp at 1 am on February 27 and marched the few miles from their camp to the bridge.[14] Arriving shortly before dawn, they found the defenses on the west side of the bridge unoccupied. MacLeod ordered his men to adopt a defensive line behind nearby trees when a Patriot sentry across the river fired his musket to warn Caswell of the Loyalist arrival. Hearing this, MacLeod immediately ordered the attack.[10] In the pre-dawn mist a company of Scots approached the bridge. In response to a call for identification shouted across the creek, Captain Alexander Mclean identified himself as a friend of the King, and responded with his own challenge in Gaelic. Hearing no answer, he ordered his company to open fire, beginning an exchange of gunfire with the Patriot sentries. Colonel MacLeod and Captain John Campbell then led a picked company of swordsmen on a charge across the bridge.[14] During the night, Caswell and his men had established a semicircular earthworks around the bridge end, and armed them with two small pieces of field artillery. When the Scots were within 30 paces of the earthworks, the Patriots opened fire to devastating effect. MacLeod and Campbell both went down in a hail of gunfire; Colonel Moore

Map depicting movements toward Moore's Creek Bridge: A: Caswell's movement B: MacDonald's movement C: Lillington and Ashe's movement D: Moore's movement |alt=Caswell moves south from Corbett's ferry to Moore's Creek. Lillington and Ashe move south-southeast from Cross Creek to Moore's Creek along the Cape Fear River. Moore follows Lillington and Ashe, but does not reach Moore's Creek.

Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge reported that MacLeod had been struck by upwards of 20 musket balls. The surviving elements of Campbell's company got back over the bridge, and the Loyalist force dissolved in panic.[16] Capitalizing on the success, the Patriot forces quickly replaced the bridge planking and gave chase. One enterprising company led by one of Caswell's lieutenants forded the creek above the bridge, flanking the retreating Loyalists. Colonel Moore arrived on the scene a few hours after the battle. He stated in his report that 30 Loyalists were killed or wounded, "but as numbers of them must have fallen into the creek, besides more that were carried off, I suppose their loss may be estimated at fifty."[15] The Patriot leaders reported one killed and one wounded.[15]

190

Aftermath
Over the next several days, the Patriot forces mopped up the fleeing Loyalists. In all, about 850 men were arrested. Most of these were released on parole, but the ringleaders were sent to Philadelphia as prisoners.[15] Combined with the capture of the Loyalist camp at Cross Creek, the Patriots confiscated 1,500 muskets, 300 rifles, and $15,000 (as valued at the time) of Spanish gold.[17] Many of the weapons were probably hunting equipment, and may have been taken from people not directly involved in the Loyalist uprising.[18] The action had a galvanizing effect on Patriot recruiting, and the arrests of many Loyalist leaders throughout North Carolina cemented Patriot control of the state.[19] The battle had significant effects within the Scots community of North Carolina, where Loyalists refused to turn out when calls to arms were made later in the war, and many were routed out of their homes by the pillaging activities of their Patriot neighbors.[17] Flora MacDonald ended up returning to her native Skye in 1779,[20] and when General Charles Cornwallis passed through the Cross Creek area in 1781, he reported that "[m]any of the inhabitants rode into camp, shook me by the hand, said they were glad to see us and that we had beat Greene and then rode home."[21] When news of the battle reached London, it received mixed commentary. One news report minimized the defeat since it did not involve any regular army troops, while another noted that an "inferior" Patriot force had defeated the Loyalists.[17] Lord George Germain, the British official responsible for managing the war in London, remained convinced in spite of the resounding defeat that Loyalists were still a substantial force to be tapped.[19] The expedition that the Loyalists had been planning to meet was significantly delayed, and did not depart Cork, Ireland until mid-February. The convoy was further delayed and split apart by bad weather, so the full force did not arrive off Cape Fear until May.[22] As the fleet gathered, North Carolina's provincial congress met at Halifax, and in early April passed the first colonial declaration of independence.[20] General Clinton used the force in an attempt to take Charleston, South Carolina. His attempt failed; it represented the end of significant British attempts to control the southern colonies until late 1778.[23] The battlefield site was preserved in the late 19th century through private efforts that eventually received state financial support. The Federal government took over the battle site as a National Military Park operated by the War Department in 1926. The War Department operated the park until 1933, when the National Park Service began managing the site as the Moores Creek National Battlefield.[24] It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.[25] The battle is commemorated every year during the last full weekend of February.[26]

Troop numbers
Early accounts of the battle often misstated the size of both forces involved in the battle, typically reporting that 1,600 Loyalists faced 1,000 Patriots. These numbers are still used by the National Park Service.[27] Historian David Wilson, however, points out that the large Loyalist size is attributed to reports by General MacDonald and Colonel Caswell. MacDonald gave that figure to Caswell, and it represents a reasonable estimate of the number of men starting the march at Cross Creek. Alexander Mclean, who was present at both Cross Creek and the battle, reported that only 800 Loyalists were present at the battle, as did Governor Martin. The Patriot forces were also underreported since Caswell apparently casually grouped the ranger forces of John Ashe as part of Lillington's company in his

Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge report.[15]

191

Notes
[1] Russell, p. 79 [2] Meyer, p. 140 [3] Fryer, p. 118 [4] Fryer, pp. 121–122 [5] Demond, p. 91 [6] Meyer, p. 142 [7] Wilson, p. 23 [8] Wilson, p. 35 [9] Russell, p. 80 [10] Wilson, p. 28 [11] Russell, p. 81 [12] Wilson, p. 26 [13] Wilson, p. 27 [14] Russell, p. 82 [15] Wilson, p. 30 [16] Wilson, p. 29 [17] Russell, p. 83 [18] Wilson, p. 31 [19] Wilson, p. 33 [20] Russell, p. 84 [21] Demond, p. 137 [22] Russell, p. 85 [23] Wilson, p. 56 [24] Capps and Davis [25] "National Register Information System" (http:/ / nrhp. focus. nps. gov/ natreg/ docs/ All_Data. html). National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2010-06-01. . [26] "Moores Creek National Battlefield – Things to do" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ mocr/ planyourvisit/ things2do. htm). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2010-06-01. [27] "Moores Creek National Battlefield website" (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ mocr/ ). National Park Service. . Retrieved 2010-04-22.

References
• Capps, Michael A.; Davis, Stephen A (1999). "Moores Creek National Battlefield – Administrative History" (http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/mocr/adhi_2.htm). National Park Service. Retrieved 2010-06-01. • Demond, Robert O (1979) [1940]. The Loyalists in North Carolina During the Revolution. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing. ISBN 9780806308395. OCLC 229188174. • Fryer, Mary Beacock (1987). Allan Maclean, Jacobite General: the Life of an Eighteenth Century Career Soldier. Toronto: Dundurn Press. ISBN 9781550020113. OCLC 16042453. • Meyer, Duane (1987) [1961]. The Highland Scots of North Carolina, 1732–1776 (http://books.google.com/ books?id=-5_7YVUyI1AC&lpg=PA142&dq=clinton charleston 1776&lr&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q=clinton charleston 1776&f=false). Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press. ISBN 9780807841990. OCLC 316095450. • Russell, David Lee (2000). The American Revolution in the Southern Colonies (http://books.google.com/ books?id=5DFy0eWaPxIC). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 9780786407835. OCLC 44562323. • Wilson, David K (2005). The Southern Strategy: Britain's Conquest of South Carolina and Georgia, 1775–1780. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 1570035733. OCLC 56951286.

Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge

192

External links
• State of North Carolina website for the Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge (http://statelibrary.dcr.state.nc.us/nc/ ncsites/moores.htm)

Battle of Oriskany
The Battle of Oriskany, fought on August 6, 1777, was one of the bloodiest battles in the North American theater of the American Revolutionary War and a significant engagement of the Saratoga campaign. Early in the siege of Fort Stanwix, an American relief force from the Mohawk Valley under General Nicholas Herkimer, numbering around 800 men of the Tryon County militia and a party of Oneida Indians, approached in an attempt to raise the siege. British commander Barry St. Leger authorized an intercept force consisting of a Hanau jäger (light infantry) detachment, Sir John Johnson's King's Royal Regiment of New York, Indian allies from the Six Nations and other tribes to the north and west, and Indian Department Rangers totaling at least 450 men. The Loyalist and Indian force ambushed Herkimer's force in a small valley about six miles (10 km) east of Fort Stanwix, near the present-day village of Oriskany, New York. During the battle, Herkimer was mortally wounded. The battle cost the Patriots approximately 450 casualties, while the Loyalists and Indians lost approximately 150 dead and wounded. The result of the battle remains ambiguous to this day because the advantage of the Loyalist victory was countered when a party sortied from Fort Stanwix and sacked their camp, spoiling morale among the Indians. This was one the few battles in the war where almost all of the participants were North American: Loyalists and Indians fought against Patriots in the absence of British soldiers. For the Iroquois nations, the battle marked the beginning of a civil war, as Oneidas under Colonel Louis and Han Yerry allied with the American cause and fought against members of other Iroquois nations.

Background
Further information: Saratoga campaign and Siege of Fort Stanwix In June 1777, the British Army, under the command of General "Gentleman Johnny" John Burgoyne, launched a two-pronged attack from Quebec. Burgoyne's objective was to split New England from the other colonies by gaining control of New York's Hudson River valley. The main thrust came south across Lake Champlain under Burgoyne's command; the second thrust was led by Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger, and was intended to come down the Mohawk River valley and meet Burgoyne's army near Albany.[1] St. Leger's expedition consisted of about 1,800 men that were a mix of British regulars, Hessian jägers from Hanau, Loyalists, Indians, and rangers. They traveled up the Saint Lawrence River and along the shore of Lake Ontario to the Oswego River, which they ascended to reach the Oneida Carry (present-day Rome, New York). There they began to besiege Fort Stanwix, the Continental Army post guarding the portage.[2]

Prelude
Alerted to the possibility of a British attack along the Mohawk, Nicholas Herkimer, the head of Tryon County's Committee of Safety, issued a proclamation on July 17 warning of possible military activity and urging the people to respond if needed.[3] Warned by friendly Oneidas that the British were just four days from Fort Stanwix on July 30, Herkimer put out a call to arms. The force raised totaled 800 from the Tryon County militia and was composed primarily of poorly-trained Palatine German-American farmers. Setting out on August 4, the column camped near the Oneida village of Oriska on August 5. While a number of the militia dropped out of the column due to their lack of conditioning, Herkimer's forces were augmented by a company of 60 to 100 Oneidas, led primarily by Han Yerry,

Battle of Oriskany a strong supporter of the Patriot cause.[4] That evening, Herkimer sent three men toward the fort with messages for the fort's commander, Colonel Peter Gansevoort. Gansevoort was to signal the receipt of the message with three cannon shots, and then sortie to meet the approaching column.[4] Due to difficulties in penetrating the British lines, these couriers did not deliver the message until late the next morning, after the battle was already underway.[5] St. Leger learned from a messenger sent by Molly Brant to her brother, the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant who led a portion of St. Leger's Indian contingent, that Herkimer and his relief expedition were on their way on August 5.[6] St. Leger sent a detachment of light infantry from Sir John Johnson's Royal Yorkers toward the position that evening to monitor Herkimer's position, and Brant followed early the next morning with about 400 Indians and Butler's Rangers. Although many of the Indians were armed with muskets, some were not, and only carried tomahawk and spear.[7]

193

Battle
On the morning of August 6th, Herkimer held a war council. Since The site of the ambush at Bloody Creek, New York. they had not yet heard the expected signal from the fort, he wanted to wait. However, his captains pressed him to continue, even accusing Herkimer of being a Tory because his brother was serving under St. Leger.[8] Stung by these accusations, Herkimer ordered the column to march on toward Stanwix.[9] About six miles (9.6 km) from the fort the road dipped more than fifty feet (15 m) into a marshy ravine where a stream about three feet (1 m) wide meandered along the bottom.[10] Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter, two Seneca war chiefs, chose this place to set up an ambush.[11] While the King's Royal Yorkers waited behind a nearby rise, the Indians concealed themselves on both sides of the ravine. The plan was for the Yorkers to stop the head of the column, after which the Indians would begin their assault on the extended column.[10] At about 10 am, Herkimer's column, with Herkimer on horseback near the front, descended into the ravine, crossed the stream, and began ascending the other side.[6] Contrary to the plan, the Indians lying in wait near the rear of the column, apparently unable to contain themselves any longer, opened fire, taking the column completely by surprise. Leading the 1st Regiment- Canajoharie, Colonel Ebenezer Cox, was shot off his horse and killed in the first volley. Herkimer turned his horse to see the action, and was very shortly thereafter struck by a ball, which shattered his leg and killed the horse.[12] He was carried by several of his officers to a beech tree, where his men urged him to retire from further danger. He defiantly replied, "I will face the enemy", and calmly sat leaning against the tree, smoking a pipe and giving directions and words of encouragement to the men nearby.[13]

Monument marking location of tree to which Herkimer was taken

As the trap had been sprung too early, portions of the column had not yet entered the ravine.[12] Most of these men panicked and fled; some of the attacking Indians pursued them, resulting in a string of dead and wounded that extended for several miles.[14] Between the loss of the column rear and those killed or wounded in the initial volleys, only about one half of Herkimer's men were probably still fighting 30 minutes into the battle.[12] Some of the attackers, notably those not armed with muskets, waited for the flash of an opponent's musket fire before rushing to attack with the tomahawk before he had time to reload, a highly effective tactic against men not also armed with bayonets.[12] [15] Louis Atayataronghta, a Mohawk warrior fighting with Herkimer's men, shot one of the enemy whose fire had been devastating in its accuracy, noting that "every time he rises up he kills one of our men".[16]

Battle of Oriskany Herkimer's men eventually rallied, fighting their way out of the ravine to the crest just to its west. John Johnson, concerned about the militia's tenacity, returned to the British camp and requested some reinforcements from St. Leger shortly before a thunderstorm broke out. Another 70 men headed back with him toward the battle.[17] The thunderstorm caused a one hour break in the fighting,[13] during which Herkimer regrouped his militia on the higher ground. He instructed his men to fight in pairs: while one man fired and reloaded the other waited and then only fired if attacked. Firing in relays, both were to attempt to keep at least one weapon loaded at all times, to reduce the effectiveness of the tomahawk attacks.[15] John Butler, the leader of the rangers, took time during the thunderstorm to question some of the captives, and learned of the meaning of the three cannon signal. When Johnson and his reinforcements arrived, he convinced them to turn their coats inside out to disguise themselves as a relief party coming from the fort.[18] When the fighting restarted after the rain, Johnson and the rest of his Royal Yorkers joined the battle, but one of the Patriot militiaman, Captain Jacob Gardinier, recognized the face of a Loyalist neighbor. Close combat, at times hand-to-hand fighting between neighbors, continued for some time.[15] [19]

194

Sortie from Fort Stanwix
When Herkimer's messengers reached the fort around 11:00 am, Colonel Gansevoort began organizing the sortie that Herkimer had requested. After the thunderstorm passed, Lieutenant Colonel Marinus Willett led 250 men from the fort, and proceeded to raid the nearly-deserted enemy camps to the south of the fort. Driving away the few British and Indians left in those camps (and taking four prisoners along the way),[20] the Patriots collected blankets and other personal possessions from the Indian camps, and also successfully raided John Johnson's camp, taking his letters and other writings (including an intercepted letter to Gansevoort from his fiancée).[21] [22] One of the Indians who had stayed behind to guard the camp ran to the battle scene and began alerting the Indians to the fact their camps were being raided.[23] They disengaged with cries of "Oonah, oonah!", the Seneca signal to retire, and headed for the camps to protect their women and possessions. This forced the smaller number of German and Loyalist combatants to also withdraw.[15]

Aftermath
Patriots

Lt. Col. Marinus Willett, a 1791 portrait by Ralph Earl

The battered remnant of Herkimer's force, with Herkimer seriously wounded and many of its captains killed, retreated back to Fort Dayton. The wounded Herkimer was carried by his men from the battlefield. His leg was amputated, but the operation went poorly and he died on August 16.[24] While the Indians retrieved most of their dead from the battlefield the following day, many dead and wounded Patriots were left on the field. When Arnold's relief column marched through the scene several weeks later, the stench and grisly scene was, according to various accounts, quite memorable.[25]

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195 When General Philip Schuyler heard of the retreat from Oriskany, he immediately set about sending additional relief to the area. The siege at Fort Stanwix was eventually lifted on August 21 when a relief column led by General Benedict Arnold approached. While still at Fort Dayton, Arnold sent messengers into the British camp that were able to convince the British and Indian besiegers that his force was much larger than it actually was.[26]

Loyalists
Loyalist John Butler was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel for his role in the battle, and was authorized to raise a regiment that became known as Butler's Rangers.[27] After the siege was lifted some Loyalists returned to Quebec while others (including a number of the Indians) joined Burgoyne's campaign on the Hudson.[28]
The Mohawk leader Chief Joseph Brant, 1776 portrait by George Romney

Indians

Brant and Sayenqueraghta, the principal Seneca chief, proposed the next day to continue the fighting by pursuing the Colonials down river toward German Flatts, but St. Leger turned their proposal down.[29] This battle marked the beginning of the civil war in the Iroquois confederacy, as the Iroquois in St. Leger's camp met in council and decided to send the Oneidas a bloody hatchet.[22] Brant's Mohawks raided and burned the Oneida settlement of Oriska later in the siege, prompting the Oneidas to plunder the Mohawk castles of Tiononderoge and Canajoharie. The Fort Hunter Mohawks were later subject to the same treatment, prompting most of the remaining Mohawks to flee to Quebec.[20] It has been claimed that Brant's Indians tortured and ate some of their prisoners.[30] However, modern historians dispute this. It is likely that some of the prisoners taken were ritually killed (which to Europeans is extremely similar to torture); there does not appear to be any evidence of cannibalism (ritual or otherwise). John Butler reported that four prisoners held by the Indians "were conformable to the Indian custom afterwards killed."[31]

Winners and losers
The battle was, based on the percentage of casualties suffered, one of the bloodiest of the war.[32] About half of Herkimer's force was killed or wounded, as was about 15% of the British force.[] [] St. Leger claimed the battle as a victory, as the American relief column had clearly been stopped. However, the Americans were left in control of the battlefield by the withdrawal of the Indians. The British victory was tempered by the discontent of the Indians after the battle. When they joined the expedition, they had expectations that the British forces would do most of the fighting. They were the dominant fighters in this action, and some suffered due to the loss of their personal belongings taken during the sortie from the fort. This blow to their morale contributed to the eventual failure of St. Leger's expedition.[33]

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Legacy
Blacksnake, one of the Indians at the battle, was interviewed many years afterwards. He recalled, "I thought at that time the Blood Shed a Stream running down on the decending [sic] ground."[34] A monument commemorating the battle was erected in 1884 at 43°10.6'N 75°22.2'W,[35] and much of the battlefield is now preserved in the Oriskany Battlefield State Historic Site. The site was recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1962,[36] and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.[37] Nicholas Herkimer was honored when the town of Herkimer and Herkimer County, New York were named for him.[38] American Revolutionary War activities in the Mohawk Valley, including the Battle of Oriskany, were memorialized by Walter D. Edmonds in his 1937 novel, Drums Along the Mohawk. The battle was also remembered with the naming of the aircraft carrier USS Oriskany, launched in 1945.[39]

Monument to the unknown Tryon County patriots

Footnotes
[1] Ketchum (1997), p. 84 [2] Nickerson (1967), pp. 195–199 [3] Glatthaar (2006), pp. 159–160 [4] Glatthaar (2006), p. 160 [5] Glatthaar (2006), p. 161 [6] Glatthaar (2006), p. 163 [7] Glatthaar (2006), p. 164 [8] Nickerson (1967), p. 202 [9] Nickerson (1967), p. 203 [10] Nickerson (1967), p. 205 [11] Watt (2002), p. 135 [12] Glatthaar (2006), p. 166 [13] Nickerson (1967), p. 207 [14] Nickerson (1967), p. 206 [15] Nickerson (1967), p. 208 [16] Glatthaar (2006), p. 167 [17] Watt (2002), p. 174 [18] Watt (2002), pp. 179–180 [19] Glatthaar (2006), p. 168 [20] Glatthaar (2006), p. 171 [21] Nickerson (1967), p. 210 [22] Watt (2002), p. 196 [23] Watt (2002), p. 185 [24] Glatthaar (2006), p. 169 [25] Watt (2002), p. 263 [26] Glatthaar (2006), pp. 174–5 [27] Bowler (2000) [28] Watt (2002), p. 269 [29] Kelsay (1984), p. 208 [30] Stone (1865), pp. 459–460 [31] Watt (2002), p. 197 [32] Canfield (1909), p. 57 [33] Nickerson (1967), p. 211 [34] Watt (2002), p. 177 [35] New York Historical Association (1915), p. 341 [36] NHL summary listing [37] NRHP

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[38] Benton (1856), p. 164 [39] Oriskany DANFS entry

197

References
• Benton, Nathaniel Soley (1856). A history of Herkimer County (http://books.google.com/ books?id=G1IOAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA164#v=onepage). Albany: J. Munsell. OCLC 1634048. • Bowler, R. Arthur; Wilson, Bruce G (2000). "Biography of John Butler" (http://www.biographi.ca/ 009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=1785). Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Retrieved 2010-02-17. • Canfield, William Walker; Clark, J. E (1909). Things worth knowing about Oneida County (http://books.google. com/books?id=0CsVAAAAYAAJ&dq=history of oneida county&pg=PA57#v=onepage&q=bloody creek& f=false). Utica, New York: T. J. Griffiths. OCLC 6674932. • Foote, Allan D (1998). Liberty March, The Battle of Oriskany. North Country Books. ISBN 0-925168-72-6. • Glatthaar, Joseph T; Martin, James Kirby (2006). Forgotten Allies: The Oneida Indians and the American Revolution. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 9780809046010. OCLC 63178983. • Greene, Nelson (1925). History Of The Mohawk Valley, Gateway To The West, 1614–1925. Reprint Services Corp. ISBN 0-7812-5180-X. • Kelsay, Isabel (1984). Joseph Brant 1743–1807 Man of Two Worlds. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-0182-4. • Kenney, Alice P (1975). Stubborn for Liberty: The Dutch in New York. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. ISBN 0-8156-0113-1. • Ketchum, Richard M (1997). Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 9780805061239. OCLC 41397623. • New York Historical Association (1915). Proceedings of the New York Historical Association, Volume 14 (http:// books.google.com/books?id=WtwTAAAAYAAJ&dq=oriskany 1884&pg=PA341#v=onepage&q=oriskany 1884&f=false). New York Historical Association. • Nickerson, Hoffman (1967, first published 1928). The Turning Point of the Revolution. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat. OCLC 549809. • Stone, William Leete (1865, first published 1838). Life of Joseph Brant (http://books.google.com/ books?id=FL0RAAAAYAAJ). Albany, NY: J. Monsell. OCLC 3509591. • Watt, Gavin K (2002). Rebellion in the Mohawk Valley: The St. Leger Expedition of 1777. Toronto: Dundurn. ISBN 1-55002-376-4. • Dieffenbacher, Jane W; Herkimer County Historical Society (2002). Herkimer County: Valley Towns. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 9780738509778. OCLC 50147332. • "Oriskany" (http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/o4/oriskany.htm). Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. Navy Department, Naval History & Heritage Command. Retrieved 2009-12-07. • "National Register Information System" (http://nrhp.focus.nps.gov/natreg/docs/All_Data.html). National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2007-01-23. • "Oriskany Battlefield" (http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=401&ResourceType=Site). National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. 2007-09-11.

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Further reading
• Berleth, Richard (2009). Bloody Mohawk. Hensonville, NY: Black Dome Press. ISBN 9781883789664. • Edmonds, Walter D (1937). Drums Along the Mohawk. Little, Brown. ISBN 0-8156-0457-2.

External links
• The King's Royal Regiment of New York (http://www.royalyorkers.ca/) • The Battle of Oriskany: "Blood Shed a Stream Running Down", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan (http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/79oriskany/79oriskany. htm)

Battle of the Saintes
The Battle of the Saintes (known to the French as the Battle of Dominica) took place over 4 days, 9 April 1782 – 12 April 1782, during the American War of Independence, and was a victory of a British fleet under Admiral Sir George Rodney over a French fleet under the Comte de Grasse forcing the French and Spanish to abandon a planned invasion of Jamaica. The battle is named after the Saintes (or Saints), a group of islands between Guadeloupe and Dominica in the West Indies. The French fleet defeated here by the Royal Navy was the same French fleet that had blockaded the British Army during the Siege of Yorktown. The battle is sometimes credited with pioneering the tactic of "breaking the line"; this is however erroneous as Dano–Norwegian admiral Niels Juel did this in the Battle of Køge Bay more than a hundred years earlier.

Origins
On 7 April 1782, the Comte de Grasse set out from Martinique with 35 ships of the line, including 2 50-gun ships and a large convoy of more than 100 cargo ships, to meet with a Spanish fleet consisting of 12 ships of the line and 15,000 troops for the purpose of capturing the British island of Jamaica. He was pursued by Rodney with 36 ships of the line. On 9 April 1782, De Grasse sent his convoy into Guadeloupe, escorted by his two fifty-gun ships (Fier and Experiment). There was an initial inconclusive clash during which the French got the better of the van division of the British fleet which had become separated from the centre and rear divisions. Two French ships of the line were damaged.

Battle
On 12 April, De Grasse bore up with his fleet to protect a dismasted ship (Zélé, 74-guns) that was being chased by four British ships as he made for Guadeloupe. Rodney recalled his chasing ships and made the signal for line of battle. As the French line passed down the British line, a sudden shift of wind let Rodney's flagship Formidable and several other ships, including the Duke and the Bedford, break through the French line, raking the ships as they did so. The resultant confusion in the French line and the severe damage to several of the French ships including De Grasse's flagship Ville de Paris, of 104 guns, led eventually to De Grasse’s surrender and the retreat of many of his ships in disorder. This action split the French battle line into two. A general chase ensued. In all, four French ships were captured and one, César, blew up after she was taken.

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The British lost 243 killed and 816 wounded, and two captains out of 36 were killed. The French loss in killed and wounded has never been stated, but of captains alone, six were killed out of 30. It is estimated that the French loss may have been as much as 2,000. More than 5,000 French soldiers and sailors were captured. The large number shows what a considerable force the French were willing to put ashore with the invasion of Jamaica. Of the Ville de Paris' crew, over 400 had been killed and more than 700 were wounded. The César which blew up, killed over 400 French and 50 British sailors when her magazine exploded.

Aftermath
The battle frustrated French and Spanish hopes of capturing Jamaica from the British. Rodney was created a peer with £2,000 a year settled on the title in perpetuity for this victory. Hood was elevated to the peerage as well. The battle has caused controversy ever since, for three reasons:

A 1785 engraving of de Grasse surrendering to Rodney.

• Rodney’s failure to follow up the victory by a pursuit was much criticised. Rear-Admiral Hood said that the 20 French ships would have been captured had the commander-in-chief maintained the chase. On 17 April, Hood was sent in pursuit of the enemy. He promptly captured two 64-gun ships of the line (Jason and Caton) and two smaller warships in the Battle of the Mona Passage on 19 April. One hundred and twenty years later, the Navy Records Society published the Dispatches and Letters Relating to the Blockading of Brest. In the introduction they include a small biography of Admiral William Cornwallis who commanded the Canada at the Saintes. A poem purportedly written by him includes the lines: Had a chief worthy Britain commanded our fleet, Twenty-five good French ships had been laid at our feet.[1] • The battle is famous for the innovative tactic of "breaking the line", in which the British ships passed though a gap in the French line, engaging the enemy from leeward and throwing them into disorder. But there is considerable controversy about whether the tactic was intentional, and, if so, who was responsible for the idea (Rodney, his Captain-of-the-Fleet Sir Charles Douglas, or John Clerk of Eldin), or even if this was the first case of such a tactic. • On the French side, de Grasse blamed his subordinates, Vaudreuil and Bougainville, for his defeat.

Order of Battle
Britain

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Admiral Sir George Rodney's fleet Van Ship Rate Guns Commander Killed HMS Royal Oak HMS Alfred HMS Montagu HMS Yarmouth HMS Valiant HMS Barfleur Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Second rate 74 74 74 64 74 98 Captain Thomas Burnett Captain William Bayne  † Captain George Bowen Captain Anthony Parrey Captain Samuel Granston Goodall Rear-Admiral Sir Samuel Hood Captain John Knight Captain Francis Reynolds Captain Sir James Wallace Captain Andrew Sutherland Captain John Nicholson Inglefield Captain Robert Linzee Captain George Wilkinson Centre HMS Bedford Third rate 74 Commodore Edmund Affleck Captain Thomas Graves Captain Nicholas Charrington Captain Thomas Dumaresq Captain William Cornwallis Captain Charles Inglis Captain Robert Fanshawe Admiral Sir George Rodney Captain Sir Charles Douglas 2nd Captain Charles Symons Captain Alan Gardner Captain Benjamin Caldwell Captain Lord Robert Manners Captain Charles Buckner Captain Henry Savage Captain Samuel Thompson Rear HMS Russell HMS Fame HMS Anson HMS Torbay HMS Prince George Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Second rate 74 74 64 74 98 Captain James Saumarez Captain Robert Barbor Captain William Blair  † Captain John Lewis Gidoin Captain James Williams 10 3 3 10 9 29 12 13 25 24 39 15 16 35 33 0 17 17 8 12 14 14 10 10 Casualties Wounded 30 40 29 33 28 37 Total 38 52 Bayne killed on 9 April 43 47 38 47 Flagship of van Notes

HMS Monarch HMS Warrior HMS Belliqueux HMS Centaur HMS Magnificent HMS Prince William

Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate

74 74 64 74 74 64

16 5 4 ? 6 0

33 21 10 ? 11 0

49 26 14 ? No casualty returns made 17 0

HMS Ajax HMS Repulse HMS Canada HMS St Albans HMS Namur HMS Formidable

Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Second rate Second rate

74 64 74 64 90 98

9 3 12 0 6 15

40 11 23 6 25 39

49 14 35 6 31 53 Flagship of centre

HMS Duke HMS Agamemnon HMS Resolution HMS Prothee HMS Hercules HMS America

Second rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate

90 64 74 64 74 64

13 15 4 5 6 1

60 23 34 25 19 1

73 38 38 30 25 Captain Savage wounded 2

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Third rate 70 Rear-Admiral Francis Samuel Drake Captain Charles Knatchbull Captain George Balfour Captain William Truscott Captain Charles Thompson Captain Samuel Pitchford Cornish Captain Taylor Penny 3 22 25 Flagship of rear

HMS Princessa

HMS Conqueror HMS Nonsuch HMS Alcide HMS Arrogant HMS Marlborough

Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate Third rate

74 64 74 74 74

7 3 ? 0 3

23 3 ? 0 16

30 6 ? No casualty returns made 0 19

Total recorded casualties: 239 killed, 762 wounded (casualties for two ships unknown) Source: The London Gazette, 12 December 1782. [2]

France
Admiral the Comte de Grasse's fleet Ship Ardent Auguste Bourgogne Brave César Citoyen Conquérant Couronne Dauphin Royal Destin Diadème Duc de Bourgogne Éveillé Glorieux Hector Hercule Languedoc Magnanime Magnifique Marseillais Neptune Northumberland Palmier Pluton Réfléchi Richemond Guns 64 80 74 74 74 74 74 80 70 74 74 80 64 74 74 74 80 74 74 74 74 74 74 74 64 frigate Montemart captured captured Claude Mithon de Genouilly captured, but burnt Louis Antoine de Bougainville Commander captured Fate

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74 74 74 80 104 Jean-François Du Cheyron  † François Joseph Paul de Grasse captured

Sceptre Scipion Souverain Triomphant Ville de Paris

References
[1] Leyland, John (1899). Dispatches and letters relating to the blockade of Brest, 1803-1805 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ dispatchesandle00leylgoog). Printed for the Navy Records Society. p. xx. . [2] London Gazette: no. 12396. pp. 3–4 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 12396/ pages/ 3). 1782-10-12. Retrieved 2010-04-08.

Further reading
• Douglas, Major-General Sir Howard; Christopher J. Valin (2010-18-32). Naval Evolutions: A Memoir. Fireship Press. ISBN 1935585274. • Crossman, Mark World military leaders: a biographical dictionary Facts on File Inc (2006) ISBN 978-0816047321 • Fullom, S.W., Life of General Sir Howard Douglas, Bart. (1865) • Mahan, A.T., Major Operations of the Navies in the War of Independence (1913) • Mahan, A.T., Types of Naval Officers, Drawn from the History of the British Navy (1901) • Mundy, Major-General, The Life and Correspondence of the Late Admiral Lord Rodney (1830) • Playfair, John. “On the Naval Tactics of the Late John Clerk, Esq. of Eldin.” The Works of John Playfair, Vol. III (1822) • “Rodney’s Battle of 12 April 1782: A Statement of Some Important Facts, Supported by Authentic Documents, Relating to the Operation of Breaking the Enemy’s Line, as Practiced for the First Time in the Celebrated Battle of 12 April 1782.” Quarterly Review, vol. XLII, no. LXXXIII, January & March, 1830 • Trew, Peter, Rodney and the Breaking of the Line (2006) • Valin, Christopher J. (2009). Fortune's Favorite: Sir Charles Douglas and the Breaking of the Line. Fireship Press. ISBN 1934757721.

External links
• Robinson, Ian M. (2009-12-03). "The Battle of the Saintes 12th April 1782" (http://iactaaleaest.wordpress.com/ 2009/12/03/the-battle-of-the-saintes-12th-april-1782/). The Realm of Chance: warfare and the balance of power, 1618-1815. Retrieved 2011-07-06.

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Battles of Saratoga
The Battles of Saratoga (September 19 and October 7, 1777) conclusively decided the fate of British General John Burgoyne's army in the American War of Independence and are generally regarded as a turning point in the war. The battles were fought eighteen days apart on the same ground, 9 miles (14 km) south of Saratoga, New York. Burgoyne's campaign to divide New England from the southern colonies had started well, but slowed due to logistical problems. He won a small tactical victory over General Horatio Gates and the Continental Army in the September 19 Battle of Freeman's Farm at the cost of significant casualties. His gains were erased when he again attacked the Americans in the October 7 Battle of Bemis Heights and the Americans captured a portion of the British defenses. Burgoyne was therefore compelled to retreat, and his army was surrounded by the much larger American force at Saratoga, forcing him to surrender on October 17. News of Burgoyne's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally, although it had previously given supplies, ammunition and guns, notably the de Valliere cannon, which played an important role in Saratoga.[1] Formal participation by France changed the war to a global conflict. This battle also resulted in Spain contributing to the war on the American side. The first battle, on September 19, began when Burgoyne moved some of his troops in an attempt to flank the entrenched American position on Bemis Heights. Benedict Arnold, anticipating the maneuver, placed significant forces in his way. While Burgoyne succeeded in gaining control of Freeman's Farm, it came at the cost of significant casualties. Skirmishing continued in the days following the battle, while Burgoyne waited in the hope that reinforcements would arrive from New York City. Militia forces continued to arrive, swelling the size of the American army. Disputes within the American camp led Gates to strip Arnold of his command. Concurrently with the first battle, American troops also attacked British positions in the area of Fort Ticonderoga, and bombarded the fort for a few days before withdrawing. British General Sir Henry Clinton, in an attempt to divert American attention from Burgoyne, captured American forts in the Hudson River highlands on October 6, but his efforts were too late to help Burgoyne. Burgoyne attacked Bemis Heights again on October 7 after it became apparent he would not receive relieving aid in time. In heavy fighting, marked by Arnold's spirited rallying of the American troops (in open defiance of orders to stay off the battlefield), Burgoyne's forces were thrown back to the positions they held before the September 19 battle and the Americans captured a portion of the entrenched British defenses.

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Background
British situation
In June 1777 British General John Burgoyne began an attempt to divide the rebellious United States in the American Revolutionary War by moving south from the British province of Quebec to gain control of the Hudson River valley, separating the New England states from those to the south. After his early capture of Fort Ticonderoga, his campaign had become bogged down in difficulties.[2] Elements of the army had reached the Hudson as early as the end of July, but logistical and supply difficulties delayed the main army at Fort Edward. One attempt to alleviate these difficulties failed when nearly 1,000 men were killed or captured at the August 16 Battle of Bennington.[3] Furthermore, news reached Burgoyne on August 28 that Barry St. Leger's expedition down the Mohawk River valley had turned back after the failed Siege of Fort Stanwix.[4] Combined with earlier news that General William Howe had sailed his General John Burgoyne, portrait by Sir Joshua army from New York City on a campaign to capture Philadelphia Reynolds, c. 1760 [5] instead of moving north to meet Burgoyne, and the departure of most of his Indian support following the loss at Bennington, Burgoyne's situation was becoming difficult.[6] Faced with the need to reach defensible winter quarters, which would require either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany, he decided on the latter. Consequent to this decision he made two further crucial decisions. He decided to deliberately cut communications to the north, so that he would not need to maintain a chain of heavily fortified outposts between his position and Ticonderoga, and he decided to cross the Hudson River while he was in a relatively strong position.[7] He therefore ordered Baron Riedesel, who commanded the rear of the army, to abandon outposts from Skenesboro south, and then had the army cross the Hudson just north of Saratoga between September 13 and 15.[8]

American situation
The Continental Army had been in a slow steady state of retreat ever since Burgoyne's capture of Ticonderoga early in July. By mid-August the army, then under the command of Major General Philip Schuyler, was encamped south of Stillwater, New York. On August 19, Major General Horatio Gates assumed command from Schuyler, whose political fortunes had fallen over the loss of Ticonderoga and the ensuing retreat.[9] Gates and Schuyler, who were from very different backgrounds, did not get along with each other, and had previously argued over command issues in the army's Northern Department.[10] Gates became the beneficiary of an army that was growing in size as a result of increased militia turnout following calls by state governors, the success at Bennington, and widespread outrage over the slaying of Jane McCrea, the fiancée of a Loyalist in Burgoyne's army, by Indians in Burgoyne's command.[11] Strategic decisions by the American commander in chief, Major General George Washington also improved the situation for Gates's army.

General Horatio Gates, portrait by Gilbert Stuart

Battles of Saratoga Washington was most concerned about the movements of General Howe, and what his goal was. Aware that Burgoyne was also moving, he took some risks in July and sent aid north in the form of Major General Benedict Arnold, his most aggressive field commander, and Major General Benjamin Lincoln, a Massachusetts man noted for his influence with the New England militia.[12] In August, before he was certain that Howe had indeed sailed south, he ordered 750 men from Israel Putnam's forces defending the New York highlands to join Gates' army, and also sent some of the best forces from his own army: Colonel Daniel Morgan and the newly formed Provisional Rifle Corps, which comprised about 500 specially selected riflemen from Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, chosen for their sharpshooting ability.[13] On September 7, Gates ordered his army to march north. A site known as Bemis Heights, just north of Stillwater and about 10 miles (16 km) south of Saratoga, was selected for its defensive potential, and the army spent about a week constructing defensive works designed by Polish engineer Thaddeus Kosciusko. The heights had a commanding view of the area and commanded the only road to Albany, where it passed through a defile between the heights and the Hudson. To the west of the heights lay more heavily forested bluffs that would present a significant challenge to any heavily equipped army.[14]

205

First Saratoga: Battle of Freeman's Farm (September 19)
Map showing the movements of the opposing armies in the Saratoga campaign, and plan of the Battles of Saratoga (inset)

Prelude

Moving cautiously, since the departure of his Indian support had deprived him of reliable reports on the American position, Burgoyne advanced to the south after crossing the Hudson.[15] On September 18 the vanguard of his army had reached a position just north of Saratoga, about 4 miles (6.4 km) from the American defensive line, and skirmishes occurred between American scouting parties and the leading elements of his army.[16] The American camp had become a bed of festering intrigue ever since Arnold's return from Fort Stanwix. While he and Gates had previously been on reasonably good terms in spite of their prickly egos, Arnold managed to turn Gates against him by taking on as staff officers friendly to Schuyler, dragging him into the ongoing feud between the two.[17] These conditions had not yet reached a boil on September 19, but the day's events contributed to the situation. Gates had assigned the left wing of the defenses to Arnold, and assumed command himself of the right, which was nominally assigned to General Lincoln, whom Gates had detached in August with some troops to harass the British positions behind Burgoyne's army.[18]

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Both Burgoyne and Arnold understood the importance of the American left, and the need to control the heights there. After the morning fog lifted around 10 am, Burgoyne ordered the army to advance in three columns. Baron Riedesel led the left column, consisting of the German troops and the 47th Foot, on the river road, bringing the main artillery and guarding supplies and the boats on the river. General James Inglis Hamilton commanded the center column, consisting of the 9th, 20th, 21st, and 62nd regiments, which would attack the heights, and General Simon Fraser led the right wing with the 24th Regiment and the light infantry and grenadier companies, to turn the American left flank by negotiating the heavily wooded high ground north and west of Bemis Heights.[19]

Arnold also realized such a flanking maneuver was likely, and petitioned Gates for permission to move his forces from the heights to meet potential movements, where the American skill at woodlands combat would be at an advantage.[20] Gates, whose preferred strategy was to sit and wait for the expected frontal assault, grudgingly permitted a reconnaissance in force consisting of Daniel Morgan's men and Henry Dearborn's light infantry.[21] When Morgan's men reached an open field northwest of Bemis Heights belonging to Loyalist John Freeman, they spotted British advance troops in the field. Fraser's column was slightly delayed and had not yet reached the field, while Hamilton's column had also made its way across a ravine and was approaching the field from the east through dense forest and difficult terrain. Riedesel's force, while it was on the road, was delayed by obstacles thrown down by the Americans. The sound of gunfire to the west prompted Riedesel to send some of his artillery down a track in that direction. The troops Morgan's men saw were an advance company from Hamilton's column.[22]

Initial dispositions and movements at the Battle of Freeman's Farm, 19 September 1777

Battle
Morgan's men took very careful aim, and picked off virtually every single officer in the advance company, and then charged, unaware that they were headed directly for Burgoyne's main army. While they succeeded in driving back the advance company, Fraser's leading edge arrived just in time to attack Morgan's left, scattering his men back into the woods.[23] James Wilkinson, who had ridden forward to observe Map depicting the positions at 1:00 pm the fire, returned to the American camp for reinforcements. As the British company fell back toward the main column, the leading edge of that column opened fire, killing a number of their own men.[24] There was then a lull in the fighting around 1:00 pm as Hamilton's men began to form up on the north side of the field, and American reinforcements began to arrive from the south. Learning that Morgan was in trouble, Gates ordered out two more regiments (1st and 3rd New Hampshire) to support him,[25] with additional regiments (2nd New York, 4th New York, the 1st Canadian, and Connecticut militia) from the brigade of Enoch Poor to follow.[26] Burgoyne arrayed Hamilton's men with the 21st on the right, the 20th on the left, and the 62nd in the center, with the 9th held in reserve.[27]

Modern view of the battleground of Freeman's Farm

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The battle then went through phases alternating between intense fighting and breaks in the action. Morgan's men had regrouped in the woods, and busily picked off officers and artillerymen. They were so effective at reducing the latter that the Americans several times gained brief control of British field pieces, only to lose them in the next British charge. At one point it was believed that Burgoyne himself had Map depicting the positions at 3:00 pm been taken down by a sharpshooter; it was instead one of Burgoyne's aides, riding a richly dressed horse, who was the victim. The center of the British line was very nearly broken at one point, and only the intervention of General Phillips, leading the 20th, made it possible for the 62nd to reform.[28] The final stroke of the battle belonged to the British. Around 3 pm, Riedesel sent a messenger to Burgoyne for instructions. He returned two hours later with orders to guard the baggage train, but also to send as many men as he could spare toward the American right wing. In a calculated risk, Riedesel left 500 men to guard the vital supply train and marched off toward the action with the rest of his column. Two of his companies advanced on the double and opened vicious fire on the American right,[29] and Fraser's force threatened to turn the American left flank. In response to the latter threat, Arnold requested more forces, and Gates allowed him to dispatch Ebenezer Learned's brigade (2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts). (If Arnold had been on the field, these forces might have instead faced the larger danger posed by Riedesel's force.)[30] Fortunately for the American right, darkness set in, bringing an end to the battle. The Americans retreated back to their defenses, leaving the British on the field.[31] Burgoyne had gained the field of battle, but suffered nearly 600 casualties. Most of these were to Hamilton's center column, where the 62nd was reduced to the size of a single company, and three quarters of the artillery men were killed or wounded.[32] American losses were nearly 300 killed and seriously wounded.[33] It has been widely recounted in histories of this battle that General Arnold was on the field, directing some of the action. However, this is unlikely; Luzader, a former park historian at the Saratoga National Historical Park, carefully documents the evolution of this story, which is without foundation in contemporary materials. In all likelihood, Arnold remained at Gates' headquarters, receiving news and dispatching orders through messengers.[34] [35]
Map depicting the positions at 5:00 pm

Interlude
... an attack or even menace of an attack on Fort Montgomery must be of great use ... Burgoyne to Clinton, September 23, 1777
[36]

Burgoyne's council discussed whether to attack the next day, and a decision was reached to delay further action at least one day, to September 21. The army moved to consolidate the position closer to the American line while some men collected their dead. The attack on the 21st was called off when Burgoyne received a letter dated September 12 from Henry Clinton, who was commanding the British garrison in New York City. Clinton suggested that he could "make a push at [Fort] Montgomery in about ten days." (Fort Montgomery was an American post on the Hudson River, in the New York Highlands south of West Point). If Clinton left New York on September 22, "about ten days" after he wrote the letter, he still could not hope to arrive in the vicinity of Saratoga before the end of the month. Burgoyne, running low on men and food, was still in a very difficult position, but he decided to wait in the hope that

Battles of Saratoga Clinton would arrive to save his army.[37] Burgoyne wrote to Clinton on September 23, requesting some sort of assistance or diversion to draw Gates' army away.[36] Clinton sailed from New York on October 3, and captured Forts Montgomery and Clinton on October 6.[38] The furthest north any of his troops reached was Clermont, where they raided the estate of the prominent Patriot Livingston family on October 16.[39] Unknown to either side at Saratoga, General Lincoln and Colonel John Brown had staged an attack against the British position at Fort Ticonderoga. Lincoln had collected 2,000 men at Bennington by early September.[40] Brown and a detachment of 500 men captured poorly defended positions between Ticonderoga and Lake George, and then spent several days ineffectually bombarding the fort. These men, and some of the prisoners they freed along the way, were back in the American camp by September 29.[41] [42] In the American camp the mutual resentment between Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold finally exploded into open hostility. Gates quickly reported the action of September 19 to the Congress and Governor George Clinton of New York, but he failed to mention Arnold at all. The field commanders and men universally credited Arnold for their success. Almost all the troops involved were from Arnold's command and Arnold was the one directing the battle while Gates sat in his tent. Arnold protested, and the dispute escalated into a Plan of battlefield of Saratoga, and views of John Neilson's house (which served as headquarters for shouting match that ended with Gates relieving Arnold of his Enoch Poor and Benedict Arnold) from south, command and giving it to Benjamin Lincoln. Arnold asked for a east and inside transfer to Washington's command, which Gates granted, but instead of leaving he remained in his tent.[43] There is no documentary evidence for a commonly recounted anecdote that a petition signed by line officers convinced Arnold to stay in camp.[44] During this period there were almost daily clashes between pickets and patrols of the two armies. Morgan's sharpshooters, familiar with the strategy and tactics of woodland warfare, constantly harassed British patrols on the western flank.[45] As September passed into October it became clear that Clinton was not coming to help Burgoyne, who put the army on short rations on October 3.[46] The next day, Burgoyne called a war council in which several options were discussed, but no conclusive decisions were made. When the council resumed the next day, Riedesel proposed retreat, in which he was supported by Fraser. Burgoyne refused to consider it, insisting that retreat would be disgraceful. They finally agreed to conduct an assault on the American left flank with two thousand men, more than one third of the army, on October 7.[47] The army he was attacking, however, had grown in the interval. In addition to the return of Lincoln's detachment, militiamen and supplies continued to pour into the American camp, including critical increases in ammunition, which had been severely depleted in the first battle.[48] The army Burgoyne faced on October 7 was more than 12,000 men strong[] and was led by a man who knew how much trouble Burgoyne was in. Gates had received consistent intelligence from the stream of deserters leaving the British lines, and had also intercepted Clinton's response to Burgoyne's plea for help.[49]

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Second Saratoga: Battle of Bemis Heights (October 7)
British foray
While Burgoyne's troop strength was nominally higher, he likely had only about 5,000 effective, battle-ready troops on October 7, as losses from the earlier battles in the campaign and desertions following the September 19 battle had reduced his forces.[50] General Riedesel advised that the army retreat. Burgoyne decided to reconnoiter the American left flank to see if an attack was possible. As escort the generals took Fraser's Advanced Corps, with light troops and the 24th Foot on the right and the combined British grenadiers on the left, and a force drawn from all the German regiments in the army in the centre. Benedict Arnold at Battle of Bemis Heights There were 8 British cannon under Major Williams and 2 Hesse-Hanau cannon under Captain Pausch.[51] Leaving their camp between 10 and 11 am, they advanced about three quarters of a mile (1 km) to Barber's wheat field on a rise above Mill Brook, where they stopped to observe the American position. While the field afforded some room for artillery to work, the flanks were dangerously close to the surrounding woods.[52] Gates, following the removal of Arnold from the field command, assumed command of the American left and gave the right to General Lincoln. When American scouts brought news of Burgoyne's movement to Gates, he ordered Morgan's riflemen out to the far left, with Poor's men (1st, 2nd, and 3rd New Hampshire on the left; the 2nd and 4th New York Regiments) on the right, and Learned's (1st New York, 1st Canadian, 2nd, 8th and 9th Massachusetts Regiments, plus militia companies) in the center. A force of 1,200 New York militia under Brigadier General Abraham Ten Broeck was held in reserve behind Learned's line.[53] In all, more than 8,000 Americans took the field that day,[54] including about 1,400 men from Lincoln's command that were deployed when the action became particularly fierce.[55] The opening fire came between 2 and 2:30 pm from the British grenadiers. Poor's men held their fire, and the terrain made the British shooting largely ineffective. When Major Acland led the British grenadiers in a bayonet charge, the Americans finally began shooting at close range. Acland fell, shot in both legs, and many of the grenadiers also went down. Their column was in a total rout, and Poor's men advanced to take Acland and Williams prisoner and capture their artillery.[56] On the American left, things were also not going well for the British. Morgan's men swept aside the Canadians and Indians to engage Fraser's regulars. Although slightly outnumbered, Morgan managed to break up several British attempts to move west.[56] While General Fraser was mortally wounded in this Artist's conception of Benedict Arnold, color phase of the battle,[57] a frequently told story claiming it to be the work of Timothy mezzotint by Thomas Murphy, one of Morgan's men, appears to be a 19th-century fabrication.[58] The felling of Hart Fraser and the arrival of Ten Broeck's large militia brigade (which roughly equalled the entire British reconnaissance force in size), broke the British will, and they began a disorganized retreat toward their entrenchments. Burgoyne was also very nearly killed by one of Morgan's marksmen; three shots hit his horse, hat and waistcoat.[59] The first phase of the battle lasted about one hour, and cost Burgoyne nearly 400 men, including the capture of most of the grenadiers' command, and six of the ten field pieces brought to the action.[59]

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American attack
At this point, the Americans were joined by an unexpected participant. General Arnold, who was "betraying great agitation and wrath" in the American camp, and may have been drinking, rode out to join the action.[60] [61] Gates immediately sent Major Armstrong after him with orders to return; Armstrong did not catch up with Arnold until the action was effectively over.[61] The defenses on the right side of the British camp were anchored by two redoubts. The outermost one was defended by about 300 men under the command of the Hessian Heinrich von Breymann, while the other was under the command of Lord Balcarres. A small contingent of Canadians occupied the ground between these two fortifications. Most of the retreating force headed for Balcarres' position, as Breymann's was slightly north and further away from the early action.[62]

Troop dispositions and initial movements at the Battle of Bemis Heights

Arnold led the American chase, and then led Poor's men in an attack on the Balcarres redoubt. Balcarres had set up his defenses well, and the redoubt was held, in action so fierce that Burgoyne afterwards wrote, "A more determined perseverance than they showed ... is not in any officer's experience".[63] Seeing that the advance was checked, and that Learned was preparing to attack the Breymann redoubt, Arnold moved toward that action, recklessly riding between the lines and remarkably emerging unhurt. He led the charge of Learned's men through the gap between the redoubts, which exposed the rear of Breymann's position, where Morgan's men had circled around from the far side.[64] In furious battle, the redoubt was taken and Breymann was killed.[65] Arnold's horse was hit in one of the final volleys, and Arnold's leg was broken by both shot and the falling horse. Major Armstrong finally caught up with Arnold to officially order him back to headquarters; he was carried back in a litter.[66] The capture of Breymann's redoubt exposed the British camp, but darkness was setting in. An attempt by some Germans to retake the redoubt ended in capture as darkness fell and an unreliable guide led them to the American line.[67]

Aftermath
Burgoyne lost 1,000 men in the two battles, leaving him outnumbered by roughly 3 to 1; American losses came to about 500 killed and wounded. Burgoyne had lost several of his most effective leaders, his attempts to capture the American position had failed, and his forward line was now breached. That night he lit fires at his remaining forward positions and withdrew under the cover of darkness. On the morning of October 8, he was back in the fortified positions he had held on September 16. By October 13 he was surrounded at Saratoga, and on October 17 he surrendered his army. The remnants of his expedition retreated from Ticonderoga back to Quebec.

Boot Monument, depicting Arnold's injured leg

Once news of Burgoyne's surrender reached France, King Louis XVI decided to enter into negotiations with the Americans that resulted in a formal Franco-American alliance and French entry into the war. This moved the conflict onto a global stage.[68] As a consequence, Britain was forced to divert resources used to fight the war in North America to theaters in the West Indies and Europe, and rely on what turned out to be the chimera of Loyalist support in its North American operations.[69] Burgoyne's failed campaign, as may be seen by the titles of some of the books that cover it in detail, marked a major turning point in the war.[70]

Battles of Saratoga In recognition of his contribution to the battles at Saratoga, General Arnold had his seniority restored (he had lost it after being passed over for promotion earlier in 1777).[71] His leg wound left Arnold bedridden for five months.[72] Later, while still unfit for field service but serving as military governor of Philadelphia, Arnold entered into treasonous correspondence with the British. He received command of the fort at West Point and plotted to hand it over to the British, only to flee into the British lines when the capture of his contact John Andre led to exposure of the plot. Arnold went on to serve under William Phillips, the commander of Burgoyne's right wing, in a 1781 expedition into Virginia.[73] General Gates received a great deal of credit as the commanding general for the greatest American victory of the war to date. He may have conspired with others to replace George Washington as the commander-in-chief.[74] Instead he received the command of the main American army in the South. He led it to a disastrous defeat at the 1780 Battle of Camden, where he was at the forefront of a panicked retreat.[75] [76] Gates never commanded troops in the field again. In response to Burgoyne's surrender, Congress declared December 18, 1777 as a national day "for solemn Thanksgiving and praise"; it was the nation's first official observance of a

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View of the battlefield from the visitor center of Saratoga National Historic Park

holiday with that name.[77]

Legacy
The battlefield and the site of Burgoyne's surrender have been preserved, and are now administered by the National Park Service as the Saratoga National Historical Park, which was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The park preserves a number of the buildings in the area, and contains a variety of monuments.[78] The Saratoga Monument obelisk has four niches, three of which hold statues of American generals: Gates and Schuyler and of Colonel Daniel Morgan. The fourth niche, where Arnold's statue would go, is Surrender of John BurgoyneGeneral Burgoyne on empty.[79] A more dramatic memorial to Arnold's heroism, that does Postage stamps and postal history of the United StatesUS Postage Stamp 1927 Issue not name him, is the Boot Monument. Donated by Civil War General John Watts de Peyster, it shows a boot with spurs and the stars of a major general. It stands at the spot where Arnold was shot on October 7 charging Breymann's redoubt, and is dedicated to "the most brilliant soldier of the Continental Army".[80]

References
[1] Springfield Armory (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ spar/ historyculture/ french-field_4pdr. htm) [2] Ketchum (1997), p. 348 [3] Ketchum (1997), p. 320 [4] Ketchum (1997), p. 332 [5] Nickerson (1967), p. 189 [6] Nickerson (1967), p. 265 [7] Nickerson (1967), pp. 290–295 [8] Nickerson (1967), p. 296 [9] Ketchum (1997), p. 337 [10] Ketchum (1997), pp. 52–53 [11] Nickerson (1967), p. 288 [12] Nickerson (1967), p. 180 [13] Nickerson (1967), p. 216 [14] Ketchum (1997), pp. 347–348 [15] Nickerson (1967), p. 299

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[16] Nickerson (1967), p. 300 [17] Ketchum (1997), pp. 351–352 [18] Ketchum (1997), pp. 352, 355 [19] Ketchum (1997), p. 357 [20] Ketchum (1997), p. 356 [21] Nickerson (1967), pp. 307–308 [22] Ketchum (1997), pp. 358–360 [23] Ketchum (1997), p. 360 [24] Nickerson (1967), p. 309 [25] Ketchum (1997), p. 362 [26] Luzader (2008), p. 240 [27] Nickerson (1967), p. 310 [28] Nickerson (1967), pp. 310–312 [29] Ketchum (1997), p. 367 [30] Luzader (2008), pp. 391–392 [31] Ketchum (1997), p. 368 [32] Ketchum (1997), pp. 368–369 [33] Nickerson (1967), p. 319 [34] Ketchum (1997), p. 515 [35] Luzader (2008), pp. 388–390, describes the relevant primary sources, and shows how early historians, including Lossing and Stone, gave rise to the story, and its propagation by later historians, including Nickerson. [36] Nickerson (1967), p. 343 [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] Ketchum (1997), pp. 375–376 Nickerson (1967), pp. 345–351 Nickerson (1967), p. 405 Ketchum (1997), p. 376 Ketchum (1997), pp. 377–379 Nickerson (1967), pp. 324–326 Ketchum (1997), pp. 385–388 Luzader (2008), p. 271 "Misfortunes of War". Charles Kuralt, narrator. The Revolutionary War. The Military Channel. 2009-07-03. Nickerson (1967), p. 333 Nickerson (1967), pp. 356–357 Nickerson (1967), p. 326–327 Nickerson (1967), p. 353 Nickerson (1967), p. 358 Bird pp223 Nickerson (1967), pp. 359–360 Nickerson (1967), p. 360 Luzader (2008), pp. 284–285 Luzader (2008), p. 286 Nickerson (1967), p. 361 Ketchum (1997), p. 400 Luzader (2008), p. xxii Nickerson (1967), p. 364 Luzader (2008), p. 285 Nickerson (1967), p. 362 Nickerson (1967), p. 365 Luzader (2008), p. 287 Luzader (2008), pp. 291–295 Nickerson (1967), p. 366 Nickerson (1967), p. 367 Nickerson (1967), p. 368 Ketchum (1997), pp. 405–448 Ketchum (1997), p. 447 See Ketchum, Morrissey, and Nickerson.

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[71] Randall (1990), p. 372 [72] Murphy (2007), p. 168 [73] Pancake (1985), pp. 147–151

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[74] [75] [76] [77] [78] [79] [80] Historic Society of Pennsylvania (1896), p. 90 Luzader (2008), p. xxiii Pancake (1985), pp. 106–107 Bennett (2008), p. 456 Saratoga National Historical Park Saratoga activities (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ sara/ s-act. htm) Saratoga National Historical Park Tour Stop 7

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Bibliography
• Bennett, William J; Cribb, John (2008). The American Patriot's Almanac. Thomas Nelson Inc. ISBN 9781595552679. • Historical Society of Pennsylvania (1896). The Pennsylvania magazine of history and biography, Volume 20 (http://books.google.com/books?id=Zfs7AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA90). Historical Society of Pennsylvania. OCLC 1762062. • Ketchum, Richard M (1997). Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 9780805061239. OCLC 41397623. (Paperback ISBN 0-8050-6123-1) • Luzader, John F. Saratoga: A Military History of the Decisive Campaign of the American Revolution. New York: Savas Beatie. ISBN 9781932714449. • Morrissey, Brendan (2000). Saratoga 1777: Turning Point of a Revolution. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781855328624. OCLC 43419003. • Murphy, Jim (2007). The Real Benedict Arnold. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780395776094. • Nickerson, Hoffman (1967 (first published 1928)). The Turning Point of the Revolution. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat. OCLC 549809. • Pancake, John (1985). This Destructive War. University of Alabama Press. ISBN 0817301917. • Randall, Willard Sterne (1990). Benedict Arnold: Patriot and Traitor. William Morrow and Inc. ISBN 1-55710-034-90. • "Saratoga National Historical Park" (http://www.nps.gov/sara/). National Park Service. Retrieved 2009-06-23. • "Saratoga National Historical Park – Tour Stop 7" (http://www.nps.gov/archive/sara/tour-7.htm). National Park Service. Retrieved 2009-06-23. • Bird, Harrison (1963). "March To Saratoga General Burgoyne And The American Campaign 1777" (http:// www.archive.org/stream/marchtosaratogag008320mbp/marchtosaratogag008320mbp_djvu.txt). New York Oxford University Press.

Further reading
• Creasy, Sir Edward (1908). The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o& d=106242918). • Furneaux, Rupert (1971). The Battle of Saratoga. New York: Stein and Day. • Mintz, Max M (1990). The Generals of Saratoga: John Burgoyne and Horatio Gates. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04778-9. • Patterson, Samuel White (1941). Horatio Gates: Defender of American Liberties (http://www.questia.com/PM. qst?a=o&d=100637218). Columbia University Press. • Savas, Theodore P; Dameron, J. David (2005). A Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution. Savas Beatie. ISBN 1-932714-12-X. • Ward, Christopher (1952). War of the Revolution, 2 Volumes. MacMillan.

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External links
• Saratoga: The Tide Turns on the Frontier, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan (http://www.nps.gov/history/NR/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/93saratoga/93saratoga.htm) • War Boardgame on the Battle of Saratoga (http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/3413) • Monument to Arnold's leg at Saratoga, from pbs.org (http://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty/popup_arnoldsleg. html) • Battle of Bemis' Heights, and Retreat of Burgoyne (http://www.generalatomic.com/AmericanHistory/ battle_of_bemis_heights.html) • Freeman's Farm at Britishbattles.com (http://www.britishbattles.com/battle-freemans-farm.htm) • Animated History of the Saratoga Campaign (http://www.revolutionarywaranimated.com/Saratoga/Saratoga. html) • Battle of Bemis Heights/Second Saratoga animated battle map (http://www.theartofbattle.com/ battle-of-saratoga-1777.htm) by Jonathan Webb Links to sites that discuss the Hessian soldiers—some with pictures • (http://members.tripod.com/~Silvie/Hessian.html), (http://naticklabs.org/brunswick.html), (http://www. publicbookshelf.com/public_html/The_Great_Republic_By_the_Master_Historians_Vol_II/namesofh_gb. html) • (http://britishbattles.com/battle-saratoga.htm)

Battle of Trenton
The Battle of Trenton took place on December 26, 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, after General George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River north of Trenton, New Jersey. The hazardous crossing in adverse weather made it possible for Washington to lead the main body of the Continental Army against Hessian soldiers garrisoned at Trenton. After a brief battle, nearly the entire Hessian force was captured, with negligible losses to the Americans. The battle significantly boosted the Continental Army's flagging morale, and inspired re-enlistments. The Continental Army had previously suffered several defeats in New York and had been forced to retreat through New Jersey to Pennsylvania. Morale in the army was low; to end the year on a positive note, George Washington—Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army—devised a plan to cross the Delaware River on Christmas night and surround the Hessian garrison. Because the river was icy and the weather severe, the crossing proved dangerous. Two detachments were unable to cross the river, leaving Washington and the 2,400 men under his command alone in the assault. The army marched 9 miles (14 km) south to Trenton. The Hessians had lowered their guard, thinking they were safe from the American army, and did not post a dawn sentry. After having a Christmas feast, they fell asleep. Washington's forces caught them off guard and, before the Hessians could resist, they were taken prisoner. Almost two thirds of the 1,500-man garrison was captured, and only a few troops escaped across Assunpink Creek. Despite the battle's small numbers, the American victory inspired rebels in the colonies. With the success of the revolution in doubt a week earlier, the army had seemed on the verge of collapse. The dramatic victory inspired soldiers to serve longer and attracted new recruits to the ranks.

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Background
In early December 1776, American morale was very low. The Americans had been ousted from New York by the British and their Hessian auxiliaries, and the Continental Army was forced to retreat across New Jersey. Ninety percent of the Continental Army soldiers who had served at Long Island were gone. Men had deserted, feeling that the cause for independence was lost. Washington, Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, expressed some doubts, writing to his cousin in Virginia, "I think the game is pretty near up."[1] At the time a small town in New Jersey, Trenton was occupied by three regiments of Hessian soldiers commanded by Colonel Johann Rall, numbering about 1,400 men. Washington's force comprised 2,400 men, with infantry divisions commanded by Major Generals Nathanael Greene and John Sullivan, and artillery under the direction of Brigadier General Henry Knox.[2]

Prelude
American plan
The American plan relied on launching coordinated attacks from three directions. General John Cadwalader would launch a diversionary attack against the British garrison at Bordentown, New Jersey, to block off reinforcements from the south. General James Ewing would take 700 militia across the river at Trenton Ferry, seize the bridge over the Assunpink Creek and prevent enemy troops from escaping. The main assault force of 2,400 men would cross the river 9 miles (14 km) north of Trenton and split into two groups – one under Greene and one under Sullivan – to launch a pre-dawn attack.[3] Sullivan would attack the town The American plan of attack under Washington from the south and Greene from the north.[4] Depending on the success of the operation, the Americans would possibly follow up with separate attacks on Princeton and New Brunswick.[5] During the week before the battle, American advance parties began to ambush enemy cavalry patrols, capturing dispatch riders and attacking Hessian pickets. The Hessian commander, to emphasize the danger to his men, sent 100 infantry and an artillery detachment to deliver a letter to the British commander at Princeton.[5] Washington ordered Ewing and his Pennsylvania militia to try to gain information on Hessian movements and designs.[6] Ewing instead made three successful raids across the river. On December 17 and 18 they attacked an outpost of jägers and on the 21st, they set fire to several houses.[6] Washington put constant watches on all possible crossings near the Continental Army encampment on the Delaware, as he believed William Howe would launch an attack from the north on Philadelphia if the river froze over.[7] On December 20, 2,000 troops led by General Sullivan arrived in Washington's camp.[8] They had been under the command of Charles Lee, and had been moving slowly through northern New Jersey when Lee was captured. That same day, an additional 800 troops arrived from Fort Ticonderoga under the command of Horatio Gates.[8]

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Hessian moves
On December 14, the Hessians arrived in Trenton to establish their winter quarters.[9] At the time, Trenton was a small town with about 100 houses and two main streets, King (now Warren) Street and Queen (now Broad) Street.[10] Carl von Donop, Rall's superior, had marched south to Mount Holly on December 22 to deal with the resistance in New Jersey, and had clashed with some New Jersey militia there on December 23.[11] Donop, who despised Rall, was reluctant to give command of Trenton to him.[12] Known to be loud, The Hessian Sketch of the Battle of Trenton Rall was unacquainted with the English language,[12] but he was also a 36-year soldier with a great deal of battle experience. His request for reinforcements had been turned down by British commander General James Grant, who disdained the American rebels and thought them poor soldiers. Despite Rall's experience, the Hessians at Trenton did not admire their commander.[13] They believed that he was too nice, and not ruthless enough to be successful.[13] His officers complained, "His love of life was too great, a thought came to him, then another, so he could not settle on a firm decision ..."[14] Rall avoided hard work and had little concern for his troops' comfort.[14] Trenton lacked city walls or fortifications, which was typical of American settlements.[15] Some Hessian officers advised Rall to fortify the town, and two of his engineers advised that a redoubt be constructed at the upper end of town, and fortifications be built along the river.[15] The engineers went so far as to draw up plans, but Rall disagreed with them.[15] When Rall was again urged to fortify the town, he replied, "Let them come ... We will go at them with the bayonet."[15] As Christmas approached, Loyalists came to Trenton to report the Americans were planning action.[1] American deserters told the Hessians that rations were being prepared for an advance across the river. Rall publicly dismissed such talk as nonsense, but privately in letters to his superiors, he said he was worried about an imminent attack.[1] He wrote to Donop that he was "liable to be attacked at any moment". Rall said that Trenton was "indefensible" and asked that British troops establish a garrison in Maidenhead (now Lawrenceville). Close to Trenton, this would help defend the roads from Americans. His request was denied.[16] As the Americans disrupted Hessian supply lines, the officers started to share Rall's fears. One wrote, "We have not slept one night in peace since we came to this place."[17] On December 22, a spy reported to Grant that Washington had called a council of war; Grant told Rall to "be on your guard".[18] The main Hessian force of 1,500 men was divided into three regiments: Knyphausen, Lossberg and Rall. That night, they did not send out any patrols because of the severe weather.[19]

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Crossing and march
Before Washington and his troops left, Benjamin Rush came to cheer up the General. While he was there, he saw a note Washington had written, saying, "Victory or Death".[17] Those words would be the password for the surprise attack.[20] Each soldier carried 60 rounds of ammunition, and three days of rations.[21] When the army arrived at the shores of the Delaware, they were already behind schedule, and clouds began to form above them.[22] It began to rain. As the air's temperature dropped, the rain changed to sleet, and then to snow.[22] The Americans began to cross the river, with John Glover in command. The men went Passage of the Delaware, painting by American Thomas Sully, 1819 across in Durham boats, while the horses and artillery went across on large ferries.[23] The 14th Continental Regiment of Glover manned the boats. During the crossing, several men fell overboard, including Colonel John Haslet. Haslet was quickly pulled out of the water. No one died during the crossing, and all the artillery pieces made it over in good condition.[24] Two small detachments of infantry of about 40 men each were ordered ahead of main columns.[25] They set roadblocks ahead of the main army, and were to take prisoner whoever came in to or left the town.[25] One of the groups was sent north of Trenton, and the other was sent to block River Road, which ran along the Delaware River to Trenton.[26] The terrible weather conditions delayed the landings in New Jersey until 3:00 am; the plan was that they were supposed to be completed by 12:00 am. Washington realized it would be impossible to launch a pre-dawn attack. Another setback occurred for the Americans, as generals Cadwalader and Ewing were unable to join the attack due to the weather conditions.[3] At 4:00 am, the soldiers began to march towards Trenton.[27] Along the way, several civilians joined as volunteers, and led as guides (see Captain John Mott) because of their knowledge of the terrain.[28] After marching 1.5 miles (2 km) through winding roads into the wind, they reached Bear Tavern where they turned right.[29] The ground was slippery, but it was level, making it easier for the horses and artillery. They began to make better time.[29] They soon reached Jacob's Creek, where, with difficulty, the Americans made it across.[30] The two groups stayed together until they reached Birmingham, where they split apart.[4] Soon after, they reached the house of Benjamin Moore, where the family offered food and drink to Washington.[31] At this point, the first signs of daylight began to appear.[31] Many of the troops did not have boots, so they were forced to wear rags around their feet. Some of the men's feet bled, turning the snow to a dark red. Two men died on the trip.[32] As they marched, Washington rode up and down the line, encouraging the men to continue.[23] General Sullivan sent a courier to tell Washington that the weather was wetting his men's gunpowder. Washington responded, "Tell General Sullivan to use the bayonet. I am resolved to take Trenton."[33] About 2 miles (3 km) outside the town, the main columns reunited with the advance parties.[34] They were startled by the sudden appearance of 50 armed men, but they were American. Led by Adam Stephen, they had not known about the plan to attack Trenton, and had attacked a Hessian outpost.[35] Washington feared the Hessians would have been put on guard, and shouted at Stephen, "You sir! You Sir, may have ruined all my plans by having them put on their guard."[35] Despite this, Washington ordered the advance continue to Trenton. In the event, Rall thought the first raid was the attack which Grant had warned him about, and that there would be no further action that day.[36]

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Battle
American attack
At about 8 am, the outpost was set up by the Hessians at a cooper shop on Pennington Road about one mile north-west of Trenton. Washington led the assault, riding in front of his soldiers.[37] As the Hessian commander of the outpost, Lieutenant Andreas von Wiederholdt, left the shop, an American fired at him.[37] Wiederholdt shouted, "Der Feind!" (The Enemy!) and other Hessians came out.[38] The Americans fired three volleys and the Hessians returned one of their own.[37] Washington ordered Edward Hand's Pennsylvania Riflemen and a battalion of German-speaking infantry to block the road that led to Princeton. They attacked the Hessian outpost there.[38] Wiederholdt soon realized that this was The Battle of Trenton, December 26, 1776 more than a raiding party; seeing other Hessians retreating from the outpost, he led his men to do the same. Both Hessian detachments made organized retreats, firing as they fell back.[38] On the high ground at the north end of Trenton, they were joined by a duty company from the Lossberg Regiment.[38] They engaged the Americans, retreating slowly, keeping up continuous fire and using houses for cover.[39] Once in Trenton, they gained covering fire from other Hessian guard companies on the outskirts of the town. Another guard company nearer to the Delaware River rushed east to their aid, leaving open the River Road into Trenton. Washington ordered the escape route to Princeton be cut off, sending infantry in battle formation to block it, while artillery formed at the head of King and Queen streets.[40] Leading the southern American column, General Sullivan entered Trenton by the abandoned river road and blocked the only crossing over the Assunpink Creek to cut off the Hessian escape.[41] Sullivan briefly held up his advance to make sure Greene's division had time to drive the Hessians from their outposts in the north.[41] Soon after, they continued their advance, attacking the Hermitage, home of Philemon Dickinson, where 50 Jägers under the command of Lieutenant von Grothausen were stationed.[41] Lieutenant von Grothausen brought 12 of his Jägers into action against the advanced guard, but had only advanced a few hundred yards when he saw a column of Americans advancing to the Hermitage.[41] Pulling back to the Hessian barracks, he was joined by the rest of the Jägers. After the exchange of one volley, they turned and ran, some trying to swim across the creek, while others escaped over the bridge, which had not yet been cut off. The 20 British Dragoons also fled.[41] As Greene and Sullivan's columns pushed into the town, Washington moved to high ground north of King and Queens streets to see the action and direct his troops.[42] By this time, American artillery from the other side of the Delaware River came into action, devastating the Hessian positions.[43] With the sounding alarm, the three Hessian regiments began to prepare for battle.[44] The Rall regiment formed on lower King Street along with the Lossberg Regiment, while the Knyphausen Regiment formed at the lower end of Queen Street.[44] Lieutenant Piel, Rall's brigade adjutant, woke his commander, who found that the rebels had taken the "V" of the main streets of the town. This is where the engineers had recommended building a redoubt. Rall ordered his regiment to form up at the lower end of King Street, the Lossberg regiment to prepare for an advance up

Battle of Trenton Queen Street, and the Knyphausen regiment to stand by as a reserve for Rall's advance up King Street.[41] The American cannon stationed at the head of the two main streets soon came into action. In reply, Rall directed his regiment, supported by a few companies of the Lossberg regiment, to clear the guns.[45] The Hessians formed ranks and began to advance up the street, but their formations were quickly broken by the American guns and fire from Mercer's men who had taken houses on the left side of the street.[45] Breaking ranks, the Hessians fled. Rall ordered two three-pound cannon into action. After getting off six rounds each, within just a few minutes, half of the Hessians' manning their guns were killed by American cannon.[45] After the men fled to cover behind houses and fences, their cannon were taken by the Americans.[46] Following capture of the cannon, men under the command of George Weedon advanced down King Street.[41] On Queen Street, all Hessian attempts to advance up the street were repulsed by guns under the command of Thomas Forrest. After firing four rounds each, two more Hessian guns were silenced. One of Forrest's Howitzers was put out of action with a broken axle.[41] The Knyphausen Regiment became separated from the Lossberg and the Rall regiments. The Lossberg and the Rall fell back to a field outside town, taking heavy losses from grapeshot and musket fire. In the southern part of the town, Americans under command of Sullivan began to overwhelm the Hessians. John Stark led a bayonet charge at the Knyphausen regiment, whose resistance broke because their weapons would not fire. Sullivan led a column of men to block off escape of troops across the creek.[46]

219

Hessian resistance collapses
The Hessians in the field attempted to reorganize, and make one last attempt to retake the town so they could make a breakout.[47] Rall decided to attack the American flank on the heights north of the town.[48] Rall yelled "Forward! Advance! Advance!", and the Hessians began to move, with the brigade's band playing fifes, bugles and drums to help the Hessians' spirit.[48] [49] Washington, still on high ground, saw the Hessians approaching the American flank. He moved his troops to assume battle formation against the enemy.[48] The two Hessian Regiments began marching toward King Street, but were caught in American fire that came at them from three directions.[48] Some Americans had taken up defensive positions inside houses, reducing their exposure. Some civilians joined the fight against the Hessians.[50] Despite this, they continued to push, recapturing their cannon. At the head of King Street, Knox saw the Hessians had retaken the cannon and ordered his troops to take them. Six men ran and, after a brief struggle, seized the cannon, turning them on the Hessians.[51] With most of the Hessians unable to fire their guns, the attack stalled. The Hessians' formations broke, and they began to scatter.[50] Rall was mortally wounded.[52] Washington led his troops down from high ground while yelling, "March on, my brave fellows, after me!"[50] Most of the Hessians retreated into an orchard, with the Americans in close pursuit. Quickly surrounded,[53] the Hessians were offered, and agreed, to surrender. Although ordered to join Rall, the remains of the Knyphausen Regiment mistakenly marched in the opposite direction.[53] They tried to escape across the bridge, but found it had been taken. The Americans quickly swept in, defeating a Hessian attempt to break through their lines. Surrounded by Sullivan's men, the regiment surrendered, just minutes after the rest of the brigade.[54]

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Casualties
The Hessian forces suffered 22 fatalities, 83 serious injuries, and 896 captures. The Americans suffered only two fatalities and five injuries from war wounds. Including American soldiers who died of exhaustion, exposure, and illness in the following days, total American fatalities from the expedition may have been higher than those of the Hessians.[55] The captured Hessians were sent to Philadelphia and later Lancaster. In 1777 they were moved to Virginia.[56] Rall was mortally wounded and died later that day at his headquarters. All four Hessian colonels in Trenton were killed in the battle. The Lossberg George Washington at the Battle of Trenton engraving by the Illman Brothers in 1870 regiment was effectively removed from the British forces. Parts of the Knyphausen regiment escaped to the south, but Sullivan captured some 200 additional men, along with the regiment's cannons and supplies. Also captured were approximately 1,000 arms and some much-needed ammunition.[57]

Myths
Popular history portrayed the Hessians as having been drunk from Christmas celebrations. An officer in Washington's staff wrote before the battle, "They make a great deal of Christmas in Germany, and no doubt the Hessians will drink a great deal of beer and have a dance to-night. They will be sleepy to-morrow morning."[58] However, historian David Hackett Fischer said, "It wasn't so." He points out that an American soldier John Greenwood, who fought in the battle and supervised Hessians afterward, said, "I am certain not a drop of liquor was drunk during the whole night, nor, as I could see, even a piece of bread eaten."[59] Military historian Edward G. Lengel said, "The Germans were dazed and tired but there is no truth to the legend claiming that they were helplessly drunk."[60]

Effects
Following the surrender of the Hessians, Washington is reported to have grabbed the hand of a young officer and said "This is a glorious day for our country."[61] He soon learned that Cadwalader and Ewing had been unable to make the crossing, leaving his worn-out army of 2,400 men isolated.[62] Without their 2,600 men, Washington realized he did not have the forces to attack Princeton and New Brunswick.[62] This small but decisive battle, as with the later Battle of Cowpens, had an effect disproportionate to its size. The colonial effort was galvanized, and the Americans overturned the psychological dominance achieved by the British Government troops in the previous months. Howe was stunned by the Hessian garrison's being so easily surprised and overwhelmed.[54] Fischer argues the changing attitudes were buoyed more by writings of Thomas Paine and additional successful actions by the New Jersey Militia than they were by the Battle of Trenton.[63]

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Aftermath and legacy
By noon, Washington's force had moved across the Delaware back into Pennsylvania, taking their prisoners and captured supplies with them.[62] This battle gave the Continental Congress a new confidence, as it proved colonial forces could defeat regulars. It also increased re-enlistments in the Continental Army forces. By defeating a European army, the colonials reduced the fear which the Hessians had caused earlier that year after the fighting in New York.[47] Two notable American officers were Capture of the Hessians at Trenton, by John Trumbull wounded: William Washington, cousin of the General, and Lieutenant James Monroe, the future President of the United States. Monroe was carried from the field bleeding badly after he was struck in the left shoulder by a musket ball, which severed an artery. Doctor John Riker clamped the artery, preventing him from bleeding to death.[51] The hours before the battle served as the inspiration for the painting Washington Crossing the Delaware by German American artist Emanuel Leutze. The image in the painting, in which Washington stands majestic in his boat as it crosses the Delaware River, is generally believed to be more symbolic than historically accurate. The waters of the river were icy and treacherous, and the flag Monroe holds was not created until six months after the battle.[64] In addition, contrary to the painting, the crossing occurred before dawn.[64] On the other hand, Fischer argues that because the crossing took place in a storm, people may have stood to avoid sitting in icy water in the boats.[65] Because of its emotional content, the painting has become an icon of American history.[64] The Trenton Battle Monument, erected at "Five Points" in Trenton, stands as a tribute to this American victory.[66] The crossing of the Delaware and battle are reenacted by local enthusiasts every year (unless the weather is too severe on the river).[64]

In popular culture
• The A&E movie The Crossing (2000), starring Jeff Daniels as General Washington, shows events from the crossing through the battle. • The book To Try Men's Souls, by Newt Gingrich covers the crossing through the battle from several different character perspectives. • The rapper Astronautalis wrote the song "Trouble Hunters" as an anthem to the Battle of Trenton.[67]

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Footnotes
[1] Ketchum p.235 [2] Stanhope p.129 [3] Brooks p.56 [4] Savas p.84 [5] Brooks p.55 [6] Fischer p.195 [7] Ketchum p.242 [8] Savas p.83 [9] Fischer p.188 [10] Ketchum p.233 [11] Rosenfeld p.177 [12] Ketchum p.229 [13] Lengel p.183 [14] Lengel p.185 [15] Fischer p.189 [16] Fishcer p.197 [17] Ketchum p.236 [18] Fischer p.203 [19] Wood p.65 [20] McCullough p.273 [21] McCullough p.274 [22] Fischer p.212 [23] Ferling p.176 [24] Fischer p.219 [25] Fishcer p.221 [26] Fischer p.222 [27] Fischer p.223 [28] Fischer p.225 [29] Fischer p.226 [30] Fischer p.227 [31] Fischer p.228 [32] Scheer p.215 [33] Kevin Wright. "The Crossing And Battle At Trenton - 1776" (http:/ / www. bergencountyhistory. org/ Pages/ crossingatdtrenton. html). Bergen County Historical Society. . Retrieved 2008-08-14. [34] Fischer p.231 [35] Fischer p.232 [36] McCullough p.279 [37] Fischer p.235 [38] Fischer p.237 [39] Ketchum p.255 [40] Ketchum p.256 [41] Wood p.68 [42] McCullough p.280 [43] Fischer p.239 [44] Fischer p.240 [45] Wood p.70 [46] Wood p.71 [47] Wood p.72 [48] Fischer p.246 [49] Ketchum p.262 [50] Fischer p.249 [51] Fischer p.247 [52] Fischer p.248 [53] Fischer p.251 [54] Wood p.74 [55] Fischer p.255 [56] Fischer p.379

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[57] Mitchell p.43 [58] http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ cu31924086860784/ cu31924086860784_djvu. txt| Stryker p.361 [59] Fischer p.426 [60] Lengel p.186 [61] Ferling p.178 [62] Wood p.75 [63] Fischer p.143 [64] "What's wrong with this painting?" (http:/ / www. ushistory. org/ washingtoncrossing/ history/ whatswrong. htm). Washington Crossing Historic Park. . Retrieved 2008-08-14. [65] Fischer p.216 [66] Burt p.439 [67] "Planting the Seeds: An Interview with Astronautalis" (http:/ / www. thefastertimes. com/ hiphop/ 2010/ 08/ 18/ planting-the-seeds-an-interview-with-astronautalis/ ), The Faster Times, August 18, 2010, accessed September 6, 2011.

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References
• Brooks, Victor (1999). How America Fought Its Wars. New York: De Capo Press. ISBN 1580970028. • Burt, Daniel S. (2001). The Biography Book. New York: Oryx Press. ISBN 1573562564. • Elson, William Henry (1908). History of the United States of America (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Bn0QAAAAYAAJ). Macmillan. • Ferling, John (2007). Almost a Miracle. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195181212. • Fischer, David Hackett (2006). Washington's Crossing. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195170342. • Ketchum, Richard (1999). The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton. Holt Paperbacks; 1st Owl books ed edition. ISBN 0805060987. • Lengel, Edward (2005). General George Washington. New York: Random House Paperbacks. ISBN 0812969502. • McCullough, David (2006). 1776 (http://books.google.com/books?id=R1Jk-A4R5AYC&dq=1776+David). New York: Simon and Schuster Paperback. ISBN 0743226720. • Mitchell, Craig (2003). George Washington's New Jersey (http://books.google.com/ books?id=7VgXM1w0e80C&dq=George+Washington's+New+Jersey). Middle Atlantic Press. ISBN 097058041X. • Rosenfeld, Lucy (2007). George Washington's New Jersey. Rutgers. ISBN 0813539692. • Savas, Theodore (2003). Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution (http://books.google.com/ books?id=bv1YAAAACAAJ&dq=Guide+to+the+Battles+of+the+American+Revolution). Savas Beatie. ISBN 193271412X. • Scheer, George (1987). Rebels and Redcoats (http://books.google.com/books?id=ROz4g9_bspAC& dq=Rebels+and+Redcoats). Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306803070. • Stanhope, Phillip Henry (1854). History of England: From the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles. GB, Murray. • Wood, W.J Henry (2003). Battles Of The Revolutionary War (http://books.google.com/ books?id=WnJr_IpqunoC&dq=Battles+Of+The+Revolutionary+War+henry+wood). Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306813297.

Battle of Valcour Island

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Battle of Valcour Island
The naval Battle of Valcour Island, also known as the Battle of Valcour Bay, took place on October 11, 1776, on Lake Champlain. The main action took place in Valcour Bay, a narrow strait between the New York mainland and Valcour Island. The battle is generally regarded as one of the first naval battles of the American Revolutionary War, and one of the first fought by the United States Navy. Most of the ships in the American fleet under the command of Benedict Arnold were captured or destroyed by a British force under the overall direction of General Guy Carleton. The American defense of Lake Champlain stalled British plans to reach the upper Hudson River valley. The Continental Army had retreated from Quebec to Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown Point in June 1776 after British forces were massively reinforced. They spent the summer of 1776 fortifying those forts, and building additional ships to augment the small American fleet already on the lake. General Carleton had a 9,000 man army at Fort Saint-Jean, but needed to build a fleet to carry it on the lake. The Americans, during their retreat, had either taken or destroyed most of the ships on the lake. By early October, the British fleet, which significantly outgunned the American fleet, was ready for launch. On October 11, Arnold drew the British fleet to a position he had carefully chosen to limit their advantages. In the battle that followed, many of the American ships were damaged or destroyed. That night, Arnold sneaked the American fleet past the British one, beginning a retreat toward Crown Point and Ticonderoga. Unfavorable weather hampered the American retreat, and more of the fleet was either captured or grounded and burned before it could reach Crown Point. Upon reaching Crown Point Arnold had the fort's buildings burned and retreated to Ticonderoga. The British fleet included four officers who later became admirals in the Royal Navy: Thomas Pringle, James Dacres, Edward Pellew and John Schank. Valcour Bay, the site of the battle, is now a National Historic Landmark, as is USS Philadelphia, which sank shortly after the October 11 battle, and was raised in 1935. The underwater site of USS Spitfire, located in 1997, is on the National Register of Historic Places.

Background
The American Revolutionary War, which began in April 1775 with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, widened in September 1775 when the Continental Army embarked on an invasion of the British Province of Quebec. The province was viewed by the Second Continental Congress as a potential avenue for British forces to attack and divide the rebellious colonies, and was at the time lightly defended. The invasion reached a peak on December 31, 1775, when the Battle of Quebec ended in disaster for the Americans. In the spring of 1776, 10,000 British and German troops arrived in Quebec, and General Guy Carleton, the provincial governor, drove the Continental Army out of Quebec and back to Fort Ticonderoga.[1]
Quebec's Governor, General Guy Carleton then launched his own offensive intended to reach the Hudson River, Carleton whose navigable length begins south of Lake Champlain and extends down to New York City. Control of the upper Hudson would enable the British to link their forces in Quebec with those in New York, recently captured in the New York campaign by Major General William Howe. This strategy would separate the American colonies of New England from those further south and potentially quash the rebellion.[2] Lake Champlain, a long and relatively narrow lake formed by the action of glaciers during the last ice age, separates the Green Mountains of Vermont from the Adirondack Mountains of New York. Its 120-mile (190 km) length and 12-mile (19 km) maximum width creates more than 550 miles (890 km) of shoreline,

Battle of Valcour Island with many bays, inlets and promontories. More than 70 islands dot the 435-square-mile (1130 km2) surface, although during periods of low and high water, these numbers can change. The lake is relatively shallow, with an average depth of 64 feet (20 m).[3] Running roughly from south to north, the lake's waters empty into the Richelieu River, where waterfalls at Saint-Jean in Quebec mark the northernmost point of navigation.[4] The American strongholds of Fort Crown Point and Fort Ticonderoga near the lake's southern end protected access to uppermost navigable reaches of the Hudson River. Elimination of these defenses required the transportation of troops and supplies from the British-controlled St. Lawrence Valley 90 miles (150 km) to the north. Roads were either impassable or nonexistent, making water transport on the lake the only viable option.[5] The only ships on the lake following the American retreat from Quebec were a small fleet of lightly armed ships that Benedict Arnold had assembled following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775. This fleet, even if it had been in British hands, was too small to transport the large British army to Fort Ticonderoga.[6]

225

Prelude
During their retreat from Quebec, the Americans carefully took or destroyed all ships on Lake Champlain that might prove useful to the British. When Arnold and his troops, making up the rear guard of the army, abandoned Fort Saint-Jean, they burned or sank all the boats they could not use, and set fire to the sawmill and the fort. These actions effectively denied the British any hope of immediately moving onto the lake.[7] The two sides set about building fleets: the British at Saint-Jean and the Americans at the other end of the lake in Skenesborough (present-day Whitehall, New York). While planning Quebec's defenses in 1775, General Carleton had anticipated the problem of transportation on Lake Champlain, and had requested the provisioning of Detail of a 1777 French map showing Lake Champlain. prefabricated ships from Europe. By the time Carleton's army reached Saint-Jean, ten Valcour Island is below and to such ships had arrived. These ships and more were assembled by skilled shipwrights the left of La Grand Isle. on the upper Richelieu River. Also assembled there was HMS Inflexible, a 180-ton warship they disassembled at Quebec City and transported upriver in pieces.[8] [9] In total, the British fleet (25 armed vessels) had more firepower than the Americans' 15 vessels, with more than 80 guns outweighing the 74 smaller American guns.[10] [11] Two of Carleton's ships, Inflexible (18 12-pounders) and HMS Thunderer (six 24-pound guns, six 12-pound guns, and two howitzers), by themselves outgunned the combined firepower of the American fleet.[12] In addition to Inflexible and Thunderer, the fleet included the schooners Maria (14 guns), Carleton (12 guns), and Loyal Convert (6 guns), and 20 single-masted gunboats each armed with two cannons.[8] [11] The American generals leading their shipbuilding effort encountered a variety of challenges. Shipwright was not a common occupation in the relative wilderness of upstate New York, and the Continental Navy had to pay extremely high wages to lure skilled craftsmen away from the coast. The carpenters hired to build boats on Lake Champlain were the best-paid employees of the navy, excepting only the Navy's Commodore, Esek Hopkins.[13] By the end of July there were more than 200 shipwrights at Skenesborough.[14] In addition to skilled help, materials and supplies specific to maritime use needed to be brought to Skenesborough, where the ships were constructed, or Fort Ticonderoga, where they were fitted out for use.[15] The shipbuilding at Skenesborough was overseen by Hermanus Schuyler (possibly a relation of Major General Philip Schuyler), and the outfitting was managed by military engineer Jeduthan Baldwin. Schuyler began work in April to

Battle of Valcour Island produce boats larger and more suitable for combat than the small shallow-draft boats known as bateaux that were used for transport on the lake. The process eventually came to involve General Arnold, who was an experienced ship's captain, and David Waterbury, a Connecticut militia leader with maritime experience. Major General Horatio Gates, in charge of the entire shipbuilding effort, eventually asked Arnold to take more responsibility in the effort, because "I am intirely uninform'd as to Marine Affairs."[16] Arnold took up the task with relish, and Gates rewarded him with command of the fleet, writing that "[Arnold] has a perfect knowledge in maritime affairs, and is, besides, a most gallant and deserving officer."[17] Arnold's appointment was not without trouble; Jacobus Wynkoop, who had been in command of the fleet, refused to accept that Gates had authority over him, and had to be arrested.[18] The shipbuilding was significantly slowed in mid-August by an outbreak of disease among the shipwrights. Although the army leadership had been scrupulous about keeping smallpox sufferers segregated from others, the disease that slowed the shipbuilding for several weeks was some kind of fever.[19] While both sides busied themselves with shipbuilding, the growing American fleet patrolled the waters of Lake Champlain. At one point in August, Arnold sailed part of the fleet to the northern-most end of the lake, within 20 miles (32 km) of Saint-Jean, and formed a battle line. A British outpost, well out of range, fired a few shots at the line without effect. On September 30, expecting the British to sail soon, Arnold retreated to the shelter of Valcour Island.[20] During his patrols of the lake Arnold had commanded the fleet from the schooner Royal Savage, carrying 12 guns and captained by David Hawley. When it came time for the battle, Arnold transferred his flag to Congress, a row galley. Other ships in the fleet included Revenge and Liberty, also two-masted schooners carrying 8 guns, as well as Enterprise, a sloop (12 guns), and 8 gundalows outfitted as gunboats (each with three guns): New Haven, Providence, Boston, Spitfire, Philadelphia, Connecticut, Jersey, New York, the cutter Lee, and the row galleys Trumbull and Washington. Liberty was not present at the battle, having been sent to Ticonderoga for provisions.[21]
[22] [23]

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Arnold, whose business activities before the war had included sailing ships to Europe and the West Indies, carefully chose the site where he wanted to meet the British fleet.[24] Reliable intelligence he received on October 1 indicated that the British had a force significantly more powerful than his.[25] Because his force was inferior, he chose the narrow, rocky body of water between the western shore of Lake Champlain and Valcour Island (near modern Plattsburgh, New York), where the British fleet would have difficulty bringing its superior firepower to bear, and where the inferior seamanship of his relatively unskilled sailors would have a minimal negative effect.[26] Some of Arnold's captains wanted to fight in open waters where they might be able to retreat to the shelter of Fort Crown Point, but Arnold argued that the primary purpose of the fleet was not survival but the delay of a British advance on Crown Point and Ticonderoga.[27]

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227

Battle
Carleton's fleet, commanded by Captain Thomas Pringle and including 50 unarmed support vessels, sailed onto Lake Champlain on October 9.[28] They cautiously advanced southward, searching for signs of Arnold's fleet. On the night of October 10, the fleet anchored about 15 miles (24 km) to the north of Arnold's position, still unaware of his location.[26] The next day, they continued to sail south, assisted by favorable winds. After they passed the northern tip of Valcour Island, Arnold sent out Congress and Royal Savage to draw the attention of the British. Following an inconsequential exchange of fire with the British, the two ships tried to return to Arnold's crescent-shaped firing line. However, Royal Savage was unable to fight the headwinds, and ran aground on the southern tip of Valcour Island.[29] Some of the British gunboats swarmed toward her, as Captain Hawley and his men hastily abandoned ship. Men from Detail from the map shown below highlighting the scene of the the HMS Loyal Convert boarded her, capturing 20 men action in the process, but were then forced to abandon her under heavy fire from the Americans.[30] Many of Arnold's papers were lost with the destruction of Royal Savage, which was burned by the British.[29] [31] The British gunboats and Carleton then maneuvered within range of the American line. Thunderer and HMS Maria were unable to make headway against the winds, and did not participate in the battle, while Inflexible eventually came far enough up the strait to participate in the action. Around 12:30 pm, the battle began in earnest, with both sides firing broadsides and cannonades at each other, and continued all afternoon. Revenge was heavily hit; Philadelphia was also heavily damaged and eventually sank around 6:30 pm. Carleton, 1776 map of Northern Lake Champlain; detail shown above is whose guns wrought havoc against the smaller American outlined in red. gundalows, became a focus of attention. A lucky shot eventually snapped the line holding her broadside in position, and she was seriously damaged before she could be towed out of range of the American line. Her casualties were significant; eight men were killed and another eight wounded.[32] The young Edward Pellew, serving as a midshipman aboard Carleton, distinguished himself by ably commanding the vessel to safety when its senior officers, including its captain, Lieutenant James Dacres, were injured.[33] Another lucky American shot hit a British gunboat's magazine and the vessel exploded.[34] Toward sunset, Inflexible finally reached the action. Her big guns quickly silenced most of Arnold's fleet. The British also began landing Indians on both Valcour Island and the lakeshore, in order to deny the Americans the possibility of retreating to land. As darkness fell, the American fleet retreated, and the British called off the attack, in part because some boats had run out of ammunition.[34] Lieutenant James Hadden, commanding one of the British gunboats, noted that "little more than one third of the British Fleet" saw much action that day.[31]

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228

Retreat
When the sun set on October 11, the battle had clearly gone against the Americans. Most of the American ships were damaged or sinking, and the crews reported around 60 casualties.[34] The British reported around 40 casualties on their ships.[] Aware that he could not defeat the British fleet, Arnold decided to try reaching the cover of Fort Crown Point, about 35 miles (56 km) to the south. Under the cover of a dark and foggy night, the fleet, with muffled oars and minimal illumination, threaded its way through a gap about one mile (1.6 km) wide between the British ships and the western shore, where Indian campfires burned.[35] By morning, they had reached Schuyler Island, about 8 miles (13 km) up the lake. Carleton, upset that the Americans had escaped him, immediately sent his fleet around Valcour Island to find them. Realizing the Americans were not there, he regrouped his fleet and sent scouts to find Arnold.[36] Adverse winds as well as damaged and leaky boats slowed the American fleet's progress. At Schuyler Island, Providence and Jersey were sunk or burned, and crude repairs were effected to other vessels.[37] The cutter Lee was also abandoned on the western shore and eventually taken by the British.[38] Around 2:00 pm, the fleet sailed again, trying to make headway against biting winds, rain, and sleet. By the following morning, the ships were still more than 20 miles (32 km) from Crown Point, and the British fleet's masts were visible on the horizon. When the wind finally changed, the British had its advantage first. They closed once again, opening fire on Congress and Washington, which were in the rear of the American fleet. Arnold first decided to attempt grounding the slower gunboats at Split Rock, 18 miles (29 km) short of Crown Point. Washington, however, was too badly damaged and too slow to make it, and she was forced to strike her colors and surrender; 110 men were taken prisoner.[37] Arnold then led many of the remaining smaller craft into Buttonmold Bay, where the waters were too shallow for the larger British vessels to follow. These boats were then run aground, stripped, and set on fire, with their flags still flying. Arnold, the last to land, personally torched his flagship Congress.[39] The surviving ships' crews, numbering about 200, then made their way overland to Crown Point, narrowly escaping an Indian ambush. There they found Trumbull, New York, Enterprise, and Revenge, all of which had escaped the British fleet, as well as Liberty, which had just arrived with supplies from Ticonderoga.[40]

Aftermath
Arnold, convinced that Crown Point was no longer viable as a point of defense against the large British force, destroyed and abandoned the fort, moving the Benedict Arnold forces stationed there to Ticonderoga. General Carleton, rather than shipping his prisoners back to Quebec, returned them to Ticonderoga under a flag of truce. On their arrival, the released men were so effusive in their praise of Carleton that they were sent home to prevent the desertion of other troops.[] With control of the lake, the British landed troops and occupied Crown Point the next day.[40] They remained for two weeks, pushing scouting parties to within three miles (4.8 km) of Ticonderoga.[41] The season was late for the first snow began to fall on October 20, and his supply line would be difficult to manage in winter, so Carleton decided to withdraw north to winter quarters. Baron Riedesel, commanding the Hessians in Carleton's army, noted that, "If we could have begun our expedition four weeks earlier, I am satisfied that everything could have ended this year."[42] The captains of Maria, Inflexible, and Loyal Convert wrote a letter criticizing Captain Pringle for making Arnold's escape possible by failing to properly blockade the channel, and for not being more aggressive in directing the battle. Apparently the letter did not cause any career problems for Pringle or its authors; he and John Schank, captain of the Inflexible, became admirals, as did midshipman Pellew and Lieutenant Dacres.[43] Carleton was awarded the Order of the Bath by King George III for his success at Valcour Island.[] On December 31, 1776 one year after the Battle of

Battle of Valcour Island Quebec, a mass was held in celebration of the British success, and Carleton threw a grand ball.[41] The loss of Benedict Arnold's papers aboard Royal Savage was to have important consequences later in his career. For a variety of reasons, Congress ordered an inquiry into his conduct of the Quebec campaign, which included a detailed look at his claims for compensation. The inquiry took place in late 1779, when Arnold was in military command of Philadelphia and recuperating from serious wounds received in the 1777 Battles of Saratoga. Congress found that he owed it money since he could not produce receipts for expenses he claimed to have paid from his own funds.[44] Although Arnold had already been secretly negotiating with the British over a change of allegiance since May 1779, this news contributed to his decision to resign the command of Philadelphia.[45] His next command was West Point, which he sought with the intention of facilitating its surrender to the British.[46] His plot was however exposed in September 1780, at which time he fled to the British in New York City.[47]

229

Legacy
In the 1930s, Lorenzo Hagglund, a veteran of World War I and a history buff, began searching the strait for remains of the battle. In 1932 he found the remains of Royal Savage's hull, which he successfully raised in 1934.[48] [49] Stored for more than fifty years, the remains were sold by his son to the National Civil War Museum.[50] [51] As of March 2009, the remains were in a city garage in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The city of Plattsburgh, New York, has claimed ownership of the remains and would like them returned to upstate New York.[51] In 1935 Hagglund followed up his discovery of Royal Savage with the discovery of Philadelphia's remains, sitting upright on the lake bottom.[52] He raised her that year; she is now on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, USS Philadelphia was raised in [34] 1935. D.C., and is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places and is [53] [54] designated a National Historic Landmark. The site of the battle, Valcour Bay, was declared a National Historic Landmark on January 1, 1961, and added to the National Register on October 15, 1966.[53] [55] In 1997 another pristine underwater wreck was located during a survey by the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum. Two years later it was conclusively identified as the gundalow Spitfire; this site was listed on the National Register in 2008, and it has been named as part of the U.S. government's Save America's Treasures program.[56]

Order of battle

Contemporary watercolor drawing of the American line of battle by Charles Randle

Battle of Valcour Island

230

Ship (type, guns) Enterprise (sloop, 12) Royal Savage (schooner, 12) Trumbull (row galley, 10) James Smith [57] [58]

Commander Hospital ship, escaped

Notes

David Hawley

Ran aground and burned October 11

Seth Warner (left flag, Wigglesworth)

[59]

Escaped Called Schuyler prior to launch Also referred to as Trumble Damaged October 11 Captured October 13 Escaped [62] Ran aground and burned October 13

Washington (row galley, 10) Revenge (sloop, 8) Congress (row galley, 8)

John Thatcher (right flag, Waterbury) [61]

[60]

Isaac Seamon

James Arnold (flag ship, Benedict Arnold) [63] Captain Daviss [64]

Lee (row galley, 6)

Ran aground October 13 Recovered by British Ran aground and burned October 13 Ran aground and burned October 13 Abandoned October 13 Recovered by British Also referred to as New Jersey Ran aground and burned October 13 Escaped Called Success prior to launch Sank October 11 Raised 1935 Sank October 13 Sank October 12 near Schuyler Island; wreck located in [56] 1997

Boston (gundalow, 3) Connecticut (gundalow, 3) Jersey (gundalow, 3)

Captain Sumner Joshua Grant

[65]

[65] [66]

Captain Grimes

New Haven (gundalow, 3) New York (gundalow, 3)

Samuel Mansfield Captain Lee [67]

[65]

Philadelphia (gundalow, 3)

Benjamin Rue

[68]

Providence (gundalow, 3) Spitfire (gundalow, 3)

Isaiah Simonds Philip Ulmer

[69]

[65]

Ship descriptions and dispositions (but not captains) provided by Silverstone (2006), pp. 15–16, unless otherwise cited. Ship captains are all as cited.

|+ American Fleet

Contemporary watercolor drawing of the British line of battle by Charles Randle

Battle of Valcour Island

231

Ship (type, guns) Inflexible (square-rigged ship, 22) Thunderer (ketch-radeau, 18) Maria (schooner, 14) John Schank

Commander

Notes Participated in later stages of battle

[70] George Scott John Starke (flagship, Pringle and Carleton) James Dacres Edward Longcroft unknown

Did not participate in main action Did not participate in main action

Carleton (schooner, 12) Loyal Convert (gundalow, 7) 28 unnamed gunboats (gunboat, 1)

Heavily damaged October 11 Also called Royal Convert or Loyal Consort [71]

One destroyed October 11; many others damaged, two lost after action

Ship descriptions and dispositions are from Nelson (2006), p. 33.

|+ British Fleet

Notes
Footnotes
[1] For detailed treatment of the background, see e.g. Stanley (1973) or Morrissey (2003). [2] Hamilton (1964) pp. 17–18 [3] Lake Champlain Basin Fact Sheet #3 [4] Ketchum (1997), pp. 29–31 [5] Hamilton (1964), pp. 7,8,18 [6] Malcolmson (2001), p. 26 [7] Stanley (1973), pp. 131–132 [8] Silverstone (2006), p. 15 [9] Stanley (1973), pp. 133–136 [10] Silverstone (2006), pp. 15–16 [11] Stanley (1973), pp. 137–138 [12] Miller (1974), p. 170 [13] Nelson (2006), p. 231 [14] Nelson (2006), p. 241 [15] Nelson (2006), p. 239 [16] Nelson (2006), p. 243 [17] Nelson (2006), p. 245 [18] Nelson (2006), p. 261 [19] Nelson (2006), pp. 252–253 [20] Miller (1974), p. 171 [21] Malcolmson (2001), pp. 29–33 [22] Miller (1974), pp. 169, 172 [23] Bratten (2002), p. 57 [24] Miller (1974), pp. 166,171 [25] Bratten (2002), p. 56 [26] Stanley (1973), p. 141 [27] Miller (1974), p. 172 [28] Stanley (1973), p. 137 [29] Miller (1974), p. 173 [30] Bratten (2002), pp. 60–61 [31] Stanley (1973), p. 142 [32] Miller (1974), p. 174 [33] Hamilton (1964), p. 157 [34] Miller (1974), p. 175 [35] Nelson (2006), pp. 307–309 [36] Miller (1974), p. 176

Battle of Valcour Island
[37] Miller (1974), p. 177 [38] Bratten (2002), p. 67 [39] Bratten (2002), p. 69 [40] Bratten (2002), p. 70 [41] Stanley (1973), p. 144 [42] Miller (1974), p. 179 [43] Hamilton (1964), p. 160 [44] Randall (1990), pp. 497–499 [45] Randall (1990), pp. 456–457,499 [46] Randall (1990), pp. 508–509 [47] Martin (1997), pp. 1–4 [48] Bratten (2002), p. 75 [49] "Arnold's Flagship Raised On Old Tar Drums" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uN4DAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA803& dq=Popular+ Science+ 1933+ plane+ "Popular+ Mechanics"& hl=en& ei=ajQdTvrsPKbksQKlm8m7CA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CEEQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage& q& f=true) Popular Mechanics, June 1935 [50] Bratten (2002), p. 76 [51] "War Ship Remains Piled in City Garage" [52] Bratten (2002), p. 77 [53] National Register Information System [54] NHL Description of USS Philadelphia [55] NHL Description of Valcour Bay [56] Shipwrecks of Lake Champlain: Gunboat Spitfire [57] Nelson (2006), p. 70 [58] Nelson (2006), p. 297 [59] Nelson (2006), p. 258 [60] Nelson (2006), p. 284 [61] Nelson (2006), p. 256 [62] Bratten (2002), p. 204 [63] Nelson (2006), p. 295 [64] Bulletin of the New York State Museum, Issue 313 (1937), p. 135 [65] Nelson (2006), p. 263 [66] Nelson (2006), p. 312 [67] Nelson (2006), p. 279 [68] Nelson (2006), p. 262 [69] Nelson (2006), p. 255 [70] Thunderer was basically a keelless raft rigged as a ketch. [71] Malcolmson (2001), on page 27 shows an image of a contemporary British draft document describing the Loyal Convert, where it is clearly readable by that name.

232

Citations

References
• Allen, Gardner W (1913). A Naval History of the American Revolution, Volume 1 (http://books.google.com/ ?id=hFsSAAAAYAAJ). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 2613121. • Bratten, John R (2002). The Gondola Philadelphia and the Battle of Lake Champlain. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-58544-147-1. OCLC 48003125. • Hamilton, Edward (1964). Fort Ticonderoga, Key to a Continent. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 965281. • Ketchum, Richard M (1997). Saratoga: Turning Point of America's Revolutionary War. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 978-0-8050-6123-9. OCLC 41397623. • Martin, James Kirby (1997). Benedict Arnold: Revolutionary Hero (An American Warrior Reconsidered). New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-5560-7. (This book is primarily about Arnold's service on the American side in the Revolution, giving overviews of the periods before the war and after he changes sides.) • Nelson, James L (2006). Benedict Arnold's Navy. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-146806-0. OCLC 255396879.

Battle of Valcour Island • Malcolmson, Robert (2001). Warships of the Great Lakes 1754–1834. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-910-7. OCLC 47213837. This work contains detailed specifications for most of the watercraft used in this action, as well as copies of draft documents for some of them. • Miller, Nathan (1974). Sea of Glory: The Continental Navy fights for independence. New York: David McKay. ISBN 0-679-50392-7. OCLC 844299. • Morrissey, Brendan; Hook, Adam [translator] (2003). Quebec 1775: The American Invasion of Canada. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-681-2. OCLC 52359702. • Randall, Willard Sterne (1990). Benedict Arnold: Patriot and Traitor. William Morrow and Inc. ISBN 1-55710-034-90. • Silverstone, Paul H (2006). The Sailing Navy, 1775–1854: 1775–1854. New York: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-415-97872-9. OCLC 63178925. • Smith, Justin H (1907). Our Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony, vol 2 (http://books.google.com/ ?id=19VBAAAAIAAJ). New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. OCLC 259236. • Stanley, George (1973). Canada Invaded 1775–1776. Toronto: Hakkert. ISBN 978-0-88866-578-2. OCLC 4807930. • Bulletin of the New York State Museum, Issue 313. Albany: New York State Museum. 1937. OCLC 1476727. • "War Ship Remains Piled in City Garage". WHTM Television. 2009-03-03. • "Fact Sheet #3" (http://www.lcbp.org/factsht/basinfs2006.pdf). Lake Champlain Basin Program. Retrieved 2010-04-27. • "National Historic Landmark summary listing – Philadelphia (gundelo)" (http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail. cfm?ResourceId=648&ResourceType=Structure). National Park Service. Retrieved 2010-05-17. • "National Historic Landmark summary listing – Valcour Bay" (http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail. cfm?ResourceId=364&ResourceType=Site). National Park Service. Retrieved 2010-05-17. • "National Register Information System" (http://nrhp.focus.nps.gov/natreg/docs/All_Data.html). National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. no date specified. • "Shipwrecks of Lake Champlain: Gunboat Spitfire" (http://www.lcmm.org/shipwrecks_history/shipwrecks/ spitfire.htm). Lake Champlain Maritime Museum. Retrieved 2010-05-13.

233

Further reading
• Fowler, Jr., William M (1976). Rebels Under Sail: The American navy during the Revolution. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 978-0-684-14583-9. OCLC 1863602.

External links
• Contemporary sketch of Arnold's fleet (http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-p/provid3.htm) • Other maritime landmarks (http://www.nps.gov/maritime/nhl/nmieval.html) from the National Park Service • James P. Millard's detailed historical charts, list of ships, period images, and modern photographs (http://www. historiclakes.org/Valcour/valcour_chart.htm) • Battle of Valcour Island with pictures (http://historiclakes.org/Valcour/Valcour.html) • The Story of Lake Champlain's Valcour Island (http://historiclakes.org/Valcour/valcour_island.htm) • Valcour Bay Research Project (http://www.lcmm.org/mri/projects/vbrp.htm) of the Lake Champlain Maritime Museum (http://www.lcmm.org/index.htm) • Lake Champlain underwater preserves (http://www.lcbp.org/ATLAS/HTML/so_shipwreck.htm) including pictures of underwater Revolutionary War artifacts

Battle of White Plains

234

Battle of White Plains
The Battle of White Plains was a battle in the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on October 28, 1776, near White Plains, New York. Following the retreat of George Washington's Continental Army northward from New York City, British General William Howe landed troops in Westchester County, intending to cut off Washington's escape route. Alerted to this move, Washington retreated further, establishing a position in the village of White Plains but failed to establish firm control over local high ground. Howe's troops drove Washington's troops from a hill near the village; following this loss, Washington ordered the Americans to retreat further north. Later British movements chased Washington across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. Washington then crossed the Delaware and surprised a brigade of Hessian troops in the December 26 Battle of Trenton.

Background
British General William Howe, after evacuating Boston in March 1776, regrouped in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and embarked in June on a campaign to gain control of New York City.[1] The campaign began with an unopposed landing on Staten Island in early July. British troops made another unopposed landing on Long Island on August 22, south of the areas where General George Washington's Continental Army had organized significant defenses.[2] After losing the Battle of Long Island on August 27, General Washington and his army of 9,000 troops escaped on the night of August 29–30 to York Island (as Manhattan was then called).[3] General Howe followed up with a landing on Manhattan on September 15, but his advance was checked the next day at Harlem Heights. After an abortive landing at Throg's Neck, he landed troops with some resistance at Pell's Point on October 18 to begin an encircling maneuver that was intended to trap Washington's army between that force, his troops in Manhattan, and the Hudson River, which was dominated by warships of the Royal Navy.[4] Howe established a camp at New Rochelle, but advance elements of his army were near Mamaroneck, only 7 miles (11 km) from White Plains, where there was a lightly defended Continental Army supply depot.[5]

Prelude
On October 20, General Washington sent Colonel Rufus Putnam out on a reconnaissance mission from his camp at Harlem Heights. Putnam discovered the general placement of the British troop locations and recognized the danger to the army and its supplies.[5] When he reported this to Washington that evening, Washington immediately dispatched Putnam with orders to Lord Stirling, whose troops were furthest north, to immediately march to White Plains. They arrived at White Plains at 9 am on October 21, and were followed by other units of the army as the day progressed.[6] Washington decided to withdraw most of the army to White Plains,[7] leaving a garrison of 1,200 men under Nathanael Greene to defend Fort Washington on Manhattan.[7] General Howe's army advanced slowly, with troops from his center and right moving along the road from New Rochelle to White Plains, while a unit of Loyalists occupied Mamaroneck. The latter was attacked that night by a detachment of Lord Stirling's troops under John Haslet, who took more than thirty prisoners as well as supplies, but suffered several killed and 15 wounded. As a result, Howe moved elements of his right wing to occupy Mamaroneck.[8] On October 22, Howe was reinforced by the landing at New Rochelle of an additional 8,000 troops under the command of Wilhelm von Knyphausen.[9]

Battle of White Plains

235

Washington established his headquarters at the Elijah Miller House in North White Plains on October 23,[10] and chose a defensive position that he fortified with two lines of entrenchments.[11] The trenches were situated on raised terrain, protected on the right by the swampy ground near the Bronx River, with steeper hills further back as a place of retreat. The American defenses were 3 miles (4.8 km) long. Beyond that, on the right, was Chatterton's Hill, which commanded the plain over which the British would have to advance. The hill was initially occupied by militia companies numbering several hundred, probably including John Brooks' Massachusetts militia company.[12]

The Elijah Miller House, which served as George Washington's headquarters in White Plains.

On October 24 and 25, Howe's army moved from New Rochelle to Scarsdale, where they established a camp covering the eastern bank of the Bronx River. This move was apparently made in the hopes of catching Charles Lee's column, which had to alter its route toward White Plains and execute a forced march at night to avoid them.[13] Howe remained at Scarsdale until the morning of October 28, when his forces marched toward White Plains, with British troops on the right under General Henry Clinton, and primarily Hessian troops on the left under General von Heister.[14]

Battle
While Washington was inspecting the terrain to determine where it was best to station his troops, messengers alerted him that the British were advancing.[15] Returning to his headquarters, he ordered 1,500 men under Joseph Spencer out to slow the British advance, and sent Haslet and the 1st Delaware Regiment, along with Alexander McDougall's brigade (Ritzema's 3rd New York, Charles Webb's Connecticut, William Smallwood's Maryland, and McDougall's own regiments) to reinforce Chatterton Hill.[16] Spencer's force crossed the Bronx River, set up behind a stone wall, and exchanged fire with the Hessians led by Colonel Johann Rall that were at the head of the British left column. Eventually A 1796 map showing the strategies of the opposing armies. forced to retreat when Clinton's column threatened their flank, these companies retreated across the Bronx River, while fire from the troops on Chatterton Hill covered their move.[14] Rall's troops attempted to gain the hill, but were repelled by fire from Haslet's troops and the militia,[17] and retreated to a nearby hilltop on the same side of the river. This concerted defense brought the entire British army, which was maneuvering as if to attack the entire American line, to a stop.[18] While Howe and his command conferred, the Hessian artillery on the left opened fire on the hilltop position, where they succeeded in driving the militia into a panicked retreat. The arrival of McDougall and his brigade helped to rally them, and a defensive line was established, with the militia on the right and the Continentals arrayed along the top of the hill.[16] Howe finally issued orders, and while most of his army waited, a detachment of British and Hessian troops was sent to take the hill.[19] The British attack was organized with Hessian regiments leading the assault. Rall was to charge the American right, while a Hessian battalion under Colonel Carl von Donop (consisting of the Linsing, Mingerode, Lengereck, and

Battle of White Plains Kochler grenadiers, and Donop's own chasseur regiment) was to attack the center. A British column under General Alexander Leslie (consisting of the 5th, 28th, 35th, and 49th Foot) was to attack the right. Donop's force either had difficulty crossing the river, or was reluctant to do so, and elements of the British force were the first to cross the river. Rall's charge scattered the militia on the American right, leaving the flank of the Maryland and New York regiments exposed as they poured musket fire onto the British attackers, which temporarily halted the British advance. The exposure of their flank caused them to begin a fighting retreat, which progressively forced the remainder of the American line, which had engaged with the other segments of the British force, to give way and retreat. Haslet's Delaware regiment, which anchored the American left, provided covering fire while the remaining troops retreated to the north, and were the last to leave the hill.[20] The fighting was intense, and both sides suffered significant casualties before the Continentals made a disciplined retreat.[21]

236

Casualties
John Fortescue's History of the British Army says that Howe's casualties numbered 214 British and 99 Hessians.[22] However, Rodney Atwood points out that Fortescue's figure for the Hessians includes the entire Hessian casualties from 19–28 October and that in fact only 53 of these casualties were incurred at the Battle of White Plains.[23] This revised figure would give a total of 267 British and Hessians killed, wounded or missing at White Plains. Henry Dawson, on the other hand, gives Howe's loss as 47 killed, 182 wounded and 4 missing.[] The American loss is uncertain. Theodore Savas and J. David Dameron give a range of 150-500 killed, wounded and captured.[24] Samuel Roads numbers the casualties of 47 killed and 70 wounded.[25] Henry Dawson estimates 50 killed, 150 wounded and 17 missing for McDougall's and Spencer's commands but has no information on the losses in Haslet's regiment or the Massachusetts militia units.[]
Mezzotint artist rendition of General Howe, by Charles Corbutt, ca. 1777

Aftermath

The two generals remained where they were for two days, while Howe reinforced the position on Chatterton Hill, and Washington organized his army for retreat into the hills. With the arrival of additional Hessian and Waldeck troops under Lord Percy on October 30, Howe planned to act against the Americans the following day. However, a heavy rain fell the whole next day,[26] and when Howe was finally prepared to act, he awoke to find that Washington had again eluded his grasp.[27] Washington withdrew his army into the hills to the north on the night of October 31, establishing a camp near North Castle.[27] Howe chose not to follow, instead attempting

Battle of White Plains without success to draw Washington out.[28] On November 5, he turned his army south to finish evicting Continental Army troops from Manhattan, a task he accomplished with the November 16 Battle of Fort Washington.[29] Washington eventually crossed the Hudson River at Peekskill with most of his army, leaving New England regiments behind to guard supply stores and important river crossings.[30] Later, British movements chased him across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania, and the British established a chain of outposts across New Jersey. Washington, seeing an opportunity for a victory to boost the nation's morale, crossed the Delaware and surprised Rall's troops in the December 26 Battle of Trenton.[31]

237

~ Battle of White Plains ~150th Anniversary Postage stamps and postal history of the United States#Two Cent Red Sesquicentennial Issues of 1926 - 1932Issue of 1926

Legacy
Each year on or near the anniversary date, the White Plains Historical Society hosts a commemoration of the event at the Jacob Purdy House in White Plains, New York.[32] Two ships in the United States Navy were named for the Battle of White Plains. CVE-66 was an escort carrier in World War II. AFS-4 was a combat stores ship that was decommissioned in 1995 after suffering extensive damage in 1992's Typhoon Omar.[33]
[34]

USS White Plains (CVE-66)

Notes
[1] Schecter, pp. 85,97 [2] Schecter, pp. 100, 118–127 [3] McCullough, 1776, pp. 188–191 [4] Schecter, pp. 179–230 [5] Schecter, p. 232 [6] Schecter, p. 233 [7] Lengel, p. 161 [8] Dawson, pp. 252–253 [9] Schecter, p. 231 [10] "Miller House" (http:/ / parks. westchestergov. com/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=2046& Itemid=4465). Westchester County Parks Department. . Retrieved 2011-08-26. [11] Greene, p. 52 [12] Dawson, p. 261 [13] Dawson, pp. 258–259 [14] Dawson, p. 260 [15] Lengel p.162 [16] Dawson, p. 263 [17] Schecter, p. 238 [18] Dawson, pp. 262-263 [19] Dawson, p. 264 [20] Dawson, pp. 265-267 [21] Schecter, p. 240 [22] Boatner, p. 1201 [23] Atwood, p. 75 [24] Savas and Dameron, p. 80

Battle of White Plains
[25] Roads, Chapter VIII, p. 153 [26] Schecter, p. 241 [27] Schecter, p. 242 [28] Dawson, pp. 274–276 [29] Schecter, pp. 243–257 [30] Schecter, p. 245 [31] Schecter, pp. 255–267 [32] White Plains Historical Society Event Calendar [33] "Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships — White Plains" (http:/ / www. history. navy. mil/ danfs/ w7/ white_plains-ii. htm). Naval History & Heritage Command. . Retrieved 2007-08-11. [34] "After the storm; Thousands on Guam lose homes in typhoon" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1992/ 08/ 30/ us/ after-the-storm-thousands-on-guam-lose-homes-in-typhoon. html?pagewanted=1). New York Times. 1992-08-29. . Retrieved 2010-02-18.

238

References
• Alden, John (1989). A History of the American Revolution. Da Capo Press. ISBN 9780306803666. • Atwood, Rodney (1980). The Hessians: Mercenaries from Hessen-Kassel in American Revolution. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0806125306. • Dawson, Henry Barton (1886). Westchester County, New York in the American Revolution (http://books.google. com/books?id=nl4EAAAAYAAJ&dq=battle of white plains 1776&pg=PA259#v=onepage&q=chatterton& f=false). Morrisania, New York: self-published. • Boatner, Mark Mayo (1966). Cassell's Biographical Dictionary of the American War of Independence, 1763-1783. London: Cassell and Company, Ltd.. • Greene, Francis Vinton (1911). The Revolutionary War and the Military Policy of the United States (http://www. questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=6248065). Charles Scribner's Sons. • Lengel, Edward (2005). General George Washington. New York: Random House Paperbacks. • Roads, Samuel, Jr. (1880). The History and Traditions of Marblehead. Boston: Osgood. • Savas, Theodore P.; Dameron, J. David (2006). A Guide to the Battles of the American Revolution. New York and El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beattie LLC. ISBN 978-1932714128. • Schecter, Barton (2002). The Battle for New York. New York: Walker. ISBN 0802713742. • "White Plains Historical Society Event Calendar" (http://www.whiteplainshistory.org/calendar.html). White Plains Historical Society. Retrieved 2009-12-17.

External links
• The Battle of White Plains (http://theamericanrevolution.org/battles/bat_wpla.asp) • White Plains Historical Society (http://www.whiteplainshistory.org/)

Braddock Expedition

239

Braddock Expedition
The Braddock expedition, also called Braddock's campaign or, more commonly, Braddock's Defeat, was a failed British military expedition which attempted to capture the French Fort Duquesne (modern-day downtown Pittsburgh) in the summer of 1755 during the French and Indian War. It was defeated at the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, and the survivors retreated. The expedition takes its name from General Edward Braddock, who led the British forces and died in the effort. Braddock's defeat was a major setback for the British in the early stages of the war with France and has been described as one of the most disastrous defeats for the British in the 18th century.[]

Background
Braddock's expedition was just one part of a massive British offensive against the French in North America that summer. As commander-in-chief of the British Army in America, General Braddock led the main thrust against the Ohio Country with a column some 2,100 strong. Braddock's command consisted of two regular line regiments, the 44th and 48th with about 1,350 men with about 500 regular soldiers and militiamen from several British American colonies and artillery and other support troops. With these men Braddock expected to seize Fort Duquesne easily, and then push on to capture a series of French forts, eventually reaching Fort Niagara. George Washington, then just 23, knew the territory and served as a volunteer aide-de-camp to General Braddock.[1] Braddock's Chief of Scouts was Lieutenant John Fraser of the Virginia Regiment, who owned land at Turtle Creek and who had previously served as Second-in-Command at Fort Prince George at the confluence of the Allegheny and Mononghela Rivers, the site of Fort Duquesne by the time of the Braddock Expedition, and who had been at Fort Necessity. Braddock's attempt to recruit Native American allies from those tribes not yet allied with the French proved mostly unsuccessful; he had but eight Mingo Indians with him, serving as scouts. A number of Indians in the area, notably Delaware leader Shingas, remained neutral. Caught between two powerful European empires at war, the local Indians who were committed to their lands could not afford to be on the side of the loser. Braddock's success or failure would influence their decisions.

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Braddock's Road
Setting out from Fort Cumberland in Maryland on May 29, 1755, the expedition faced an enormous logistical challenge: moving a large body of men with equipment, provisions, and (most importantly for the task ahead) heavy cannon, across the densely wooded Allegheny Mountains and into western Pennsylvania, a journey of about 110 miles (180 km). Braddock had received important assistance from Benjamin Franklin, who helped procure wagons and supplies for the expedition. Among the wagoners were two young men who would later become legends of American history: Daniel Boone and Daniel Morgan. Other members of the expedition included Ensign William Crawford and Charles Scott. Among the British were Thomas Gage; Charles Lee, future American president George Washington, and Horatio Gates. The expedition progressed slowly because Braddock considered making a road to Fort Duquesne a priority (in order to effectively supply the position he expected to capture and hold at the Forks of the Ohio), and largely due to French British Forts in the region a shortage of healthy draft animals. In some cases, the column was only able to progress at a rate of two miles (about 3 km) a day, creating Braddock's Road—an important vestige of the march—as they went. To speed up movement, Braddock split his men into a "flying column" of about 1,300 men which he commanded and a supply column of 800 men with most of the baggage commanded by Colonel Thomas Dunbar. Dunbar's command lagged far behind. They passed the ruins of Fort Necessity along the way, where the French and Canadiens had defeated Washington the previous summer. Small French and Indian war bands harried Braddock's men during the march, but these were minor skirmishes. Meanwhile, at Fort Duquesne, the French garrison consisted of only about 250 regulars and Canadian militia, with about 640 Indian allies camped outside the fort. The Indians were from a variety of tribes long associated with the French, including Ottawas, Ojibwas, and Potawatomis. Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur, the Canadian commander, received reports from Indian scouting parties that the British were on their way to besiege the fort. He realised that his fort could not withstand Braddock's cannon, and decided to launch a preemptive strike: an ambush of Braddock's army as he crossed the Monongahela River. The Indian allies were initially reluctant to attack such a large British force, but the French commander Daniel Liénard de Beaujeu, who dressed himself in full war regalia complete with war paint, convinced them to follow his lead.

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Battle of the Monongahela
By July 8, 1755, the Braddock force was on the land owned by the Chief Scout, Lieutenant John Fraser. That evening, the Indians sent a delegation to the British to request a conference. Braddock sent Washington and Fraser. The Indians asked the British to halt their advance so that they could attempt to negotiate a peaceful withdrawal by the French from Fort Duquesne. Both Washington and Fraser recommended this to Braddock but he demurred. On July 9, 1755, Braddock's men crossed the Monongahela without opposition, about 10 miles (16 km) south of Fort Duquesne. The advance guard of 300 grenadiers and colonials with two cannon under Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Gage began to move ahead, and unexpectedly came upon the French and Indians, who were hurrying to the river, behind schedule and too late to set an ambush. In the skirmish that followed between Gage's soldiers and the French, the French commander, Beaujeu, was killed by the first volley of musket fire by the grenadiers. Although some 100 French Canadians fled back to the fort and the noise of the cannon held the Indians off, Beaujeu's death did not have a negative effect on French morale; Dumas rallied the rest of 19th century engraving of the death of Major-General Braddock at the Battle of the Monongahela. the French and their Indian allies. The battle, known as the Battle of the Monongahela, or the Battle of the Wilderness, or just Braddock's Defeat, was officially begun. Braddock's force was approximately 1,400 men. The British faced a French and Indian force estimated to number between 300 and 900. The battle, frequently described as an ambush, was actually a meeting engagement, where two forces clash at an unexpected time and place. The quick and effective response of the French and Indians — despite the early loss of their commander — led many of Braddock's men to believe they had been ambushed. However, French documents reveal that the French and Indian force was too late to prepare an ambush, and had been just as surprised as the British. After an exchange of fire, Gage's advance group fell back. In the narrow confines of the road, they collided with the main body of Braddock's force, which had advanced rapidly when the shots were heard. The entire column dissolved in disorder as the Canadian militamen and Indians enveloped them and continued to snipe at the British flanks from the woods on the sides of the road. At this time, the French regulars began advancing from the road and began to push the British back. Following Braddock's example, the officers kept trying to reform units into regular order within the confines of the road, mostly in vain and simply providing targets for their concealed enemy. Cannon were used, but in such confines of the forest road, they were ineffective. The colonial militia accompanying the British took cover and returned fire. In the confusion, some of the militiamen who were fighting from the woods were mistaken for the enemy and fired upon by the British regulars.

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After several hours of intense combat, Braddock was shot off his horse, and effective resistance collapsed. Colonel Washington, although he had no official position in the chain of command, was able to impose and maintain some order and formed a rear guard, which allowed the remants of the force to disengage. This earned him the sobriquet Hero of the Monongahela, by which he was toasted, and established his fame for some time to come. "We marched to that place, without any considerable loss, having only now and then a Braddock retreating straggler picked up by the French and scouting Indians. When we came there, we were attacked by a party of French and Indians, whose number, I am persuaded, did not exceed three hundred men; while ours consisted of about one thousand three hundred well-armed troops, chiefly regular soldiers, who were struck with such a panic that they behaved with more cowardice than it is possible to conceive. The officers behaved gallantly, in order to encourage their men, for which they suffered greatly, there being near sixty killed and wounded; a large proportion of the number we had."[2] By sunset, the surviving British and colonial forces were fleeing back down the road they had built. Braddock died of his wounds during the long retreat, on July 13, and is buried within the Fort Necessity parklands. Of the approximately 1,300 men Braddock had led into battle, 456 were killed and 422 wounded. Commissioned officers were prime targets and suffered greatly: out of 86 officers, 26 were killed and 37 wounded. Of the 50 or so women that accompanied the British column as maids and cooks, only 4 survived. The French and Canadians reported 8 killed and 4 wounded; their Indian allies lost 15 killed and 12 wounded. Colonel Dunbar, with the reserves and rear supply units, took command when the survivors reached his position. He ordered the destruction of supplies and cannon before withdrawing, burning about 150 wagons on the spot. Ironically, at this point the defeated, demoralized and disorganised British forces still outnumbered their opponents. The French and Indians did not pursue and were engaged with looting and scalping. Dumas realized the British were utterly defeated and he didn't have enough of a force to continue organized pursuit.

Debate
The debate on how Braddock, with professional soldiers, superior numbers, and artillery, could fail so miserably began soon after the battle and continues to this day. Some blamed Braddock, some blamed his officers, some blamed the British regulars or the colonial militia. George Washington, for his part, supported Braddock and found fault with the British regulars.[2] Braddock's tactics are still debated. One school of thought holds that Braddock's reliance on time-honoured European methods, where men stand shoulder-to-shoulder in the open and fire mass volleys in unison, was not appropriate for frontier fighting and cost Braddock the battle. Skirmish tactics that American colonials had learned from frontier fighting, where men take cover and fire individually, "Indian style", was the superior method in the American environment.[3] However, in some studies, the interpretation of "Indian style" superiority has been argued to be a myth by several military historians. European regular armies already employed irregular forces of their own and had extensive theories of how to use and counter guerilla warfare. Stephen Brumwell argues just the opposite, stating that contemporaries of Braddock, like John Forbes and Henry Bouquet, recognized that "war in the forests of America was a very different business from war in Europe."[4] Russell argues it was Braddock's failure to rely on the time-honoured European methods that cost him the battle.[5] The British had already waged war on the irregular

Braddock Expedition forces of the Scots. And East-European irregulars, such as Pandours and Hussars, had already made an impact on European warfare and theory by the 1740s. Braddock's failure, according to proponents of this theory, was that he did not adequately apply traditional military doctrine (particularly by not using distance), not the lack of use of frontier tactics.[6] Peter Russell, in his study, shows that on several occasions before the battle, Braddock successfully adhered to standard European tactics to counter ambushes, and as a result had been nearly immune to earlier French and Canadian attacks.

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Footnotes
[1] Some accounts state that Washington commanded the Virginia militia on the Braddock Expedition, but this is incorrect. Washington did command the Virginia militia before and after the expedition. As a volunteer aide-de-camp, Washington essentially served as an unpaid and unranked gentleman consultant, with little real authority, but much inside access. [2] George Washington, July 18, 1755, letter to his mother. Similarly, Washington's report to Governor Dinwiddie. Charles H. Ambler, George Washington and the West, University of North Carolina Press,1936, pp. 107-109. [3] See, for example, Armstrong Starkey's European and Native American Warfare, 1675-1815 (University of Oklahoma Press, 1998). [4] Stephen Brumwell, Redcoats, The British Soldier and War in the Americas 1755-1763, Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0 521 80783 8, pp. 198-205. [5] See the in-depth study of Peter Russell: "Redcoats in the Wilderness: British Officers and Irregular Warfare in Europe and America, 1740 to 1760", The William and Mary Quarterly > 3rd Ser., Vol. 35, No. 4 (Oct., 1978), pp. 629-652 [6] This argument is most recently presented in Guy Chet's Conquering the American Wilderness: The Triumph of European Warfare in the Colonial Northwest (University of Massachusetts Press, 2003).

References
• Borneman, Walter R. (2007). The French and Indian War. Rutgers. ISBN 978-0060761851. • Chartrand, Rene. Monongahela, 1754-1755: Washington's Defeat, Braddock's Disaster. United Kingdom: Osprey Publishing, 2004. ISBN 1-84176-683-6. • Jennings, Francis. Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years War in America. New York: Norton, 1988. ISBN 0-393-30640-2. • Kopperman, Paul E. Braddock at the Monongahela. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973. ISBN 0-8229-5819-8. • O'Meara, Walter. Guns at the Forks. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1965. ISBN 0-8229-5309-9. • Russell, Peter. "Redcoats in the Wilderness: British Officers and Irregular Warfare in Europe and America, 1740 to 1760", The William and Mary Quarterly > 3rd Ser., Vol. 35, No. 4 (Oct., 1978), pp. 629–652

External links
• Braddock's Road (http://www.route40.net/history/braddock-lacock.shtml) • The French Army 1600-1900 (http://napoleonistyka.atspace.com/FRENCH_ARMY.htm) • WikiTravel Itinerary (http://wikitravel.org/en/Braddock_Expedition) tracing the route of the expedition Mainer

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United States Constitution
United States Constitution

Page one of the original copy of the Constitution Created Ratified Location Author(s) September 17, 1787 June 21, 1788 National Archives, Washington, D.C. twelve state delegations in Philadelphia Convention

Signatories 39 of the 55 Philadelphia Convention delegates Purpose National constitution to replace the Articles of Confederation

The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America. It is the framework for the organization of the United States government and for the relationship of the federal government with the states, citizens, and all people within the United States. The first three Articles of the Constitution establish the three branches of the national government: a legislature, the bicameral Congress; an executive branch led by the President; and a judicial branch headed by the Supreme Court. They also specify the powers and duties of each branch. All powers not enumerated are reserved to the respective states and the people, thereby establishing the federal system of government. The Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and ratified by conventions in each U.S. state in the name of "The People". It has been amended twenty-seven times; the first ten amendments are known as the Bill of Rights.[1] [2] The United States Constitution is the oldest written constitution (when defined as a single document) still in use by any nation in the world.[3] Parts of San Marino's Constitution are older, dating to the 1600s.[4] [5] It holds a central place in United States law and political culture.[6] The handwritten original document penned by Jacob Shallus is on display at the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington, D.C.
1. History : Convention

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James Madison

James Wilson

2. Original text : three branches

Old House Wing

President’s House

3. Amendments : procedure

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House-proposal

Senate-forwarded

4. Judicial review : establishment

John Marshall

Joseph Story

5. “Civic religion” : The Shrine

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The Archives

The Rotunda

6. Worldwide : national Constitutions

Jose Rizal

Sun Yat-sen

History
First government
The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were the first constitution of the United States of America.[7] The problem with the United States government under the Articles of Confederation was, in the words of George Washington, "no money".[8]
insecurity in the 1787 world

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British Forts traded supplies to treaty tribes. Fort Mackinac, Lake Huron

Barbary PiratesFrance paid extortion, U.S. didn't, had crews enslaved

Congress could print money, but by 1786, the money was useless. Congress could borrow money, but could not pay it back.[8] Under the Articles, Congress requisitioned money from the states. But no state paid all of their requisition; Georgia paid nothing. A few states paid the U.S. an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more.[8] Nothing was paid toward the interest on debt owed to foreign governments. By 1786 the United States was about to default on its contractual obligations when the principal came due.[8] The United States could not defend itself as an independent nation in the world of 1787. Most of the U.S. troops in the 625-man U.S. Army were deployed facing British forts on American soil. The troops had not been paid; some were deserting and the remainder threatened mutiny.[9] Spain closed New Orleans to American commerce. The United States protested, to no effect. The Barbary Pirates began seizing American commercial ships. The Treasury had no funds to pay the pirates' extortion demands. The Congress had no more credit if another military crisis had required action.[8] The states were proving inadequate to the requirements of sovereignty in a confederation. Although the 1783 Treaty of Paris had been made between Great Britain and the United States with each state named individually, individual states violated their peace treaty with Britain. New York and South Carolina repeatedly prosecuted Loyalists for wartime activity and redistributed their lands over the protests of both Great Britain and the Articles Congress.[8] In Massachusetts during Shays' Rebellion, Congress had no money to support a constituent state, nor could Massachusetts pay for its own internal defense. General Benjamin Lincoln had to raise funds among Boston merchants to pay for a volunteer army.[11] During the upcoming Convention, James Madison angrily questioned whether the Articles of Confederation was a “solemn compact” or even government. Connecticut had not only sent none of its requisition, it had “positively refused" to pay Confederation assessments for two years.[12] A rumor had it that a "seditious party" among the New York legislature had opened communication with the Viceroy of Canada. To the south, the British were said to be funding the Creek Indian raids; Savannah was fortified, the State of Georgia under martial law.[13]

Mobbing "committees" disrupted cities in Ma, Ct, Pa, SCWood, Gordon S., “The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787” (1969) ISBN 0-393-00644-1 p.324-5 like Shays' Rebellion. here, Paxton BoysPaxtons at Philadelphia

Congress was paralyzed. It could do nothing significant without nine states, and some legislative business required all thirteen. By April 1786 there had been only three days out of five months with nine states present. When nine states did show up, and there was only one member of a state on the floor, then that state’s vote did not count. If a delegation were evenly divided, the division was duly noted in the Journal, but there was no vote from that state towards the procedural nine-count requirement.[14] Individual state legislatures independently laid embargoes, negotiated unilaterally abroad, provided for armies and made war, all violating the letter and the spirit of the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. The Articles Congress had “virtually ceased trying to govern.”[15]

United States Constitution The vision of a "respectable nation" among nations seemed to be fading in the eyes of such men as Virginia’s George Washington and James Madison, New York’s Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, Pennsylvania’s Benjamin Franklin and George Clymer and Massachusetts’ Henry Knox and Rufus King. The dream of a republic, a nation without hereditary rulers, with power derived from the people in frequent elections, was in doubt.[16]

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Convention
Twelve state legislatures, Rhode Island being the only exception, sent delegates to convene at Philadelphia in May 1787.[17] While the resolution calling the Convention specified that its purpose was to propose amendments to the Articles, through discussion and debate it became clear by mid-June that the Convention would propose a Constitution with a fundamentally new design.[18] Sessions In September 1786, commissioners from five states met in the Annapolis Convention to discuss adjustments to the Articles of Confederation that would improve commerce. They invited state representatives to convene in Philadelphia to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, the Congress of the Confederation endorsed a plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787.[17] The plan called on each state legislature to send delegates to a convention “’for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation’ in ways that, when approved by Congress and the states, would ‘render the federal constitution adequate to the exigencies of government and the preservation of the Union.’”[19]
the nationalists organize

George WashingtonGeo: Washington, AmericanConvention Presidentprestige brought delegates

Nathaniel Gorham, Ma'Committee of the Whole'Chair - ran daily business

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George Wythe, VaChair, Rules Committeedelegates consult, not states

William Jackson (secretary)William Jackson, SCConvention SecretarySociety of the Cincinnati

To amend the Articles into a workable government, 74 delegates from the twelve states were named by their state legislatures; 55 showed up, and 39 eventually signed. [20] On May 3rd, eleven days early, James Madison arrived to Philadelphia and met with James Wilson of the Pennsylvania delegation to plan strategy. Madison outlined his plan in letters that (1) State legislatures each send delegates, not the Articles Congress. (2) Convention reaches agreement with signatures from every state. (3) The Articles Congress approves forwarding it to the state legislatures. (4) The state legislatures independently call one-time conventions to ratify, selecting delegates by each state’s various rules of suffrage. The Convention was to be "merely advisory" to the people voting in each state.[21] Convening George Washington arrived on time, Sunday, the day before scheduled opening. His participation lent his prestige to the proceedings, attracting some of the best minds in America.[22] For the entire duration of the Convention, Washington was a guest at the home of Robert Morris, Congress’ financier for the American Revolution and a Pennsylvania delegate. William Jackson, in two years to be the president of the Society of the Cincinnati, had been Morris' agent in England for a time. He won election as a non-delegate to be the Convention Secretary over Benjamin Franklin's grandson. Morris entertained among the delegates lavishly. The convention was scheduled to open May 14, but only Pennsylvania and Virginia delegations were present. The Convention was postponed until a quorum of seven states gathered on Friday the 25th.[23]

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George Washington was elected the Convention president, and Chancellor (judge) George Wythe (Va) was chosen Chair of the Rules Committee. The rules of the Convention were published the following Monday.[24] Nathaniel Gorham (Ma) was elected Chair of the "Committee of the Whole", a parliamentary situation where individuals spoke freely, and votes could be retaken to allow for bargaining. Provisions in the draft articles were repeatedly made, reconnected and remade as the order of The Philadelphia ConventionGeorge Washington, the President of the Convention,will business proceeded. The Convention later become the first President of the United States officials and procedures were in place before arrival of nationalist opponents such as John Lansing (NY) and Luther Martin (Md).[25] By the end of May, the stage was set. The Constitutional Convention voted to keep the debates secret so that the delegates could speak freely, negotiate, compromise and change. Both House of Commons and the colonial assemblies were secret. Debates of the Articles Congress were not reported. Yet since the proposal was for fundamental change from a confederation to a new, consolidated yet federal government, the surprise itself made Convention secrecy a major issue in the very public debates leading up to the crowd-filled ratification conventions.[26] Nevertheless, delegates continued in positions of public trust. Of those participating in the Convention, ten members would also number in the 33 chosen by their state legislatures for the Articles Congress that September.[27]
Members of Convention signers, refusers, absent

Order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Name George Washington George Read [a] Gunning Bedford, Jr. John Adams Dickinson [b] Richard Bassett Jacob Broom James McHenry Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer Daniel Carroll [b] John Blair James Madison, Jr. William Blount Richard Dobbs Spaight

State represented Virginia Delaware Delaware Delaware Delaware Delaware Maryland Maryland Maryland Virginia Virginia North Carolina North Carolina

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14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40n 41n 42n 43n 44n 45n 46n 47n 48n 49n 50n 51n Hugh Williamson John Rutledge North Carolina South Carolina

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney South Carolina Charles Pinckney Pierce Butler William Few Abraham Baldwin John Langdon Nicholas Gilman Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King William Samuel Johnson Roger Sherman [a][b][c] Alexander Hamilton William Livingston David Brearley William Paterson Jonathan Dayton Benjamin Franklin [a] Thomas Mifflin Robert Morris [a][b] George Clymer [a] Thomas FitzSimons Jared Ingersoll James Wilson [a] Gouverneur Morris [b] Elbridge Gerry refused George Mason refused Edmund Randolph refused William Davie absent Oliver Ellsworth absent William Houston absent William Houstoun absent John Lansing absent Alexander Martin absent Luther Martin absent James McClurg absent John Mercer absent South Carolina South Carolina Georgia Georgia New Hampshire New Hampshire Massachusetts Massachusetts Connecticut Connecticut New York New Jersey New Jersey New Jersey New Jersey Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Massachusetts Virginia Virginia North Carolina Massachusetts New Jersey Georgia New York North Carolina Maryland Virginia Maryland

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52n 53n 54n 55n William Pierce absent Caleb Strong absent George Wythe absent Robert Yates absent Georgia Massachusetts Virginia New York

Outside the Convention in Philadelphia, there was a national convening of the Society of the Cincinnati. Washington was said to be embarrassed. The 1776 “old republican” delegates like Elbridge Gerry (Ma) found anything military or hereditary anathema. The Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia and New York convention was meeting to redefine its Confession, dropping the faith requirement for civil authority to prohibit false worship.[28] Protestant Episcopalian Washington attended a Roman Catholic Mass and dinner.[29] Revolution veteran Jonas Phillips, of the Mikveh Israel Synagogue, petitioned the Convention to avoid a national oath for both Old and New Testaments.[30] Merchants of Providence, Rhode Island, petitioned for consideration, even though their Assembly had not sent a delegation. Congregational minister Manasseh Cutler, former Army chaplain from Massachusetts arrived into town from New York, flush with his lobbying victory during the Northwest Ordnance negotiations in the Articles Congress. He carried grants of five million acres to parcel out among The Ohio Company and “speculators”, some of whom would be found among the delegates.[31] Noah Webster staying in Philadelphia, would write a pamphlet as “A Citizen of America” in October. Immediately after the signing, "Leading Principles of the Federal Convention" advocated adoption of the Constitution. It was published much earlier and more widely circulated than today's better known Federalist Papers.[32] Agenda Every few days, new delegates arrived, happily noted in Madison’s Journal. But as the Convention went on, individual delegate coming and going meant that a state's vote could change with the change of delegation composition. The volatility added to the inherent difficulties, making for an “ever-present danger that the Convention might dissolve and the entire project be abandoned.”[33]
nationalist floor leaders from biggest states most speeches, they seconded one another's motions

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James Madison, Vastrategy, comparative study'Father of the Constitution'

James Wilson, Pawesterly practice, lands”unsung hero of Convention”

Although twelve states sent delegations, there were never more than eleven represented in the floor debates, often fewer. State delegations absented themselves at votes different times of day. There was no minimum for a state delegation; one would do. Daily sessions would have thirty members present. Members came and went on public and personal business. The Articles Congress was meeting at the same times so members would absent themselves to New York City on Congressional business for days and weeks at a time.[34] But the work before them was continuous, even if attendance was not. The Convention resolved itself into a “Committee of the Whole”, and could remain so for days. It was informal, votes could be taken and retaken easily, positions could change without prejudice, and importantly, no formal quorum call was required. The nationalists were resolute. As Madison put it, the situation was too serious for despair. [35] They used the same State House as the Declaration signers. The building setback from the street was still dignified, but the “shaky” steeple was gone. The summer was hot, but city hand-pump wells were nearby. Flies were thick and nearby building construction made the street noisy. Sessions followed the customary six-day work week. Breakfast was before sunup. The Hall was still cool at ten, but hot by noon. Delegates sweltered in the closed room for secrecy, sentries kept passers-by from under the windows. After three, Delegates usually adjourned for dinner, or escaped into the green countryside, or along miles of riverside quays for offshore breezes.[36] When they adjourned each day, they lived in nearby lodgings, as guests, roomers or renters. They ate supper with one another in town and taverns, “often enough in preparation for tomorrow’s meeting.”[37]
national plans v. federal plans re-constitution of a republican legislature

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Edmund Randolph, Vabicameral: people elect bothconsolidated government

William Paterson (judge)William Paterson, NJunicameral: elected by statesstates and congress equal

Benjamin FranklinBenj: Franklin, Americanunicameral: people only electpopulations equal

Roger Sherman, CtSenate: states; House: people: Great Compromise

Delegates reporting to the Convention presented their credentials to the Secretary, Major William Jackson of South Carolina. The state legislatures of the day used these occasions to say why they were sending representatives abroad. New York thus publically enjoined its members to pursue all possible “alterations and provisions” for good government and “preservation of the Union”. New Hampshire called for “timely measures to enlarge the powers of Congress”. Virginia stressed the “necessity of extending the revision of the federal system to all its defects”. [38] On the other hand, Delaware categorically forbade any alteration of the Articles one-state, equal vote, one-vote-only provision in the Articles Congress.[39] The Convention would have a great deal of work to do to reconcile the many

United States Constitution expectations in the chamber. At the same time, delegates wanted to finish their work by fall harvest and its commerce.[40] Current knowledge of drafting the Constitution comes primarily from the Journal left by James Madison,[41] It can be found chronologically incorporated in “The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787”, edited by Max Farrand, available online. [42] The source documents are organized by date including those from the Convention Journal, Rufus King (Ma), and James McHenry (Md), along with later Anti-federalists Robert Yates (NY), and William Paterson (NJ). Farrand corrects errors among revisions that Madison made to his Journal while in his seventies.[43] The Virginia Plan[41] proposed by Governor Edmund Randolph (Va) was the unofficial agenda for the Convention. It was weighted toward the interests of the larger, more populous states. Provisions of this "Randolph Plan" including the following: (1) A bicameral legislature of a House proportioned to population and variable state representation in a Senate (2) An executive chosen by the national legislature, (3) A judiciary, with life-terms of service and vague powers, (4) The national legislature would be able to veto state laws.[44] An alternative proposal, William Paterson's New Jersey Plan, contained proposals geared toward smaller states: (1) A unicameral national legislature with each state legislature sending an equal number to represent it, (2) An executive branch appointed by the legislature, and (3) A judicial branch appointed by the executive.[45] Slavery in debate The contentious issue of slavery was too controversial to be resolved during the Convention. The issue of slavery, although always an undercurrent during deliberations and side-discussions, was at center stage in the Convention three times, June 7 regarding who would vote for Congress, June 11 in debate over how to proportion relative seating in the ‘house’, and August 22 relating to commerce and the future wealth of the nation.
slavery issue in Convention: regulation, not abolition

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George Mason, VaAbolitionismabolitionistfor national regulation

Charles Pinckney (governor)Charles Pinkney, SCjustified slaveryfor state regulation

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Oliver Ellsworth, Ctrich parts = rich wholefor state regulation

John Dickinson (politician)John Dickinson, Deabolitionist, Gov in De & Panational in 20 yrs, maybe

Eighteenth Century America had the widest franchise of any nation of the world. But it was a society of its time. Property gave a man “a stake in society, made him responsible, worthy of a voice, and with enough taxable property, eligible for office holding. Many could vote because most property was held as family farms. Though a substantial part of wealthy white America rested on slavery as property, the Convention met, not to reform society, but to create government for society as it existed. In determining who should vote, the property requirements among the states could not be reconciled. Pennsylvania, Delaware and New Hampshire were already for abolishing property requirements. To allow all states their own rules of suffrage, the Constitution was written with no property requirements. Slavery was taken out of that equation after the debate June 7. [46] Once the Convention turned to how to proportion the House representation, tempers among several delegates exploded over slavery again. If the number of seats depended on wealth, Pierce Butler (SC) wanted to include slaves. Elbridge Gerry (Ma) answered that the South could not have it both ways, if slaves were property and to be counted for Congress, then the North could count horses and cows. The attacks turned pointedly personal. Benjamin Franklin (Pa) interrupted with a speech about dividing up Pennsylvania so state populations were more nearly equal. He took some time. No vote was taken, tempers cooled, and the three-fifths non-free population count proposed by J. Wilson (Pa) passed using the Articles Congress “federal ratio”.[47] On August 6, the Committee of Detail reported its revisions to the Randolph Plan. A preamble was drafted. Delegates turned their thoughts to political economy that might best secure the public welfare and general happiness in the long run, for posterity. Again the question of slavery came up, and again it was met with attacks of moral outrage, relative poverty of the whites, and they were answered by appeals to local wealth by local means, and southern delegates inability to carry ratification in their states if slavery were threatened. By August 22, the delegates wove a web of mutual compromises relating to commerce and trade, north and south, port-states and landlocked, slave-holding, and free, relating to navigation laws, import taxes, population counts, national regulation of western territories and trade on the Mississippi. The transfer of power to regulate slave trade from states to central government could happen in 20 years, but only if there were national majorities for it both among the states in the 'senate' and among the people in the 'house', when it came time, then.[48] Later generations could try out their own answers. The delegates were trying to make a government that might last that long.[49]

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The Constitution’s Section 9 of Article I allowed the continued “migration” of the free or “importation” of indentures and slaves as the states chose, defining slaves as persons, not property. Article 1, section 2, provided for long-term power to flow to states with increasing population, away from those decreasing. That change would be counted in a census every ten years. Apportionment in the House of Representatives would not be by any wealth as initially allowed in the Randolph Plan. It would be representing people, the count to be made of the free citizens and other persons. [51] To the whole number of men and women, free and indentured, would be added “three-fifths” the number of “other persons”, meaning propertyless slaves and taxed Indian farming families.[52]

Aiding slave escape. Freedmen in Revolutionary generation were motivated by kinship tiesBerlin, Ira. Many thousands gone: the first two centuries of slavery in North America 2000. ISBN 978-0674-00211-1, p.283.

Article V prohibited any amendments or legislation changing the provision regarding slave importation until 1808, thereby giving the States then existing 20 years to resolve this issue. As the date neared in 1806, President Thomas Jefferson sent a message to the House and Senate congratulating the 9th Congress on their constitutional opportunity to remove U.S. citizens from the transatlantic slave trade which was perpetrating “violations of human rights … on the unoffending inhabitants of Africa”.[53] Signed into law March 3, 1807, The "Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves" took effect the fist instant the Constitution allowed, January 1, 1808. The United States would join the British Parliament, that year in the first “international humanitarian campaign”.[54] Just as the abolitionist George Mason refused to sign the Constitution, in the ratification conventions of Massachusetts and Virginia, the anti-slavery delegates began as anti-ratification votes. Still, the Constitution "as written" was an improvement over the Articles from an abolitionist point of view. In the Massachusetts Ratification Convention, Federalist anti-slavery delegate Isaac Backus confronted abolitionist Anti-Federalist Thomas Dawes. Trying to gain his support for adoption, he reasoned that the Constitution provided for abolition of the slave trade but the Articles did not. Sometimes those opposed to slavery were persuaded that the evils of a broken Union would bring worse consequences than allowing the fate of slavery to be determined gradually over time. [55] Sometimes contradictions among opponents were used to try to gain abolitionist converts. In Virginia’s Ratification Convention, Federalist George Nicholas dismissed fears on both sides. Objections to the Constitution were inconsistent, “At the same moment it is opposed for being promotive and destructive of slavery!” [56] But the contradiction was never resolved peaceably, and the failure to do so contributed to the Civil War.[57] "Great Compromise" Roger Sherman (CT), although something of a political broker in Connecticut, was an unlikely leader in the august company of the Convention.[58] Arriving right behind the nationalist leaders on May 30, Sherman was reported to prefer a “patch up” of the existing Confederacy.[59] Another small state delegate, George Read (DE) agreed with the nationalists that state legislatures were a national problem. But rather than see larger states overshadow the small, he’d prefer to see all state boundaries erased. Big-state versus small-state antagonisms hardened early.[60] On June 11, Roger Sherman proposed his first version of the Convention’s “Great Compromise”. It was like the proposal he made in the 1776 Continental Congress. Representation in Congress should be both by states and by population. There, he was voted down by the small states in favor of all states equal, one vote only.[61] Now in 1787 Convention, he wanted to balance all the big-state victories for population apportionment. He proposed that in the second ‘senate’ branch of the legislature, each state should be equal, one vote and no more.[62] Sherman argued that the bicameral British Parliament had a House of Lords equal with the House of Commons to protect their propertied

United States Constitution interests apart from the people. He was voted down, this time by the big states.[63] The motion for equal state representation in a ‘senate’ failed: 6 against, 5 for.[64]
"men of original principles" equality of the states

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George Read (U.S. statesman)George Read, Deif not state equalityerase state boundaries

Luther Martin, Mdif not state equalitycreate regional nations

Gunning Bedford, Jr.Gunning Bedford, Deif not state equality, get a foreign power of “good faith”

Elbridge Gerry, Maif not state equality, a foreign power will conquer us

Friday, June 15 Paterson introduced his New Jersey Plan. The “old patriots” of 1776 and the “men of original principles” had organized.[65] Roger Sherman (Ct), a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was with them. John Lansing (NY) observed that the Paterson Plan “sustained the sovereignty of the states”, while that of Mr. Randolph destroyed state sovereignty in a national, consolidated government. William Paterson (NJ) attacked the nationalists.

United States Constitution The Convention had no authority to propose anything not sent up from state legislatures, and the states were not likely to adopt anything new. James Wilson (PA) answered, The Convention could not conclude anything, but it could recommend anything.[66] Lansing (NY) had objected that if the New York legislature knew anything about proposals for consolidated government, it would not have sent anyone. Edmund Randolph (Va) countered, With the salvation of the American republic at stake, it would be treason to withhold any proposal believed necessary for good government and the Union.[67] Three sessions after its introduction, Paterson’s plan was off the table. It failed : 7 against, 3 for, 1 divided.[68] For nearly a month there was no progress; small states were seriously thinking of walking out of the Convention.[69] In a related resolution, the "original principles" men won a victory on June 25. The ‘senate’ would be chosen by the state legislatures, not the people, passed: 9 for, 2 against. [70] On June 27, the basis of representation for both the ‘house’ and the ‘senate’ re-surfaced. Roger Sherman (Ct) tried a second time to get his idea for a ‘house’ on the basis of population and a ‘senate’ on an equal states basis. The big state delegates beat him again. The 'house' would be chosen directly by the population voting. On the motion for equal state representation in the 'senate', the majority simply adjourned “before a determination was taken in the House.” [71] Luther Martin (Md) insisted that he would rather live under a regional government than submit to a United States under the Randolph Plan.[72] Sherman’s proposal came again two days later for the third time from Oliver Ellsworth (CT). In the ‘senate’, the states should have equal representation. If this cannot be agreed to, somehow, the union of states would end up separated. Wilson (Pa) countered, the purpose of population apportionment was not to make big states powerful, it was to “tear down a rotten house” of equal state representation.[73] Gunning Bedford (DE) spoke hotly, “I do not, gentlemen, trust you.” If the equal-state principle was lost, the small states could confederate with a foreign power showing “more good faith”. Elbridge Gerry (MA) warned, If the states cannot unite themselves, being conquered by “some foreign sword will probably do the work for us”.[74] On June 29, the majority running things, the Convention adjourned “before a determination was taken in the House.” on the question of equal state representation.[75] On July 2, the Convention for the fourth time considered a ‘senate’ with equal state votes. This time a vote was taken, but it stalled again, tied at 5 yes, 5 no, 1 divided. The Convention elected one delegate from each state onto a Committee to make a proposal; it reported July 5.[76] Nothing changed over five days. July 10, Lansing and Yates (NY) quit the Convention in protest.[77] No direct vote on the basis of ‘senate’ representation was pushed on the floor for another week. But the first new ‘house’ seat apportionment was agreed, balancing big and small, north and south. The big states got a decennial census for 'house' apportionment to reflect their future growth. Northerners had insisted on counting only free citizens for the ‘house’; southern delegations wanted to add property. Benjamin Franklin's compromise was that there would be no “property” provision to add representatives, but states with large slave populations would get a bonus added to their free persons by counting three-fifths other persons.[78] On July 16, Sherman’s “Great Compromise” prevailed on its fifth try. Every state was to have equal numbers in the United States Senate.[79] Washington ruled it passed on the vote 5 yes, 4 no, 1 divided, using precedent established in the Convention earlier.[80] Now some of the big-state delegates talked of walking out, but none did. Debate over the next ten days developed an agreed general outline for the Constitution.[81] Small states readily yielded on many questions. Most remaining delegates, big-state and small, now felt safe enough to chance a new plan.[82]

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United States Constitution Two new branches The Constitution innovated two branches of government that were not a part of the U.S. government during the Articles of Confederation. Previously, a thirteen member committee had been left behind when Congress adjourned to carry out the "executive" functions. Suits between states were referred to the Articles Congress, and treated as a private bill to be determined by majority vote of members attending that day.
President, the national "chief magistrate"

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John Dickinson (politician)John Dickinson, Defor one-person president

Luther Martin, Mdfor 3-person presidency

On June 7, the “national executive” was taken up in Convention. The “chief magistrate”, or ‘presidency’ was of serious concern for a formerly colonial people fearful of concentrated power in one person. But to secure a "vigorous executive", nationalist delegates such as James Wilson (Pa), Charles Pinckney (SC), and John Dickenson (De) favored a single officer. They had someone in mind whom everyone could trust to start off the new system, George Washington. After introducing the item for discussion, there was a prolonged silence. Benjamin Franklin (Pa) and John Rutledge (SC) had urged everyone to speak their minds freely. When addressing the issue with George Washington in the room, delegates were careful to phrase their objections to potential offenses by officers chosen in the future who would be 'president' "subsequent" to the start-up. Roger Sherman (Ct), Edmund Randolph (Va) and Pierce Butler[83] (SC) all objected, preferring two or three persons in the executive, as had the ancient Roman Republic. Nathaniel Gorham was Chair of the Committee of the Whole. The vote for a one-man ‘presidency’ carried 7-for, 3-against, New York, Delaware and Maryland in the negative. George Washington, sitting in the Virginia delegation, voted yes. With that vote for a single ‘presidency’, George Mason (Va) gravely considered the Confederation’s “federal government as in some measure dissolved by the meeting of this Convention.” [84]
Judiciary, the national court(s)

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John Rutledge, SCSupreme Court onlystate power, lower spending

Rufus King, Madistrict court = variationregional court, fewer appeals

The Convention was following the Randolph Plan, taking each resolve in turn when it moved forward. They returned to items when overnight coalitions required adjustment to previous votes to secure a majority on the next item of business. June 19, the Ninth Resolve on the national court system, and the nationalist proposal for the inferior (lower) courts. Pure 1776 republicanism had not given much credit to judges, who would set themselves up apart from and sometimes contradicting the state legislature, the voice of the sovereign people. Under the precedent of English Common Law according to William Blackstone, the legislature, following proper procedure, was for all constitutional purposes, “the people.” This dismissal of unelected officers sometimes took an unintended turn among the people. One of John Adams clients believed the First Continental Congress in 1775 had assumed the sovereignty of Parliament, and so abolished all previously established courts in Massachusetts.[85] In the Convention, looking at a national system, Judge Wilson (Pa) sought appointments by a single person to avoid legislative payoffs. Judge Rutledge (SC) was against anything but one national court, a Supreme Court to receive appeals from the highest state courts, like the South Carolina court he presided over as Chancellor. Rufus King (Ma) thought national district courts in each state would cost less than appeals that otherwise would go to the ‘supreme court’ in the national capital. National inferior courts passed but making appointments by ‘congress’ was crossed out and left blank so the delegates could take it up later after “maturer reflection.” [86] Re-allocate power The Constitutional Convention created a new, unprecedented form of government by reallocating powers of government. Every previous national authority had been either a centralized government, or a “confederation of sovereign constituent states.” The American power-sharing was unique at the time. The sources and changes of power were up to the states. The foundations of government and extent of power came from both national and state sources. But the new government would have a national operation. [87] To meet their goals of cementing the Union and securing citizen rights, Framers allocated power among executive, senate, house and judiciary of the central government. But each and every state government in their variety continued exercising powers in their own sphere.[88]

United States Constitution Increase Congress The Convention did not start with national powers from scratch, it began with the powers already vested in the Articles Congress with control of the military, international relations and commerce.[89] The Constitution added ten more. Five were minor relative to power sharing, including business and manufacturing protections.[90] One important new power authorized Congress to protect states from the “domestic violence” of riot and civil disorder, but it was conditioned by a state request. [91] The Constitution increased Congressional power to organize, arm and discipline the state militias, to use them to enforce the laws of Congress, suppress rebellions within the states and repel invasions. But the Second Amendment would ensure that Congressional power could not be used to disarm state militias.[92] Taxation substantially increased the power of Congress relative to the states. It was limited by restrictions, forbidding taxes on exports, per capita taxes, requiring import duties to be uniform and that taxes be applied to paying U.S. debt. But the states were stripped of their ability to levy taxes on imports, which was at the time, “by far the most bountiful source of tax revenues”. Congress had no further restrictions relating to political economy. It could institute protective tariffs, for instance. Congress overshadowed state power regulating interstate commerce; the United States would be the “largest area of free trade in the world.” [93] The most undefined grant of power was the power to “make laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution” the Constitution’s enumerated powers.[94] Limit governments As of ratification, sovereignty was no longer to be U.S. territory (in orange) west by Treaty of Paris (1783)Treaty theoretically indivisible. With a wide variety of specific was to be governed with republics, liberty and democracy powers among different branches of national governments and thirteen republican state governments, now "each of the portions of powers delegated to the one or to the other … is … sovereign with regard to its proper objects".[95] There were some powers that remained beyond the reach of both national powers and state powers,[96] so the logical seat of American “sovereignty” belonged directly with the people-voters of each state.[97] Besides expanding Congressional power, the Constitution limited states and central government. Six limits on the national government addressed property rights such as slavery and taxes.[98] Six protected liberty such as prohibiting ex post facto laws and no religious tests for national offices in any state, even if they had them for state offices.[99] Five were principles of a republic, as in legislative appropriation.[100] These restrictions lacked systematic organization, but all constitutional prohibitions were practices that the British Parliament had “legitimately taken in the absence of a specific denial of the authority.” [101] The regulation of state power presented a “qualitatively different” undertaking. In the state constitutions, the people did not enumerate powers. They gave their representatives every right and authority not explicitly reserved to themselves. The Constitution extended the limits that the states had previously imposed upon themselves under the Articles of Confederation, forbidding taxes on imports and disallowing treaties among themselves, for example.[102] In light of the repeated abuses by ex post facto laws passed by the state legislatures, 1783-1787, the Constitution prohibited ex post facto laws and bills of attainder to protect United States citizen property rights and right to a fair

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United States Constitution trial. Congressional power of the purse was protected by forbidding taxes or restraint on interstate commerce and foreign trade. States could make no law “impairing the obligation of contracts.”[103] To check future state abuses the framers searched for a way to review and veto state laws harming the national welfare or citizen rights. They rejected proposals for Congressional veto of state laws and gave the Supreme Court appellate case jurisdiction over state law because the Constitution is the supreme law of the land.[104] The United States had such a geographical extent that it could only be safely governed using a combination of republics. Federal judicial districts would follow those state lines.[105] Population power The British had relied upon a concept of “virtual representation” to give legitimacy to their House of Commons. It was not necessary to elect anyone from a large port city, or the American colonies, because the representatives of “rotten boroughs”, the mostly abandoned medieval fair towns with twenty voters, "virtually represented" thriving mercantile ports such as Birmingham’s tens of thousands. Philadelphia in the colonies was second in population only to London.[106] They were all Englishmen, supposed to be a single people, with one definable interest. Legitimacy came from membership in Parliament of the sovereign realm, not elections from people. As Blackstone explained, the Member is “not bound … to consult with, or take the advice, of his constituents.” As Constitutional historian Gordon Wood elaborated, “The Commons of England contained all of the people’s power and were considered to be the very persons of the people they represented.” [108] While the English “virtual representation” was hardening into a theory of Parliamentary sovereignty, the American New Congress had more powers over states, the Supreme Court theory of representation was moving towards a theory of vetoed state law on appeal.This picture shows the seat of the sovereignty of the people. In their new constitutions written Congress, the U.S. Capitol dome. In the foreground is the statue "Authority of Law" on the steps of the U.S. Supreme Court since 1776, Americans required community residency of Building. voters and representatives, expanded suffrage, and equalized populations in voting districts. There was a sense that representation “had to be proportioned to the population.” [109] The Convention would apply the new principle of "sovereignty of the people" both to the House of Representatives, and to the United States Senate. House changes. Once the Great Compromise was reached, delegates in Convention then agreed to a decennial census to count the population. The Americans themselves did not allow for universal suffrage for all adults.[110] Their sort of "virtual representation" said that those voting in a community could understand and themselves represent non-voters when they had like interests that were unlike other political communities. There were enough differences among people in different American communities for those differences to have a meaningful social and economic reality. Thus New England colonial legislatures would not tax communities which had not yet elected representatives. When the royal governor of Georgia refused to allow representation to be seated from four new counties, the legislature refused to tax them.[111] The 1776 Americans had begun to demand expansion of the franchise, and in each step, they found themselves pressing towards a philosophical “actuality of consent.” [112] The Convention determined that the power of the people, should be felt in the House of Representatives. Regardless of state heritage, militias or amassed wealth they would be counted, increasing and decreasing in their state communities. They would be counted by populations[113] every ten years, the decennial census.

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United States Constitution Senate changes. The Convention found that it was harder trying to give expression to the will of the people in new states. Virginia Resolves ‘ten’ was agreed to without dissent, “that provision ought to be made for the admission of States lawfully arising within the limits of the United States.” Then the debate began as to what state, if any, might be “lawfully arising” states outside the boundaries of the existing confederated thirteen states. [114]
new states or provinces forever for the people moving into new territory

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Gouverneur MorrisG. Morris, (Pa)make them provinces

Elbridge Gerry, (Ma)they will “enslave” us

Luther Martin, (Md)they’ll start a civil war

George Clymer, (Pa)its “suicide” for our 13

The new government was like the old, to be made up of pre-existing states. Now there was to be admission of new states. Regular order would provide new states by state legislatures for Kentucky out of Virginia, Tennessee from

United States Constitution North Carolina, Maine of Massachusetts. But the Articles Congress by its Northwest Ordnance presented the Convention another issue by its promise to settlers in the Northwest Territory. Land was sold to them by contract, they were to have all rights of U.S. citizenship, and they might one day constitute themselves into “no more than five” states. More difficult still, most delegates anticipated adding alien peoples of Canada, Louisiana and Florida to United States territory.[115] G. Morris (Pa) was reluctant to expand into any so “remote wilderness”, it would retard the commercial development of the east. Western peoples were the least desirable, least governable he knew. He would bar them from statehood forever, make them into perpetual provinces. He did not have the votes in Convention, but he made it possible in the future by giving Congress power to regulate and dispose of U.S. territory or other property.[116] For Elbridge Gerry (Ma), any new unknown states could be a majority in the Senate when they outnumbered the original thirteen states, and that would be intolerable. They would feel their power and abuse it, they would “enslave” the original thirteen. They would come “under some foreign influence” like the Spanish funded the Creek Indians to attack the east, and the British funded the Iroquois. “Foreign gold” would corrupt their state legislatures. On his return home, Luther Martin (Md) argued that westerners could not reasonably tolerate suffering under the dominance of eastern states. They would be justified in civil war to “shake off so ignominious a yoke.” G. Morris (Pa) had it that if they were allowed to be states, westerners would drag the country into an inevitable war with Spain for the Mississippi River, involving the whole continent. [117] These were poor people. How could they pay their fair share of taxes to the Union, or even pay for their own militia to defend against Amerindian nations? Were there to be so many western states that these poor and ignorant would outvote the eastern maritime states in the Senate? The east needed a way to protect its own interest, Nathaniel Gorham (Ma) suggested giving out representation to the west only as it suited the east. George Clymer (Pa), an “old patriot” of ’76, thought the whole western state idea was “suicide” for the original states. [118] Roger Sherman (Ct) countered that the people of the west would be “our children and our grandchildren.” Elbridge Gerry (Ma) retorted some of those grandchildren would be left behind, and they had interests too. There were so many foreigners moving out west, it could not be certain how things would turn out. [119] East-west jealousies were very much alive in the Convention. Delegates knew of them and benefitted from them. In Pennsylvania, Virginia and the Carolinas, state legislatures enshrined inequality of east-west representation in their state constitutions. Massachusetts and New York had in their past. [120] Virginia's Thomas Jefferson, absent the Convention, would complain that it took 15 voting men west of the Blue Ridge Mountains to equal one man east. Representative pportionment for states with a western “back-country” was a mix of population, voters and property. That status quo was captured in the original Randolph Plan for apportionment by “population or property” for both the ‘house’ and the ‘senate’. Instead, the Convention chose a formula for representing people as in a democracy.</ref> The demographic world of the states was changing underfoot. Populations were rapidly deploying west in such numbers, that delegates from Rhode Island and Massachusetts complained of the persistent interest in westward expansion. [121]

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But in the light of the debate over new states from western territories, delegates had pause over the number agreed to for House representation, 40,000 might be too small, too easy for the westerners. “States” had been declared out west already. They called themselves republics, and set up their own courts directly from the people without colonial charters from the sovereign states. In Transylvania, Westsylvania, Franklin, Vandalia, “legislatures” met with emissaries from British and Spanish Empires in violation of the Articles of Confederation, just as the sovereign states had done. Luther Martin (Md) stopped that claim by ensuring that the United States owned all the backlands ceded by the states.[122] He was successful in delivering a provision in the final draft of the Constitution, no majorities in Congress could break up the larger states without their consent.[123] James Wilson (Pa) had no fear of western states achieving a majority one day. The majority should rule. The British were jealous of our growth, and sought to curb it. That brought our hate, then our separation. If we follow the same rule, we will get the same results. Congress has never been able to discover a better National government was to vie with European trade, rule than majority rule. Madison (Va) was of the “firm opinion” British Empire#Rise of the Second British Empire that there could be no discrimination against the west. And as they (1783–1815)British, Spanish Empire#The Bourbon grow, all their trade goes by New Orleans. Imposts will more Spanish Empire: reform and recovery surely be collected there. Until then, they must get all their (1700–1808)Spanish empires, alliances of Joseph BrantMohawks, Alexander McGillivrayCreeks. supplies from eastern businesses. Character is not determined by points of a compass. States admitted are equals, they will be made up of our brethren. George Mason (Va) reasoned that we must commit to right principles, even if the right way one day benefits other states. They will be free like ourselves, their pride will not allow anything but equality. [124] It was at this time in the Convention that Reverend Manasseh Cutler arrived to lobby for what he had won in the Articles Congress. He has secured guaranteed protection of contracts in western land sales. He brought acres of land grants to parcel out. Their sales would fund most of the U.S. government expenditures for its first few decades. There were allocations for the Ohio Company stockholders at the Convention, and for others delegates too. In December, 1787, good to his word, Cutler led a small band of pioneers into the Ohio Valley.[125] The provision for admitting new states became relevant at the purchase of Louisiana It was constitutionally justifiable under the "Treaty Making" power of the Federal government. The agrarian advocates sought to make the purchase of land that had never been administered, conquered, or formally ceded to any of the original thirteen states. Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans would divide the Louisiana Purchase into states, speeding land sales to finance the Federal government with no new taxes. There would be no war for the possession of the Mississippi River. The new populations of new states would swamp the commercial states in the Senate. They would populate the House with egalitarian Democrat-Republicans to overthrow the Federalists.[126] Jefferson dropped the proposal of Constitutional Amendment to permit the Purchase, and with it, his notion of a confederation of sovereign states.[127]

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Adoption and beginning
On September 17, 1787, the Constitution was completed, followed by a speech given by Benjamin Franklin. Franklin urged unanimity, although the Convention had decided only nine state ratification conventions were needed to inaugurate the new government. The Convention submitted the Constitution to the Congress of the Confederation.[44]
ratification conventions in the states more nearly "the people"

Rufus King, Ma federalistFor ratifying Constitution, influenced VA & NY

Luther Martin, Md"Anti" in Articles of ConfederationArticles Congress,lost “Amend Articles" vote

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Patrick Henry, VaAnti-federalist"Anti" like those in MA, NY, SC, lost "Amend before" vote

James Madison, Vapushed "Amendments after", the Bill of Rights

Massachusetts’s Rufus King assessed the Convention as a creature of the states, independent of the Articles Congress, submitting its proposal to Congress only to satisfy forms. Though amendments were debated, they were all defeated. On September 28, 1787, the Articles Congress resolved “unanimously” to transmit the Constitution to state legislatures for submitting to a ratification convention according to the Constitutional procedure.[128] Several states enlarged the numbers qualified just for electing ratification delegates. In doing so, they went beyond the Constitution's provision for the most voters for the state legislature to make a new social contract among, more nearly than ever before, "We, the people".[129] Following Massachusetts's lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments.[130] A minority of the Constitution’s critics continued to oppose the Constitution. Maryland’s Luther Martin argued that the federal convention had exceeded its authority; he still called for amending the Articles.[131] Article 13 of the Articles of Confederation stated that the union created under the Articles was "perpetual" and that any alteration must be "agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State".[132] However, the unanimous requirement under the Articles made all attempts at reform impossible. Martin’s allies such as New York’s John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution “as it was”, seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before" shift to a position of "amendments after" for the sake of staying in the Union. New York Anti’s “circular letter” was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before". It failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately only North Carolina and Rhode Island would wait for amendments from Congress before ratifying.[130]

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Ratification of the Constitution -- dates, states and votes -Date State Votes Yes 1 December 7, 1787 Delaware 30 46 38 26 128 No 0 23 0 0 40

2 December 11, 1787 Pennsylvania 3 December 18, 1787 New Jersey 4 January 2, 1788 5 January 9, 1788 6 February 6, 1788 7 April 26, 1788 8 May 23, 1788 9 June 21, 1788 10 June 25, 1788 11 July 26, 1788 Georgia Connecticut Massachusetts Maryland South Carolina New Hampshire Virginia New York

187 168 63 149 57 89 30 194 34 11 73 47 79 27 77 32

12 November 21, 1789 North Carolina 13 May 29, 1790 Rhode Island

Article VII of the proposed constitution stipulated that only nine of the thirteen states would have to ratify for the new government to go into effect for the participating states.[1] After a year had passed in state-by-state ratification battles, on September 13, 1788, the Articles Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified. The new government would be inaugurated with eleven of the thirteen. The Articles Congress directed the new government to begin in New York City on the first Wednesday in March, [133] and on March 4, 1789, the government duly began operations. George Washington had earlier been reluctant to go the Convention for fear the states “with their darling sovereignties” could not be overcome.[134] But he was elected the Constitution's President unanimously, including the vote of Virginia’s presidential elector, the Anti-federalist Patrick Henry.[135] The new Congress was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states would be 20 Federalists to two Virginia (Henry) Anti-federalists. The House would seat 48 Federalists to 11 Antis from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina.[136]

Washington’s Oath of office. All was precedent,from the inauguration to serving two terms.

Antis' fears of personal oppression by Congress were allayed by Amendments passed under the floor leadership of James Madison in the first session of the first Congress. These first ten Amendments became known as the Bill of Rights. [137] Objections to a potentially remote federal judiciary were reconciled with 13 federal courts (11 states, Maine and Kentucky), and three Federal riding circuits out of the Supreme Court: Eastern, Middle and South.[138] Suspicion of a powerful federal executive was answered by Washington’s cabinet appointments of once-Anti-Federalists Edmund Jennings Randolph as Attorney

United States Constitution General and Thomas Jefferson as Secretary of State.[139] [140] What Constitutional historian Pauline Maier calls a national “dialogue between power and liberty” had begun anew.
[141]

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Historical influences
Fundamental law Several ideas in the Constitution were new. These were associated with the combination of consolidated government along with federal relationships with constituent states.
rule of law by Enlightenment and Common Law

John LockeTwo Treatises of Governmentlife, liberty and property

Edward CokeInstitutes of the Laws of EnglandInstitutes of the Lawsequity and habeas corpus

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MontesquieuThe Spirit of the Lawspublic virtue; three branches

William BlackstoneCommentaries on the Laws of EnglandCommentaries on the Lawsenacted law; property rights

The due process clause of the Constitution was partly based on common law stretching back to Magna Carta (1215).[44] The document established the principle that the Crown's powers could be limited. The "law of the land" was the King in Parliament of Lords and Commons. The once sovereign King was to be bound by law. Magna Carta as "sacred text" would become a foundation of English liberty against arbitrary power wielded by a tyrant. Both the influence of Edward Coke and William Blackstone were evident at the Convention. In his Institutes of the Laws of England, Edward Coke interpreted Magna Carta protections and rights to apply not just to nobles, but to all British subjects of the Crown equally. Coke extended this principle overseas to colonists. In writing the Virginia Charter of 1606, he enabled the King in Parliament to give those to be born in the colonies all rights and liberties as though they were born in England. William Blackstone saw the Parliament as legislature, the representative of the people, and so sovereign over judges in equity law. In his "Commentaries on the Laws of England" discussing cases, where ruling judges provided no rationale, he wrote one so as to connect and relate law and cases to one another in a way that had not been done so extensively before. "Commentaries" were the most influential books on law in the new republic among both lawyers generally and judges. The most important influence from the European continent was from Enlightenment thinkers John Locke and the brilliant Montesquieu. British political philosopher John Locke following the Glorious Revolution was a major influence expanding on the contract theory of government advanced by Thomas Hobbes. Locke advanced the principle of consent of the governed in his "Two Treatises of Government". Government's duty in a social contract with the sovereign people was to serve them by protecting their rights. These basic rights of English and by extension all humanity, were life, liberty and property. Montesquieu, emphasized the need to have balanced forces pushing against each other to prevent tyranny. (This in itself reflects the influence of Polybius's 2nd century BC treatise on the checks and balances of the constitution of the Roman Republic.) In his "The Spirit of the Laws", Montesquieu argues that the separation of state powers should be

United States Constitution by its service to the people's liberty: legislative, executive and judicial. The actuating spring driving an aristocracy is excellence and honor, the despot requires compliance and fear. In a democracy the activating spring is public virtue, Division of power in a republic was informed by the British experience with mixed government, as well as study of republics ancient and modern. A substantial body of thought had been developed from the literature of republicanism in the United States, including work by John Adams. The experiences among the thirteen states after 1776 was remarkably different among those which had been charter, proprietary newly created royal colonies. Native Americans The Iroquois nations' political confederacy and democratic government have been credited as influences on the Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution.[142] [143] Historians debate how much the colonists borrowed from existing Native American models of government. But several founding fathers had contact with Native American leaders and had learned about their styles of government.

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Red Jacket Iroquois Seneca peopleSenecacouncil leader, British ally, negotiated with Congress

Joseph Brant Iroquois Mohawk peopleMohawkwar chief, British ally, played U.S. and French for west.

The Iroquois Confederation could not be overlooked. They were “the most powerful Indian group on the continent.” Their government did not always work perfectly, unanimously, but they were once secure within their territory, and had been “nearly invincible” to outsiders over the lifetime of the Convention delegates.[144] Prominent figures such as Thomas Jefferson in colonial Virginia and Benjamin Franklin in colonial Pennsylvania were involved with leaders of the New York-based Iroquois Confederacy. The English needed allies to check expanding French networks. Both Virginia and Pennsylvania colonial claims extended north and west to Iroquois territory. The English could not expand without somehow bridging the cultural differences antagonizing their Amerindian neighbors. This concern extended the length of the English settlement, and it motived study of Amerindian culture and governance. John Rutledge of South Carolina in particular is said to have read lengthy tracts of Iroquoian law to the other framers in Convention, beginning with the words, "We, the people, to form a union, to establish peace, equity, and order..."[145] Even in the 1750s and at the Albany Congress, Benjamin Franklin had seen that no single English colony could effectively deal with Amerindian tribes or expand against the ever-present French. Franklin argued that there should

United States Constitution be some sort of diplomatic and self-defense concert among the British colonies. “If the Iroquois could form a powerful union … some kind of union ought not to be beyond the capacity of a dozen English colonies.”[146] The delegates meeting at Albany were unable to align the independent assemblies that they represented. But seeing the dangers before them, they made recommendations outside proper channels, going over the heads of the colonial legislatures. The Albany Congress went directly to the sovereign Parliament. In this they exceeded their authority, “like those who met at Philadelphia in 1787 would,” when the Constitutional Convention bypassed the independent state legislatures and appealed directly to the sovereign people.[147] The Iroquois experience with confederacy was both a model and a cautionary tale. Their "Grand Council" had no coercive control over the constituent members. This decentralization of authority and power had frequently plagued the Six Nations since the coming of the Europeans. The governance adopted by the Iroquois suffered from “too much democracy,” among their national parts. Their long term welfare suffered at the hands of French and English intrigues fostered among each separate Iroquois nation.[148]

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The new United States faced a diplomatic and military world inhabited by the same Europeans. During the Articles period, individual states had been making separate agreements with European and Amerindian foreign nations apart from Congress. Without the Convention's central government, the framer's feared that the fate of the confederated Articles United States would be the same as the Iroquois Confederacy. But in its experiment of national self-governance, the Convention relied on past and present. The Constitution used Iroquois and Greek forms of government, Roman and English Common Law, philosophies of republics and the Enlightenment. To commemorate the contribution of Iroquois forms of government to American fundamental law, in October 1988, the U.S. Congress passed Concurrent Resolution 331 to recognize the influence of the Iroquois Constitution upon the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.[149] Bills of rights before The United States Bill of Rights consists of the ten amendments added to the Constitution in 1791, as supporters of the Constitution had promised critics during the debates of 1788.[150] The English Bill of Rights (1689) was an inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. Both require jury trials, contain a right to keep and bear arms, prohibit excessive bail and forbid "cruel and unusual punishments." Many liberties protected by state constitutions and the Virginia Declaration of Rights were incorporated into the Bill of Rights.

Chief PontiacPontiac Odawa peopleOdawa "Giving a talk"In negotiations, gift-givingfor Amerindians, lessened the giver,for Europeans, subordinated the receiver.

United States Constitution

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Original text
The Constitution consists of a preamble, seven original articles, twenty-seven amendments, and a paragraph certifying its enactment by the constitutional convention.

Authority and purpose

opening phraseinspires friends, provokes opponents.virtual tour onlinehttp://www.digitalvaults.org/#/detail/105/?record=105 National Archives Experience. U.S. Constitution. Close ups of the U.S. Constitution, zoom in to read the original document. Linked to resources.

“

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

”

—United States Constitution, Preamble

National government
Legislature
19th Century Growth - government housing its branches

Old House Wing (left)U.S. Capitol

Old House ChamberOld House Wing

United States Constitution

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Old Senate WingU.S. Capitol (north)

Old Senate ChamberOld Senate Wing

Article One describes the Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government. The United States Congress is a bicameral body consisting of two co-equal houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The article establishes the manner of election and the qualifications of members of each body. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, be a citizen of the United States for seven years, and live in the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, be a citizen for nine years, and live in the state they represent. Article I, Section 1, reads, "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." This provision gives Congress more than simply the responsibility to establish the rules governing its proceedings and for the punishment of its members; it places the power of the government primarily in Congress. Article I Section 8 enumerates the legislative powers. The powers listed and all other powers are made the exclusive responsibility of the legislative branch: The Congress shall have power... To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Article I Section 9 provides a list of eight specific limits on congressional power and Article I Section 10 limits the rights of the states. The United States Supreme Court has interpreted the Commerce Clause and the Necessary and Proper Clause in Article One to allow Congress to enact legislation that is neither expressly listed in the enumerated power nor expressly denied in the limitations on Congress. In McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), the United States Supreme Court fell back on the strict construction of the necessary and proper clause to read that Congress had "[t]he foregoing powers and all other powers..."

United States Constitution Executive

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White House#Evolution of the White HouseThe President’s HouseWashington, DC

James Hoban designWhite House#Architectural competitionThe President’s House

Section analysis Section 1 creates the presidency. The section states that the executive power is vested in a President. The presidential term is four years and the Vice President serves the identical term. This section originally set the method of electing the President and Vice President, but this method has been superseded by the Twelfth Amendment. • Qualifications. The President must be a natural born citizen of the United States, at least 35 years old and a resident of the United States for at least 14 years. An obsolete part of this clause provides that instead of being a natural born citizen, a person may be a citizen at the time of the adoption of the Constitution. The reason for this clause was to extend eligibility to Citizens of the United States at the time of the adoption of the Constitution, regardless of their place of birth, who were born under the allegiance of a foreign sovereign before the founding of the United States. Without this clause, no one would have been eligible to be president until thirty-five years after the founding of the United States. • Succession. Section 1 specifies that the Vice President succeeds to the presidency if the President is removed, unable to discharge the powers and duties of office, dies while in office, or resigns. The original text ("the same shall devolve") left it unclear whether this succession was intended to be on an acting basis (merely taking on the powers of the office) or permanent (assuming the Presidency itself). After the death of William Henry Harrison, John Tyler set the precedent that the succession was permanent; this practice was followed when later presidents died in office. Today the 25th Amendment states that the Vice President becomes President upon the death or disability of the President. • Pay. The President receives "Compensation" for being the president, and this compensation may not be increased or decreased during the president's term in office. The president may not receive other compensation from either the United States or any of the individual states. • Oath of office. The final clause creates the presidential oath to preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution. Section 2 grants substantive powers to the president: • The president is the Commander in Chief of the United States Armed Forces, and of the state militias when these are called into federal service. • The president may require opinions of the principal officers of the federal government. • The president may grant reprieves and pardons, except in cases of impeachment (i.e., the president cannot pardon himself or herself to escape impeachment by Congress). Section 2 grants and limits the president's appointment powers: • The president may make treaties, with the advice and consent of the Senate, provided two-thirds of the senators who are present agree.

United States Constitution • With the advice and consent of the Senate, the President may appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not otherwise described in the Constitution. • Congress may give the power to appoint lower officers to the President alone, to the courts, or to the heads of departments. • The president may make any of these appointments during a congressional recess. Such a "recess appointment" expires at the end of the next session of Congress. Section 3 opens by describing the president's relations with Congress: • The president reports on the state of the union. • The president may convene either house, or both houses, of Congress. • When the two houses of Congress cannot agree on the time of adjournment, the president may adjourn them to some future date. Section 3 adds: • The president receives ambassadors. • The president sees that the laws are faithfully executed. • The president commissions all the offices of the federal government. Section 4 provides for removal of the president and other federal officers. The president is removed on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. Judiciary Article Three describes the court system (the judicial branch), including the Supreme Court. The article requires that there be one court called the Supreme Court, and sets the kinds of cases it takes as original jurisdiction. Congress can create lower courts and appeals process. Congress enacts law defining crimes and providing for punishment. Article Three also protects the right to trial by jury in all criminal cases, and defines the crime of treason. Judicial power. III.Sec.1. is the authority to interpret and apply the law to a particular case contested by litigants. It connotes the power to punish, sentence, and direct future action to resolve conflicts. The Constitution provides an outline for the U.S. judicial system. Congress in the Judiciary Act of 1789 began to fill in detail. Current operating authority is Title 28 of the U.S. Code. [152] As of the First Congress, the Supreme Court justices rode circuit to sit as panels to hear appeals from the district courts.[153] In 1891, Congress enacted a new system. District courts would have original jurisdiction. Intermediate appellate courts with exclusive jurisdiction were made up of districts. These heard regional appeals before consideration on a national level at the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court holds discretionary jurisdiction. Cases are not admitted before the Supreme Court until it decides that the Constitutional issues apply nationally.[154]

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United States Constitution

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U.S. Capitol BuildingWashington, DC

Old Supreme CourtU.S. Capitol basement

To enforce its decisions, the Constitution grants federal courts both criminal contempt and civil contempt powers to coerce individuals. The court’s summary punishment for contempt immediately overrides all other punishments applicable to the subject party. Other implied powers include injunctive relief and habeas corpus remedies. The Court may imprisonment for contumacy, bad-faith litigation, and failure to obey a writ of mandamus. Judicial power includes that granted by Acts of Congress for rules of law and punishment. Judicial power also extends to areas not covered by statute. Generally, federal courts cannot interrupt state court proceedings. But in rare cases, the theory of justice as equity can be used to intervene. In equity, a court takes up a concern for fairness. It rules on not only the letter of the law, but what may bring about good and right between the parties.[154] Arisings Clause. The Diversity (of Citizenship) Clause. III.Sec.2 Clause 1. Citizens of different states are citizens of the United States. Cases arising under the laws of the United States and its treaties come under the jurisdiction of Federal courts. Cases under international maritime law and conflicting land grants of different states come under Federal courts. Cases between U.S. citizens in different states, and cases between U.S. citizens and foreign states and their citizens, come under Federal jurisdiction. The trials will be in the state where the crime was committed.[154] Judicial review. III.Sec.2. U.S. courts have the power to rule legislative enactments or executive acts invalid on constitutional grounds. The Constitution is the supreme law of the land. Any court, state or federal, high or low, has the power to refuse to enforce any statute or executive order it deems repugnant to the U.S. Constitution. Two conflicting federal laws are under “pendent” jurisdiction if one presents a strict constitutional issue. Federal court jurisdiction is rare when a state Legislature enacts something as under federal jurisdiction.[155] To establish a federal system of national law, considerable effort goes into developing a spirit of comity between Federal government and states. By the doctrine of ‘Res Judicata’, federal courts give “full faith and credit” to State Courts.[156] The Supreme Court will decide Constitutional issues of state law only on a case by case basis, and only by strict Constitutional necessity, independent of state legislators motives, their policy outcomes or its national wisdom.[157] Exceptions Clause. III. Sec.2. Clause 2. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases about Ambassadors and other public ministers and consuls, for all cases respecting foreign nation-states. >[158] Standing. III. Sec2. Clause 2 – This is the rule for Federal courts to take a case. Justiciability is the standing to sue. A case cannot be hypothetical or concerning a settled issue. In the U.S. system, someone must have direct, real and substantial personal injury. The issue must be concrete and “ripe”, that is, of broad enough concern in the Court’s jurisdiction that a lower court, either Federal or state, does not geographically cover all the existing cases before law. Courts following these guidelines exercise judicial restraint. Those making an exception are said to be judicial activist. [159]

United States Constitution Treason. III.Sec.3. This part of the Constitution strips Congress of the Parliamentary power of changing or modifying the law of treason by simple majority statute. It's not enough to merely think treasonously; there must be an overt act of making war or materially helping those at war with the United States. Accusations must be corroborated by at least two witnesses. Congress is a political body and political disagreements routinely encountered should never be considered as treason. This allows for nonviolent resistance to the government because opposition is not a life or death proposition. However, Congress does provide for other less subversive crimes and punishments such as conspiracy. [160]

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Federal relationships
The States Article Four outlines the relation between the states and the relation between the federal government. In addition, it provides for such matters as admitting new states as well as border changes between the states. For instance, it requires states to give "full faith and credit" to the public acts, records, and court proceedings of the other states. Congress is permitted to regulate the manner in which proof of such acts, records, or proceedings may be admitted. The "privileges and immunities" clause prohibits state governments from discriminating against citizens of other states in favor of resident citizens (e.g., having tougher penalties for residents of Ohio convicted of crimes within Michigan). It also establishes extradition between the states, as well as laying down a legal basis for freedom of movement and travel amongst the states. Today, this provision is sometimes taken for granted, especially by citizens who live near state borders; but in the days of the Articles of Confederation, crossing state lines was often a much more arduous and costly process. Article Four also provides for the creation and admission of new states. The Territorial Clause gives Congress the power to make rules for disposing of federal property and governing non-state territories of the United States. Finally, the fourth section of Article Four requires the United States to guarantee to each state a republican form of government, and to protect the states from invasion and violence. Amendments Amending clause. V. Section 1. Article V provides for amending the supreme “law of the land”. Amendment of the state Constitutions at the time of the 1787 Constitutional Convention required only a majority vote in a sitting legislature of a state, as duly elected representatives of its sovereign people. The very next session, meeting by the same authority, could likewise undo the work of any previous sitting assembly. This was not the “fundamental law” the founders such as James Madison had in mind.[161] Nor did they want to perpetuate the paralysis of the Articles by requiring unanimous state approval. The Articles of Confederation had proven unworkable within ten years of its employment.[162] Between the two existing options for changing the supreme “law of the land”, (a) too easy by the states, and (b) too hard by the Articles, the Constitution offered a federal balance of the national legislature and the states. Two-thirds of both houses of Congress could propose an Amendment, which can become valid “for all intents and purposes” as the Constitution, when three-fourths of the states approve.[163] No Amendment can ever take away equal State votes in the U.S. Senate unless a state first agrees to it. No amendment regarding slavery or direct taxes could be permitted until 1808. Slavery was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendmentin December 1865, direct tax on income was effected by the Sixteenth Amendment in February 1913.[164] Incorporated Amendments. The Fourteenth Amendment is used by Federal courts to incorporate Amendments into the state constitutions as provisions to protect United States citizens. By 1968, the Court would hold that provisions of the Bill of Rights were “fundamental to the American scheme of justice”. The Amendment in view by the Supreme Court was applicable to the states in their relationship to individual United States citizens in every state.[165]

United States Constitution Among the Bill of Rights, Doug Linder counts the First, Second, Fourth, and Sixth Amendment as fully incorporated into State governance. Most of the Fifth Amendment is incorporated, and a single provision of the Eighth. The Third Amendment is incorporated only in the U.S. Second Circuit, the states of New York, Connecticut and New Hampshire. The Supreme Court has not determined the Constitutional issue is yet “ripe” for national application in every state. The Seventh Amendment is not incorporated.[166] Twentieth Century Amendments use the prohibitive phrase, “neither the United States nor any State” to comprehensively incorporate the Amendment into the States at the time of its ratification into the Constitution. Central government Article Six establishes the Constitution, and the laws and treaties of the United States made according to it, to be the supreme law of the land, and that "the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the laws or constitutions of any state notwithstanding." It also validates national debt created under the Articles of Confederation and requires that all federal and state legislators, officers, and judges take oaths or affirmations to support the Constitution. This means that the states' constitutions and laws should not conflict with the laws of the federal constitution and that in case of a conflict, state judges are legally bound to honor the federal laws and constitution over those of any state. Article Six also states "no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States." Ratification Ratification clause. VII. Sec. 1. Article Seven details how to initiate the new government as proposed. The Constitution was transmitted to the Articles Congress, then after debate, forwarded to the states. States were to ratify the Constitution in state conventions specially convened for that purpose. The ratification conventions would arise directly from the people voting, and not by the forms of any existing State constitutions.[18] The new national Constitution would not take effect until at least nine states ratified. It would replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation only after three-fourths of the existing states agreed to move together by special state elections for one-time conventions. It would apply only to those states that ratified it, and it would be valid for all states joining after.[154] The Articles Congress certified eleven ratification conventions had adopted the proposed Constitution for their states on September 13, 1788, and in accordance with its resolution, the new Constitutional government began March 4, 1789. [167] (See above Ratification and beginning.)

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The Amendments
Amendment of the state Constitutions at the time of the 1787 Constitutional Convention required only a majority vote in a sitting legislature of a state, as duly elected representatives of its sovereign people. The next session of a regularly elected assembly could do the same. This was not the “fundamental law” the founders such as James Madison had in mind. Nor did they want to perpetuate the paralysis of the Articles by requiring unanimous state approval. The Articles of Confederation had proven unworkable within ten years of its employment. Between the options for changing the “supreme law of the land”, too easy by the states, and too hard by the Articles, the Constitution offered a federal balance of the national legislature and the states.

United States Constitution

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Procedure
Three steps to Amendments

House-passed 12 proposals2/3-majority, then to Senate(States later ratify 10 of 12)

Senate-passed 12 proposals2/3-majority, then 3/4 States =United States Bill of RightsBill of Rights

Changing the “fundamental law” is a two-part process of three steps: amendments are proposed then they must be ratified by the states. An Amendment can be proposed one of two ways. Both ways have two steps. It can be

United States Constitution proposed by Congress, and ratified by the states. Or on demand of two-thirds of the state legislatures, Congress could call a constitutional convention to propose an amendment, then to be ratified by the states. To date, all amendments, whether ratified or not, have been proposed by a two-thirds vote in each house of Congress. Over 10,000 constitutional amendments have been introduced in Congress since 1789; during the last several decades, between 100 and 200 have been offered in a typical congressional year. Most of these ideas never leave Congressional committee, and of those reported to the floor for a vote, far fewer get proposed by Congress to the states for ratification.[168] In the first step, the proposed Amendment must find a national super majority of 67% in Congress, both House (people) and Senate (states). The second step requires a super-super 75% majority of the states ratifying, representing a majority of the people in the states ratifying. Congress determines whether the state legislatures or special state conventions ratify the amendment.[169] On attaining Constitutional ratification of the proposal by three-fourths of the states, at that instant, the “fundamental law” for the United States of America is expressed in that Amendment. It is operative without any additional agency. Although the Founders considered alternatives, no signature is required from the President. Congress does not have to re-enact. The Supreme Court does not have to deliberate. There is no delay from a panel of lawyers to re-draft and re-balance the entire Constitution incorporating the new wording. The Amendment, with the last required state ratifying, is the “supreme law of the land. Unlike amendments to most constitutions, amendments to the United States Constitution are appended to the body of the text without altering or removing what already exists. Newer text is given precedence.[170] Subsequent printed editions of the Constitution may line through the superseded passages with a note referencing the Amendment. Notes often cite applicable Supreme Court rulings incorporating the new fundamental law into American jurisprudence, when the first precedent was given, and in what way the earlier provisions were found void. Over the last thirty years, there have been a few proposals for amendments in mainstream political debate. These include the Federal Marriage Amendment, the Balanced Budget Amendment, and the Flag Desecration Amendment. Another may be repeal of the 17th Amendment, restoring selection of U.S. Senators to state legislatures.

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Successful
The Constitution has twenty-seven amendments. The first ten, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, were ratified simultaneously by 1791. The next seventeen were ratified separately over the next two centuries. "Bill of Rights" The National Archives displays the Bill of Rights as one of the three “Charters of Freedom.” The original intent of these first ten Amendments was to restrict Congress from abusing its power. For example, the First Amendment -“Congress shall make no law” establishing a religion. -- was ratified by the states before all states had, of their own accord, disestablished their official churches. The Federalist Papers argued that amendments were not necessary to adopt the Constitution. But without the promise in their ratification conventions, Massachusetts, Virginia and New York could not have joined the Union as early as 1789. James Madison, true to his word, managed the proposed amendments through the new House of Representatives in its first session. The amendments that became the Bill of Rights were ten proposals of the twelve that Congress sent out to the states in 1789.[171] Later in American history, applying the Bill of Rights directly to the states developed only with the Fourteenth Amendment.

“

No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges ... of citizens ... nor ... deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny ... the equal protection of the laws.

”

United States Constitution The legal mechanism that courts use today to extend the Bill of Rights against the abuses of state government is called “incorporation”. The extent of its application is often at issue in modern jurisprudence. Generally, the Bill of Rights can be seen as the States addressing three major concerns: individual rights, federal courts and the national government’s relationships with the States. Individual rights The first Amendment defines American political community, based on individual integrity and voluntary association. Congress cannot interfere with an individual’s religion or speech. It cannot restrict a citizen’s communication with others to form community by worship, publishing, gathering together or petitioning the government. The First Amendment addresses the rights of freedom of religion (prohibiting Congress from establishing a religion and protecting the right to free exercise of religion), freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of petition. Trial and sentencing Given their history of colonial government, most Americans wanted guarantees against the central government using the courts against state citizens. The Constitution already had individual protections such as strictly defined treason, no ex post facto law and guaranteed habeas corpus except during riot or rebellion. Now added protections came in five Amendments. Protecting the accused. The Fourth Amendment guards against searches, arrests, and seizures of property without a specific warrant or a "probable cause" to believe a crime has been committed. Some rights to privacy have been inferred from this amendment and others by the Supreme Court. The Fifth Amendment forbids trial for a major crime except after indictment by a grand jury; prohibits double jeopardy (repeated trials), except in certain very limited circumstances; forbids punishment without due process of law; and provides that an accused person may not be compelled to testify against himself (this is also known as "Taking the Fifth" or "Pleading the Fifth"). This is regarded as the "rights of the accused" amendment, otherwise known as the Miranda rights after the Supreme Court case. It also prohibits government from taking private property for public use without "just compensation", the basis of eminent domain in the United States. The Seventh Amendment assures trial by jury in civil cases. Restraining the judges. The Sixth Amendment guarantees a speedy public trial for criminal offenses. It requires trial by a jury, guarantees the right to legal counsel for the accused, and guarantees that the accused may require witnesses to attend the trial and testify in the presence of the accused. It also guarantees the accused a right to know the charges against him. The Sixth Amendment has several court cases associated with it, including Powell v. Alabama, United States v. Wong Kim Ark, Gideon v. Wainwright, and Crawford v. Washington. In 1966, the Supreme Court ruled that the fifth amendment prohibition on forced self-incrimination and the sixth amendment clause on right to counsel were to be made known to all persons placed under arrest, and these clauses have become known as the Miranda rights. The Eighth Amendment forbids excessive bail or fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.

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United States Bill of RightsCurrently housed in the National Archives and Records AdministrationNational Archives.

United States Constitution Congress nor States In 1789, future Federal-state relations were uncertain. To begin, the States in their militias were not about to be disarmed. And, if Congress wanted a standing army, Congress would have to pay for it, not “quarter” soldiers at state citizen expense. The people always have all their inalienable rights, even if they are not all listed in government documents. If Congress wanted more power, it would have to ask for it from the people in the states. And if the Constitution did not say something was for Congress to do, then the States have the power to do it without asking. Potential military coercion The Second Amendment guarantees the right of adult men in state militias to keep their own weapons apart from state-run arsenals.[172] Once the new Constitution began government, states petitioned Congress to propose amendments including militia protections. New Hampshire’s proposal for amendment was, “Congress shall never disarm any citizen unless such as are or have been in actual rebellion.” New York proposed, “… a well regulated militia, including the body of the people capable of bearing arms, is the proper, natural and safe defense of a free State.” [173] Over time, this amendment has been expanded by the courts to individual rights, including their overturning state legislation regulating hand guns. Applying the Second Amendment only to the Federal government, and not to the states, persisted for much of the nation's early history. It was sustained in United States v. Cruikshank (1876) to support disarming African-Americans holding arms in self-defense from Klansmen in Louisiana. The Supreme Court held, citizens must “look for their protection against any violation by their fellow-citizens from the state, rather than the national, government.” Federal protection of an individual interfering with the state’s right to disarm any of its citizens came in Presser v. Illinois (1886). The Supreme Court ruled the citizens were members of the federal militia, as were “all citizens capable of bearing arms.” A state cannot “disable the people from performing their duty to the General Government”. The Court was harking back to the language establishing a federal militia in 1792.[174] In 1939, the Supreme Court returned to a consideration of militia. In U.S. v. Miller, the Court addressed the enforceability of the National Firearms Act of 1934 prohibiting a short-barreled shotgun. Held in the days of Bonnie Parker and Clyde Barrow, this ruling referenced units of well equipped, drilled militia, the Founders “trainbands”, the modern military Reserves.[175] It did not address the tradition of an unorganized militia. Twentieth century instances have been rare but Professor Stanford Levinson has observed consistency requires giving the Second Amendment the same dignity of the First, Fourth, Ninth and Tenth.[176] Once again viewing federal relationships, the Supreme Court in McDonald v. Chicago (2010) determined that the right of an individual to "keep and bear arms" is protected by the Second Amendment. It is incorporated by the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, so it applies to the states. The Third Amendment prohibits the government from using private homes as quarters for soldiers during peacetime without the consent of the owners. The states had suffered during the Revolution following the British Crown confiscating their militia's arms stored in arsenals in places such as Concord, Massachusetts, and Williamsburg, Virginia. Patrick Henry had rhetorically asked, shall we be stronger, "when we are totally disarmed, and when a British Guard shall be stationed in every house?” [177] The only existing case law directly regarding this amendment is a lower court decision in the case of Engblom v. Carey.[178] However, it is also cited in the landmark case, Griswold v. Connecticut, in support of the Supreme Court's holding that the constitution protects the right to personal privacy. Constitutional relationships The Ninth Amendment declares that the listing of individual rights in the Constitution and Bill of Rights is not meant to be comprehensive; and that the other rights not specifically mentioned are retained by the people. The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states respectively, or to the people, any powers the Constitution did not delegate to the United States, nor prohibit the states from exercising.

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United States Constitution Subsequent Amendments to the Constitution after the Bill of Rights cover many subjects. The majority of the seventeen later amendments stem from continued efforts to expand individual civil or political liberties, while a few are concerned with modifying the basic governmental structure drafted in Philadelphia in 1787. Although the United States Constitution has been amended 27 times, only 26 of the amendments are currently in effect because the twenty-first amendment supersedes the eighteenth. Citizen rights Several of the amendments have more than one application, but five amendments have concerned citizen rights. American citizens are free. There will be equal protection under the law for all. Men vote, women vote, DC residents vote,[179] and 18-year olds vote.

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References
[1] WikiSource. "WikiSource: Constitution of the United States of America" (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America). . Retrieved 2007-12-16. [2] Library of Congress. "Primary Documents in American History: The United States Constitution" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ program/ bib/ ourdocs/ Constitution. html). . Retrieved 2007-12-16. [3] "Huntsman says the U.S. Constitution is the oldest" (http:/ / www. politifact. com/ truth-o-meter/ statements/ 2011/ aug/ 08/ jon-huntsman/ oldest-surviving-one-document-text/ ). . Retrieved 17 November 2011. [4] Gli statuti di San Marino e la "Libertà perpetua" della repubblica. San Marino: Arti Grafiche Sammarinesi, 1927 [5] CIA World Country Factbook, San Marino, Section: Government (https:/ / www. cia. gov/ library/ publications/ the-world-factbook/ geos/ sm. html) [6] Casey (1974) [7] Christian G. Fritz, American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War (Cambridge University Press, 2008) at p. 131 [ISBN 978-0-521-88188-3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZpKCvUacmSwC& pg=RA1-PA168& lpg=RA1-PA168& dq=christian+ g+ fritz+ "american+ sovereigns"& source=web& ots=UjY_WKHNjv& sig=Y2_7OZMg6ksk_866oiD44FArH-w& hl=en#PRA1-PA1,M1) (noting that "Madison, along with other Americans clearly understood" the Articles of Confederation "to be the first federal Constitution.") [8] Maier (2010), pp. 11-13 [9] Maier, op. cit., p.12-13, 19 [10] Wood, Gordon S., “The Creation of the American Republic 1776-1787” (1969) ISBN 0-393-00644-1 p.324-5 [11] Maier, op. cit., p.15-16 [12] Bowen, op.cit., p. 129-130 [13] Bowen, op.cit., p. 31 [14] Maier, op. cit., p.13 [15] Wood, Gordon S., op.cit. p. 356-367, 359 [16] Maier, op. cit., p.14, 30,66 [17] NARA. "National Archives Article on the Constitutional Convention" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ exhibits/ charters/ charters. html). . Retrieved 2007-12-16. [18] National Archives and Records Administration. "National Archives Article on the Constitution" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ exhibits/ charters/ constitution_transcript. html). . Retrieved 2008-09-01. [19] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 21. [20] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 11. [21] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 14-15. In the event, the signed Constitution was merely forwarded to the state legislatures without amendment or endorsement. But the states did receive a recommendation that each call a ratification convention apart from the state legislature according to each state’s suffrage and timing. All but Rhode Island did so. Rhode Island and North Carolina did not join the United States until after the Constitutional government began in 1789. [22] Though some 1776 notables did not attend, such as older generation Tom Paine, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and middle generation Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams. [23] In the Articles Congress, a state could not be represented on the floor until two delegates were present. The Convention quorum of seven states was met the first day with New York with two of its five delegates present that first day, New Jersey with three, Pennsylvania with four of its eight, Delaware with three of its five, Virginia with all seven, North Carolina with four of its five, and South Carolina with all four. Massachusetts and Georgia had each one delegate of their respective four present on the 25th. See Constitutional Convention for a complete listing of state delegations arrived in Philadelphia.

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[24] The rules of a formal body can determine outcomes. The nationalist “Federalists” will make a point of setting the rules to win the later ratification conventions. Their ratification strategy was to take up each article and section, with no votes on measures until completing the document.(Maier, op.cit., p. 342) . This delay suited different objectives. The intent was to persuade in Massachusetts (p. 200), to accommodate in Virginia (p. 219), and to await news in New York (p. 348) [25] In view of the Martin-Lansing “small state” positions and their importance in U.S. intellectual history, relative sizes of the states in 1787 can be ranked from the Constitution’s enumeration for the first House of Representatives. States free or with gradual emancipation had 35 Representatives: Pennsylvania eight. Massachusetts eight, New York six, Connecticut five, New Jersey four, New Hampshire three, Rhode Island one. States with a sizable 3/5 bonus for non-citizen slaves had 30 representatives at first: Virginia ten, Maryland six, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, Georgia three and Delaware one. (See U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 2.) [26] Bowen, Catherine Drinker., Miracle at Philadelphia: the story of the Constitutional Convention May to September 1787. (1966) 2010 Barnes & Noble ISBN 978-0-316-10261-2, p22, 267. [27] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 52. [28] Irons, Lee., |The 1788 American Revision of the Westminster Standards (http:/ / www. upper-register. com/ papers/ 1788_revision. pdf), viewed September 15, 2011. Referencing “Records of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America 1706-1788” (1969). [29] Bowen, op.cit., p.22 [30] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 19-20, 37, 173-6, 216-217 [31] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 37, 173-6, 216-217 [32] Teaching American History.org, A citizen of America: an examination into the leading principles of America (http:/ / teachingamericanhistory. org/ library/ index. asp?document=1782), viewed October 20, 2011. Scudder, Horace Elisha. Noah Webster (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=C29hfOcW32kC& pg=PA146& lpg=PA146& dq=Noah+ Webster+ at+ the+ Convention& source=bl& ots=5PIVaDlMdx& sig=vz-iL6PW_GGrIzWUITBVF8vQ0eY& hl=en& ei=Z9-fTs75KYPv0gGamaXRBA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CDcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=constitutional convention& f=false), 1885 ed., p. 129. [33] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 24 [34] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 24, 15 [35] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 19-20, 54, 15 [36] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 23, 41 [37] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 50, 52 [38] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 24 [39] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 33 [40] Bowen, 2010 op.cit., p. 226 [41] NARA. "National Archives Article on James Madison" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ exhibits/ charters/ charters. html). . Retrieved 2007-12-16. Although proposed by Governor Edmund Randolph (Va), it was drafted by James Madison who is acknowledged as "The Father of the Constitution" for his major contributions to its substance and his Convention floor leadership. [42] |“Farrand’s Records” (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llfr& fileName=001/ llfr001. db& recNum=2& itemLink=r?ammem/ hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(fr0012))#0010003& linkText=1), viewed September 15, 2011. The Yale University Press reprint is ISBN 978-0-30000-0801. The Avalon Project at Yale University Law School makes Madison's Journal available online by date-link, which is particularly helpful in comparing multiple editions. |Notes on the Debates in the Federal Convention (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ subject_menus/ debcont. asp). A complete Gregorian Calendar for the year is available online: |1787 Calendar (http:/ / www. hf. rim. or. jp/ ~kaji/ cal/ cal. cgi?1787). Madison’s Journal with errors from several sources can be found online as a searchable text and linked index edited by Gaillard Hunt (1903). |Journal of the Constitution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=smQSAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA502& lpg=PA502& dq=james+ wilson+ journal+ 1787& source=bl& ots=Oj0dhLtm82& sig=SRCioMT9I1eUe07ylmHQ3NswCzo& hl=en& ei=STpuTqyhBuPb0QHgp8mWAw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CEYQ6AEwBjgK#v=onepage& q=patterson plan& f=false) in The Writings of James Madison, vol. IV. 1787. Putnam Sons 1903. [43] Farrad (1966) p. v-ix. The work includes additional sources, cross references in the daily notes, a general index, and an index of every clause in the Constitution throughout the debates. [44] NARA. "National Archives Article on the Entire Constitutional Convention" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ exhibits/ charters/ charters. html). . Retrieved December 16, 2007. [45] NARA. "National Archives Article on William Paterson" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ exhibits/ charters/ charters. html). . Retrieved 2007-12-16. [46] Bowen, op.cit., p. 71-74 [47] Bowen, op.cit., p.95 [48] When the Constitution is ratified, it will balance states equally relative to slavery in the Senate. There are six states north of Pennsylvania, and six states south of it. Pennsylvania, the “keystone” state, split Senators one-one at first. After Pennsylvania abolishes slavery, the next state to enter the Union in 1792 is Kentucky with slavery. That maintains a “sectional equality” between free-soil states and slave-holding states, 7-7. Then in 1850, California was admitted as a free state, then Minnesota, Oregon and Kansas follow as free states before outbreak of the Civil War. The Constitution’s House of Representatives began nearly equal, but the decennial census reallocated power away from declining slave-economies and towards the places which supported more people. Over time, ten years at a time, under the Constitution, the state antecedents, wealth, commerce and militias matter less than the numbers of people it can sustain in its domestic economy. [49] Bowen, op.cit., p.197-204

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[50] Berlin, Ira. Many thousands gone: the first two centuries of slavery in North America (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Many-Thousands-Gone-Centuries-Slavery/ dp/ 0674002113#reader_0674002113) 2000. ISBN 978-0674-00211-1, p.283. [51] Section 2 of Article I provides in part: "Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states . . . by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons." [52] State population for U.S. representation or taxes was to exclude all numbers of untaxed Native-Americans.—“Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states … by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons”. [53] Annals of Congress, “House of Representatives, 9th Congress, 2nd Session” (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llac& fileName=016/ llac016. db& recNum=118), History of Congress, “Importation of Slaves” p. 241-242. Viewed October 18, 2011. [54] Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice. “Slavery and Justice” (http:/ / www. brown. edu/ Research/ Slavery_Justice/ documents/ SlaveryAndJustice. pdf) p.35 Viewed October 18, 2011. [55] Maier, Pauline. Op. Cit., p.201, 284 [56] Maier, Pauline. Op. Cit., p.284 [57] See South Carolina Declaration of Causes of Secession (December 24, 1860), reprinted in Richard Hofstadter, Great Issues in American History. Volume II, Vintage Books (1958), p.76-7; Abraham Lincoln, Message to Congress (July 4, 1861) reprinted in Hofstadter, supra. [58] Bowen, op.cit., p.93. He was the son of a shoemaker, now a farmer and lawyer. Although awkward, vulgar and laughable to more polished colleagues, he was an honest political broker. The most frequent speakers on the Convention floor were Madison, Wilson, G. Morris, all nationalists. Roger Sherman of Connecticut, a small-state ‘federal’ delegate, was fourth. His legislative philosophy was, “When you are a minority, talk. When you are a majority, vote.” Among the small-state advocates, he would make the most speeches throughout the Convention. [59] Bowen, op.cit., p. 93-4 [60] Bowen, op.cit., p. 75 [61] Bowen, op.cit., p. 93-4 [62] The nationalists had proposed a ‘senate’ smaller than the ‘house’, but still proportioned by population: one senator for small, two senators for medium, and three senators for large population states. [63] Bowen, op.cit., p. 94 [64] Farrand, Max. “The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787” (1966, 1974), Yale University Press 1937 reprint four vols. Vol. I, pp. 202 Madison, Mr. Sherman’s motion June 11. [65] Bowen, op.cit., p. 104, 105, 107. The most important were Lansing and Yates (NY), Bedford (DE), Paterson and Brearly (NJ) and Martin (MD). Other supporters of note were Mason (VA), Gerry (MA), Ellsworth and Sherman (CT) (Bowen, p. 105). [66] Bowen, op.cit., p. 107 [67] Bowen, op.cit., p. 107 [68] Farrand, op.cit., Vol. I. p. 322 Madison, Mr. King’s motion June 19. [69] McDonald, op.cit., p. 227-8. Yates and Lansing (NY) would walk out July 10. New York voted as a “small” state on big-state-small-state issues. It had no western frontier like Pennsylvania and Virginia, for instance. In 1787, the Erie Canal did not tie New York to the west, and Philadelphia was still the nation’s largest commercial and banking center, followed by Boston. [70] Farrand, op.cit., Vol. I. p. 408 Madison, on the question “that the members of the 2nd branch be chosen by the individual legislatures.”. June 25. [71] Farrand, op.cit., V.I, p.436 Journal. June 27. [72] Bowen, op.cit., p. 124 [73] Bowen, op.cit., p. 129-130 [74] Bowen, op.cit., p. 131-132 [75] Farrand, op.cit., V.I, p. 460. Journal.. June 29. [76] Bowen, op.cit., p. 138-139 [77] Bowen, op.cit., p. 140, 187 [78] McDonald, op.cit., p. 236 [79] Bowen, op.cit., p. 185-186 [80] McDonald, op.cit., p. 237 [81] McDonald, op.cit., p. 227-228 [82] Bowen, op.cit., p. 185-186 [83] Pierce Butler of South Carolina was generally a nationalist, representing up-country interests against the state-dominating big plantations, but on this, he switched between Resolution 7 and Resolution 8, speaking with the small-states, supporting a two- or three-person ‘presidency’. Cromwell had started well enough, but his Interregnum turned out badly. [84] Bowen, op.cit., p. 55-62 [85] Bowen, op.cit., p. 63-66 [86] Bowen, op.cit., p. 63-66 [87] McDonald, Forrest, Novus ordo seclorum: the intellectual origins of the Constitution (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Novus-Ordo-Seclorum-Intellectual-Constitution/ dp/ 0700603115#reader_0700603115) 1985. SSBN 0-7006-0284-4, p.276-7.

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[88] McDonald, op.cit., p. 261 [89] The Articles of Confederation gave Congress control of (1) the military: appoint and commission officers, build a navy, regulate uniform justice, and use privateers. (2) international relations: declare war and make peace, exchange ambassadors, enter treaties and alliances, establish admiralty courts, punish crimes on the high seas and regulate captures, and manage trade and affairs with non-state Indians. (3) commerce: value of coin, uniform standards of weights and measures, post offices, borrow money and establish courts to adjudicate issues between states. (McDonald, p.262) [90] McDonald lists his five “minor powers” as governing the federal district, punishing crimes against the law of nations, copyrights and patents, bankruptcies and counterfeiting.(McDonald, p.262-263) [91] McDonald, op.cit., p. 262-263 [92] McDonald, op.cit., p. 267. U.S. Senate, The Second Amendment—Bearing Arms (http:/ / www. gpoaccess. gov/ constitution/ html/ amdt2. html) in the Constitution of the United States, p. 1193. Government Printing Office, 1995, viewed 08/11/2011 [93] McDonald, op.cit., p. 263-267 [94] McDonald, op.cit., p. 267 [95] McDonald, op.cit., p.277-278 [96] States would lose more powers with the addition of Constitutional Amendments, the 14th will extend national Bill of Rights freedoms to states, the 15th and 19th will enlarge state citizenship, and the 18th will strip state legislatures of U.S. Senator election. [97] McDonald, op.cit., p.279-280 [98] Property right provisions included prohibiting restrictions on slavery within the country until 1808; banning export duties, direct taxes, and port preference; taxing interstate commerce, and confiscating estates. [99] Guarantees for liberty in the original Constitution included prohibiting suspension of the writ of habeas corpus except in times of rebellion or invasion, prohibiting ex post facto laws and bills of attainder, providing for impeachment of all civil officers, Jury trial in criminal cases, narrowing the definition of treason by direct action and two witnesses, and forbidding religious qualifications for national office. (McDonald, p.268-269) [100] In a republic, theory proposed that the people’s agent (represented by the House of Representatives) would originate money bills. No money could be spent but by legislative appropriation. Military appropriations were limited to two-years duration. There could be no dual office-holding in the national government and no titles of nobility. (McDonald, p.268-269) [101] McDonald, op.cit., p.268-269 [102] McDonald, op.cit., p.270. The Articles prohibited each and every state from treating with foreign governments, exchanging ambassadors, grant titles of nobility, maintaining their own armies or ships of war or privateers, they were not to engage in war unless invaded, lay taxes on imports. The states under the Articles of Confederation were not to make treaties among themselves. [103] McDonald, op.cit., p.270. This was necessary since Blackstone held the British Parliament was restrained from ex post facto laws only in criminal matters. (McDonald, p.271-272) [104] McDonald, op.cit., p.275 [105] McDonald, op.cit., p.279-280 [106] Wood, Gordon S., op.cit. p.174-175. [107] This picture shows the seat of the Congress, the U.S. Capitol dome. In the foreground is the statue "Authority of Law" on the steps of the U.S. Supreme Court Building. [108] Wood, Gordon S., op.cit. p.175-176. [109] Wood, Gordon S., op.cit. p.184, 186. [110] But because the 18th Century Founders did not choose universal suffrage for representatives or for direct proposition referendums does not mean that they did not have to argue the point down and outvote their opponents. In a letter to James Sullivan, May 26, 1776, John Adams asked rhetorically, “Shall we say, that every member of the community, old and young, male and female, as well as rich and poor, must consent, expressly, to every act of legislation?” His answer was, for 1776, No. (Wood, p.182) [111] Wood, Gordon S., op.cit. p.177-178, 183. [112] Wood, Gordon S., op.cit. p.179. [113] Populations counted for re-apportionment in the House of Representatives were the whole number of free and indentured citizens, and three-fifths the whole number of farming Amerindian families and property-less slaves. Untaxed Amerindians were not counted, nor were aliens, felons, nor vagabonds. For the U.S. Congress, persons alone were counted. Property was not counted in the calculations for legislative apportionment for either House or Senate, as it was in many states at the time. [114] Bowen, op.cit., p. 66. [115] McDonald, Forrest, op.cit., p. 282. [116] McDonald, Forrest, op.cit., p. 282-283. [117] Bowen, op.cit., p. 80-81, 177 [118] Bowen, op.cit., p. 176. [119] Bowen, op.cit., p. 177-178. [120] Bowen, op.cit., p. 175. [121] Bowen, op.cit., p. 176-177. Read (De) demanded to know why Georgia would have two Representatives to older Delaware’s one. G. Morris (Pa) answered, Before the government can begin operation, it will have twice the population.

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[122] Bowen, op.cit., p. 176. This point was the principle reason for Maryland’s reluctance to ratify the Articles in the first place, delaying its unanimous adoption from 1777 to 1783. [123] McDonald, Forrest, op.cit., p. 282 [124] Bowen, op.cit., p. 179-180. [125] Bowen, op.cit., p. 181, 184. [126] Federalists ruled the first twelve years of government with a President by Washington and Adams. The Democratic-Republicans ruled for the next twenty-four, and arguably after one-term John Quincy Adams, for another thirty years under the Jacksonian Democrats. [127] McDonald, Forrest, op.cit. p. 285 [128] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 54-58. [129] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 134, Connecticut expanded electorate to add all town meeting voters; p.140, Massachusetts dropped property requirements; p.218, New Hampshire dropped some property requirements, and added town delegates; p.223, Rhode Island put the question to a referendum which rejected the ratification convention, the Federalist minority centered in Newport and Providence boycotted the election; p.228, Virginia dropped “legal and Constitutional requirements” to expand the freehold electorate; p.327, New York dropped property requirements, timed assembly elections at the same time, and allowed up to five sequential days of voting until the voting rolls were “complete”. [130] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 431. [131] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 430. [132] WikiSource. "Articles of Confederation" (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Articles_of_Confederation). . Retrieved 2009-07-18. [133] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 429. [134] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 20. [135] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 438. [136] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 433. [137] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 456. [138] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 464. [139] "Founding Fathers: Virginia" (http:/ / supreme. lp. findlaw. com/ documents/ fathers/ virginia. html). FindLaw Constitutional Law Center. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-11-14. [140] "The Jefferson Cyclopedia" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2D0gAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA38& dq=anti+ federalist+ jefferson& hl=en& ei=7DN1TeOkNoKKlwe5o8jiCQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=anti federalist jefferson& f=false), Thomas Jefferson & John P. Foley, Funk and Wagnalls Company, NY and London 1900, “Anti-Federalists, and” p. 38 [141] Maier, Pauline. op. cit. p. 468. [142] "The Six Nations: Oldest Living Participatory Democracy on Earth" (http:/ / www. ratical. org/ many_worlds/ 6Nations/ index. html). Ratical.com. . Retrieved 2007-10-27. [143] Armstrong, Virginia Irving (1971). I Have Spoken: American History Through the Voices of the Indians. Pocket Books. p. 14. SBN 671-78555-9. [144] Graymont, Barbara. The Iroquois in the American Revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=sZN3ctqlL1MC& dq=samuel+ kirkland+ and+ joseph+ brant& q=convention#v=onepage& q=congress& f=false), 1972. ISBN 0-8156-0083-6, p.vii. [145] Mee, Charles L., Jr. The Genius of the People. New York: Harper & Row, 1987. p. 237 [146] Morgan, Edmund S., Benjamin Franklin (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WjgTv0-XdLYC& pg=PA82& lpg=PA82& dq=benjamin+ franklin+ and+ indian+ affairs& source=bl& ots=dnQn_pbFHX& sig=hMPZGy3uu-v2I4mdV_sbEM-XgOk& hl=en& ei=s1YzTqTHAoPk0QH_h-3aCw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=9& ved=0CFIQ6AEwCA#v=onepage& q=iroquois& f=false) 2002. ISBN 0-300-10162-7 (pbk) p.80-81 [147] Morgan, Edmund S., op.cit. p.84 [148] Greymont, Barbara. Op.cit. p.66 [149] "H. Con. Res. 331, October 21, 1988" (http:/ / www. senate. gov/ reference/ resources/ pdf/ hconres331. pdf). United States Senate. . Retrieved 2008-11-23. [150] NARA. "National Archives Article on the Bill of Rights" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ exhibits/ charters/ charters. html). . Retrieved 2007-12-16. [151] http:/ / www. digitalvaults. org/ #/ detail/ 105/ ?record=105 National Archives Experience. U.S. Constitution. Close ups of the U.S. Constitution, zoom in to read the original document. Linked to resources. [152] O’Connor, Tom. [ | Constitutional structure (http:/ / www. drtomoconnor. com/ 3000/ 3000lect01. htm)]. Austin Peay State University. Clarksville, TN. Criminal Justice/Homeland Security Director, Institute for Global Security. APSU Center, Ft. Campbell.Viewed November 14, 2011. [153] The Judiciary Act of 1789 established 6 Supreme Court justices. The number was periodically increased until 10 in 1863, allowing Lincoln additional appointments. After the Civil War, vacancies reduced the number to 7. Congress finally fixed the number at 9. [154] O’Connor, Tom, Op. Cit. [155] O’Connor, Tom. Op.Cit., viewed November 14, 2011. Judicial Review is explained in Hamilton's Federalist No. 78. It also has roots in Natural Law expressions in the Declaration of Independence. The Supreme Court first ruled an act of Congress unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison, the second was Dred Scott.

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[156] For instance, ‘collateral estoppel’ directs that when a litigant wins in a state court, they cannot sue in federal court to get a more favorable outcome. [157] O’Connor, Tom. Op.Cit., viewed November 14, 2011. Recently numerous habeas corpus reforms have tried to preserve a working “relationship of comity” and simultaneously streamline the process for state and lower courts to apply Supreme Court interpretations. [158] FindLaw for legal professionals (http:/ / www. findlaw. com/ casecode/ constitution/ )], with links to US Government Printing office official website, Cornell Law School, Emory Law School, and U.S. Supreme Court decisions since 1893, (1998, 2000 Supplement). Viewed November 28, 2011. [159] O’Connor, Tom. Op.Cit., viewed November 14, 2011. The four concepts which determine “justiciability”, the formula for a federal court taking and deciding a case, are the doctrines of (a) standing, (b) real and substantial interests, (c) adversity, and (d) avoidance of political questions. [160] O’Connor, Tom. Op.Cit., viewed November 14, 2011. Contrary to this source when viewed, the Constitution provides that punishments, including forfeiture of income and property, must apply to the person convicted. “No attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture” on the convicted traitor’s children or heirs. This avoids the perpetuation of civil war into the generations by Parliamentary majorities as in the War of the Roses. [161] Wood, Gordon. Op.Cit., p. 306-308. [162] Wood, Gordon. Op.Cit., p.356-367 [163] An alternative method of proposing an Amendment consists of application to Congress by the super-majority of two-thirds of the state legislatures call for another constitutional convention. That convention’s proposal then requires ratification by the same super-super majority as the first method, three-fourths of the states. While this has never been done, in the 1980s, 32 of the necessary 34 states called for a convention to propose a “balanced budget amendment.” [164] FindLaw for legal professionals (http:/ / www. findlaw. com/ casecode/ constitution/ )], with links to US Government Printing office official website, Cornell Law School, Emory Law School, and U.S. Supreme Court decisions since 1893, (1998, 2000 Supplement). [165] Linder, Doug. Exploring Constitutional conflicts: The Incorporation Debate (http:/ / law2. umkc. edu/ faculty/ projects/ ftrials/ conlaw/ incorp. htm), University of Missouri, Kansas City. viewed November 14, 2011. [166] Linder, Doug. Op.Cit., viewed November 14, 2011. [167] Maier, Pauline. Op.Cit., p. 429 [168] As no convention has been called, it is unclear how one would work in practice. [169] Lutz, Donald (1994). Toward a theory of constitutional amendment.. The 21st Amendment is the only successful Amendment that employed state conventions for ratification. [170] The new “supreme law of the land” takes the place of the old. For instance, the Thirteenth Amendment nullifies any permissive language relating to slavery in the original text of the Constitution. The Twenty-first Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment. Constitutionally, nothing prevents a future amendment from actually changing the older text. [171] The second of the twelve proposed amendments, regarding the compensation of members of Congress, remained unratified until 1992, when the legislatures of enough states finally approved it; as a result, after pending for two centuries, it became the Twenty-seventh Amendment. The first of the twelve, which is still technically pending before the state legislatures for ratification, pertains to the apportionment of the United States House of Representatives after each decennial census. The most recent state whose lawmakers are known to have ratified this proposal is Kentucky in 1792, during that Commonwealth's first month of statehood. [172] Dispersing armaments in the face of superior force was a hard learned lesson. At the outbreak of hostilities in the American Revolution, Royal Governors captured arsenals of the colonial legislatures in Concord, Massachusetts, and Williamsburg, Virginia, for example. [173] Moncure, Thomas M., Jr., Who is the militia – the Virginia Ratification Convention and the right to bear arms (http:/ / www. constitution. org/ 2ll/ 2ndschol/ 75tmvarc. pdf). Viewed November 11, 2011. Three states adopted the Constitution in ratification conventions addressing the need for an amendment guaranteeing state militia and citizen right to bear arms. Four states petitioned for protection of militia and the right to bear arms: New York, Rhode Island, Virginia and North Carolina. Pennsylvania and Massachusetts proposals included it as minority reports. [174] Moncure, Thomas M., Jr., op.cit. viewed November 11, 2011. In Presser v. Illinois, An armed mob of 400 in the city of Chicago paraded through the streets without a permit to intimidate an immigrant neighborhood. Illinois argued the armed individuals violated the state military code. [175] Moncure, Thomas M., Jr., op.cit. viewed November 11, 2011. Without a demonstrated relationship between “a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length” and “a well regulated militia”, the Court could not say the Second Amendment guaranteed carrying it in public. The Court did not see it as “any part of the ordinary military equipment or that its use could contribute to the common defense [of the United States].” Moncure does not address any parallels between the 1930s of Al Capone and modern day drug cartels, nor any use of gun regulation by local law enforcement, state National Guard, or the armed forces for policing borders and homeland security. [176] Moncure, Thomas M., Jr., op.cit. viewed November 11, 2011. Governor William Tuck of Virginia used the unorganized militia to break a 1946 strike by employees of the Virginia Electric and Power Company. [177] Moncure, Thomas M., Jr., Who is the militia – the Virginia Ratification Convention and the right to bear arms (http:/ / www. constitution. org/ 2ll/ 2ndschol/ 75tmvarc. pdf). Viewed November 11, 2011. [178] "Findlaw.com" (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ data/ constitution/ amendment03/ ). Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. . Retrieved 2009-05-04. [179] DC residents constitutionally vote for President by the Amendment. The vote for a non-voting delegate in Congress, and local offices as Congress allows by law.

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Louisiana Purchase Vente de la Louisiane
expansion of the United States

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1803–1804

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Flag of the United States

The modern United States, with Louisiana Purchase overlay (in green)
History - Established - Disestablished July 4, 1803 October 1, 1804

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The Louisiana Purchase (French: Vente de la Louisiane "Sale of Louisiana") was the acquisition by the United States of America of unknown operator: u',' square miles (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator: u','km2) of France's claim to the territory of Louisiana in 1803. The U.S. paid 60 million francs ($11,250,000) plus cancellation of debts worth 18 million francs ($3,750,000), for a total sum of 15 million dollars (less than 3 cents per acre) for the Louisiana territory ($219 million in 2010 dollars, less than 42 cents per acre).[1] [2] [3] The Louisiana Purchase encompassed all or part of 15 current U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The land purchased contained all of present-day Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska; parts of Minnesota that were west of the Mississippi River; most of North Dakota; nearly all of South Dakota; northeastern New 1804 map of "Louisiana", edged on the west by Mexico; northern Texas; the portions of Montana, Wyoming, and the Rocky Mountains Colorado east of the Continental Divide; and Louisiana west of the Mississippi River, including the city of New Orleans. (Parts of this area were still claimed by Spain at the time of the purchase.) In addition, the purchase contained small portions of land that would eventually become part of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan. The purchase, which doubled the size of the United States, comprises around 23% of current U.S. territory.[2] The population of European immigrants was estimated to be 92,345 as of the 1810 census.[4] The purchase was a vital moment in the presidency of Thomas Jefferson. At the time, it faced domestic opposition as being possibly unconstitutional. Although he felt that the U.S. Constitution did not contain any provisions for acquiring territory, Jefferson decided to purchase Louisiana because he felt uneasy about France and Spain having the power to block American trade access to the port of New Orleans. Jefferson decided to allow slavery in the acquired territory, which laid the foundation for the crisis of the Union a half century later.[5] Napoleon Bonaparte, upon completion of the agreement stated, "This accession of territory affirms forever the power of the United States, and I have given England a maritime rival who sooner or later will humble her pride."[6]

Background
Throughout the last half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics.[7] It was originally claimed by Spain, but settled by France (see New France), and given back to Spain after the Seven Years War, which acquired it mainly to keep it from British hands. As it was gradually settled by Americans, most, including Jefferson, assumed it would be acquired "piece by piece", although if another power should take it from the weakened Spain, "profound reconsideration" of this policy would be necessary.[7] The city of New Orleans controlled the Mississippi River through its location; other locations for ports had been tried and had not succeeded. New Orleans was already important for shipping agricultural goods to and from the parts of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckney's Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27, 1795, gave American merchants "right of deposit" in New Orleans, meaning they could use the port to store goods for export. Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi River, which had become vital to the growing trade of their western territories.[8] In 1798 Spain revoked this treaty, which greatly upset Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over for Governor Marquess of Casa Calvo, and the right to deposit goods from the United States was fully restored. Napoleon Bonaparte returned Louisiana to France from Spain in 1800, under the Treaty of San Ildefonso (Louisiana had been a Spanish colony

Louisiana Purchase since 1762.) However, the treaty was kept secret, and Louisiana remained under Spanish control until a transfer of power to France on November 30, 1803, just three weeks before the cession to the United States. James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase in 1802. Their interest was only in the port and its environs; they did not anticipate the much larger transfer of territory that would follow.

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Negotiation
When Spain sold the territory back to France in 1800 few noticed. But in 1801 Napoleon sent a military force to secure New Orleans, and a national panic resulted. Widespread fear of an eventual French invasion resulted, and southerners feared that Napoleon would free all slaves in Louisiana, which could trigger slave uprisings elsewhere.[9] Though Jefferson urged moderation, Federalists sought to use this against Jefferson and called for hostilities against France. Undercutting them, Jefferson took up the banner himself, and even threatened an alliance with Britain.[9] Jefferson initiated the purchase by sending Livingston to Paris in 1801, after discovering the transfer of Louisiana from Spain to France under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso. Livingston was authorized to purchase New Orleans. In 1803, Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, a French nobleman, began to help negotiate with France at the request of Jefferson. Du Pont was living in the United States at the time and had close ties to The original treaty of the Louisiana Purchase Jefferson, as well as to the political powers in France. He engaged in back-channel diplomacy with Napoleon on Jefferson's behalf during a visit to France, and originated the idea of the much larger Louisiana Purchase as a way to defuse potential conflict between the United States and Napoleon over North America.[10] Jefferson disliked the idea of purchasing Louisiana from France as that could imply that France had a right to be in Louisiana. Jefferson believed that a U.S. President did not have the authority to make such a deal: it was not specified in the Constitution. He also thought that to do so would erode states' rights by increasing federal executive power. On the other hand, he was aware of the potential threat that France could be in that region, and was prepared to go to war to prevent a strong French presence there. Throughout this time, Jefferson had up-to-date intelligence on Napoleon's military activities and intentions in North America. Part of his evolving strategy involved giving du Pont some information that was withheld from Livingston. He also gave intentionally conflicting instructions to the two. Desperate to avoid possible war with France, Jefferson sent James Monroe in 1802 to Paris to negotiate a settlement, with instructions to go to London to negotiate an alliance if the talks in Paris failed. Luckily for Jefferson, Spain procrastinated until late 1802 in executing the treaty to transfer Louisiana to France, which allowed American hostility to build. Also, Spain's refusal to cede Florida to France meant that Louisiana would be indefensible. Monroe had been formally expelled from France on his last diplomatic mission, and the choice to send him again conveyed a sense of seriousness. Napoleon was faced with revolution in Saint-Domingue (present-day Republic of Haiti). An expeditionary force under his brother-in-law Charles Leclerc had tried to re-conquer the territory and re-establish slavery. But yellow fever and the fierce resistance of the Haitian Revolution destroyed the French army in what became the only successful slave revolt in history, resulting in the establishment of Haiti, the first independent black state in the New World.[11] Napoleon needed peace with Great Britain to implement the Treaty of San Ildefonso and take possession of Louisiana. Otherwise, Louisiana would be an easy prey for Britain or even for the U.S. But in early 1803,

Louisiana Purchase continuing war between France and Britain seemed unavoidable. On March 11, 1803, Napoleon began preparing to invade Britain. Napoleon had failed to re-enslave Haiti; he therefore abandoned his plans to rebuild France's New World empire. Without revenues from sugar colonies in the Caribbean, Louisiana had little value to him. Spain hadn't yet finalized the transfer of Louisiana to France, and war between France and Britain was imminent. Out of anger against Spain and the unique opportunity to sell something that was useless and not truly his yet, he decided to sell the entire territory.[12] Even though his foreign minister Talleyrand opposed the plan, on April 10, 1803 Napoleon told Treasury Minister François de Barbé-Marbois that he was considering selling the whole Louisiana Territory to the U.S. On April 11, 1803, just days before Monroe's arrival, Barbé-Marbois offered Livingston all of Louisiana instead of just New Orleans, at an expense of $15 million, equivalent to about $219 million in present day terms.[13] The American representatives were prepared to pay up to $10 million for New Orleans and its environs, but were dumbfounded when the vastly larger territory was offered for $15 million. Jefferson had authorized Livingston only to purchase New Orleans. However, Livingston was certain that the U.S. would accept such a large offer.[14] The Americans thought that Napoleon might withdraw the offer at any time, preventing the United States from acquiring New Orleans, so they agreed and signed the Louisiana Purchase Treaty on April 30, 1803. On July 4, 1803, the treaty reached Washington. The Louisiana Territory was vast, stretching from the Gulf of Mexico in the south to Rupert's Land in the north, and from the Mississippi River in the east to the Rocky Mountains in the west. Acquiring the territory would double the size of the United States at a sum of less than 3 cents per acre.

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Domestic opposition
The American purchase of the Louisiana territory was not accomplished without domestic opposition. Jefferson's philosophical consistency was in question because of his strict interpretation of the Constitution. Many people believed he, and other Jeffersonians such as James Madison, were being hypocritical by doing something they surely would have argued against with Alexander Hamilton. The Federalists strongly opposed the purchase, favoring close relations with Britain over closer ties to Napoleon, and concerned that the U.S. had paid a large sum of money just to declare war on Spain. Both Transfer of Louisiana by Ford P. Kaiser for the Federalists and Jeffersonians were concerned about whether the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904) purchase was unconstitutional. Many members of the United States House of Representatives opposed the purchase. Majority Leader John Randolph led the opposition. The House called for a vote to deny the request for the purchase, but it failed by two votes 59–57. The Federalists even tried to prove the land belonged to Spain not France, but the papers proved otherwise.[15] The Federalists also feared that the political power of the Atlantic seaboard states would be threatened by the new citizens of the west, bringing about a clash of western farmers with the merchants and bankers of New England. There was concern that an increase in slave holding states created out of the new territory would exacerbate divisions between north and south, as well. A group of northern Federalists, led by Massachusetts Senator Timothy Pickering, went so far as to explore the idea of a separate northern confederacy. Another concern was whether it was proper to grant citizenship to the French, Spanish, and free black people living in New Orleans, as the treaty would dictate. Critics in Congress worried whether these "foreigners", unacquainted with democracy, could or should become citizens.[16] Most domestic objections were politically settled, overridden, or simply hushed up. One problem, however, was too important to argue down convincingly: Napoleon did not have the right to sell Louisiana to the United States. The sale violated the 1800 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso in several ways. Furthermore, France had promised Spain it

Louisiana Purchase would never sell or alienate Louisiana to a third party. Napoleon, Jefferson, Madison, and the members of Congress all knew this during the debates about the purchase in 1803. They ignored the fact it was illegal. Spain protested strongly, and Madison made some attempt to justify the purchase to the Spanish government, but was unable to do so convincingly. So, he tried continuously until results had been proven remorsefully inadequate.[16] That the Louisiana Purchase was illegal was described pointedly by the historian Henry Adams, who wrote: "The sale of Louisiana to the United States was trebly invalid; if it were French property, Bonaparte could not constitutionally alienate it without the consent of the Chambers; if it were Spanish property, he could not alienate it at all; if Spain had a right of reclamation, his sale was worthless."[16]

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Treaty signing
On Saturday April 30, 1803, the Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed by Robert Livingston, James Monroe, and Barbé Marbois in Paris. Jefferson announced the treaty to the American people on July 4. After the signing of the Louisiana Purchase agreement in 1803, Livingston made this famous statement, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest work of our whole lives...From this day the United States take their place among the powers of the first rank."[17] The United States Senate ratified the treaty with a vote of twenty-four to Issue of 1953, commemorating the 150th Anniversary of seven on October 20; on the following day, it authorized signing President Jefferson to take possession of the territory and establish a temporary military government. In legislation enacted on October 31, Congress made temporary provisions for local civil government to continue as it had under French and Spanish rule and authorized the President to use military forces to maintain order. Plans were also set forth for several missions to explore and chart the territory, the most famous being the Lewis and Clark Expedition. France turned New Orleans over on December 20, 1803 at The Cabildo. On March 10, 1804, a formal ceremony was conducted in St. Louis to transfer ownership of the territory from France to the United States. Effective on October 1, 1804, the purchased territory was organized into the Territory of Orleans (most of which became the state of Louisiana) and the District of Louisiana, which was temporarily under the control of the governor and judges of the Indiana Territory.

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Boundaries
The tributaries of the Mississippi were held as the boundaries by the United States. Estimates that did exist as to the extent and composition of the purchase were initially based on the explorations of Robert LaSalle. A dispute immediately arose between Spain and the United States regarding the extent of Louisiana. The territory's boundaries had not been defined in the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau that ceded it from France to Spain, nor the 1800 Third Treaty of San Ildefonso ceding it back to France, nor the 1803 The Purchase was one of several territorial additions to the U.S. Louisiana Purchase agreement ceding it to the United States.[18] The United States claimed Louisiana included the entire western portion of the Mississippi River drainage basin to the crest of the Rocky Mountains and land extending southeast to the Rio Grande. Spain insisted that Louisiana comprised no more than the western bank of the Mississippi River and the cities of New Orleans and St. Louis.[19] The relatively narrow Louisiana of New Spain had been a special province under the jurisdiction of the Captaincy General of Cuba while the vast region to the west was in 1803 still considered part of the Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas. Louisiana had never been considered to be one of New Spain's internal provinces.[20] If the territory included all the tributaries of the Mississippi on its western bank, the northern reaches of the Purchase extended into the equally ill-defined British possession—Rupert's Land of British North America, now part of Canada. The Purchase originally extended just beyond the 50th parallel. However, the territory north of the 49th parallel (including the Milk River and Poplar River watersheds) was ceded to the UK in exchange for parts of the Red River Basin south of 49th parallel in the Anglo-American Convention of 1818. The eastern boundary of the Louisiana purchase was the Mississippi River, from its source to the 31st parallel, although the source of the Mississippi was, at the time, unknown. The eastern boundary below the 31st parallel was unclear; the U.S. claimed the land as far as the Perdido River, and Spain claimed the border of its Florida Colony remained the Mississippi river. In early 1804, Congress passed the Mobile Act which recognized West Florida as being part of the United States. The Adams–Onís Treaty with Spain (1819) resolved the issue upon ratification in 1821. Today, the 31st parallel is the northern boundary of the western half of the Florida Panhandle, and the Perdido is the western boundary of Florida. The southern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase (versus New Spain) was initially unclear at the time of purchase; the Neutral Ground Treaty of 1806 created what became called the Sabine Free State during the interim and the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 began to lay down official dividing lines. Because the western boundary was contested, President Jefferson immediately began to organize three missions to explore and map the new territory. All three started from the Mississippi River. The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804) traveled up the Missouri River; the Red River Expedition (1806) explored the Red River basin; the Pike Expedition (1806) also started up the Missouri, but turned south to explore the Arkansas River watershed. The maps and journals of the explorers helped to define the boundaries during the negotiations leading to the Adams–Onís Treaty, which set the western boundary as follows: north up the Sabine River from the Gulf of Mexico to its intersection with the 32nd parallel, due north to the Red River, up the Red River to the 100th meridian, north to the

Louisiana Purchase Arkansas River, up the Arkansas River to its headwaters, due north to the 42nd parallel and west to the Pacific Ocean.

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Slavery
Governing Louisiana was more difficult than acquiring it. Since the slave trade had yet to be abolished, there were large slave populations in several slave states. Because of this, there were widespread fears that American slaves would follow the example of those in Saint-Domingue, and revolt. Southerners wanted slavery legalized in Louisiana, so they could ship their slaves to the new territory and reduce the threat of future slave revolts.[5] Jefferson agreed and allowed slavery in the acquired territory, which laid the foundation for the crisis of the Union a half century later.[5]

Asserting U.S. possession
After the early explorations, the U.S. government sought to establish control of the region, since trade along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers was still dominated by British and French traders and allied Indians, especially the Sauk. Fort Bellefontaine was converted into a U.S. military post near St. Louis in 1804. In 1808 two military forts with trading factories were built, Fort Osage along the Missouri River and Fort Madison along the Upper Mississippi River. During the War of 1812 Great Britain and allied Indians defeated U.S. forces in the Upper Mississippi; both Fort Osage and Fort Madison were abandoned, as were several U.S. forts built during the war including Fort Johnson and Fort Shelby. After U.S. ownership of the region was confirmed in the Treaty of Ghent (1814), the U.S. built or expanded forts along the Mississippi and Missouri rivers, including the expansion of Fort Bellefontaine, and the construction of Fort Armstrong (1816) and Fort Edwards (1816) in Illinois, Fort Crawford (1816) in Prairie du Chien Wisconsin, Fort Snelling (1819) in Minnesota, and Fort Atkinson (1819) in Nebraska.[21]
Plan of Fort Madison, built in 1808 to establish U.S. control over the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase; drawn 1810.

Financing
The American government used $3 million in gold as a down payment, and issued bonds for the balance to pay France for the purchase. Earlier that year, Francis Baring and Company of London had become the U.S. government's official banking agent in London. Because of this favored position, the Baring firm was asked to handle the transaction. Francis Baring's son Alexander was in Paris at the time and helped in the negotiations. Another Baring advantage was a close relationship with Hope and Company of Amsterdam. The two banking houses worked together to facilitate and underwrite the Purchase. Because Napoleon wanted to receive his money as quickly as possible, the two firms received the American bonds and paid cash to France.[22] The original sales document of the Louisiana Purchase was exhibited in the entrance hall of the Barings London offices until the bank's collapse in 1995 and is now in the custody of ING Group, which purchased Barings.[23] The original handwritten proclamation signed by President Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of State James Madison, that informed the American public of the landmark deal of the Louisiana Purchase, was acquired in 1996 by Walter Scott Jr. in Omaha, NE and now is currently in his private collection.[24]

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Nature of sale
It has been asserted that what was purchased was France's claim only, not the actual territory, which belonged to the tribes which inhabited the area. The territory itself was acquired slowly throughout the nineteenth century by purchases from Native American tribes and wars.[25] The question is discussed at length in the article on Aboriginal title in the United States, as well as in articles on the American Indian Wars and the U.S. Supreme Court case Johnson v. M'Intosh. The issue of legitimacy of the Louisiana Purchase is similar to the 1867 Alaska Purchase. In that case, the land rights were resolved more than 100 years later with the 1971 Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA), and even this act resulted in lingering resentment over the Alaska Federation of Natives' lack of legitimacy to act on behalf of Alaskan natives.[26] [27] See also Indian Land Claims Settlements for other cases where native land title claims were extinguished with monetary compensation.

The proceeds
Despite issuing orders that the 60 million francs were to be spent on the construction of five new canals in France, Bonaparte actually spent the whole amount on his planned invasion of the United Kingdom.[28]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] The American Pageant by David M. Kennedy, Lizabeth Cohen, and Thomas A. Bailey Table 1.1 Acquisition of the Public Domain 1781–1867 (http:/ / www. blm. gov/ natacq/ pls02/ pls1-1_02. pdf) "Louisiana Purchase" (http:/ / lsm. crt. state. la. us/ cabildo/ cab4. htm). Lsm.crt.state.la.us. . Retrieved 2010-06-11. Louisiana Resident Population and Apportionment of the U.S. House of Representatives (http:/ / www. census. gov/ dmd/ www/ resapport/ states/ louisiana. pdf)(PDF) U.S. Census Bureau [5] Herring, George. "From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776". p104. Oxford University Press, 2008. [6] Godlewski, Guy; Napoléon et Les-États-Amis, P.320, La Nouvelle Revue Des Deux Mondes, July–September 1977. [7] Herring, George. "From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776". p99. Oxford University Press, 2008. [8] Meinig, D.W. The Shaping of America: Volume 2, Yale University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-300-06290-7 [9] Herring, George. "From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776". p100. Oxford University Press, 2008. [10] Duke, Marc; The du Ponts: Portrait of a Dynasty, P.77–83, Saturday Review Press, 1977 [11] "The Haitian Revolution" (http:/ / scholar. library. miami. edu/ slaves/ san_domingo_revolution/ revolution. html). Scholar.library.miami.edu. . Retrieved 2010-06-11. [12] Herring, George. "From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776". p101. Oxford University Press, 2008. [13] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2008 (http:/ / www. minneapolisfed. org/ community_education/ teacher/ calc/ hist1800. cfm). Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved December 7, 2010. [14] Malone, Michael P.; Roeder, Richard B., Lang, William L. (1991). Montana—A History of Two Centuries. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 30. ISBN 0295971290. [15] Thomas, Fleming(2003). The Louisiana Purchase. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., P:149 [16] Nugent, Walter (2009). Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansionism (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4DAvNnBOufUC& pg=PA65). Random House. pp. 65–68. ISBN 9781400078189. . Retrieved 17 December 2010. [17] "America's Louisiana Purchase: Noble Bargain, Difficult Journey" (http:/ / www. lpb. org/ education/ tah/ lapurchase/ quotes. cfm). Lpb.org. . Retrieved 2010-06-11. [18] Schoultz, Lars (1998). Beneath the United States. Harvard University Press. pp. 15–16. ISBN 9780674922761. online at Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Qxhd5QIQGQcC) [19] Hämäläinen, Pekka (2008). The Comanche Empire. Yale University Press. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-300-12654-9. [20] Weber, David J. (1994). The Spanish Frontier in North America. Yale University Press. pp. 223, 293. ISBN 9780300059175. online at Google Books (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KOPdX2qaVrkC) [21] Prucha, Francis P. (1969) The Sword of the Republic: The United States Army on the Frontier 1783–1846. Macmillan, New York [22] Ziegler, Philip (1988). The Sixth Great Power: Barings 1762–1929. London: Collins. ISBN 0-002-17508-8. [23] "in print: project ING / Barings Archive client ING" (http:/ / www. tuchdesign. com/ case-studies/ in-print. html). tuch design. . Retrieved 2010-06-11. [24] "Louisiana Purchase Manuscript Goes on Public Display" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2002/ 04/ 0418_020419_lewisclark. html). News.nationalgeographic.com. . Retrieved 2010-06-11. [25] Loewen, James. Lies My Teacher Told Me. Touchstone, 2007, p. 121-122. ISBN 978-0-7432-9628-1 [26] http:/ / www. alaskool. org/ projects/ ancsa/ articles/ ADN/ RyanOlsenDec2004. htm

Louisiana Purchase
[27] http:/ / www. akhistorycourse. org/ articles/ article. php?artID=280 [28] The Louisiana Purchase, Thomas J. Fleming, John Wiley & Sons Inc. 2003, ISBN 0-471-26738-4 (p.129-130) (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=lwA25Mbi3dAC& pg=PA129& lpg=PA129& dq=louisiana+ purchase+ invasion+ of+ england& source=bl& ots=RGth61NPBa& sig=H1-j6AftKuNdvTxIBCKdxm40s8U& hl=en& ei=KOOvTqXnGMjAhAet4unVAg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& sqi=2& ved=0CEsQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q& f=false)

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External links
• Text of the Louisiana Purchase Treaty (http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals/louistxt.html) • Library of Congress – Louisiana Purchase Treaty (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Louisiana. html) • Teaching about the Louisiana Purchase (http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/purchase.htm) • Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial 1803–2003 (http://www.louisianapurchase2003.com/) • New Orleans/Louisiana Purchase 1803 (http://www.louisiana-purchase.org) • The Haitian Revolution and the Louisiana Purchase (http://thelouvertureproject.org/wiki/index. php?title=The_Revolution_and_the_Louisiana_Purchase) • Lewis and Clark Trail (http://www.lewisandclarktrail.org) • Louisiana Purchase and Lewis & Clark (http://www.shmoop.com/louisiana-purchase-lewis-clark/) student and teacher guide: dates, people, analysis, multimedia • Case and Controversies in U.S. History, Page 42 (http://books.google.com/books?id=-tCqM8cGzBEC& pg=PA42&lpg=PA42&dq=louisiana+purchase+constitution+controversy&source=bl&ots=Td_7NYHy4W& sig=AyJ7nNxWQIn1YjRcJDHdI2_pgSU&hl=en&ei=Bq1ETM-wLoe-sQOQms3TDA&sa=X& oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CDQQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=louisiana purchase constitution controversy&f=false) Senator Pickering explains his opposition to the Louisiana Purchase, 1803.

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War of 1812
War of 1812
The War of 1812 was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant sailors into the Royal Navy, British support of American Indian tribes against American expansion, and over national honour after humiliations on the high seas. Tied down in Europe until 1814, the British at first used defensive strategy, repelling multiple American invasions of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. However, the Americans gained control over Lake Erie in 1813, seized parts of western Ontario, and destroyed the dream of an Indian confederacy and an independent Indian state in the Midwest under British sponsorship. In the Southwest General Andrew Jackson destroyed the military strength of the Creek nation at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. With the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, the British adopted a more aggressive strategy, sending in three large invasion armies. British victory at the Battle of Bladensburg in August 1814 allowed the British to capture and burn Washington, D.C. American victories in September 1814 and January 1815 repulsed all three British invasions in New York, Baltimore and New Orleans. The war was fought in three theaters: At sea, warships and privateers of both sides attacked each other's merchant ships. The British blockaded the Atlantic coast of the U.S. and mounted large-scale raids in the later stages of the war. American successes at sea were characterized by single ship duels against British frigates, and combat against British provincial vessels on the Great Lakes, such as at the action on Lake Erie. Both land and naval battles were fought on the frontier, which ran along the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River. The South and the Gulf coast saw major land battles in which the American forces destroyed Britain's Indian allies and repulsed the main British invasion force at New Orleans. Both sides invaded each other's territory, but these invasions were unsuccessful or temporary. At the end of the war, both sides occupied parts of the other's territory, but these areas were restored by the Treaty of Ghent. In the U.S., battles such as the Battle of New Orleans and the earlier successful defense of Baltimore (which inspired the lyrics of the U.S. national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner") produced a sense of euphoria over a "second war of independence" against Britain. It ushered in an "Era of Good Feelings" in which the partisan animosity that had once verged on treason nearly vanished. Canada also emerged from the war with a heightened sense of national feeling and solidarity, having repelled multiple American invasions. Battles such as the Battle of Queenston Heights were used as such examples by Canadians. The war occurred during the much larger war against Napoleon raging in Europe; as such it welcomed an era of peaceful relations and trade with the United States.

Reasons for the war
The United States declared war on Britain for several reasons. As Risjord (1961) notes, an unstated but powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honor in the face of what they considered to be British insults (including the Chesapeake affair).[1]

Trade with France
In 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede American trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The U.S. contested these restrictions as illegal under international law.[2] The British wanted to impede American trade with France, regardless of their theoretical right as neutrals to do so. As author Reginald Horsman explains, "a large section of influential British opinion, both in the government and in

War of 1812 the country, thought that America presented a threat to British maritime supremacy."[3] The American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% U.S. cotton and 50% of other U.S. exports. The British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition.[4] The United States' view was that Britain's restrictions violated its right to trade with others.

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Impressment
During the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 175 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors.[5] While the Royal Navy could man its ships with volunteers in peacetime, in war, it competed with merchant shipping and privateers for a small pool of experienced sailors and turned to impressment when it could not operate ships with volunteers alone. It was estimated that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on U.S. ships in 1805 and U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin stated that 9,000 were born in Britain.[6] The Royal Navy went after them by intercepting and searching U.S. merchant ships for deserters. Actions such as the Leander Affair and especially the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair, incensed the Americans. Americans were outraged by the practice because it infringed on national sovereignty and denied America’s ability to naturalize foreigners.[7] The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become United States citizens. Britain did not recognize naturalized United States citizenship, so in addition to recovering deserters, it considered United States citizens born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the widespread use of forged identity papers by sailors. This made it all the more difficult for the Royal Navy to distinguish Americans from non-Americans and led it to impress some Americans who had never been British. (Some gained freedom on appeal.)[8] American anger at impressment grew when British frigates stationed themselves just outside U.S. harbors in U.S. territorial waters and searched ships for contraband and impressed men in view of U.S. shores.[9] "Free trade and sailors' rights" was a rallying cry for the United States throughout the conflict.

British support for Indian raids
The Northwest Territory, comprising the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, had been an area of dispute between the Indian Nations and the United States since the passage of the Northwest Ordinance in 1787.[10] The British Empire had ceded the area to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The Indian Nations followed Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee Prophet and the brother of Tecumseh. Tenskwatawa had a vision of purifying his society by expelling the "children of the Evil Spirit", the American settlers.[11] Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh formed a confederation of numerous tribes to block American expansion. The British saw the Indian nations as valuable allies and a buffer to its Canadian colonies and provided arms. Attacks on American settlers in the Northwest further aggravated tensions between Britain and the United States.[12] The Confederation's raids hindered American expansion into potentially valuable farmlands in the Northwest Territory.[13] The British had the long-standing goal of creating a large "neutral" Indian state that would cover much of Ohio, Indiana and Michigan. They made the demand as late as the fall of 1814 at the peace conference, but lost control of western Ontario at key battles on Lake Erie, thus giving the Americans control of the proposed neutral zone.[14] [15]

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United States expansionism
American expansion into the Northwest Territory was being obstructed by indigenous leaders like Tecumseh, who were supplied and encouraged by the British. Americans on the western frontier demanded that interference be stopped.[16] Before 1940, some historians[17] [18] held that United States expansionism into Canada was also a reason for the war; however, one subsequent historian wrote, "Almost all accounts of the 1811–1812 period have stressed the influence of a youthful band, denominated War Hawks, on Madison's policy. According to the standard picture, these men were a rather wild and exuberant group enraged by Britain's maritime practices, certain that the British were encouraging the Indians and convinced that Canada would be an easy conquest and a choice addition to the national domain. Like all stereotypes, there is some truth in this tableau; however, inaccuracies predominate. First, Perkins has shown that those favoring war were older than those opposed. Second, the lure of the Canadas has been played down by most recent investigators".[19] Some Canadian historians proposed the notion in the early 20th century,[20] and it survives in public opinion in Ontario. According to Stagg (1981) and Stagg (1983), Madison and his advisers believed that conquest of Canada would be easy and that economic coercion would force the British to come to terms by cutting off the food supply for their West Indies colonies. Furthermore, possession of Canada would be a valuable bargaining chip. Settlers demanded the seizure of Canada not because they wanted the land, but because the British were thought to be arming the Indians and thereby blocking US settlement of the West.[21] [22] As Horsman concluded, "The idea of conquering Canada had been present since at least 1807 as a means of forcing England to change her policy at sea. The conquest of Canada was primarily a means of waging war, not a reason for starting it".[23] Hickey flatly stated, "The desire to annex Canada did not bring on the war".[24] Brown (1964) concluded, "The purpose of the Canadian expedition was to serve negotiation, not to annex Canada".[25] Burt, a leading Canadian scholar, agreed, noting that Foster—the British minister to Washington—also rejected the argument that annexation of Canada was a war goal.[26] Most inhabitants of Upper Canada (Ontario) were either Revolutionary-era exiles from the United States (United Empire Loyalists) or postwar American immigrants. The Loyalists were hostile to union with the U.S., while the other settlers were uninterested. The Canadian colonies were thinly populated and only lightly defended by the British Army. Americans then believed that many in Upper Canada would rise up and greet a United States invading army as liberators, which did not happen. One reason American forces retreated after one successful battle inside Canada was that they could not obtain supplies from the locals.[27] But the Americans thought that the possibility of local support suggested an easy conquest, as former President Thomas Jefferson believed: "The acquisition of Canada this year, as far as the neighborhood of Quebec, will be a mere matter of marching, and will give us the experience for the attack on Halifax, the next and final expulsion of England from the American continent." Some British officials – and some dissident Americans – charged that the goal of the war was to annex part of Canada, but they did not specify which part. The states nearest Canada strongly opposed the war.[28]

US political conflict
While the British government was largely oblivious to the deteriorating North-American situation, due to its involvement in a continent-wide European War, the US was in a period of significant political conflict between the Federalist Party (based mainly in the Northeast), which favoured a strong central government and closer ties to Britain, and the Democratic-Republican Party (with its greatest power base in the South and West), which favoured a weak central government, preservation of slavery, expansion into Indian land, and a stronger break with Britain. By 1812, the Federalist Party had weakened considerably, and the Democratic-Republicans, with James Madison completing his first term of office and control of Congress, was in a very strong position to pursue its more aggressive agenda against Britain and attempt to further weaken its Federalist rivals.[29] Throughout the war, support for the US cause would be weak (or sometimes non-existent) in Federalist areas of the Northeast, though after the war, the self-destruction of the Federalists at the Hartford Convention led to broader, retroactive support from all

War of 1812 parts of the country.

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Declaration of war
On June 1, 1812, President James Madison sent a message to the Congress, recounting American grievances against Great Britain, though not specifically calling for a declaration of war. After Madison's message, the House of Representatives quickly voted (79 to 49) a declaration of war, and the Senate agreed by 19 to 13. The conflict began formally on June 18, 1812 when Madison signed the measure into law. This was the first time that the United States had declared war on another nation, and the Congressional vote would prove to be the closest vote to declare war in American history. None of the 39 Federalists in Congress voted in favor of the war; critics of war subsequently referred to it as "Mr. Madison's War." [30] Meanwhile in London on May 11, an assassin killed Prime Minister Spencer Perceval, which resulted in Lord Liverpool coming to power. Liverpool wanted a more practical relationship with the United States. He issued a repeal of the Orders in Council, but the U.S. was unaware of this, as it took three weeks for the news to cross the Atlantic.[31]

Course of the war
Although the outbreak of the war had been preceded by years of angry diplomatic dispute, neither side was ready for war when it came. Britain was heavily engaged in the Napoleonic Wars, most of the British Army was engaged in the Peninsular War (in Spain), and the Royal Navy was compelled to blockade most of the coast of Europe. The number of British regular troops present in Canada in July 1812 was officially stated to be 6,034, supported by Canadian militia.[32] Throughout the war, the British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies was the Earl of Bathurst. For the first two years of the war, he could spare few troops to reinforce North America and urged the commander in chief in North America (Lieutenant General Sir George Prevost) to maintain a defensive strategy. The naturally cautious Prevost followed these instructions, concentrating on defending Lower Canada at the expense of Upper Canada (which was more vulnerable to American attacks) and allowing few offensive actions. The United States was not prepared to prosecute a war, for Madison had assumed that the state militias would easily seize Canada and that negotiations would follow. In 1812, the regular army consisted of fewer than 12,000 men. Congress authorized the expansion of the army to 35,000 men, but the service was voluntary and unpopular; it offered poor pay, and there were few trained and experienced officers, at least initially.[33] The militia objected to serving outside their home states, were not open to discipline, and performed poorly against British forces when outside their home state. American prosecution of the war suffered from its unpopularity, especially in New England, where anti-war speakers were vocal. "Two of the Massachusetts members [of Congress], Seaver and Widgery, were publicly insulted and hissed on Change in Boston; while another, Charles Turner, member for the Plymouth district, and Chief-Justice of the Court of Sessions for that county, was seized by a crowd on the evening of August 3, [1812] and kicked through the town."[34] The U.S. had great difficulty financing its war. It had disbanded its national bank, and private bankers in the Northeast were opposed to the war. The failure of New England to provide militia units or financial support was a serious blow.[35] Threats of secession by New England states were loud, as evidenced by the Hartford Convention. Britain exploited these divisions, blockading only southern ports for much of the war and encouraging smuggling.[36] On July 12, 1812, General William Hull led an invading American force of about 1,000 untrained, poorly equipped militia across the Detroit River and occupied the Canadian town of Sandwich (now a neighborhood of Windsor, Ontario). By August, Hull and his troops (numbering 2,500 with the addition of 500 Canadians) retreated to Detroit, where they surrendered to a force of British regulars, Canadian militia and Native Americans, led by British Major General Isaac Brock and Shawnee leader Tecumseh.[37] The surrender not only cost the U.S. the village of Detroit, but control over most of the Michigan territory. Several months later, the U.S. launched a second invasion of Canada, this time at the Niagara peninsula. On October 13, U.S. forces were again defeated at the Battle of

War of 1812 Queenston Heights, where General Brock was killed.[38] Military and civilian leadership remained a critical American weakness until 1814. The early disasters brought about chiefly by American unpreparedness and lack of leadership drove United States Secretary of War William Eustis from office. His successor, John Armstrong, Jr., attempted a coordinated strategy late in 1813 (with 10,000 men) aimed at the capture of Montreal, but he was thwarted by logistical difficulties, uncooperative and quarrelsome commanders and ill-trained troops. After losing several battles to inferior forces, the Americans retreated in disarray in October 1813.[39] A decisive use of naval power came on the Great Lakes and depended on a contest of building ships. The U.S. started a rapidly expanded program of building warships at Sackets Harbor on Lake Ontario, where 3,000 men were recruited, many from New York City, to build 11 warships early in the war. In 1813, the Americans won control of Lake Erie in the Battle of Lake Erie and cut off British and Native American forces in the west from their supply base; they were decisively defeated by General William Henry Harrison's forces on their retreat towards Niagara at the Battle of the Thames in October 1813.[40] Tecumseh, the leader of the tribal confederation, was killed and his Indian coalition disintegrated.[41] While some Natives continued to fight alongside British troops, they subsequently did so only as individual tribes or groups of warriors, and where they were directly supplied and armed by British agents. The Americans controlled western Ontario, and permanently ended the threat of Indian raids based in Canada into the American Midwest, thus achieving a basic war goal.[42] [43] Control of Lake Ontario changed hands several times, with both sides unable and unwilling to take advantage of the temporary superiority. At sea, the powerful Royal Navy blockaded much of the coastline, though it was allowing substantial exports from New England, which traded with Canada in defiance of American laws. The blockade devastated American agricultural exports, but it helped stimulate local factories that replaced goods previously imported. The American strategy of using small gunboats to defend ports was a fiasco, as the British raided the coast at will. The most famous episode was a series of British raids on the shores of Chesapeake Bay, including an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, the Capitol, the Navy Yard, and other public buildings, in the "Burning of Washington". The embarrassing Burning of Washington led to Armstrong's dismissal as US Secretary of War. The British power at sea was enough to allow the Royal Navy to levy "contributions" on bayside towns in return for not burning them to the ground. The Americans were more successful in ship-to-ship actions. They sent out several hundred privateers to attack British merchant ships; in the first four months of war they captured 219 British merchant ships.[44] British commercial interests were damaged, especially in the West Indies.[45] After Napoleon abdicated in 1814, the British could send veteran armies to the U.S., but by then the Americans had learned how to mobilize and fight.[46] British General Prevost launched a major invasion of New York State with these veteran soldiers, but the American fleet under Thomas Macdonough gained control of Lake Champlain and the British lost the Battle of Plattsburgh in September 1814. Prevost, blamed for the defeat, sought a court-martial to clear his name but he died in London awaiting it.[47] A British invasion of Louisiana (unknowingly launched after the Treaty of Ghent was negotiated to end the war) was defeated with very heavy British losses by General Andrew Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815. The victory made Jackson a national hero, restored the American sense of honor,[48] and ruined the Federalist party efforts to condemn the war as a failure.[49] [50] With the ratification of the peace treaty in February 1815, the war ended before the U.S. new Secretary of War James Monroe could put his new offensive strategy into effect. Once Britain and The Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, France and Britain became allies. Britain ended the trade restrictions and the impressment of American sailors, thus removing two more causes of the war. After two years of warfare, the major causes of the war had disappeared. Neither side had a reason to continue or a chance of gaining a decisive success that would compel their opponents to cede territory or advantageous peace terms.[51] As a result of this stalemate, the two countries signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. News of the peace treaty took two months to reach the U.S., during which fighting continued. The war fostered a spirit of national unity and an "Era of Good Feelings" in the U.S.,[52] as well as in Canada.[53] It opened a long era of peaceful relations

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War of 1812 between the United States and the British Empire.[54]

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Theaters of war
The war was conducted in three theaters: 1. The Atlantic Ocean 2. The Great Lakes and the Canadian frontier 3. The Southern States

Atlantic theatre
Single-ship actions In 1812, Britain's Royal Navy was the world's largest, with over 600 cruisers in commission and some smaller vessels. Although most of these were involved in blockading the French navy and protecting British trade against (usually French) privateers, the Royal Navy nevertheless had 85 vessels in American waters.[55] By contrast, the United States Navy comprised only 8 frigates, 14 smaller sloops and brigs, and no ships of the line. However some American frigates were exceptionally large and powerful for their class. Whereas the standard British frigate of the time was rated as a 38 gun ship, with its main battery consisting of 18-pounder guns, the USS Constitution, USS President, and USS United States were rated as 44-gun ships and carried 56 guns with a main battery of 24-pounders.[56]

Map of USS Chesapeake during War of 1812

The British strategy was to protect their own merchant shipping to and from Halifax, Canada and the West Indies, and to enforce a blockade of major American ports to restrict American trade. Because of their numerical inferiority, the Americans aimed to cause disruption through hit-and-run tactics, such as the capture of prizes and engaging Royal Navy vessels only under favorable circumstances. Days after the formal declaration of war, however, two small squadrons sailed, including the frigate USS President and the sloop USS Hornet under USS Constitution defeats HMS Guerriere, a Commodore John Rodgers, and the frigates USS United States and significant event during the war. USS Congress, with the brig USS Argus under Captain Stephen Decatur. These were initially concentrated as one unit under Rodgers, and it was his intention to force the Royal Navy to concentrate its own ships to prevent isolated units being captured by his powerful force. Large numbers of American merchant ships were still returning to the United States, and if the Royal Navy was concentrated, it could not watch all the ports on the American seaboard. Rodgers' strategy worked, in that the Royal Navy concentrated most of its frigates off New York Harbor under Captain Philip Broke and allowed many American ships to reach home. However, his own cruise captured only five small merchant ships, and the Americans never subsequently concentrated more than two or three ships together as a unit. Meanwhile, the USS Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, sailed from Chesapeake Bay on July 12. On July 17, Broke's British squadron gave chase off New York, but the Constitution evaded her pursuers after two days. After briefly calling at Boston to replenish water, on August 19, the Constitution engaged the British frigate HMS Guerriere. After a 35-minute battle, Guerriere had been dis-masted and captured and was later burned. Hull returned to Boston with news of this significant victory. On October 25, the USS United States, commanded by Captain

War of 1812 Decatur, captured the British frigate HMS Macedonian, which he then carried back to port.[57] At the close of the month, the Constitution sailed south, now under the command of Captain William Bainbridge. On December 29, off Bahia, Brazil, she met the British frigate HMS Java. After a battle lasting three hours, Java struck her colours and was burned after being judged unsalvageable. The USS Constitution, however, was undamaged in the battle and earned the name "Old Ironsides." The successes gained by the three big American frigates forced Britain to construct five 40-gun, 24-pounder heavy frigates[58] and two "spar-decked" frigates (the 60-gun HMS Leander and HMS Newcastle[59] ) and to razee three old 74-gun ships of the line to convert them to heavy frigates.[60] The Royal Navy acknowledged that there were factors other than greater size and heavier guns. The United States Navy's sloops and brigs had also won several victories over Royal Navy vessels of approximately equal strength. While the American ships had experienced and well-drilled volunteer crews, the enormous size of the overstretched Royal Navy meant that many ships were shorthanded and the average quality of crews suffered, and constant sea duties of those serving in North America interfered with their training and exercises.[61] The capture of the three British frigates stimulated the British to greater exertions. More vessels were deployed on the American seaboard and the blockade tightened. On June 1, 1813, off Boston Harbor, the frigate USS Chesapeake, commanded by Captain James Lawrence, was captured by the British frigate HMS Shannon under Captain Sir Philip Broke. Lawrence was mortally wounded and famously cried out, "Don't give up the ship! Hold on, men!"[61] Although the Chesapeake was only of equal strength to the average British frigate and the crew had mustered together only hours before HMS Shannon leading the captured American the battle, the British press reacted with almost hysterical relief that the frigate USS Chesapeake into Halifax, Nova [62] Scotia (1813) run of American victories had ended. It should be noted that this single victory was by ratio one of the bloodiest contests recorded during this age of sail with more dead and wounded than HMS Victory suffered in 4 hours of combat at Trafalgar. Captain Lawrence was killed and Captain Broke would never again hold a sea command due to wounds.[63] In January 1813, the American frigate USS Essex, under the command of Captain David Porter, sailed into the Pacific in an attempt to harass British shipping. Many British whaling ships carried letters of marque allowing them to prey on American whalers, and nearly destroyed the industry. The Essex challenged this practice. She inflicted considerable damage on British interests before she was captured off Valparaiso, Chile by the British frigate HMS Phoebe and the sloop HMS Cherub on March 28, 1814.[64] The British 6th-rate Cruizer-class brig-sloops did not fare well against the American ship-rigged sloops of war. The USS Hornet and USS Wasp constructed before the war were notably powerful vessels, and the Frolic class built during the war even more so (although USS Frolic was trapped and captured by a British frigate and a schooner). The British brig-rigged sloops tended to suffer fire to their rigging far worse than the American ship-rigged sloops, while the ship-rigged sloops could back their sails in action, giving them another advantage in maneuvering.[65] Following their earlier losses, the British Admiralty instituted a new policy that the three American heavy frigates should not be engaged except by a ship of the line or smaller vessels in squadron strength. An example of this was the capture of the USS President by a squadron of four British frigates in January 1815. A month later, however, the USS Constitution managed to engage and capture two smaller British warships, HMS Cyane and HMS Levant, sailing in company.[66]

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War of 1812 Blockade The blockade of American ports later tightened to the extent that most American merchant ships and naval vessels were confined to port. The American frigates USS United States and USS Macedonian ended the war blockaded and hulked in New London, Connecticut. Some merchant ships were based in Europe or Asia and continued operations. Others, mainly from New England, were issued licenses to trade by Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren, commander in chief on the American station in 1813. This allowed Wellington's army in Spain to receive American goods and to maintain the New Englanders' opposition to the war. The blockade nevertheless resulted in American exports decreasing from $130 million in 1807 to $7 million in 1814.[67] The operations of American privateers (some of which belonged to the United States Navy, but most of which were private ventures) were extensive. They continued until the close of the war and were only partially affected by the strict enforcement of convoy by the Royal Navy. An example of the audacity of the American cruisers was the depredations in British home waters carried out by the American sloop USS Argus. It was eventually captured off St. David's Head in Wales by the British brig HMS Pelican on August 14, 1813. A total of 1,554 vessels were claimed captured by all American naval and privateer vessels, 1,300 of which were captured by privateers.[68] [69] [70] However, insurer Lloyd's of London reported that only 1,175 British ships were taken, 373 of which were recaptured, for a total loss of 802.[71] As the Royal Navy base that supervised the blockade, Halifax profited greatly during the war. From that base British privateers seized many French and American ships and sold their prizes in Halifax. The war was the last time the British allowed privateering, since the practice was coming to be seen as politically inexpedient and of diminishing value in maintaining its naval supremacy. It was the swan song of Bermuda's privateers, who had vigorously returned to the practice after American lawsuits had put a stop to it two decades earlier. The nimble Bermuda sloops captured 298 enemy ships. British naval and privateer vessels between the Great Lakes and the West Indies captured 1,593.[72] Atlantic coast Preoccupied in their pursuit of American privateers when the war began, the British naval forces had some difficulty in blockading the entire U.S. coast. The British government, having need of American foodstuffs for its army in Spain, benefited from the willingness of the New Englanders to trade with them, so no blockade of New England was at first attempted. The Delaware River and Chesapeake Bay were declared in a state of blockade on December 26, 1812. This was extended to the coast south of Narragansett by November 1813 and to the entire American coast on May 31, 1814. In the meantime, illicit trade was carried on by collusive captures arranged between American traders and British officers. American ships were fraudulently transferred to neutral flags. Eventually, the U.S. government was driven to issue orders to stop illicit trading; this put only a further strain on the commerce of the country. The overpowering strength of the British fleet enabled it to occupy the Chesapeake and to attack and destroy numerous docks and harbors. Additionally, commanders of the blockading fleet, based at the Bermuda dockyard, were given instructions to encourage the defection of American slaves by offering freedom, as they did during the Revolutionary War. Thousands of black slaves went over to the Crown with their families and were recruited into the 3rd (Colonial) Battalion of the Royal Marines on occupied Tangier Island, in the Chesapeake. A further company of colonial marines was raised at the Bermuda dockyard, where many freed slaves—men, women, and children—had been given refuge and employment. It was kept as a defensive force in case of an attack. These former slaves fought for Britain throughout the Atlantic campaign, including the attack on Washington, D.C. and the Louisiana Campaign, and most were later re-enlisted into British West India regiments or settled in Trinidad in August 1816, where seven hundred of these ex-marines were granted land (they reportedly organized in villages along the lines of military companies). Many other freed American slaves were recruited directly into West Indian regiments or newly created

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War of 1812 British Army units. A few thousand freed slaves were later settled at Nova Scotia by the British. Maine Maine, then part of Massachusetts, was a base for smuggling and illegal trade between the U.S. and the British. Until 1813 the region was generally quiet except for privateer actions near the coast. In September, 1813, there was a notable naval action when the U.S. Navy's brig Enterprise fought and captured the Royal Navy brig Boxer off Pemaquid Point.[73] The first British assault came in July, 1814, when Sir Thomas Masterman Hardy took Moose Island (Eastport, Maine) without a shot, with the entire American garrison of Fort Sullivan surrendering.[74] Next, from his base in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in September 1814, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke led 500 British troops in the "Penobscot Expedition". In 26 days, he raided and looted Hampden, Bangor, and Machias, destroying or capturing 17 American ships. He won the Battle of Hampden (losing two killed while the Americans lost one killed) and occupied the village of Castine for the rest of the war. The Treaty of Ghent returned this territory to the United States. The British left in April 1815, at which time they took 10,750 pounds obtained from tariff duties at Castine. This money, called the "Castine Fund", was used in the establishment of Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Nova Scotia.[75] Chesapeake campaign and "The Star-Spangled Banner" The strategic location of the Chesapeake Bay near America's capital made it a prime target for the British. Starting in March 1813, a squadron under Rear Admiral George Cockburn started a blockade of the bay and raided towns along the bay from Norfolk to Havre de Grace. On July 4, 1813, Joshua Barney, a Revolutionary War naval hero, convinced the Navy Department to build the Chesapeake Bay Flotilla, a squadron of twenty barges to defend the Chesapeake Bay. Launched in April 1814, the squadron was quickly cornered in the Patuxent River, and while successful in harassing the Royal Navy, they were powerless to stop the British campaign that ultimately led to the "Burning of Washington". This expedition, led by Cockburn and General Robert Ross, was carried out between August 19 and 29, 1814, as the result of the hardened British policy of 1814 (although British and American commissioners had convened peace negotiations at Ghent in June of that year). As part of this, Admiral Warren had been replaced as commander in chief by Admiral Alexander Cochrane, with reinforcements and orders to coerce the Americans into a favourable peace. Governor-in-chief of British North America Sir George Prevost had written to the Admirals in Bermuda, calling for retaliation for the American sacking of York (now Toronto). A force of 2,500 soldiers under General Ross—aboard a Royal Navy task force composed of HMS Royal Oak, three frigates, three sloops, and ten other vessels—had just arrived in Bermuda. Released from the Peninsular War by British victory, the British intended to use them for diversionary raids along the coasts of Maryland and Virginia. In response to Prevost's request, they decided to employ this force, together with the naval and military units already on the station, to strike at Washington, D.C.

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Burning of Washington 1814

On August 24, U.S. Secretary of War John Armstrong insisted that the British would attack Baltimore rather than Washington, even when the British army was obviously on its way to the capital. The inexperienced American militia, which had congregated at Bladensburg, Maryland, to protect the capital, was routed in the Battle of Bladensburg, opening the route to Washington. While Dolley Madison saved valuables from the Presidential Mansion, President James Madison was forced to flee to Virginia.[76] The British commanders ate the supper that had been prepared for the President before they burned the Presidential Mansion; American morale was reduced to an all-time low. The British viewed their actions as retaliation for

War of 1812 destructive American raids into Canada, most notably the Americans' burning of York (now Toronto) in 1813. Later that same evening, a furious storm swept into Washington, D.C., sending one or more tornadoes into the city that caused more damage but finally extinguished the fires with torrential rains.[77] The naval yards were set afire at the direction of U.S. officials to prevent the capture of naval ships and supplies.[78] The British left Washington, D.C. as soon as the storm subsided. Having destroyed Washington's public buildings, including the President's Mansion and the Treasury, the British army next moved to capture Baltimore, a busy port and a key base for American privateers. The subsequent Battle of Baltimore began with the British landing at North Point, where they were met by American militia. An exchange of fire began, with casualties on both sides. General Ross was killed by an American sniper as he attempted to rally his troops. The sniper himself was killed moments later, and the British withdrew. The British also attempted to attack Baltimore by sea on September 13 but were unable to reduce Fort McHenry, at the entrance to Baltimore Harbor. The Battle of Fort McHenry was no battle at all. British guns had range on American cannon, and stood off out of U.S. range, bombarding the fort, which returned no fire. Their plan was to coordinate with a land force, but from that distance coordination proved impossible, so the British called off the attack and left. All the lights were extinguished in Baltimore the night of the attack, and the fort was bombarded for 25 hours. The only light was given off by the exploding shells over Fort McHenry, illuminating the flag that was still flying over the fort. The defence of the fort inspired the American lawyer Francis Scott Key to write a poem that would eventually supply the lyrics to "The Star-Spangled Banner".

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An artist's rendering of the battle at Fort McHenry, where Francis Scott Key was inspired to write "The Star-Spangled Banner".

None of the actions of the Chesapeake campaign were deemed worthy of a British army medal clasp (Fort Detroit, Chateauguay, Chrysler's Farm being the three clasps for the war), but participants in the attack in Washington were paid prize money by the War Office.[79] In addition, prize-money arising from the booty captured by the expedition in the River Patuxent, at Fort Washington, and Alexandria, between 22 and 29 August 1814 was paid in November 1817. Three companies of Corps of Colonial Marines were among the recipients. A first-class share was worth ₤183 9s 1¾d; a sixth-class share, which was what probably an ordinary marine would receive, was worth ₤1 9s 3½d.[80] A second and final payment came in May 1819. A first-class share was worth ₤42 13s 10¾d; a sixth-class share was worth 9s 1¾d.[81]

Great Lakes and Western Territories
Invasions of Upper and Lower Canada, 1812

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American leaders assumed that Canada could be easily overrun. Former President Jefferson optimistically referred to the conquest of Canada as "a matter of marching." Many Loyalist Americans had migrated to Upper Canada after the Revolutionary War, and the US assumed they would favor the American cause, but they did not. In prewar Upper Canada, General Prevost was in the unusual position of having to purchase many provisions Map showing the northern theatre of the War of 1812 for his troops from the American side. This peculiar trade persisted throughout the war in spite of an abortive attempt by the US government to curtail it. In Lower Canada, which was much more populous, support for Britain came from the English elite with strong loyalty to the Empire, and from the French elite, who feared American conquest would destroy the old order by introducing Protestantism, Anglicization, republican democracy, and commercial capitalism; and weakening the Catholic Church. The French inhabitants feared the loss of a shrinking area of good lands to potential American immigrants.[82] In 1812–13, British military experience prevailed over inexperienced American commanders. Geography dictated that operations would take place in the west: principally around Lake Erie, near the Niagara River between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, and near the Saint Lawrence River area and Lake Champlain. This was the focus of the three-pronged attacks by the Americans in 1812. Although cutting the St. Lawrence River through the capture of Montreal and Quebec would have made Britain's hold in North America unsustainable, the United States began operations first in the western frontier because of the general popularity there of a war with the British, who had sold arms to the Native Americans' opposing the settlers. The British scored an important early success when their detachment at St. Joseph Island, on Lake Huron, learned of the declaration of war before the nearby American garrison at the important trading post at Mackinac Island in Michigan. A scratch force landed on the island on July 17, 1812 and mounted a gun overlooking Fort Mackinac. After the British fired one shot from their gun, the Americans, taken by surprise, surrendered. This early victory encouraged the natives, and large numbers moved to help the British at Amherstburg. An American army under the command of William Hull invaded Canada on July 12, with his forces chiefly composed of untrained and ill-disciplined militiamen.[83] Once on Canadian soil, Hull issued a proclamation ordering all British subjects to surrender, or "the horrors, and calamities of war will stalk before you." He also threatened to kill any British prisoner caught fighting alongside a native. The proclamation helped stiffen resistance to the American attacks. Hull's army was too weak in artillery and badly supplied to achieve its objectives, and had to fight just to maintain its own lines of communication. The senior British officer in Upper Canada, Major General Isaac Brock, felt that he should take bold measures to calm the settler population in Canada, and to convince the aboriginals who were needed to defend the region that Britain was strong.[83] He moved rapidly to Amherstburg near the western end of Lake Erie with reinforcements and immediately decided to attack Detroit. Hull, fearing that the British possessed superior numbers and that the Indians attached to Brock's force would commit massacres if fighting began, surrendered Detroit without a fight on August 16. Knowing of British-instigated indigenous attacks on other locations, Hull ordered the evacuation of the inhabitants of Fort Dearborn (Chicago) to Fort Wayne. After initially being granted safe passage, the inhabitants (soldiers and civilians) were attacked by Potowatomis on August 15 after traveling only 2 miles (3.2 km) in what is known as the Battle of Fort Dearborn.[84] The fort was subsequently burned.

War of 1812 Brock promptly transferred himself to the eastern end of Lake Erie, where American General Stephen Van Rensselaer was attempting a second invasion. An armistice (arranged by Prevost in the hope the British renunciation of the Orders in Council to which the United States objected might lead to peace) prevented Brock from invading American territory. When the armistice ended, the Americans attempted an attack across the Niagara River on October 13, but suffered a crushing defeat at Queenston Heights. Brock was killed during the battle. While the professionalism of the American forces would improve by the war's end, British leadership suffered after Brock's death. A final attempt in 1812 by American General Henry Dearborn to advance north from Lake Champlain failed when his militia refused to advance beyond American territory. In contrast to the American militia, the Canadian militia performed well. French Canadians, who found the anti-Catholic stance of most of the United States troublesome, and United Empire Loyalists, who had fought for the Crown during the American Revolutionary War, strongly opposed the American invasion. However, many in Upper Canada were recent settlers from the United States who had no obvious loyalties to the Crown. Nevertheless, while there were some who sympathised with the invaders, the American forces found strong opposition from men loyal to the Empire.[85] American Northwest, 1813 After Hull's surrender of Detroit, General William Henry Harrison was given command of the U.S. Army of the Northwest. He set out to retake the city, which was now defended by Colonel Henry Procter in conjunction with Tecumseh. A detachment of Harrison's army was defeated at Frenchtown along the River Raisin on January 22, 1813. Procter left the prisoners with an inadequate guard, who could not prevent some of his North American aboriginal allies from attacking and killing perhaps as many as sixty Americans, many of whom were Kentucky militiamen.[86] The incident became known as the River Raisin Massacre. The defeat ended Harrison's campaign against Detroit, and the phrase "Remember the River Raisin!" became a rallying cry for the Americans. In May 1813, Procter and Tecumseh set siege to Fort Meigs in northern Ohio. American reinforcements arriving during the siege were defeated by the natives, but the fort held out. The Indians eventually began to disperse, forcing Procter and Tecumseh to return to Canada. A second offensive against Fort Meigs also failed in July. In an attempt to improve Indian morale, Procter and Tecumseh attempted to storm Fort Stephenson, a small American post on the Sandusky River, only to be repulsed with serious losses, marking the end of the Ohio campaign.

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On Lake Erie, American commander Captain Oliver Hazard Perry fought the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. His decisive victory ensured American control of the lake, improved American morale after a series of defeats, and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit. This paved the way for General Harrison to launch another invasion of Upper Canada, which culminated in the U.S. victory at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed. Tecumseh's death effectively ended the North American indigenous alliance with the British in the Detroit region. American control of Lake Erie meant the British could no longer provide essential military supplies to their aboriginal allies, who therefore dropped out of the war. The Americans controlled the area during the conflict.

Oliver Hazard Perry's message to William Henry Harrison after the Battle of Lake Erie began with what would become one of the most famous sentences in American military history: "We have met the enemy and they are ours." This 1865 painting by William H. Powell shows Perry transferring to a different ship during the battle.

War of 1812 Niagara frontier, 1813 Because of the difficulties of land communications, control of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River corridor was crucial. When the war began, the British already had a small squadron of warships on Lake Ontario and had the initial advantage. To redress the situation, the Americans established a Navy yard at Sackett's Harbor, New York. Commodore Isaac Chauncey took charge of the large number of sailors and shipwrights sent there from New York; they completed the second warship built there in a mere 45 days. Ultimately, 3,000 men worked at the shipyard, building eleven warships and many smaller boats and transports. Having regained the advantage by their rapid building program, Chauncey and Dearborn attacked York (now called Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada, on April 27, 1813. The Battle of York was an American victory, marred by looting and the burning of the Parliament buildings and a library. However, Kingston was strategically more valuable to British supply and communications along the St. Lawrence. Without control of Kingston, the U.S. navy could not effectively control Lake Ontario or sever the British supply line from Lower Canada. On May 27, 1813, an American amphibious force from Lake Ontario assaulted Fort George on the northern end of the Niagara River and captured it without serious losses. The retreating British forces were not pursued, however, until they had largely escaped and organised a counteroffensive against the advancing Americans at the Battle of Stoney Creek on June 5. On June 24, with the help of advance warning by Loyalist Laura Secord, another American force was forced to surrender by a much smaller British and native force at the Battle of Beaver Dams, marking the end of the American offensive into Upper Canada. Meanwhile, Commodore James Lucas Yeo had taken charge of the British ships on the lake and mounted a counterattack, which was nevertheless repulsed at the Battle of Sackett's Harbor. Thereafter, Chauncey and Yeo's squadrons fought two indecisive actions, neither commander seeking a fight to the finish. Late in 1813, the Americans abandoned the Canadian territory they occupied around Fort George. They set fire to the village of Newark (now Niagara-on-the-Lake) on December 15, 1813, incensing the Canadians and politicians in control. Many of the inhabitants were left without shelter, freezing to death in the snow. This led to British retaliation following the Capture of Fort Niagara on December 18, 1813. Early the next morning on December 19, the British and their native allies stormed the neighboring town of Lewiston, New York, torching homes and buildings and killing about a dozen civilians. As the British were chasing the surviving residents out of town, a small force of Tuscarora natives intervened and stopped the pursuit, buying enough time for the locals to escape to safer ground. It is notable in that the Tuscaroras defended the Americans against their own Iroquois brothers, the Mohawks, who sided with the British.[87] [88] Later, the British attacked and burned Buffalo on December 30, 1813. In 1814, the contest for Lake Ontario turned into a building race. Eventually, by the end of the year, Yeo had constructed HMS St. Lawrence, a first-rate ship of the line of 112 guns that gave him superiority, but the Engagements on Lake Ontario were an indecisive draw. St. Lawrence and Lower Canada, 1813 The British were potentially most vulnerable over the stretch of the St. Lawrence where it formed the frontier between Attack on Fort Oswego (May 1814), War of 1812 Upper Canada and the United States. During the early days of the war, there was illicit commerce across the river. Over the winter of 1812 and 1813, the Americans launched a series of raids from Ogdensburg on the American side of the river, which hampered British supply traffic up the river. On

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February 21, Sir George Prevost passed through Prescott on the opposite bank of the river with reinforcements for Upper Canada. When he left the next day, the reinforcements and local militia attacked. At the Battle of Ogdensburg, the Americans were forced to retire. For the rest of the year, Ogdensburg had no American garrison, and many residents of Ogdensburg resumed visits and trade with Prescott. This British victory removed the last American regular troops from the Upper St. Lawrence frontier and helped secure British communications Sakawarton (John Smoke Johnson), John Tutela, with Montreal. Late in 1813, after much argument, the Americans and Young Warner, three Six Nations veterans of made two thrusts against Montreal. The plan eventually agreed upon the War of 1812. was for Major General Wade Hampton to march north from Lake Champlain and join a force under General James Wilkinson that would embark in boats and sail from Sackett's Harbor on Lake Ontario and descend the St. Lawrence. Hampton was delayed by bad roads and supply problems and also had an intense dislike of Wilkinson, which limited his desire to support his plan. On October 25, his 4,000-strong force was defeated at the Chateauguay River by Charles de Salaberry's smaller force of French-Canadian Voltigeurs and Mohawks. Wilkinson's force of 8,000 set out on October 17, but was also delayed by bad weather. After learning that Hampton had been checked, Wilkinson heard that a British force under Captain William Mulcaster and Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Wanton Morrison was pursuing him, and by November 10, he was forced to land near Morrisburg, about 150 kilometers (90 mi.) from Montreal. On November 11, Wilkinson's rear guard, numbering 2,500, attacked Morrison's force of 800 at Crysler's Farm and was repulsed with heavy losses. After learning that Hampton could not renew his advance, Wilkinson retreated to the U.S. and settled into winter quarters. He resigned his command after a failed attack on a British outpost at Lacolle Mills. Niagara and Plattsburgh Campaigns, 1814 By the middle of 1814, American generals, including Major Generals Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott, had drastically improved the fighting abilities and discipline of the army. Their renewed attack on the Niagara peninsula quickly captured Fort Erie. Winfield Scott then gained a victory over an inferior British force at the Battle of Chippawa on July 5. An attempt to advance further ended with a hard-fought but inconclusive battle at Lundy's Lane on July 25. The outnumbered Americans withdrew but withstood a prolonged Siege of Fort Erie. The British suffered heavy casualties in a failed assault and were weakened by exposure and shortage of supplies in their siege lines. Eventually the British raised the siege, but American Major General George Izard took over command on the Niagara front and followed up only halfheartedly. The Americans lacked provisions, and eventually destroyed the fort and retreated across the Niagara. Meanwhile, following the abdication of Napoleon, 15,000 British troops were sent to North America under four of Wellington’s ablest brigade commanders. Fewer than half were veterans of the Peninsula and the rest came from garrisons. Prevost was ordered to neutralize American power on the lakes by burning Sackets Harbor, gain naval control of Lake Erie, Lake Ontario and the Upper Lakes, and defend Lower Canada from attack. He did defend Lower Canada but otherwise failed to achieve his objectives.[89] Given the late season he decided to invade New York State. His army outnumbered the American defenders of Plattsburgh, but he was worried about his flanks so he decided he needed naval control of Lake Champlain. On the lake, the British squadron under Captain George Downie and the Americans under Master Commandant Thomas Macdonough were more evenly matched. On reaching Plattsburgh, Prevost delayed the assault until the arrival of Downie in the hastily completed 36-gun frigate HMS Confiance. Prevost forced Downie into a premature attack, but then unaccountably failed to provide the promised military backing. Downie was killed and his naval force defeated at the naval Battle of Plattsburgh in

War of 1812 Plattsburgh Bay on September 11, 1814. The Americans now had control of Lake Champlain; Theodore Roosevelt later termed it "the greatest naval battle of the war." The successful land defence was led by Alexander Macomb. To the astonishment of his senior officers, Prevost then turned back, saying it would be too hazardous to remain on enemy territory after the loss of naval supremacy. Prevost was recalled and in London, a naval court-martial decided that defeat had been caused principally by Prevost’s urging the squadron into premature action and then failing to afford the promised support from the land forces. Prevost died suddenly, just before his own court-martial was to convene. Prevost's reputation sank to a new low, as Canadians claimed that their militia under Brock did the job and he failed. Recently, however, historians have been more kindly, measuring him not against Wellington but against his American foes. They judge Prevost’s preparations for defending the Canadas with limited means to be energetic, well-conceived, and comprehensive; and against the odds, he had achieved the primary objective of preventing an American conquest.[82] American West, 1813–14 The Mississippi River valley was the western frontier of the United States in 1812. The territory acquired in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 contained almost no U.S. settlements west of the Mississippi except around Saint Louis and a few forts and trading posts. Fort Bellefontaine, an old trading post converted to a U.S. Army post in 1804, served as regional headquarters. Fort Osage, built in 1808 along the Missouri was the western-most U.S. outpost, it was abandoned at the start of the war.[90] Fort Madison, built along the Mississippi in what is now Iowa, was also built in 1808, and had been repeatedly attacked by British-allied Sauk since its construction. In September 1813 Fort Madison was abandoned after it was attacked and besieged by natives, who had support from the British. This was one of the few battles fought west of the Mississippi. Black Hawk played a leadership role.[91] Little of note took place on Lake Huron in The Upper Mississippi River during the War of 1812. 1: Fort Bellefontaine 1813, but the American victory on Lake Erie U.S. headquarters; 2: Fort Osage, abandoned 1813; 3: Fort Madison, defeated and the recapture of Detroit isolated the British 1813; 4: Fort Shelby, defeated 1814; 5: Battle of Rock Island Rapids, July there. During the ensuing winter, a Canadian 1814 and the Battle of Credit Island, Sept. 1814; 6: Fort Johnson, abandoned 1814; 7: Fort Cap au Gris and the Battle of the Sink Hole, May 1815. party under Lieutenant Colonel Robert McDouall established a new supply line from York to Nottawasaga Bay on Georgian Bay. When he arrived at Fort Mackinac with supplies and reinforcements, he sent an expedition to recapture the trading post of Prairie du Chien in the far west. The Siege of Prairie du Chien ended in a British victory on July 20, 1814.

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Earlier in July, the Americans sent a force of five vessels from Detroit to recapture Mackinac. A mixed force of regulars and volunteers from the militia landed on the island on August 4. They did not attempt to achieve surprise, and at the brief Battle of Mackinac Island, they were ambushed by natives and forced to re-embark. The Americans discovered the new base at Nottawasaga Bay, and on August 13, they destroyed its fortifications and a schooner that they found there. They then returned to Detroit, leaving two gunboats to blockade Mackinac. On September 4, these gunboats were taken unawares and captured by enemy boarding parties from canoes and small boats. This Engagement on Lake Huron left Mackinac under British control. The British garrison at Prairie du Chien also fought off another attack by Major Zachary Taylor. In this distant theatre, the British retained the upper hand until the end of the war, through the allegiance of several indigenous tribes that received British gifts and arms. In 1814 U.S. troops retreating from the Battle of Credit Island on the upper Mississippi attempted to make a stand at Fort Johnson, but the fort was soon abandoned, along with most of the upper Mississippi valley.[92]

Plans of the original Fort Madison in 1810, captured by British-supported Indians in 1813.

After the U.S. was pushed out of the Upper Mississippi region, they held on to eastern Missouri and the St. Louis area. Two notable battles fought against the Sauk were the Battle of Cote Sans Dessein, in April 1815, at the mouth of the Osage River in the Missouri Territory, and the Battle of the Sink Hole, in May 1815, near Fort Cap au Gris.[93] At the conclusion of peace, Mackinac and other captured territory was returned to the United States. Fighting between Americans, the Sauk, and other indigenous tribes continued through 1817, well after the war ended in the east.[94]

Southern theatre
Creek War In March 1814, Jackson led a force of Tennessee militia, Choctaw,[95] Cherokee warriors, and U.S. regulars southward to attack the Creek tribes, led by Chief Menawa. The British were attempting to send supplies to their allies but they arrived too late. On March 26, Jackson and General John Coffee decisively defeated the Creek at Horseshoe Bend, killing 800 of 1,000 Creeks at a cost of 49 killed and 154 wounded out of approximately 2,000 American and Cherokee forces. Jackson pursued the surviving Creek until they surrendered. Most historians consider the Creek War as part of the War of 1812, because the British supported them. New Orleans Andrew Jackson heard reports that the British were organizing ships and armies for a large-scale invasion. The British set up a base at Pensacola, Florida in August 1814; Jackson with 4,000 men took the town in November.[96] Unaware of the Ghent treaty, Andrew Jackson's force moved to New Orleans, Louisiana, in late 1814. Using 1,000 regulars and 3,000 to 4,000 militia, pirates and other fighters, as well as civilians and slaves sent to work on the fortifications, he built strong defenses just south of the city, which was 150 miles (240 km) north of the Gulf. The 8,000 British regulars under General Edward Pakenham attacked on January 8, 1815. The Battle of New Orleans was a smashing American victory, as the British suffered 2,000 casualties: 291 dead (including Pakenham and his second and third in command); 1262 wounded, and 484 captured or missing.[97] [98] [99] The Americans had 71 casualties: 13 dead, 39 wounded, and 19 missing. It was hailed as a great victory for the U.S., making Jackson a national hero

War of 1812 and eventually propelling him to the presidency.[50] [100] Alabama James Wilkinson captured Mobile, Alabama from the Spanish in March 1813, and built fortifications. In early 1815 the British gave up on New Orleans but moved to attack Mobile. In one of the last military actions of the war, 1,000 British troops won the Battle of Fort Bowyer on February 12, 1815. When news of peace arrived the next day, they abandoned the fort and sailed home. Postwar fighting In May 1815, a band of British-allied Sauk, unaware that the war had ended months before, attacked a small band of U.S. soldiers northwest of St. Louis.[101] Intermittent fighting, primarily with the Sauk, continued in the Missouri Territory well into 1817, although it is unknown if the Sauk were acting on their own or on behalf of British agents.[102] Several uncontacted isolated warships continued fighting well into 1815 and were the last American forces to take offensive action against the British.

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The Treaty of Ghent
Factors leading to the peace negotiations
By 1814, both sides had achieved their main war goals and were weary of a costly war that offered little but stalemate. They both sent delegations to a neutral site in Ghent, Belgium. The negotiations began in early August and concluded on December 24, when a final agreement was signed; both sides had to ratify it before it could take effect. Meanwhile both sides planned new invasions. In 1814 the British began blockading New England ports, reducing American foreign trade to a trickle, but hurting British interests in the West Indies and Canada that had depended on that trade. New England was considering secession.[103] [104] But although American privateers found chances of success much reduced, with most British merchantmen now sailing in convoy, privateering continued to prove troublesome to the British, as shown by high insurance rates.[105] British landowners grew weary of high taxes, and colonial interests and merchants called on the government to reopen trade with the U.S. by ending the war.[106]

Negotiations and peace
Britain, which had forces in uninhabited areas near Lake Superior and Lake Michigan and two towns in Maine, demanded the cession of large areas, plus turning most of the Midwest into a neutral zone for Indians. American public opinion was outraged when Madison published the demands; even the Federalists were now willing to fight on. The British were planning three invasions. One force burned Washington but failed to capture Baltimore, and sailed away when its commander was killed. In New York State, 10,000 British veterans were marching south until a decisive defeat at the Battle of Plattsburgh forced them back to Canada.[107] Nothing was known of the fate of the third large invasion force aimed at capturing New Orleans and southwest. The Prime Minister wanted the Duke of Wellington to command in Canada and finally win the war; Wellington said that he would go to America but he believed he was needed in Europe.[108] [109] [110] He also stated: I think you have no right, from the state of war, to demand any concession of territory from America ... You have not been able to carry it into the enemy's territory, notwithstanding your military success and now undoubted military superiority, and have not even cleared your own territory on the point of attack. You cannot on any principle of equality in negotiation claim a cessation of territory except in exchange for other advantages which you have in your power ... Then if this reasoning be true, why stipulate for the uti possidetis? You can get no territory: indeed, the state of your military operations, however creditable, does not entitle you to demand any.[111] [112]

War of 1812 The Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, aware of growing opposition to wartime taxation and the demands of Liverpool and Bristol merchants to reopen trade with America, realized Britain had little to gain and much to lose from prolonged warfare.[113] [114] On December 24, 1814 the diplomats in Ghent signed the Treaty of Ghent. The treaty was ratified by the British three days later on December 27[115] [116] [117] and arrived in Washington on February 17 where it was quickly ratified and went into effect, thus finally ending the war. The terms called for all occupied territory was to be returned, the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States would be restored, and the Americans were to gain fishing rights in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The treaty ignored the grievances that led to war. American complaints of Indian raids, impressment and blockades had ended when Britain's war with France ended in 1814, and were not mentioned in the treaty. Mobile and parts of western Florida were not mentioned in the treaty but remained permanently in American possession, despite objections by Spain.[118] Thus, the war ended with no significant territorial losses for either side. Impressment could have become an issue during Napoleon's reappearance for the Hundred Days, for which Britain remanned her fleet; however, the British did not search American ships for British sailors at Liverpool (even the American official position conceded that they had the right to do in British ports), and when William Eustis, American minister to the Netherlands, complained of the impressment of a seaman off an American ship, the captain responsible was recalled to explain his actions. After the second fall of Napoleon, impressment was largely abandoned.[119]

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Losses and compensation
British losses in the war were about 1,600 killed in action and 3,679 wounded; 3,321 British died from disease. American losses were 2,260 killed in action and 4,505 wounded. While the number of Americans who died from disease is not known, it is estimated that about 15,000 died from all causes directly related to the war.[120] These figures do not include deaths among Canadian militia forces or losses among native tribes. There have been no estimates of the cost of the American war to Britain, but it did add some £25 million to the national debt.[121] In the U.S., the cost was $105 million, about the same as the cost to Britain. The national debt rose from $45 million in 1812 to $127 million by the end of 1815, although by selling bonds and treasury notes at deep discounts—and often for irredeemable paper money due to the suspension of specie payment in 1814—the government received only $34 million worth of specie.[122] [123] In addition, at least 3,000 American slaves escaped to the British because of their offer of freedom, the same as they had made in the American Revolution. Many other slaves simply escaped in the chaos of war and achieved their freedom on their own. The British settled some of the newly freed slaves in Nova Scotia.[124] Four hundred freedmen were settled in New Brunswick.[125] The Americans protested that Britain's failure to return the slaves violated the Treaty of Ghent. After arbitration by the Tsar of Russia the British paid $1,204,960 in damages to Washington, which reimbursed the slaveowners.[126]

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Memory and historiography
Popular views
During the 19th century the popular image of the war in the United States was of an American victory, and in Canada, of a Canadian victory. Each young country saw her self-perceived victory as an important foundation of her growing nationhood. The British, on the other hand, who had been preoccupied by Napoleon's challenge in Europe, paid little attention to what was to them a peripheral and secondary dispute.

Canadian
In British North America (which formed the Dominion of Canada in 1867), the War of 1812 was seen by Loyalists as a victory, as they had successfully defended their borders from an American takeover. The outcome gave Empire-oriented Canadians confidence and, together with the postwar "militia myth" that the civilian militia had been primarily responsible rather than the British regulars, was used to stimulate a new sense of Canadian nationalism.[127] A long-term implication of the militia myth—which was false, but remained popular in the Canadian public at least until World War I—was that Canada did not need a regular professional army.[128] The U.S. Army had done poorly, on the whole, in several attempts to invade Canada, and the Canadians had shown that they would fight bravely to defend their country. But the British did not doubt that the thinly populated territory would be vulnerable in a third war. "We cannot keep Canada if the Americans declare war against us again," Admiral Sir David Milne wrote to a correspondent in 1817.[129] By the 21st century it was a forgotten war in Britain and Quebec, although still remembered in the rest of Canada, especially Ontario. In a 2009 poll, 37% of Canadians said the war was a Canadian victory, 9% said the U.S. won, 15% called it a draw, and 39%—mainly younger Canadians—said they knew too little to comment.[130]

American
Today, American popular memory includes the British capture and the burning of Washington in August 1814, which necessitated its extensive renovation. Another memory is the successful American defence of Fort McHenry in September 1814, which inspired the lyrics of the U.S. national anthem, The Star-Spangled Banner.[131] The successful Captains of the U.S. Navy became popular heroes with plates with the likeness of Decatur, Steward, Hull, and others, becoming popular items. Ironically, many were made in England. The Navy became a cherished institution beloved for the victories that it gave against all odds.[132] The war remained in the American popular consciousness as late as the later 20th century due to the song The Battle of New Orleans.

Historians' views
Historians have differing and more complex interpretations. They are in full agreement that the native Indians were the war's clear losers, losing land, power and any hope of keeping their semi-autonomous status. Historians also agree that ending the war with neither side gaining or losing territory allowed for the peaceful settlement of boundary disputes and for the opening of a permanent era of good will and friendly relations between the U.S. and Canada. In recent decades the view of the majority of historians has been that the war ended in stalemate, with the Treaty of Ghent closing a war that had become militarily inconclusive. Neither side wanted to continue fighting since the main causes had disappeared and since there were no large lost territories for one side or the other to reclaim by force. Insofar as they see the war's untriumphant resolution as allowing two centuries of peaceful and mutually beneficial intercourse between the U.S., Britain and Canada, these historians often conclude that all three nations were the "real

War of 1812 winners" of the War of 1812. These writers often add that the war could have been avoided in the first place by better diplomacy. It is seen as a mistake for everyone concerned because it was badly planned and marked by multiple fiascoes and failures on both sides, as shown especially by the repeated American failure to seize parts of Canada, and the failed British invasions of New Orleans and upstate New York.[133] [134] However, other scholars hold that the war constituted a British victory and an American defeat. They argue that the British achieved their military objectives in 1812 (by stopping the repeated American invasions of Canada) and that Canada retained her independence of the United States. By contrast, they say, the Americans suffered a defeat when their armies failed to achieve their war goal of seizing part or all of Canada. Additionally, they argue the US lost as it failed to stop impressment, which the British refused to repeal until the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and the US actions had no effect on the orders in council, which were rescinded before the war started.[135] [136] A second minority view is that both the US and Britain won the war – that is, both achieved their main objectives, while the Indians were the losing party.[137] [138] The British won by losing no territories and achieving their great war goal, the total defeat of Napoleon. U.S. won by (1) securing her honour and successfully resisting a powerful empire once again,[139] thus winning a "second war of independence";[140] (2) ending the threat of Indian raids and the British plan for a semi-independent Indian sanctuary—thereby opening an unimpeded path for the United States' westward expansion—and (3) stopping the Royal Navy from restricting American trade and impressing American sailors.[141]

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Long-term consequences
Neither side lost territory in the war,[142] nor did the treaty that ended it address the original points of contention—and yet it changed much between the United States of America and Britain. The Rush–Bagot Treaty was a treaty between the United States and Britain enacted in 1817 that provided for the demilitarization of the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain, where many British naval arrangements and forts still remained. The treaty laid the basis for a demilitarized boundary and was indicative of improving relations between the United States and Great Britain in the period following the War of 1812. It remains in effect to this day. The Treaty of Ghent established the status quo ante bellum; that is, there were no territorial losses by either side. The issue of impressment was made moot when the Royal Navy, no longer needing sailors, stopped impressment after the defeat of Napoleon. Except for occasional border disputes and the circumstances of the American Civil War, relations between the U.S. and Britain remained generally peaceful for the rest of the 19th century, and the two countries became close allies in the 20th century. Border adjustments between the U.S. and British North America were made in the Treaty of 1818. A border dispute along the Maine–New Brunswick border was settled by the 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty after the bloodless Aroostook War, and the border in the Oregon Territory was settled by splitting the disputed area in half by the 1846 Oregon Treaty.

United States
The U.S. suppressed the native American resistance on its western and southern borders. The nation also gained a psychological sense of complete independence as people celebrated their "second war of independence."[143] [144] Nationalism soared after the victory at the Battle of New Orleans. The opposition Federalist Party collapsed, and the Era of Good Feelings ensued.[145] No longer questioning the need for a strong Navy, the U.S. built three new 74-gun ships of the line and two new 44-gun frigates shortly after the end of the war.[146] (Another frigate had been destroyed to prevent it being captured on the stocks.)[147] In 1816, the U.S. Congress passed into law an "Act for the gradual increase of the Navy" at a cost of $1,000,000 a year for eight years, authorizing 9 ships of the line and 12 heavy frigates.[148] The Captains and Commodores of the U.S. Navy became the heroes of their generation in the U.S. Decorated plates and pitchers of

War of 1812 Decatur, Hull, Bainbridge, Lawrence, Perry, and Macdonough were made in Staffordshire, England, and found a ready market in the United States. Three of the war heroes used their celebrity to win national office: Andrew Jackson (elected President in 1828 and 1832), Richard Mentor Johnson (elected Vice President in 1836), and William Henry Harrison (elected President in 1840). New England states became increasingly frustrated over how the war was being conducted and how the conflict was affecting them. They complained that the U.S. government was not investing enough in the states' defenses militarily and financially, and that the states should have more control over their militia. The increased taxes, the British blockade, and the occupation of some of New England by enemy forces also agitated public opinion in the states.[149] As a result, at the Hartford Convention (December 1814–January 1815) held in Connecticut, New England representatives asked New England to have its states' powers fully restored. Nevertheless, a common misconception propagated by newspapers of the time was that the New England representatives wanted to secede from the Union and make a separate peace with the British. This view is not supported by what happened at the Convention.[150] This war enabled thousands of slaves to escape to British lines or ships for freedom, despite the difficulties. The planters' complacency about slave contentment was shocked by their seeing slaves who would risk so much to be free.[124]

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British North America (Canada)
The Battle of York showed the vulnerability of Upper and Lower Canada. In the 1820s, work began on La Citadelle at Quebec City as a defence against the United States; the fort remains an operational base of the Canadian Forces. Additionally, work began on the Halifax citadel to defend the port against American attacks. This fort remained in operation through World War II. From 1826 to 1832, the Rideau Canal was built to provide a secure waterway from Bytown (now Ottawa) to Kingston via the Rideau River then southwest via the canal to Lake Ontario, avoiding the narrows of the St. Lawrence River, where ships could be vulnerable to American cannon fire. To defend the western end of the canal, the British also built Fort Henry at Kingston, including four Martello towers, which remained operational until 1891.

Indigenous nations
The Native Americans allied to the British lost their cause. The Douglas Coupland's 'Monument to the War of 1812' British proposal to create a "neutral" Indian zone in the American (2008) Toronto West was rejected at the Ghent peace conference and never resurfaced. After 1814 the natives, who lost most of their fur gathering territory, became an undesirable burden to British policymakers who now looked to the United States for markets and raw materials. British agents in the field continued to meet regularly with their former native partners, but they did not supply arms or encouragement and there were no Indian campaigns to stop U.S. expansionism in the Midwest. Abandoned by their powerful sponsor, Great Lakes-area natives ultimately migrated or reached accommodations with the American authorities and settlers.[151] In the Southeast, Indian resistance had been crushed by General Andrew Jackson; as President (1829–37), Jackson systematically removed the major tribes to reservations west of the Mississippi.[152]

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Bermuda
Bermuda had been largely left to the defences of its own militia and privateers prior to U.S. independence, but the Royal Navy had begun buying up land and operating from there in 1795, as its location was a useful substitute for the lost U.S. ports. It originally was intended to be the winter headquarters of the North American Squadron, but the war saw it rise to a new prominence. As construction work progressed through the first half of the 19th century, Bermuda became the permanent naval headquarters in Western waters, housing the Admiralty and serving as a base and dockyard. The military garrison was built up to protect the naval establishment, heavily fortifying the archipelago that came to be described as the "Gibraltar of the West." Defence infrastructure would remain the central leg of Bermuda's economy until after World War II.

Britain
The massive ongoing conflict against the French Empire under Napoleon ensured that the War of 1812 was never seen as more than a sideshow to the main event by the British.[153] Britain's blockade of French trade had been entirely successful and the Royal Navy was the world's dominant nautical power (and would remain so for another century). While the land campaigns had contributed little, the Royal Navy had shut down American commerce, bottled up the U.S. Navy in port and heavily suppressed privateering. The peace was generally welcomed by the British though there was disquiet at the rapid growth of the U.S. However, the two nations quickly resumed trade after the end of the war and. over time, a growing friendship.[154]

Notes
Footnotes
[1] Norman K. Risjord, "1812: Conservatives, War Hawks, and the Nation's Honor." William And Mary Quarterly 1961 18(2): 196-210. in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1918543) [2] Sir Robert Phillimore, Commentaries upon international law (1857) Volume 3 p. 211 online (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Rq8LAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA211& dq=1807+ "international+ law"+ "Orders+ in+ Council+ "+ illegal+ OR+ violated& hl=en& ei=9tNFTcPDC472tgOT_uDVCg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=1807 "international law" "Orders in Council " illegal OR violated& f=false) [3] Horsman 1962, p. 264 [4] Toll 2006, p. 281. [5] Toll 2006, p. 382. [6] Caffrey 1977, p. 60 [7] Black 2002, p. 44. [8] Latimer 2007, p. 17. [9] Toll 2006, pp. 278–279. [10] Ordinance for the Government of the Territory of the United States North-West of the River Ohio [11] Willig 2008, p. 207. [12] Hitsman 1965, p. 27. [13] Heidler 1997, pp. 253,392 [14] Smith 1989, pp. 46–63, esp 61-63. [15] Carroll 2001, p. 23. [16] Kennedy, Cohen & Bailey 2010, p. 244. [17] Pratt 1925, pp. 9–15. [18] Hacker 1924, pp. 365–395. [19] Egan 1974, p. 74. [20] Bowler 1988, pp. 11–32. [21] Stagg 1981, pp. 3–34. [22] Stagg 1983. [23] Horsman 1962, p. 267. [24] Hickey 1989, p. 72. [25] Brown 1971, p. 128. [26] Burt 1940, pp. 305–10. [27] Berton 2001, p. 206.

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[28] Hickey 1989, pp. 52–53. [29] The US political background is described in detail in Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels & Indian Allies, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010. [30] Journal of the Senate of the United States of America, 1789-1873 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(sj005181))) [31] Toll 2006, p. 329. [32] Hickey 1989, pp. 72–75. [33] Quimby 1997, pp. 2–12. [34] Adams, Henry, History of the United States of America during the Administrations of James Madison, vol. II (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=f_wAAAAAYAAJ), p. 400, (later edition: ISBN 0-940450-35-6, p. 574) [35] Hickey 1989, p. 80. [36] Heidler & Heidler 1997, pp. 233–34,349-50,478-79. [37] Heidler & Heidler 1997, p. 248. [38] Heidler & Heidler 1997, pp. 437–8. [39] Heidler & Heidler 1997, pp. 362–363. [40] Heidler & Heidler 1997, pp. 290–293. [41] Goltz 2000, Tecumseh. [42] Heidler & Heidler 1997, pp. 505,508-511. [43] Gilbert 1989, pp. 329–30. [44] Latimer 2007, p. 101. [45] Coggeshall, George (2005). History of the American privateers [publisher] and [46] Hickey 1989, p. 126. [47] Heidler & Heidler 1997, pp. 428–429. [48] Millett 1991, p. 46. [49] Heidler & Heidler 1997, pp. 378–382. [50] Remini 2001, pp. 136–83. [51] Black 2002, p. 69. [52] Major L. Wilson, Space, Time, and Freedom: The Quest for Nationality and the Irrepressible Conflict, 1815-1861 (1974) p. 4. [53] Paul G. Cornell, Canada, unity in diversity (1967) p.192 [54] David Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler, The War of 1812 (2002) pp 13-14 [55] Admiralty reply to British press criticism (Toll 2006, p. 180). [56] Toll 2006, p. 50. [57] Toll 2006, pp. 360–365. [58] Gardiner 1996, p. 162. [59] Gardiner 1996, p. 164. [60] Gardiner 1996, p. 163. [61] Toll 2006, pp. 405–417. [62] Forester 1970, pp. 131–132. [63] Gardiner 1996, p. 61. [64] Essex (http:/ / www. history. navy. mil/ danfs/ e5/ essex-i. htm), Naval History and Heritage Command [65] Gardiner 1996, pp. 85–90. [66] Roosevelt 1902, pp.  155–158 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ navalwarorhisto00roosgoog#page/ n167/ mode/ 1up). [67] Leckie 1998, p. 255. [68] "American Merchant Marine and Privateers in War of 1812" (http:/ / www. usmm. org/ warof1812. html). Usmm.org. . Retrieved 2010-07-26. [69] "www.princedeneufchatel.com" (http:/ / www. princedeneufchatel. com/ ). www.princedeneufchatel.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-26. [70] "Sealift - Merchant Mariners – America’s unsung heroes" (http:/ / www. msc. navy. mil/ sealift/ 2004/ May/ perspective. htm). Msc.navy.mil. . Retrieved 2008-10-22. [71] Hansard, vol 29, pp. 649–50. [72] "The American War of 1812" online (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ gpvillain/ 1812. html& date=2009-10-25+ 23:27:23) [73] Smith, Joshua (2011). Battle for the Bay: The War of 1812. Fredericton, NB: Goose Lane Editions. pp. 75–91. ISBN 978-0-86492-644-9. [74] Smith, Joshua (2007). Borderland Smuggling. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida. pp. 81–94. ISBN 0-8130-2968-4. [75] Harvey 1938, pp. 207–213. [76] "The Defense and Burning of Washington in 1814: Naval Documents of the War of 1812" (http:/ / www. history. navy. mil/ library/ online/ burning_washington. htm#rodgers-p). History.navy.mil. . Retrieved 2008-10-22. [77] "The Tornado and the Burning of Washington" (http:/ / www. weatherbook. com/ 1814. htm). Weatherbook.com. . Retrieved 2008-10-22. [78] "The Defense and Burning of Washington in 1814: Naval Documents of the War of 1812" (http:/ / www. history. navy. mil/ library/ online/ burning_washington. htm#johnson). History.navy.mil. . Retrieved 2008-10-22.

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[79] http:/ / www. britishmedals. us/ files/ rmwashington. html [80] London Gazette: no. 17305. p. 2316 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 17305/ pages/ 2316). 15 November 1817. Retrieved 22 Dec 2010. [81] London Gazette: no. 17482. p. 955 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 17482/ pages/ 955). 1 June 1819. Retrieved 22 Dec 2010. [82] Burroughs 2000, "Prevost, Sir George". [83] Benn & Marston 2006, p. 214. [84] Hickey 1989, p. 84. [85] Fraser 2000, "Mallory, Benajah" and Jones 2000, "Willcocks (Wilcox), Joseph" [86] "Kentucky: National Guard History eMuseum - War of 1812" (http:/ / www. kynghistory. ky. gov/ history/ 1qtr/ warof1812. htm). Kynghistory.ky.gov. . Retrieved 2008-10-22. [87] "Historic Lewiston, NY" (http:/ / www. historiclewiston. org/ history. html). Historical Association of Lewiston. . Retrieved 12 October 2010. [88] Prohaska, Thomas J. (August 21, 2010). "Lewiston monument to mark Tuscarora heroism in War of 1812" (http:/ / www. buffalonews. com/ city/ communities/ niagara-county/ article44523. ece). The Buffalo News. . Retrieved 12 October 2010. [89] John R. Grodzinski, "Review," Canadian Historical Review Volume 91#3 Sept. 2010 pp 560-1 [90] Rodriguez 2002, p. 270. [91] Cyrenus Cole, A history of the people of Iowa (1921) pp 69-74 [92] Nolan 2009, pp. 85–94. [93] Stevens 1921, pp.  480–482 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ centennialhist01instev#page/ 480/ mode/ 1up) [94] First United States Infantry (http:/ / www. iaw. on. ca/ ~jsek/ us1inf. htm) [95] Lossing 1869, Chapter 34: War Against the Creek Indians. [96] Heidler & Heidler 1997, pp. 409–11. [97] Brooks, Charles B p. 252, [98] Reilly 1974, pp. 303, 306. [99] Remini 2001, p. 167. [100] "Chapter 6: The War of 1812" (http:/ / www. history. army. mil/ books/ AMH-V1/ ch06. htm). Army.mil. . Retrieved 2011-01-11. [101] Tanner 1987, p. 120. [102] First United States Infantry, http:/ / www. iaw. on. ca/ ~jsek/ us1inf. htm [103] Hickey 1989, p. 231. [104] Morison 1941, pp. 205–206 [105] Hickey 1989, pp. 217–218. [106] Latimer 2007, pp. 362–365. [107] The British were unsure whether the attack on Baltimore was a failure, but Plattsburg was a humiliation that called for court martial (Latimer 2007, pp. 331,359,365). [108] Perkins 1964, pp. 108–109. [109] Hickey 2006, pp. 150–151. [110] Hibbert 1997, p. 164. [111] Mills 1921, pp. 19–32. [112] Toll 2006, p. 441. [113] Latimer 2007, pp. 389–91. [114] Gash 1984, pp. 111–119. [115] Hickey 2006, p. 295. [116] Updyke 1915, p. 360. [117] Perkins 1964, pp. 129–130. [118] Smith 1999. [119] Irving Brant, The Fourth President, pp. 592-3. Eustis reported to Madison that the seaman was neither American nor of good character; he was protesting the act of impressment. [120] Hickey 2006, p. 297. [121] Latimer p 389 [122] Adams 1930, p. 385. [123] Hickey 1989, p. 303. [124] Schama 2006, p. 406. [125] "Black Loyalists in New Brunswick, 1789–1853" (http:/ / atlanticportal. hil. unb. ca/ acva/ blackloyalists/ en/ ), Atlantic Canada Portal, University of New Brunswick, accessed 8 Feb 2010 [126] see "Arbitration, Mediation, and Conciliation" (http:/ / www. americanforeignrelations. com/ A-D/ Arbitration-Mediation-and-Conciliation-Jay-s-treaty-and-the-treaty-of-ghent. html) [127] Kaufman 1997, pp. 110–135. [128] CMH, "Origins of the Militia Myth" (February 2006) online (http:/ / www. cdnmilitary. ca/ index. php?p=19) [129] Toll 2006, pp. 458,459.

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[130] Randy Boswell, "Who won War of 1812 baffles poll respondents," Canwest News Service Dec. 9, 2009 [131] "The Star-Spangled Banner and the War of 1812" (http:/ / www. si. edu/ Encyclopedia_SI/ nmah/ starflag. htm). Encyclopedia Smithsonian. . Retrieved 2008-03-10. [132] Toll 2006, p. 456. [133] Heidler & Heidler 2002, p. 137. [134] Howe 2007, p. 74 See also Morison 1972, p. 302 [135] Benn 2002, p. 83. [136] Latimer 2007, pp. 3. [137] Campbell 2007, p. 10. [138] Turner 2000, pp. 130–131. [139] As Winston Churchill concluded, "The lessons of the war were taken to heart. Anti-American feeling in Great Britain ran high for several years, but the United States were never again refused proper treatment as an independent power".Churchill 2001, p. 116 [140] Langguth 2006, p. 177. [141] Turner (2000) Zuehlke (2007), Hixson (2001); Williams 1961, p. 196; Watts 1987, p. 316 [142] Spain, a British ally, lost control of the Mobile, Alabama, area to the Americans. [143] Langguth 2006, pp. 1, 177. [144] Cogliano 2008, p. 247. [145] Dangerfield 1952, pp. xi-xiii, 95. [146] Toll 2006, pp. 456,467. [147] Roosevelt 1902, pp.  47,80 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ navalwarorhisto00roosgoog#page/ n59/ mode/ 1up). [148] Toll 2006, p. 457. [149] Hickey 1989, p. 255ff. [150] [151] [152] [153] [154] Benn 2002, pp. 75–76. Calloway 1986, pp. 1–20. Remini 2002, pp. 62–93, 226-281. Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: a forgotten conflict (1989) p 304 Peter N. Stearns, ed. The Oxford encyclopedia of the modern world (2008) vol 7 p 547

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Citations

References
• Adams, Henry (1891). History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. New York: Library of America. Table of contents (http://www.loa.org/volume. jsp?RequestID=16&section=toc), the classic political-diplomatic history • Allen, Robert S (1996). "Chapter 5: Renewing the Chain of Friendship" (http://books.google.com/ ?id=t9T6y_zk5B0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=his+majesty's+indian+allies#PPA121,M1). His Majesty's Indian allies: British Indian policy in the defence of Canada, 1774-1815. Toronto: Dundurn Press. ISBN 1-55002-175-3. • Benn, Carl (2002). The War of 1812 (http://books.google.ca/books?id=Ml2pdfWRnMoC&lpg=PP1&dq=The War of 1812.&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-466-5. • Benn, Carl; Marston, Daniel (2006). Liberty or Death: Wars That Forged a Nation (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=fLfiYpwQY4gC&lpg=PP1&dq=Liberty or Death: Wars That Forged a Nation.& pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-86403-022-6. • Berton, Pierre (2001) [1981]. Flames Across the Border: 1813–1814 (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=ij8qwgxEPMAC&lpg=PA3&dq=Flames Across the Border: 1813–1814&pg=PA206#v=onepage& q&f=true). p. 206. ISBN 0-385-65838-9. • Black, Jeremy (2002). America as a Military Power: From the American Revolution to the Civil War. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. pp. 44, 69. • Black Hawk (1882) [1833]. Autobiography of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak or Black Hawk (http://books. google.ca/books?id=If1zer3t_2oC&lpg=PP1&dq==Autobiography of Ma-Ka-Tai-Me-She-Kia-Kiak& pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). St. Louis: Continental Printing. ISBN 9781419108471. • Bowler, R Arthur (March, 1988). "Propaganda in Upper Canada in the War of 1812". American Review of Canadian Studies 18 (1): 11–32. doi:10.1080/02722018809480915.

War of 1812 • Brown, Roger Hamilton (1971). The Republic in Peril (illustrated ed.). Norton. p. 128. ISBN 9780393005783. • Burroughs, Peter (2000). "Prevost, Sir George" (http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?& id_nbr=2620&interval=20&&PHPSESSID=d3rqa7dmi5bp76qsja6hv3ng14). In English, John. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. V (1801-1820). University of Toronto/Université Laval. • Burt, Alfred LeRoy (1940). The United States, Great Britain and British North America from the revolution to the establishment of peace after the war of 1812 (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=750041). Yale University Press. pp. 305–310. • Caffrey, Kate (1977). The Twilight's Last Gleaming: Britain vs. America 1812–1815. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 0812819209. • Calloway, Colin G. (1986). "The End of an Era: British-Indian Relations in the Great Lakes Region after the War of 1812". Michigan Historical Review 12 (2): 1–20. doi:10.2307/20173078. JSTOR 20173078. 0890-1686 • Campbell, Duncan Andrew (2007). Unlikely allies: Britain, America and the Victorian origins of the special relationship. Hambledon Continuum. p. 10. • Carroll, Francis M (2001). A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian-American Boundary, 1783–1842 (http://books.google.com/?id=1AjlS20Q5J8C&pg=PA24&dq=barrier+intitle:Good+intitle:and+ intitle:Wise+intitle:Measure+intitle:The+intitle:Search+intitle:for+intitle:the+intitle:Canadian-American+ inauthor:Francis+inauthor:M+inauthor:Carroll). Toronto: University of Toronto. p. 23. ISBN 9780802083586. • Churchill, Winston (2001). The Great Republic: A History of America (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=GT60TiK84WYC&lpg=PR1&dq=The Great Republic: A History of America& pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Modern library. p. 116. ISBN 0375754407. • Cogliano, Francis D (2008). Revolutionary America, 1763-1815: A Political History (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 247. ISBN 0415964865. • Dangerfield, George (1952). The Era of Good Feelings. Harcourt, Brace. pp. xi-xii, 95. ISBN 978-0929587141. • Egan, Clifford L (April, 1974). "The Origins of the War of 1812: Three Decades of Historical Writing". Military Affairs 38 (2): 72–75. doi:10.2307/1987240. JSTOR 1987240. • "Essex". Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships (DANFS). Washington DC: Naval Historical Center. 1991. • Forester, C.S. (1970) [1957]. The Age of Fighting Sail. New English Library. ISBN 0-939218-06-2. • Fraser, Robert Lochiel (2000). "Mallory, Benajah" (http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?& id_nbr=4053&interval=20&&PHPSESSID=d3rqa7dmi5bp76qsja6hv3ng14). In English, John. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Volume VIII (1851-1860). University of Toronto/Université Laval. • Gardiner, Robert, ed (1996). The Naval War of 1812: Caxton pictorial history. Caxton Editions. ISBN 1840673605. • Gash, Norman (1984). Lord Liverpool: The Life and Political Career of Robert Banks Jenkinson, Second Earl of Liverpool, 1770–1828. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp. 111–119. ISBN 0297784536. • Gilbert, Bil (1989). God Gave Us This Country: Tekamthi and the First American Civil War. University of Michigan. pp. 329–30. ISBN 0689116322. • Goltz, Herbert C. W. (2000). "Tecumseh" (http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36806& query=tecumseh). In English, John. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. V (1801-1820). University of Toronto/Université Laval. • Hacker, Louis M. (March 1924). "Western Land Hunger and the War of 1812: A Conjecture". Mississippi Valley Historical Review X (4): 365–395. JSTOR 1892931. • Harvey, D.C. (July 1938). "The Halifax–Castine expedition". Dalhousie Review 18 (2): 207–13. • Heidler, David S.; Heidler, Jeanne T., eds (1997). "Encyclopedia of the War of 1812" (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=_c09EJgek50C&lpg=PP1&dq=Encyclopedia of the War of 1812&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Encyclopedia of the War of 1812. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1591143624. • Heidler, David S.; Heidler, Jeanne T. (2002). The War of 1812. Westport; London: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313316872.

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War of 1812 • Hibbert, Christopher (1997). Wellington: A Personal History (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=Ni8Mc1b1ygAC&lpg=PP1&dq=Wellington: A Personal History&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Reading, MA: Perseus Books. ISBN 0-7382-0148-0. • Hickey, Donald (1989). The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=390r2-ayPY0C&lpg=PP1&dq=The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q& f=true). Urbana; Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252016130. • Hickey, Donald R (1995). The War of 1812: A Short History (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=3GLq_jMv5ToC&lpg=PP1&dq=The War of 1812: A Short History&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q& f=true). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252064305. • Hickey, Donald R (July, 2001). "The War of 1812: Still a Forgotten Conflict?". The Journal of Military History 65 (3): pp. 741–769. doi:10.2307/2677533. JSTOR 2677533. • Hickey, Donald R (2006). Don't Give Up the Ship! Myths of The War of 1812. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03179-3. • Hitsman, J. Mackay (1965). The Incredible War of 1812. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 27. • Horsman, Reginald (1962). The Causes of the War of 1812. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-498-04087-9. • Howe, Daniel Walker (2007). What Hath God Wrought (http://books.google.ca/books?id=0XIvPDF9ijcC& lpg=PP1&dq==What Hath God Wrought&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q&f=true). Oxford University Press. p. 74. ISBN 9780195078947. • Jackson, Donald (1960). "A Critic's View of Old Fort Madison". Iowa Journal of History and Politics 58 (1): 31–36. • Jones, Elwood H. (2000). "Willcocks (Wilcox), Joseph" (http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?& id_nbr=2713&interval=20&&PHPSESSID=d3rqa7dmi5bp76qsja6hv3ng14). In English, John. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. V (1801-1820). University of Toronto/Université Laval. • Kaufman, Erik (1997). "Condemned to Rootlessness: The Loyalist Origins of Canada's Identity Crisis" (http:// www.bbk.ac.uk/polsoc/staff/academic/eric-kaufmann/loyalists-nep2). Nationalism and Ethnic Politics 3 (1): 110–135. doi:10.1080/13537119708428495. • Kennedy, David M; Cohen, Lizabeth; Bailey, Thomas A (2010). The American Pageant (http://books.google. ca/books?id=gwP8bQsT908C&lpg=PP1&dq=The American Pageant&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Volume I: To 1877 (14th ed.). Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. p. 244. ISBN 0547166591. • Langguth, A. J. (2006). Union 1812: the Americans who fought the Second War of Independence. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 1, 177. ISBN 978-0-7432-2618-9. • Latimer, Jon (2007). 1812: War with America (http://books.google.ca/books?id=0lsWOwZXw1gC& lpg=PP1&dq=1812: War with America&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Cambridge: Belknap Press. ISBN 9780674025844. • Lavery, B. (1989). Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organisation 1793–1815 (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=DVE5YzfTir4C&lpg=PP1&dq=Nelson's Navy: The Ships, Men and Organisation 1793–1815& pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0870212583. • Leckie, Robert (1998). The Wars of America. University of Michigan. p. 255. ISBN 0060125713. • Lossing, Benson J. (1869). "XXXIV: War Against the Creek Indians." (http://freepages.history.rootsweb. ancestry.com/~wcarr1/Lossing2/Chap34.html). Pictorial Field-Book of the War of 1812. New York: Harper & Brothers. ISBN 0781238609. Retrieved 2008-04-28. • McKusick, Marshall B. (2009). "Fort Madison, 1808–1813" (http://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/2009-fall/ whittaker.htm). In William E. Whittaker. Frontier Forts of Iowa: Indians, Traders, and Soldiers, 1682–1862. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. pp. 55–74. ISBN 978-1-58729-831-8. • Millett, Allan Reed (1991). Semper fidelis: the history of the United States Marine Corps. University of Michigan. p. 46. ISBN 0029215951.

327

War of 1812 • Mills, Dudley (1921). "The Duke of Wellington and the Peace Negotiations at Ghent in 1814" (http:// utpjournals.metapress.com/content/h536227283689270/). Canadian Historical Review 2 (1): 19–32. doi:10.3138/CHR-02-01-02. • Morison, Samuel Eliot (1972). Oxford History of the American People. New American Library. p. 302. ISBN 0451624467. • Morison, E. (1941). The Maritime History of Massachusetts, 1783–1860. Houghton Mifflin Co. pp. 205–6. ISBN 0972815562. • Nelson, Kenneth Ross (1972). Socio-Economic Effects of the War of 1812 on Britain (Ph.D. Dissertation). University of Georgia. pp. 129–44. • Nolan, David J. (2009). "Fort Johnson, Cantonment Davis, and Fort Edwards" (http://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/ 2009-fall/whittaker.htm). In William E. Whittaker. Frontier Forts of Iowa: Indians, Traders, and Soldiers, 1682–1862. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. pp. 85–94. ISBN 978-1-58729-831-8. • Perkins, Bradford. Prologue to war: England and the United States, 1805-1812 (1961) full text online (http:// www.ucpress.edu/op.php?isbn=9780520009967) • Perkins, Bradford (1964). Castereagh and Adams: England and The United States, 1812-1823. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. • Pratt, Julius W. (1925). Expansionists of 1812. New York: Macmillan. • Quimby, Robert S. (1997). The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: An Operational and Command Study (http:// www.questia.com/read/42476620). East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. pp. 2–12. • Reilly, Robin (1974). The British at the Gates: The New Orleans Campaign in The War of 1812. New York: G P Putnam's Sons. pp. 303, 306. • Remini, Robert (2001). The Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson and America's First Military Victory (http:// books.google.ca/books?id=m6c5hfBftSAC&lpg=PA236&dq=he Battle of New Orleans: Andrew Jackson and America's First Military Victory&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=true). Penguin. pp. 136–83. ISBN 0141001798. • Remini, Robert V. (2002). Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars. Penguin Books. ISBN 0142001287. • Rodriguez, Junius P. (2002). The Louisiana Purchase: A Historical and Geographical Encyclopedia (http:// books.google.ca/books?id=Qs7GAwwdzyQC&lpg=PP1&dq=The Louisiana Purchase: A Historical and Geographical Encyclopedia&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio. p. 270. ISBN 978-1576071885. • Roosevelt, Theodore (1902). The Naval War of 1812 or the History of the United States Navy during the Last War with Great Britain to Which Is Appended an Account of the Battle of New Orleans (http://www.archive.org/ stream/navalwarorhisto00roosgoog#page/n13/mode/1up). Part II. New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons. • Smith, Dwight L (1989). "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea". Northwest Ohio Quarterly 61 (2–4): 46–63. • Smith, Gene A. (January 1999). "'Our flag was display'd within their works': The Treaty of Ghent and the Conquest of Mobile". Alabama Review. • Smith, Joshua M. ""The Yankee Soldier's Might: The District of Maine and the Reputation of the Massachusetts Militia, 1800-1812," New England Quarterly LXXXIV no. 2 (June, 2011), 234-264. • Stagg, J.C.A. (January 1981). "James Madison and the Coercion of Great Britain: Canada, the West Indies, and the War of 1812". William and Mary Quarterly 38 (1): 3–34. doi:10.2307/1916855. JSTOR 1916855. • Stagg, John C.A. (1983). Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American republic, 1783-1830. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. • Stevens, Walter B. (1921). Centennial history of Missouri (the center state) one hundred years in the union (http:/ /www.archive.org/stream/centennialhist01instev#page/n8/mode/1up). St. Louis and Chicago: S. J. Clarke. • Tanner, Helen H. (1987). Atlas of Great Lakes Indian History. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 120. ISBN 0806120568.

328

War of 1812 • Toll, Ian W. (2006). Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=H9iQaPTPYiEC&lpg=PP1&dq=Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S.Navy& pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 9780393058475. • Turner, Wesley B. (2000). The War of 1812: The War That Both Sides Won (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=LhBCeh8f7WUC&lpg=PP1&dq=The War of 1812: The War That Both Sides Won& pg=PA130#v=onepage&q&f=true). Toronto: Dundurn Press. pp. 130–131. ISBN 1-55002-336-5. • Updyke, Frank A. (1915). The Diplomacy of the War of 1812. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. • Upton, David (22 November 2003). "Soldiers of the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812" (http://web. archive.org/web/20070906061647/http://home.bak.rr.com/simpsoncounty/war1812.htm). Internet Archive. Archived from the original (http://home.bak.rr.com/simpsoncounty/war1812.htm) on 6 September 2007. Retrieved 23 September 2010. • Watts, Steven (1987). The Republic Reborn: War and the Making of Liberal America, 1790-1820 (http://books. google.com/?id=F7yLuSZ0ww8C&lpg=PR1&dq=The Republic Reborn: War and the Making of Liberal America, 1790-1820&pg=PR1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 316. ISBN 0-8018-3420-1. • Williams, William Appleman (1961). The Contours of American History. W.W. Norton. pp. 196. ISBN 0393305619. • Willig, Timothy D (2008). Restoring the Chain of Friendship: British Policy and the Indians of the Great Lakes, 1783-1815 (http://books.google.ca/books?id=FtzyNOrEjY8C&lpg=PP1&dq=Restoring the Chain of Friendship: British Policy and the Indians of the Great Lakes, 1783-1815&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Lincoln & London: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-4817-5.

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Further reading
• Collins, Gilbert (2006). Guidebook to the historic sites of the War of 1812 (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=UmbQbOcdKngC&lpg=PA28&dq=Maritime Command Museum&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Dundurn. ISBN 1550026267 • Heidler, David Stephen; Jeanne T. Heidler (2004). Encyclopedia of the War of 1812 (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=_c09EJgek50C&lpg=PP1&dq=Encyclopedia of the War of 1812&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781591143628 • Jenkins, John S (2010) [1856]. "Alexander Macomb" (http://mlloyd.org/gen/macomb/text/jenkins.htm). Daring Deeds of American Generals. Marshall Davies Lloyd. pp. 295–322. • Malcomson, Robert. Historical Dictionary of the War of 1812 (Land ham, Md.: Scarecrow Press, 2006). ISBN 0-8108-5499-6 699pp • Malcomson, Robert (2003). A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812 (http://books. google.ca/books?id=-YGWUWbhAK8C&lpg=PP1&dq=A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Toronto: Robin Brass Studio. ISBN 9781591140221. • Schama, Simon (2006). Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution. New York: Harper Collins. p. 406. • Simonson, Lee (2010). Tuscarora Heroes, The War of 1812 British Attack on Lewiston, New York, December 19, 1813. Historical Association of Lewiston, NY. ISBN 978-1-932583-23-6. • Stacey, CP (1964). "The War of 1812 in Canadian History". In Zaslow; Morris; Turner, Wesley B. The Defended Border: Upper Canada and the War of 1812. Toronto • Taylor, Alan (2010). The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 1400042658.

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External links
• Library of Congress Guide to the War of 1812 (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/1812/), Kenneth Drexler • The War of 1812 in the South (http://www.hnoc.org/BNO/william_cook.htm), The William C. Cook Collection, The Williams Research Center, The Historic New Orleans Collection • American Military History, Chapter 6 – The War of 1812 (http://www.history.army.mil/books/amh/amh-06. htm), Office of the Chief of Military History, United States Army, 1989 • War of 1812 collection (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/c/clementsmss/umich-wcl-M-855war) William L. Clements Library. • The War of 1812 Website (http://warof1812.ca/), MilitaryHeritage.com • "Treaty of Ghent" (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Ghent.html). Primary Documents in American History. The Library of Congress. 2010. • "War of 1812" (http://www.galafilm.com/1812/e/intro/index.html). Galafilm. 2008. • Key Events of the War of 1812 (http://faculty.polytechnic.org//gfeldmeth/USHistory.html), chart by Greg D. Feldmeth, Polytechnic School (Pasadena, California), 1998. • "War of 1812" (http://www.historycentral.com/1812/Index.html). historycentral.com. 2000. • "The War of 1812" (http://www.archives.gov.on.ca/english/on-line-exhibits/1812/index.aspx). Archives of Ontario. 2009-2010. • Black Americans in the US Military from the American Revolution to the Korean War: The War of 1812 (http:// www.dmna.state.ny.us/historic/articles/blacksMilitary/BlacksMilitary1812.htm), David Omahen, New York State Military Museum and Veteran Research Center, 2006 • "War of 1812 Collection" (http://indiamond6.ulib.iupui.edu/War1812/). The Digital Collections of IUPUI University Library, Indiana University. 2006. • President Madison's War Message (http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=570), lesson plan with extensive list of documents, EDSitement.com (National Endowment for the Humanities) • PBS Documentary The War of 1812 (http://www.pbs.org/wned/war-of-1812/the-film/ watch-film-and-bonus-features/)

Battle of New Orleans

331

Battle of New Orleans
The Battle of New Orleans took place on January 8, 1815 and was the final major battle of the War of 1812.[1] [2] American forces, commanded by Major General Andrew Jackson, defeated an invading British Army intent on seizing New Orleans and the vast territory the United States had acquired with the Louisiana Purchase.[3] [4] [5] The Treaty of Ghent had been signed on December 24, 1814 and ratified by the United States Senate on February 16, 1815. However, official dispatches announcing the peace would not reach the combatants until late February, finally putting an end to the war.[6] [7] The battle is widely regarded as the greatest American land victory of the war.

Battle of Lake Borgne
By December 12, 1814, a large British fleet under the command of Sir Alexander Cochrane with more than 8,000 soldiers and sailors aboard, had anchored in the Gulf of Mexico to the east of Lake Pontchartrain and Lake Borgne.[8] Preventing access to the lakes was an American flotilla, commanded by Lieutenant Thomas ap Catesby Jones, consisting of five gunboats. On December 14, around 1,200 British sailors and Royal Marines under Captain Nicholas Lockyer[9] set out to attack Catesby's force. Lockyer's men sailed in 42 longboats, each armed with a small carronade. Lockyer captured Catesby's vessels in a brief engagement known as the Battle of Lake Borgne. 17 British sailors were killed and 77 wounded,[10] while 6 Eighteenth century map of southeast Louisiana Americans were killed, 35 wounded and 86 captured.[10] The wounded included both Catesby and Lockyer. Now free to navigate Lake Borgne, thousands of British soldiers, under the command of General John Keane, were rowed to Pea Island, about 30 miles (48 km) east of New Orleans, where they established a garrison.[11]

Night attack of December 23
On the morning of December 23, Keane and a vanguard of 1,800 British soldiers reached the east bank of the Mississippi River, 9 miles (14 km) south of New Orleans.[12] Keane could have attacked the city by advancing for a few hours up the river road, which was undefended all the way to New Orleans, but he made the fateful decision to encamp at Lacoste's Plantation[13] and wait for the arrival of reinforcements.[14] During the afternoon of December 23, after he had learned of the position of the British encampment, Andrew Jackson reportedly said, "By the Eternal they shall not sleep on our soil."[15] This intelligence had been provided by Col. T. Hind's Squadron of Light Dragoons, a militia unit from the Mississippi Territory."[16] The lineage of Hind's Dragoons is perpetuated by the 155th Infantry Regiment (ARNG MS), one of only nineteen Army National Guard units with campaign credit for the War of 1812. That evening, Jackson led 2,131[17] men in a brief three-pronged attack from the north on the unsuspecting British troops who were resting in their camp. Then Jackson pulled his forces back to the Rodriguez Canal, about four miles south of the city. The Americans suffered 24 killed, 115 wounded and 74 missing,[] while the British reported their losses as 46 killed, 167 wounded and 64 missing.[18] Historian Robert Quimby says, "the British certainly did win a tactical victory, which enabled them to maintain their position".[19] However, Quimby goes on to say, "It is not too much to say that it was the battle of December 23 that saved New Orleans. The British were disabused of their expectation of an easy conquest. The unexpected and severe attack made Keane even more cautious...he made no effort to advance on the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth".[19] As a consequence, the Americans were given time to begin the transformation of the canal into a heavily fortified earthwork.[20] On Christmas Day, General Edward Pakenham arrived on the battlefield and ordered a

Battle of New Orleans reconnaissance-in-force on December 28 against the American earthworks protecting the advance to New Orleans. That evening, General Pakenham met with General Keane and Admiral Cochrane for an update on the situation, angry with the position that the army had been placed in. General Pakenham wanted to use Chef Menteur Road as the invasion route but was over-ruled by Admiral Cochrane who insisted that his boats were providing everything that could be needed.[21] Admiral Cochrane believed that the British Army would destroy a ramshackle American army and allegedly said that if the Army would not do so his sailors would. Whatever Pakenham's thoughts on the matter, the meeting settled the method and place of the attack.[22] On December 28, groups of British troops made probing attacks against the American earthworks. When the British troops withdrew, the Americans began construction of artillery batteries to protect the earthworks, which were then christened Line Jackson. The Americans installed eight batteries, which included one 32-pound gun, three 24-pounders, one 18-pounder, three 12-pounders, three 6-pounders, and a 6-inch (150 mm) howitzer. Jackson also sent a detachment of men to the west bank of the Mississippi to man two 24-pounders and two 12-pounders from the grounded warship Louisiana. The main British army arrived on New Year's Day, and attacked the earthworks using their artillery. An exchange of artillery fire began that lasted for three hours. Several of the American guns were destroyed or knocked out, including the 32-pounder, a 24-pounder, and a 12-pounder, and some damage was done to the earthworks. The British guns ran out of ammunition, which led Pakenham to cancel the attack. Unknown at the moment to Pakenham, the Americans on the left of Line Jackson near the swamp had broken and run from the position. Pakenham decided to wait for his entire force of over 8,000 men to assemble before launching his attack.[23]

332

Battle of January 8
In the early morning of January 8, Pakenham ordered a two-pronged assault against Jackson's position. Colonel William Thornton (of the 85th Regiment) was to cross the Mississippi during the night with his 780-strong brigade, move rapidly upriver and storm the batteries commanded by Commodore Daniel Patterson on the flank of the main American entrenchments and then open an enfilading fire on Jackson's line with howitzers and rockets.[24] Then, the main attack, directly against the earthworks manned by the vast majority of American troops,[25] would be launched in Early 19th century map of depicting the battlefield at Chalmette Plantation on January 8, 1815 two columns (along the river led by Keane and along the swamp line led by Major General Samuel Gibbs). The brigade commanded by Major General John Lambert was held in reserve. Preparations for the attack had floundered early, as a canal being dug by Cochrane's sailors collapsed and the dam made to divert the flow of the river into the canal failed, leaving the sailors to drag the boats of Col. Thornton's west bank assault force through deep mud and left the force starting off just before daybreak 12 hours late.[26]

Battle of New Orleans

333 The attack began under darkness and a heavy fog, but as the British neared the main enemy line the fog lifted, exposing them to withering artillery fire. Lt-Col. Thomas Mullins, the British commander of the 44th (East Essex) Regiment of Foot, had forgotten the ladders and fascines needed to cross a canal and scale the earthworks, and confusion evolved in the dark and fog as the British tried to close the gap. Most of the senior officers were killed or wounded, including General Gibbs, killed leading the main attack column on the right comprising the 4th, 21st, 44th and 5th West India Regiments, and Colonel Rennie leading a detachment of light companies of the 7th, 43rd, and 93rd on the left by the river.

The battlefield at Chalmette Plantation on January 8, 1815

Possibly because of Thornton's delay in crossing the river and the withering artillery fire that might hit them from across the river, the 93rd Highlanders were ordered to leave Keane's assault column advancing along the river and move across the open field to join the main force on the right of the field. Keane fell wounded as he crossed the field with the 93rd. Rennie's men managed to attack and overrun an American advance redoubt next to the river, but without reinforcements they could neither hold the position nor successfully storm the main American line behind. Within minutes, the American 7th Infantry arrived, moved forward, and General Andrew Jackson stands on the parapet of his fired upon the British in the captured redoubt: within half an hour, makeshift defenses as his troops repulse attacking Highlanders, as imagined by painter Edward Percy Rennie and most of his men were dead. In the main attack on the Moran in 1910. right, the British infantrymen either flung themselves to the ground, huddled in the canal, or were mowed down by a combination of musket fire and grapeshot from the Americans. A handful made it to the top of the parapet on the right but were either killed or captured. The 95th Rifles had advanced in open skirmish order ahead of the main assault force and were concealed in the ditch below the parapet, unable to advance further without support. The two large main assaults on the American position were repulsed. Pakenham and his second-in-command, General Gibbs, were fatally wounded, while on horseback, by grapeshot fired from the earthworks. With most of their senior officers dead or wounded, the British soldiers, having no orders to advance further or retreat, stood out in the open and were shot apart with grapeshot from Line Jackson. After about 20 more minutes of bloodletting, General Lambert assumed command and eventually ordered a withdrawal. The only British success was on the west bank of the Mississippi River, where Thornton's brigade, comprising the 85th Regiment and detachments from the Royal Navy and Royal Marines,[27] attacked and overwhelmed the American line. Though both Jackson and Commodore Patterson reported that the retreating forces had spiked their cannon, leaving no guns to turn on the Americans' main defense line, this is contradicted by Major Mitchell's diary which makes it clear this was not so, as he states he had "Commenced cleaning enemy's guns to form a battery to enfilade their lines on the left bank".[28] General Lambert ordered his Chief of Artillery, Colonel Alexander Dickson, to assess the position. Dickson reported back that no fewer than 2,000 men would be needed to hold the position.

Battle of New Orleans General Lambert issued orders to withdraw after the defeat of their main army on the east bank and retreated, taking a few American prisoners and cannon with them.[29] At the end of the day, the British had 2,042 casualties: 291 killed (including Generals Pakenham and Gibbs), 1,267 wounded (including General Keane) and 484 captured or missing.[] The Americans had 71 casualties: 13 dead; 39 wounded and 19 missing.[]

334

Siege of Fort St. Philip
On January 9, British naval forces attacked Fort St. Philip which protected New Orleans from an amphibious assault from the Gulf of Mexico via the Mississippi River. American forces within the fort withstood ten days of bombardment by cannon before the British ships withdrew on January 18, 1815.

Withdrawal of the British
With the defeat of the British army, Lambert decided that despite the arrival of reinforcements and a siege train for use against New Orleans, continuing with the Louisiana Campaign would be too costly. On February 5, 1815, all of the British troops embarked onto the fleet[30] and sailed away to Biloxi, Mississippi. The British army then attacked and captured Fort Bowyer at the mouth of Mobile Bay on February 12. The British army was making preparations to attack Mobile when news arrived of the peace treaty. The treaty had been ratified by the British Parliament but would not be ratified by Congress and the president until mid-February. It, however, did resolve that hostilities should cease, and the British abandoned Fort Bowyer and sailed home to their base in the West Indies. Although the Battle of New Orleans had no influence on the terms of the Treaty of Ghent, the defeat at New Orleans did compel Britain to abide by the treaty.[31] Also, since the Treaty of Ghent did not specifically mention the vast territory America had acquired with the Louisiana Purchase, it only required both sides to give back those lands that had been taken from the other during the war.[32]

Aftermath
From December 25, 1814 to January 26, 1815, British casualties during the Louisiana Campaign, apart from the assault on January 8, were 49 killed, 87 wounded and 4 missing.[] These losses, together with those incurred on December 23 and January 8, added up to 386 killed, 1,521 wounded and 552 missing for the whole campaign. General Jackson reported a grand total of 55 killed, 185 wounded and 93 missing for the entire siege, including December 23 and January 8.[] Although the engagement was small compared to other contemporary battles such as the Battle of Waterloo, it was important for the meaning applied to it by Americans in general and Andrew Jackson in particular.[33]
Battle of New Orleans postage stamp depicting Andrew Jackson. Issued in 1965 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans, Chalmettte Plantation, Jan. 8-18.

Americans believed that a vastly powerful British fleet and army had sailed for New Orleans (Jackson himself thought 25,000 troops were coming), and most expected the worst. The news of victory, one man recalled, "came upon the country like a clap of thunder in the clear azure vault of the firmament, and traveled with electromagnetic velocity, throughout the confines of the land."[34] The battle boosted the reputation of Andrew Jackson and helped to propel him to the White House. The anniversary of the battle was celebrated for many years. In honor of Jackson, the newly-organized Louisiana Historical Association dedicated its new Memorial Hall facility on January 8, 1891, the 76th anniversary of the Battle of New Orleans.[35]

Battle of New Orleans A federal park was established in 1907 to preserve the battlefield; today it features a monument and is part of Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve. "The 8th of January" became a traditional American fiddle tune the melody of which was used by Jimmie Driftwood to write the song "The Battle of New Orleans", which in a lighthearted tone details the battle from the perspective of an American volunteer fighting alongside Andrew Jackson. It also misrepresents the British forces as being cowards which, given that the units involved were veterans of the Napoleonic Wars, seems unlikely. The version by Johnny Horton topped the Billboard Hot 100 in 1959, while the same version (with one profane word changed) by British singer Lonnie Donegan reached #2 in the British charts in the same year.

335

Victory attributed to a miracle
With the Americans outnumbered it seemed as though the city of New Orleans was in danger of being captured. Consequently, the Ursuline nuns along with many faithful people of New Orleans gathered in the Ursuline Convent's chapel before the statue of Our Lady of Prompt Succor. They spent the night before the battle praying and crying before the holy statue, begging for the Virgin Mary's intercession. On the morning of January 8, the Very Rev. William Dubourg, Vicar General, offered Mass at the altar on which the statue of Our Lady of Prompt Succor had been placed. The Prioress of the Ursuline convent, Mosaic of Our Lady of Prompt Succor. Old Mother Ste. Marie Olivier de Vezin, made a vow to have a Mass of Ursulines Convent complex, French Quarter, Thanksgiving sung annually should the American forces win. At the New Orleans. very moment of communion, a courier ran into the chapel to inform all those present that the British had been defeated. General Jackson went to the convent himself to thank the nuns for their prayers: "By the blessing of heaven, directing the valor of the troops under my command, one of the most brilliant victories in the annals of war was obtained." [36] The vow made by Mother Ste. Marie has been faithfully kept throughout the years.[37]

Notes
[1] Also known as the "Battle of Chalmette Plantation". [2] Britain's Louisiana Campaign consisted of several military engagements that were less important than the epic battle of January 8, 1815, widely known as the Battle of New Orleans. The first, the Battle of Lake Borgne, occurred on December 14, 1814 when British forces captured an American flotilla protecting Lake Borgne. The next occurred on December 23 when Andrew Jackson led a bold night attack on the British camp. The last, which began on January 9, ended on January 18 when the British terminated their unsuccessful bombardment of Fort St. Philip and began to withdraw the last of their troops and ships, signalling the end of their Louisiana Campaign. [3] Reilly, Robin (1974). The British at the gates - the New Orleans campaign in the War of 1812. New York: Putnam. [4] Rodriguez, Junius P. (2002). The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. p. 348: "The Battle of New Orleans settled once and for all the question over the Louisiana Purchase. Neither the British nor the Spanish government had recognized the legality of the transfer, and, in consequence, the British planned either to retain the region or return Louisiana to Spain had they won the battle." [5] Thomas, Gregory M. (2005). The Battle of New Orleans. Master of Arts dissertation, Louisiana State University. p. 88: "[The Battle of] New Orleans also eliminated vague British designs on a second colonization of America by expanding Canadian possessions down the Mississippi to the Gulf." [6] Remini, Robert V. (1999). The battle of New Orleans. New York: Penguin Books. p. 193-194: "Then in mid-February dispatches arrived from Europe announcing that the commissioners in Ghent had signed a treaty of peace with their British counterparts and that the War of 1812 had ended." "...the Senate of the United States unanimously (35-0) ratified the Treaty of Ghent on February 16, 1815. Now the war was officially over." [7] Reilly 1974, pp. 311–325. [8] Refer to the map of Louisiana. [9] Quimby, p. 824 [10] Quimby,p. 826

Battle of New Orleans
[11] Pea Island, or Pearl Island, is located close to the mouth of the Pearl River. [12] Remini (1999), p. 62-64 [13] Quimby, p. 836 [14] Thomas, p. 61 [15] Remini, Robert V. (1977), Andrew Jackson and the course of American empire, 1767-1821. pp. 259-263 [16] Remini, Robert V. (1999), The Battle of New Orleans. p. 74 [17] Quimby, p. 843 [18] Thomas, pp. 61-64 [19] Quimby, p. 852 [20] Refer to the map of the battlefield. [21] Patterson, Benton Rain, p.214-215 [22] Patterson, Benton Rain, p.215-216 [23] The British regulars included the 4th, 7th, 21st, 43rd, 44th, 85th, 93rd (Highland) Regiments, a 500-man "demi-battalion" of the 95th Rifles, 14th Light Dragoons, and the 1st and 5th West Indies Regiments of several hundred black soldiers from the British West Indies colonies. Other troops included Native American members of the Hitchiti tribe, led by Kinache. [24] Quimby, pp. 892-893 [25] United States forces (3,500 to 4,500 strong) were composed of U.S. Army troops; state militiamen from Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, and Louisiana; U.S. Marines; U.S. Navy sailors; Barataria Bay pirates; Choctaw Indians; "freemen of color" (such as Beale's Rifles), and freed black slaves (a large amount of the work building the parapet however was done by local black slaves). Major Gabriel Villeré commanded the Louisiana Militia, and Major Jean Baptiste Plauché headed the New Orleans uniformed militia companies. [26] Patterson, Benton Rain, p.236 [27] Patterson, Benton Rain, p.230 [28] Reilly, Robin p.296 [29] Patterson, Benton Rain, p.253 [30] James, p. 391 [31] Remini (1999) p. 5, 195 [32] Text of the Treaty of Ghent (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 19th_century/ ghent. asp) [33] Empire of Liberty, episode 20/30, "The Second War of Independence" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ radio4/ america/ ) [34] Ward 1962, pp. 4–5. [35] "Kenneth Trist Urquhart, "Seventy Years of the Louisiana Historical Association", March 21, 1959, [[Alexandria, Louisiana (http:/ / www. lahistory. org/ uploads/ UrquhartLHAHistoryFinal. pdf)]"]. lahistory.org. . Retrieved July 21, 2010. [36] Records of the American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia, Volume 23, By American Catholic Historical Society of Philadelphia, pg 128 (1912) [37] The Story of the Battle of New Orleans, By Stanley Clisby Arthur, 239-242.

336

References
• Borneman, Walter H. (2004), 1812: The War that forged a nation, New York: HarperCollins, ISBN 0060531126 • Brooks, Charles B. (1961), The Siege of New Orleans, Seattle: University of Washington Press, OCLC 425116 • Brown, Wilburt S (1969), The Amphibious Campaign for West Florida and Louisiana, 1814-1815, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, ISBN 0817351000 • Cooper, John Spencer (1996) [1869], Rough Notes of Seven Campaigns in Portugal, Spain, France and America During the Years 1809-1815, Staplehurst: Spellmount, ISBN 1873376650 • Forrest, Charles Ramus (1961), The Battle of New Orleans: a British view; the journal of Major C.R. Forrest; Asst. QM General, 34th. Regiment of Foot, New Orleans: Hauser Press, OCLC 1253280 • Gleig, George Robert (1827), The Campaigns of the British Army at Washington and New Orleans, 1814-1815, London: J. Murray, ISBN 066545385X • Hickey, Donald R (1989), The War of 1812 : a forgotten conflict, Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press, ISBN 0252016130 • James, William (1818), A full and correct account of the military occurrences of the late war between Great Britain and the United States of America; with an appendix, and plates. Volume II, London: Printed for the author and distributed by Black et al., ISBN 0665357435, OCLC 2226903 • Latour, Arsène Lacarrière (1999) [1816], Historical Memoir of the War in West Florida and Louisiana in 1814-15, with an Atlas, Gainesville: University Press of Florida, ISBN 0813016754, OCLC 40119875

Battle of New Orleans • Maass, Alfred R (1994), "Brownsville's steamboat Enterprize and Pittsburgh's supply of general Jackson's army", Pittsburgh History 77: 22–29, ISSN 1069-4706 • Caffrey, Kate (1977), The Twilight's Last Gleaming, New York: Stein and Day, ISBN 0812819209 • Owsley, Frank (1981), Struggle for the Gulf borderlands: the Creek War and the battle of New Orleans 1812-1815, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, ISBN 0817310622 • Patterson, Benton Rains (2008), The Generals, Andrew Jackson, Sir Edward Pakenham, and the road to New Orleans, New York: New York University Press, ISBN 0814767176 • Pickles, Tim (1993), New Orleans 1815, Osprey Campaign Series, 28, Osprey Publishing. • Quimby, Robert S. (1997), The U.S. Army in the War of 1812: an operational and command study, East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, ISBN 0870134418 • Reilly, Robin (1974), The British at the gates - the New Orleans campaign in the War of 1812, New York: Putnam • Remini, Robert V. (1977), Andrew Jackson and the course of American empire, 1767-1821, New York: Harper & Row, ISBN 0060135743 • Remini, Robert V. (1999), The Battle of New Orleans, New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc., ISBN 0-670-88551-7 • Rowland, Eron (1971) [1926], Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815, Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries Press, ISBN 0836956370 • Smith, Gene A. (2004), A British eyewitness at the Battle of New Orleans, the memoir of Royal Navy admiral Robert Aitchison, 1808-1827, New Orleans: The Historic New Orleans Collection, ISBN 0917860500 • Smith, Sir Harry "Various Anecdotes and Events of my Life - The Autobiography of Lt. Gen. Sir Harry Smith, covering the period 1787 to 1860" First published in 2 volumes, edited by G.C. Moore, London (1901) • Stanley, George F. G. (1983), The War of 1812 - Land Operations, MacMillan & National Museum of Canada • Surtees, W. (1996) [1833], Twenty-Five Years in the Rifle Brigade (Reprint ed.), London: Greenhill Books, ISBN 1853672300 • Ward, John William (1962), Andrew Jackson: Symbol for an Age, New York: Oxford University Press

337

External links
• Battle of New Orleans (http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/hh/29/hh29toc.htm) — detailed account, with maps and pictures, hosted by the National Park Service • Battle of New Orleans: Myths and Legends (http://93rdhighlanders.com/myths.html) — detailed account by military historians • Map (http://perso.wanadoo.fr/histoire-militaire/cartes/nouvelleorleans.htm) • The Battle of New Orleans (http://lsm.crt.state.la.us/cabildo/cab6.htm) — summary account by the Louisiana State Museum, with photographs • Battle of New Orleans Pathfinder (http://www.hnoc.org/BNO/bnopathindex.htm) — research collection by The Historic New Orleans Collection • History of Louisiana, Vol. 5, Chapter 10 (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/ United_States/Louisiana/_Texts/GAYHLA/5/10*.html) — detailed account by Charles Gayarré • The Battle of New Orleans (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/ United_States/Louisiana/New_Orleans/_Texts/KENHNO/6*.html) — detailed account by John Smith Kendall • The Glorious Eighth of January (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/ United_States/Louisiana/New_Orleans/_Texts/KINPAP/11*.html) — colorful account by Grace King • The Battle of New Orleans (http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/epochs/vol5/pg102.htm) — account by Theodore Roosevelt

Battle of New Orleans • Siege of Fort St. Philip (http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/ Louisiana/_Texts/LHQ/2/2/War_of_1812*.html) — eyewitness accounts, as published in the Louisiana Historical Quarterly • BattleofNewOrleans.org (http://www.battleofneworleans.org) — detailed account of battles, photos and movies of reenactments

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339

Mexican-American War
Mexican–American War
The Mexican–American War, also known as the First American Intervention, the Mexican War, or the U.S.–Mexican War,[1] [2] was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory despite the 1836 Texas Revolution. American forces invaded New Mexico, the California Republic, and parts of what is currently northern Mexico; meanwhile, the American Navy conducted a blockade, and took control of several garrisons on the Pacific coast of Alta California, but also further south in Baja California. Another American army captured Mexico City, and forced Mexico to agree to the cession of its northern territories to the U.S. American territorial expansion to the Pacific coast was the goal of President James K. Polk, the leader of the Democratic Party.[3] However, the war was highly controversial in the U.S., with the Whig Party and anti-slavery elements strongly opposed. Heavy American casualties and high monetary cost were also criticized. The major consequence of the war was the forced Mexican Cession of the territories of Alta California and New Mexico to the U.S. in exchange for $18 million. In addition, the United States forgave debt owed by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico accepted the Rio Grande as its national border, and the loss of Texas. The political aftermath of the war raised the slavery issue in the U.S., leading to intense debates that pointed to civil war; the Compromise of 1850 provided a brief respite. In Mexico, terminology for the war include (primera) intervención estadounidense en México (United States' (First) Intervention in Mexico), invasión estadounidense de México (The United States' Invasion of Mexico), and guerra del 47 (The War of [18]47).

Background
Mexico was torn apart by bitter internal political battles that verged on civil war, even as it was united in refusing to recognize the independence of Texas. Mexico threatened war with the U.S. if it annexed Texas. Meanwhile President Polk's spirit of Manifest Destiny was focusing U.S. interest on westward expansion.

Designs on California
In 1842, the American minister in Mexico Waddy Thompson, Jr. suggested Mexico might be willing to cede California to settle debts, saying: "As to Texas I regard it as of very little value compared with California, the richest, the most beautiful and the healthiest country in the world ... with the acquisition of Upper California we should have the same ascendency on the Pacific ... France and England both have had their eyes upon it." President John Tyler's administration suggested a tripartite pact that would settle the Oregon boundary dispute and provide for the cession of the port of San Francisco; Lord Aberdeen declined to participate but said Britain had no objection to U.S. territorial acquisition there.[4] For his part, the British minister in Mexico Richard Pakenham wrote in 1841 to Lord Palmerston urging "to establish an English population in the magnificent Territory of Upper California," saying that "no part of the World offering greater natural advantages for the establishment of an English colony ... by all means desirable ... that California, once ceasing to belong to Mexico, should not fall into the hands of any power but England ... daring and adventurous speculators in the United States have already turned their thoughts in this direction." But by the time the letter

MexicanAmerican War reached London, Sir Robert Peel's Tory government with a Little England policy had come to power and rejected the proposal as expensive and a potential source of conflict.[5]

340

Republic of Texas
In 1810, Moses Austin, a banker from Missouri, was granted a large tract of land in Texas, but died before he could bring his plan of recruiting American settlers for the land to fruition. His son, Stephen F. Austin, succeeded and brought over 300 families into Texas, which started the steady trend of American migration into the Texas frontier. Austin's colony was the most successful of several colonies authorized by the Mexican government. The Mexican government intended the anglo settlers to act as a buffer between the existing Mexican residents and the marauding Comanches, but the anglo colonists tended to settle where there was decent farmland, rather than where they would have been an effective buffer. In 1829, as a result of the large influx of American immigrants, the Americans outnumbered Mexicans in the Texas territory. The Mexican government decided to bring back the property tax, increase tariffs on U.S. shipped goods, and prohibit slavery. The settlers rejected the demands, which led to Mexico closing Texas to additional immigration. However, Americans continued to flow into the Texas territory. In 1834, General Antonio López De Santa Anna became the dictator of Mexico, abandoning the federal system. He decided to squash the semi-independence of Texas. Stephen F. Austin called Texans to arms; they declared independence from Mexico in 1836, and after Santa Anna defeated the Texans at the Alamo (causing his army nearly three weeks' delay), he was defeated and captured at the Battle of San Jacinto and signed a treaty recognizing Texas independence. Texas consolidated its status as an independent republic, winning official recognition by Britain, France, and the U.S., which all advised Mexico not to try to reconquer the new nation. With the one star flag, they became known as the Lone Star Republic. Most Texans wanted to join the U.S. but the Americans debated the wisdom on annexation, which Whigs largely opposed. In 1845 Texas agreed to the offer of annexation by the U.S. Congress. Texas became the 28th state on December 29, 1845.[6]

Origins of the war
The Mexican government had long warned the United States that annexation of Texas would mean war. Because the Mexican congress had refused to recognize Texan independence, Mexico saw Texas as a rebellious territory that would be retaken. Britain and France, which recognized the independence of Texas, repeatedly tried to dissuade Mexico from declaring war. When Texas joined the U.S. as a state in 1845, the Mexican government broke diplomatic relations with the U.S. The Texan claim to the Rio Grande boundary had been omitted from the annexation resolution to help secure passage after the annexation treaty failed in the Senate. President Polk claimed the Rio Grande boundary, and this provoked a dispute with Mexico. In June 1845, Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to Texas, and by October 3,500 Americans were on the Nueces River, prepared to defend Texas from a Mexican invasion. Polk wanted to protect the border and also coveted the continent clear to the Pacific Ocean. Polk had instructed the Pacific naval squadron to seize the California ports if Mexico declared war while staying on good terms with the inhabitants. At the same time he wrote to Thomas Larkin, the American consul in Monterey, disclaiming American ambitions but offering to support independence from Mexico or voluntary accession to the U.S., and warning that a British or French takeover would be opposed.[7] To end another war-scare (Fifty-Four Forty or Fight) with Britain over Oregon Country, Polk signed the Oregon Treaty dividing the territory, angering northern Democrats who felt he was prioritizing Southern expansion over Northern expansion. In the winter of 1845–46, the federally commissioned explorer John C. Frémont and a group of armed men appeared in California. After telling the Mexican governor and Larkin he was merely buying supplies on the way to Oregon, he instead entered the populated area of California and visited Santa Cruz and the Salinas Valley, explaining he had

MexicanAmerican War been looking for a seaside home for his mother.[8] The Mexican authorities became alarmed and ordered him to leave. Fremont responded by building a fort on Gavilan Peak and raising the American flag. Larkin sent word that his actions were counterproductive. Fremont left California in March but returned to California and assisted the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma, where many American immigrants stated that they were playing “the Texas game” and declared California’s independence from Mexico. On November 10, 1845,[9] Polk sent John Slidell, a secret representative, to Mexico City with an offer of $25 million ($632500000 today) for the Rio Grande border in Texas and Mexico’s provinces of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. U.S. expansionists wanted California to thwart British ambitions in the area and to gain a port on the Pacific Ocean. Polk authorized Slidell to forgive the $3 million ($76 million today) owed to U.S. citizens for damages caused by the Mexican War of Independence[10] and pay another $25 to $30 million ($633 million to $759 million today) in exchange for the two territories.[11] Mexico was not inclined nor able to negotiate. In 1846 alone, the presidency changed hands four times, the war ministry six times, and the finance ministry sixteen times.[12] However, Mexican public opinion and all political factions agreed that selling the territories to the United States would tarnish the national honor.[13] Mexicans who opposed direct conflict with the United States, including President José Joaquín de Herrera, were viewed as traitors.[14] Military opponents of de Herrera, supported by populist newspapers, considered Slidell's presence in Mexico City an insult. When de Herrera considered receiving Slidell to settle the problem of Texas annexation peacefully, he was accused of treason and deposed. After a more nationalistic government under General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, it publicly reaffirmed Mexico's claim to Texas;[14] Slidell, convinced that Mexico should be "chastised", returned to the U.S.[15]

341

Conflict over the Nueces Strip
President Polk ordered General Taylor and his forces south to the Rio Grande, entering the territory that Mexicans disputed. Mexico laid claim to the Nueces River—about 150 mi (240 km) north of the Rio Grande—as its border with Texas; the U.S. claimed it was the Rio Grande, citing the 1836 Treaties of Velasco. Mexico, however, under the leadership of General Lorenzo Chlamon,[16] rejected the treaties and refused to negotiate; it claimed all of Texas. Taylor ignored Mexican demands to withdraw to the Nueces. He constructed a makeshift fort (later known as Fort Brown/Fort Texas) on the banks of the Rio Grande opposite the city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas. Mexican forces under General Mariano Arista prepared for war. On April 25, 1846, a 2,000-strong Mexican cavalry detachment attacked a 70-man U.S. patrol that had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande and south of the Nueces River. The Mexican cavalry routed the patrol, killing 16 U.S. soldiers in what later became known as the Thornton Affair, after Captain Thornton, who was in command.[17]

MexicanAmerican War

342

Declaration of war
Polk received word of the Thornton Affair, which, added to the Mexican government's rejection of Slidell, Polk believed, constituted a casus belli (case for war).[18] His message to Congress on May 11, 1846 stated that "Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil."[19] [20] Congress approved the declaration of war on May 13, with southern Democrats in strong support. Sixty-seven Whigs voted against the war on a key slavery amendment,[21] but on the final passage only 14 Whigs voted no,[21] including Rep. John Quincy Adams. Congress declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846 after only having a few hours to debate. Although President Paredes's issuance of a manifesto on May 23 is sometimes considered the declaration of war, Mexico officially declared war by Congress on July 7.

Overview map of the war

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna
Once the U.S. declared war on Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna wrote to Mexico City saying he no longer had aspirations to the presidency, but would eagerly use his military experience to fight off the foreign invasion of Mexico as he had before. President Valentín Gómez Farías was desperate enough to accept the offer and allowed Santa Anna to return. Meanwhile, Santa Anna had secretly been dealing with representatives of the U.S., pledging that if he were allowed back in Mexico through the U.S. naval blockades, he would work to sell all contested territory to the United States at a reasonable price.[22] Once back in Mexico at the head of an army, Santa Anna reneged on both agreements. Santa Anna declared himself president again and unsuccessfully tried to fight off the U.S. invasion.

Opposition to the war
In the U.S., increasingly divided by sectional rivalry, the war was a partisan issue and an essential element in the origins of the American Civil War. Most Whigs in the North and South opposed it;[23] most Democrats supported it.[24] Southern Democrats, animated by a popular belief in Manifest Destiny, supported it in hopes of adding territory to the South and avoiding being outnumbered by the faster-growing North. John O'Sullivan, the editor of the "Democratic Review", coined this phrase in its context, stating that it must be "Our manifest destiny to overspread the continent alloted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions."[25] Northern anti-slavery elements feared the rise of a Slave Power; Whigs generally wanted to strengthen the economy with industrialization, not expand it with more land. Democrats wanted more land; northern Democrats were attracted by the possibilities in the far northwest. Joshua Giddings led a group of dissenters in Washington D.C. He called the war with Mexico "an aggressive, unholy, and unjust war," and voted against supplying soldiers and weapons. He said: In the murder of Mexicans upon their own soil, or in robbing them of their country, I can take no part either now or here-after. The guilt of these crimes must rest on others. I will not participate in them.[26] Fellow Whig Abraham Lincoln contested the causes for the war and demanded to know exactly where Thornton had been attacked and American blood shed. "Show me the spot," he demanded. Whig leader Robert Toombs of Georgia

MexicanAmerican War declared: This war is nondescript .... We charge the President with usurping the war-making power ... with seizing a country ... which had been for centuries, and was then in the possession of the Mexicans .... Let us put a check upon this lust of dominion. We had territory enough, Heaven knew.[27] Northern abolitionists attacked the war as an attempt by slave-owners—frequently referred to as "the Slave Power"—to strengthen the grip of slavery and thus ensure their continued influence in the federal government. Acting on his convictions, Henry David Thoreau was jailed for his refusal to pay taxes to support the war, and penned his famous essay, Civil Disobedience. Former President John Quincy Adams also expressed his belief that the war was primarily an effort to expand slavery in a speech he gave before the House on May 25, 1836.[28] In response to such concerns, Democratic Congressman David Wilmot introduced the Wilmot Proviso, which aimed to prohibit slavery in new territory acquired from Mexico. Wilmot's proposal did not pass Congress, but it spurred further hostility between the factions.

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Defense of the war
Besides alleging that the actions of Mexican military forces within the disputed boundary lands north of the Rio Grande constituted an attack on American soil, the war's advocates viewed the territories of New Mexico and California as only nominally Mexican possessions with very tenuous ties to Mexico, and as actually unsettled, ungoverned, and unprotected frontier lands, whose non-aboriginal population, where there was any at all, comprised a substantial—in places even a majority—American component, and which were feared to be under imminent threat of acquisition by America's rival on the continent, the British. President Polk reprised these arguments in his Third Annual Message to Congress on December 7, 1847,[29] in which he scrupulously detailed his administration's position on the origins of the conflict, the measures the U.S. had taken to avoid hostilities, and the justification for declaring war. He also elaborated upon the many outstanding financial claims by American citizens against Mexico and argued that, in view of the country's insolvency, the cession of some large portion of its northern territories was the only indemnity realistically available as compensation. This helped to rally Congressional Democrats to his side, ensuring passage of his war measures and bolstering support for the war in the U.S.

Opening hostilities
The Siege of Fort Texas began on May 3. Mexican artillery at Matamoros opened fire on Fort Texas, which replied with its own guns. The bombardment continued for 160 hours[30] and expanded as Mexican forces gradually surrounded the fort. Thirteen U.S. soldiers were injured during the bombardment, and two were killed.[30] Among the dead was Jacob Brown, after whom the fort was later named.[31] On May 8, Zachary Taylor and 2,400 troops arrived to relieve the fort.[32] However, Arista rushed north and intercepted him with a force of 3,400 at Palo Alto. The Americans employed "flying artillery", the American term for horse artillery, a type of mobile light artillery that was mounted on horse carriages with the entire crew riding horses into battle. It had a devastating effect on the Mexican army. The Mexicans replied with cavalry skirmishes and their own artillery. The U.S. flying artillery somewhat demoralized the Mexican side, and seeking terrain more to their advantage, the Mexicans retreated to the far side of a dry riverbed (resaca) during the night. It provided a natural fortification, but during the retreat, Mexican troops were scattered, making communication difficult. During the Battle of Resaca de la Palma the next day, the two sides engaged in fierce hand to hand combat. The U.S. cavalry managed to capture the Mexican artillery, causing the Mexican side to retreat—a retreat that turned into a rout.[30] Fighting on unfamiliar terrain, his troops fleeing in retreat, Arista found it impossible to rally his forces. Mexican casualties were heavy, and the Mexicans were forced to abandon their artillery and baggage. Fort Brown inflicted additional casualties as the withdrawing troops passed by the fort. Many Mexican soldiers drowned trying to swim across the Rio Grande.

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Conduct of the war
After the declaration of war, U.S. forces invaded Mexican territory on two main fronts. The U.S. War Department sent a U.S. cavalry force under Stephen W. Kearny to invade western Mexico from Jefferson Barracks and Fort Leavenworth, reinforced by a Pacific fleet under John D. Sloat. This was done primarily because of concerns that Britain might also try to seize the area. Two more forces, one under John E. Wool and the other under Taylor, were ordered to occupy Mexico as far south as the city of Monterrey.

California campaign
Although the U.S. declared war against Mexico on May 13, 1846, it took over a month (until the middle of June 1846) for definite word of war to get to California. American consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, on hearing rumors of war tried to maintain the peace between the States and the small Mexican military garrison commanded by José Castro. U.S. Army captain John C. Frémont, with about 60 well-armed men, had entered California in December, 1845, and was slowly marching to Oregon when he received word that war between Mexico and the U.S. was imminent. So began his chapter of the war, the "Bear Flag Revolt."[33]

A replica of the first "Bear Flag" now at El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks

On June 15, 1846, some thirty settlers, mostly American citizens, staged a revolt and seized the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma. They raised the "Bear Flag" of the California Republic over Sonoma. The republic was in existence scarcely more than a week before the U.S. Army, led by Frémont, took over on June 23. The California state flag today is based on this original Bear Flag and still contains the words, "California Republic". Commodore John Drake Sloat, upon hearing of imminent war and the revolt in Sonoma, ordered his naval and marine forces to occupy Monterey, the capital, on July 7 and raise the flag of the U.S.; San Francisco, then called Yerba Buena, was occupied on July 9. On July 15, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, a much more aggressive leader, who put Frémont's forces under his orders. On July 19, Frémont's "California Battalion" swelled to about 160 additional men from newly arrived settlers near Sacramento, and he entered Monterey in a joint operation with some of Stockton's sailors and marines. The word had been received: war was official. The U.S. forces easily took over the north of California; within days they controlled San Francisco, Sonoma, and the privately owned Sutter's Fort in Sacramento. From Alta California (the present-day American state of California), Mexican General José Castro and Governor Pío Pico fled southward. When Stockton's forces, sailing southward to San Diego, stopped in San Pedro, he sent 50 U.S. Marines ashore; this force entered Los Angeles unresisted on August 13, 1846. With the success of this so-called "Siege of Los Angeles", the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete. Stockton, however, left too small a force in Los Angeles, and the Californios, acting on their own, and without help from Mexico, led by José María Flores, forced the American garrison to retreat, late in September. The rancho vaqueros who had banded together to defend their land fought as Californio lancers; they were a force the Americans had not anticipated. More than three hundred American reinforcements, sent by Stockton and led by Captain William Mervine, U.S.N., were repulsed in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, fought from October 7 through 9, 1846, near San Pedro. Fourteen American Marines were killed. Meanwhile, General Stephen W. Kearny, with a squadron of 139 dragoons that he had led on a grueling march across New Mexico, Arizona, and the Sonoran Desert, finally reached California on December 6, 1846, and fought in a small battle with Californio lancers at the Battle of San Pasqual near San Diego, California, where 22 of Kearny's troops were killed.

MexicanAmerican War Kearny's command was bloodied and in poor condition but pushed on until they had to establish a defensive position on "Mule" Hill near present-day Escondido. The Californios besieged the dragoons for four days until Commodore Stockton's relief force arrived. The resupplied, combined American force marched north from San Diego on December 29 and entered the Los Angeles area on January 8, 1847,[34] linking up with Frémont's men there. American forces totalling 607 soldiers and marines fought and defeated a Californio force of about 300 men under the command of Captain-general Flores in the decisive Battle of Rio San Gabriel.[35] The next day, January 9, 1847, the Americans fought and won the Battle of La Mesa. On January 12, the last significant body of Californios surrendered to U.S. forces. That marked the end of armed resistance in California, and the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed the next day, on January 13, 1847. Pacific Coast campaign USS Independence assisted in the blockade of the Mexican Pacific coast, capturing the Mexican ship Correo and a launch on 16 May 1847. She supported the capture of Guaymas, Mexico, on 19 October 1847 and landed bluejackets and Marines to occupy Mazatlán, Mexico on 11 November 1847. After upper California was secure most of the Pacific Squadron proceeded down the California coast capturing all major Baja California cities and capturing or destroying nearly all Mexican vessels in the Gulf of California. Other ports, not on the peninsula, were taken as well. The objective of the Pacific Coast Campaign was to capture Mazatlan, a major supply base for Mexican forces. Numerous Mexican ships were also captured by this squadron with the USS Cyane given credit for 18 captures and numerous destroyed ships.[36] Entering the Gulf of California, Independence, Congress and Cyane seized La Paz captured and burned the small Mexican fleet at Guaymas. Within a month, they cleared the Gulf of hostile ships, destroying or capturing 30 vessels. Later on their sailors and marines captured the town of Mazatlan, Mexico, on 11 November 1847. A Mexican campaign under Manuel Pineda to retake the various captured ports resulted in several small clashes (Battle of Mulege, Battle of La Paz, Battle of San José del Cabo) and two sieges (Siege of La Paz, Siege of San José del Cabo) in which the Pacific Squadron ships provided artillery support. U.S. garrisons remained in control of the ports and following reinforcement, Lt. Col. Henry S. Burton marched out, rescued captured Americans, captured Pineda and on March 31, defeated and dispersed remaining Mexican forces at the Skirmish of Todos Santos, unaware the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had been signed in February 1848. When the American garrisons were evacuated following the treaty, many Mexicans that had been supporting the American cause and had thought Lower California would also be annexed like Upper California, were evacuated with them to Monterey.

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Northeastern Mexico
The defeats at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma caused political turmoil in Mexico, turmoil which Antonio López de Santa Anna used to revive his political career and return from self-imposed exile in Cuba in mid-August 1846.[37] He promised the U.S. that if allowed to pass through the blockade, he would negotiate a peaceful conclusion to the war and sell the New Mexico and Alta California territories to the U.S.[38] Once Santa Anna arrived in Mexico City, however, he reneged and offered his services to the Mexican government. Then, after being appointed commanding general, he reneged again and seized the presidency. Led by Taylor, 2,300 U.S. troops crossed the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) after some initial difficulties in obtaining river transport. His soldiers occupied the city of Matamoros, then Camargo (where the soldiery suffered the first of many problems with disease) and then proceeded south and besieged the city of Monterrey. The hard-fought Battle of Monterrey resulted in serious losses on both sides. The American light artillery was ineffective against the stone fortifications of the city. The Mexican forces were under General Pedro de Ampudia and repulsed Taylor's best infantry division at Fort Teneria. American soldiers, including many West Pointers, had never engaged in urban warfare before and they marched straight down the open streets, where they were annihilated by Mexican defenders well-hidden in Monterrey's thick adobe homes.[39] Two days later, they changed their urban warfare tactics. Texan soldiers had fought in a Mexican city before and advised Taylor's generals that the Americans needed to "mouse hole" through the city's homes. In other words, they needed to punch holes in the side or roofs of the homes and fight

MexicanAmerican War hand to hand inside the structures. This method proved successful and Ampudia eventually surrendered.[40] Eventually, these actions drove and trapped Ampudia's men into the city's central plaza, where howitzer shelling forced Ampudia to negotiate. Taylor agreed to allow the Mexican Army to evacuate and to an eight-week armistice in return for the surrender of the city. Under pressure from Washington, Taylor broke the armistice and occupied the city of Saltillo, southwest of Monterrey. Santa Anna blamed the loss of Monterrey and Saltillo on Ampudia and demoted him to command a small artillery battalion. On February 22, Battle of Monterrey 1847, Santa Anna personally marched north to fight Taylor with 20,000 men. Taylor, with 4,600 men, had entrenched at a mountain pass called Buena Vista. Santa Anna suffered desertions on the way north and arrived with 15,000 men in a tired state. He demanded and was refused surrender of the U.S. Army; he attacked the next morning. Santa Anna flanked the U.S. positions by sending his cavalry and some of his infantry up the steep terrain that made up one side of the pass, while a division of infantry attacked frontally along the road leading to Buena Vista. Furious fighting ensued, during which the U.S troops were nearly routed, but managed to cling to their entrenched position. The Mexicans had inflicted considerable losses but Santa Anna had gotten word of upheaval in Mexico City, so he withdrew that night, leaving Taylor in control of part of Northern Mexico. Polk distrusted Taylor, whom he felt had shown incompetence in the Battle of Monterrey by agreeing to the armistice, and may have considered him a political rival for the White House. Taylor later used the Battle of Buena Vista as the centerpiece of his successful 1848 presidential campaign.

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Northwestern Mexico
On March 1, 1847, Alexander W. Doniphan occupied Chihuahua City. He found the inhabitants much less willing to accept the American conquest than the New Mexicans. The British consul John Potts did not want to let Doniphan search Governor Trias's mansion, and unsuccessfully asserted it was under British protection. American merchants in Chihuahua wanted the American force to stay in order to protect their business. Gilpin advocated a march on Mexico City and convinced a majority of officers, but Doniphan subverted this plan, then in late April Taylor ordered the First Missouri Mounted Volunteers to leave Chihuahua and join him at Saltillo. The American merchants either followed or returned to Santa Fe. Along the way, the townspeople of Parras enlisted Doniphan's aid against an Indian raiding party that had taken children, horses, mules, and money.[41] The civilian population of northern Mexico offered little resistance to the American invasion possibly because the country had already been devastated by Comanche and Apache Indian raids. Josiah Gregg, who was with the American army in northern Mexico, said that “the whole country from New Mexico to the borders of Durango is almost entirely depopulated. The haciendas and ranchos have been mostly abandoned, and the people chiefly confined to the towns and cities.”[42]

U.S. press and popular war enthusiasm
During the war inventions such as the telegraph created new means of communication that updated people with the latest news from the reporters, who were usually on the scene. With more than a decade’s experience reporting urban crime, the “penny press” realized the voracious need of the public to get the astounding war news. This was the first time in the American history when the accounts by journalists, instead of the opinions of politicians, caused great influence in shaping people’s minds and attitudes toward a war. News about the war always caused extraordinary popular excitement.

MexicanAmerican War By getting constant reports from the battlefield, Americans became emotionally united as a community. In the spring of 1846, news about Zachary Taylor's victory at Palo Alto brought up a large crowd that met in a cotton textile town of Lowell, Massachusetts. At Veracruz and Buena Vista, New York celebrated their twin victories in May 1847. Among fireworks and illuminations, they had a “grand procession” of about 400,000 people. Generals Taylor and Scott became heroes for their people and later became presidential candidates.

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Desertion
The desertion rate was a major problem for the Mexican army, depleting forces on the eve of battle. Most of the soldiers were peasants who had a loyalty to their village and family, but not to the generals who conscripted them. Often hungry and ill, never well paid, under-equipped and only partially trained, the soldiers were held in contempt by their officers and had little reason to fight the Americans. Looking for their opportunity, many slipped away from camp to find their way back to their home village.[43] The desertion rate in the U.S. army was 8.3% (9,200 Battle of Churubusco by J. Cameron, published by Nathaniel Currier. out of 111,000), compared to 12.7% during the War of Hand tinted lithograph, 1847. Digitally restored. 1812 and usual peacetime rates of about 14.8% per [44] year. Many men deserted to join another U.S. unit and get a second enlistment bonus. While some deserted because of the miserable conditions in camp, it has been suggested that others used the army to get free transportation to California, where they deserted to join the gold rush.[45] This, however, is unlikely as gold was only discovered in California on January 24, 1848, less than two weeks before the war concluded. By the time word reached the eastern U.S. that gold had been discovered, word also reached it that the war was over. Several hundred deserters went over to the Mexican side; nearly all were recent immigrants from Europe with weak ties to the U.S., the most famous group being Saint Patrick's Battalion, about half of whom were Catholics from Ireland. The Mexicans issued broadsides and leaflets enticing U.S. soldiers with promises of money, land bounties, and officers' commissions. Mexican guerrillas shadowed the U.S. Army and captured men who took unauthorized leave or fell out of the ranks. The guerrillas coerced these men to join the Mexican ranks. The generous promises proved illusory for most deserters, who risked being executed, if captured by U.S. forces. About 50 of the San Patricios were tried and hanged following their capture at Churubusco in August 1847.[46]

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Scott's Mexico City campaign
Landings and Siege of Vera Cruz Rather than reinforce Taylor's army for a continued advance, President Polk sent a second army under General Winfield Scott, which was transported to the port of Veracruz by sea, to begin an invasion of the Mexican heartland. On March 9, 1847, Scott performed the first major amphibious landing in U.S. history in preparation for the Siege of Veracruz. A group of 12,000 volunteer and regular soldiers successfully offloaded supplies, weapons, and horses near the Battle of Chapultepec walled city using specially designed landing craft. Included in the invading force were Robert E. Lee, George Meade, Ulysses S. Grant, James Longstreet, and Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson. The city was defended by Mexican General Juan Morales with 3,400 men. Mortars and naval guns under Commodore Matthew C. Perry were used to reduce the city walls and harass defenders. The city replied the best it could with its own artillery. The effect of the extended barrage destroyed the will of the Mexican side to fight against a numerically superior force, and they surrendered the city after 12 days under siege. U.S. troops suffered 80 casualties, while the Mexican side had around 180 killed and wounded, about half of whom were civilian. During the siege, the U.S. side began to fall victim to yellow fever. Advance on Puebla Scott then marched westward toward Mexico City with 8,500 healthy troops, while Santa Anna set up a defensive position in a canyon around the main road at the halfway mark to Mexico City, near the hamlet of Cerro Gordo. Santa Anna had entrenched with 12,000 troops and artillery that were trained on the road, along which he expected Scott to appear. However, Scott had sent 2,600 mounted dragoons ahead, and the Mexican artillery prematurely fired on them and revealed their positions. Instead of taking the main road, Scott's troops trekked through the rough terrain to the north, setting up his artillery on the high ground and quietly flanking the Mexicans. Although by then aware of the positions of U.S. troops, Santa Anna and his troops were unprepared for the onslaught that followed. The Mexican army was routed. The U.S. Army suffered 400 casualties, while the Mexicans suffered over 1,000 casualties and 3,000 were taken prisoner. In August 1847, Captain Kirby Smith, of Scott's 3rd Infantry, reflected on the resistance of the Mexican army: What stupid people they are! They can do nothing and their continued defeats should convince them of it. They have lost six great battles; we have captured six hundred and eight cannon, nearly one hundred thousand stands of arms, made twenty thousand prisoners, have the greatest portion of their country and are fast advancing on their Capital which must be ours,—yet they refuse to treat [i.e., negotiate terms]![47] Pause at Puebla In May, Scott pushed on to Puebla, the second largest city in Mexico. Because of the citizens' hostility to Santa Anna, the city capitulated without resistance on May 1. During the following months Scott gathered supplies and reinforcements at Puebla and sent back units whose enlistments had expired. Scott also made strong efforts to keep his troops disciplined and treat the Mexican people under occupation justly, so as to prevent a popular rising against his army.

MexicanAmerican War Advance on Mexico City and its capture With guerrillas harassing his line of communications back to Vera Cruz, Scott decided not to weaken his army to defend it but, leaving only a garrison at Puebla to protect the sick and injured recovering there, advanced on Mexico City on August 7, with his remaining force. The capital was laid open in a series of battles around the right flank of the city defenses, culminating in the Battle of Chapultepec. With the subsequent storming of the city gates, the capital was occupied. Winfield Scott became an American national hero after his victories in this campaign of the Mexican–American War, and later became military governor of occupied Mexico City. Santa Anna's last campaign In late September 1847, Santa Anna made one last attempt to defeat the Americans, by cutting them off from the coast. General Joaquín Rea began the Siege of Puebla, soon joined by Santa Anna, but they failed to take it before the approach of a relief column from Vera Cruz under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane prompted Santa Anna to stop him. Puebla was relieved by Gen. Lane October 12, 1847, following his defeat of Santa Anna at the Battle of Huamantla October 9, 1847. The battle was Santa Anna's last. Following the defeat, the new Mexican government led by Manuel de la Peña y Peña asked Santa Anna to turn over command of the army to General José Joaquín de Herrera. Anti guerrilla campaign Following his capture and securing of the capital, General Scott sent about a quarter of his strength to secure his line of communications to Vera Cruz from the Light Corps and other Mexican guerilla forces that had been harassing it since May. He strengthened the garrison of Puebla, and by November established 750 man posts at Perote, Puente Nacional, Rio Frio, and San Juan along the National Road and detailed an antiguerrilla brigade under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane to carry the war to the Light Corps and other guerillas. He also ordered that convoys would travel with at least 1,300-man escorts. Despite some victories over General Joaquín Rea at Atlixco (18 October 1847) and Izucar de Matamoros (in November) by General Lane, guerrilla raids on the supply route continued into 1848 until the end of the war.[48]

349

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Outnumbered militarily and with many of its large cities occupied, Mexico could not defend itself and was also faced with internal divisions. It had little choice but to make peace on any terms.[49] The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, by American diplomat Nicholas Trist and Mexican plenipotentiary representatives Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain, ended the war and gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, established the U.S.-Mexican border of the Rio Grande River, and ceded to the United States the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, most of Arizona and Colorado, and parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. In return, Mexico received US The Mexican Cession, shown in red, and the later Gadsden Purchase, shown in yellow. $18,250,000[50] ($461725000 today)—less than half the amount the U.S. had attempted to offer Mexico for the land before the opening of [51] hostilities —and the U.S. agreed to assume $3.25-million ($82225000 today) in debts that the Mexican government owed to U.S. citizens.[10] The acquisition was a source of controversy then, especially among U.S. politicians who had opposed the war from the start. A leading antiwar U.S. newspaper, the Whig Intelligencer sardonically concluded that "We take nothing by conquest .... Thank God."[52] [53]

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Jefferson Davis introduced an amendment giving the U.S. most of northeastern Mexico, which failed 44–11. It was supported by both senators from Texas (Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk), Daniel S. Dickinson of New York, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana, and one each from Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and Tennessee. Most of the leaders of the Democratic party, Thomas Hart Benton, John C. Calhoun, Herschel V. Johnson, Lewis Cass, James Murray Mason of Virginia, and Ambrose Hundley Sevier, were opposed.[54] An amendment by Whig Senator George Edmund Badger of North Carolina to exclude New Mexico and California lost 35–15, with three Southern Whigs voting with the Democrats. Daniel Webster was bitter that four New England senators made deciding votes for acquiring the new territories.

Mexican territorial claims relinquished in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in white.

The acquired lands west of the Rio Grande are traditionally called the Mexican Cession in the U.S., as opposed to the Texas Annexation two years earlier, though division of New Mexico down the middle at the Rio Grande never had any basis either in control or Mexican boundaries. Mexico never recognized the independence of Texas[55] prior to the war, and did not cede its claim to territory north of the Rio Grande or Gila River until this treaty. Prior to ratifying the treaty, the U.S. Senate made two modifications, changing the wording of Article IX (which guaranteed Mexicans living in the purchased territories the right to become U.S. citizens), and striking out Article X (which conceded the legitimacy of land grants made by the Mexican government). On May 26, 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further agreed to a three-article protocol (known as the Protocol of Querétaro) to explain the amendments. The first article claimed that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the Treaty of Louisiana, would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants under Mexican law.[56] The protocol was signed in the city of Querétaro by A. H. Sevier, Nathan Clifford, and Luis de la Rosa.[56] Article XI offered a potential benefit to Mexico in that the US pledged to suppress the Comanche and Apache raids that had ravaged northern Mexico. However, the Indian raids did not cease for several decades after the treaty, although a cholera epidemic reduced the numbers of the Comanche in 1849.[57]

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Results
Mexican territory, prior to the secession of Texas, comprised almost 1700000 sq mi ( km2), which was reduced to just under 800,000 by 1848. Another 32,000 were sold to the U.S. in the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, for a total reduction of more than 55%, or 900,000 square miles.[58] The annexed territories, comparable in size to Western Europe, were essentially unsettled, containing about 1,000 Mexican families in Alta California and 7,000 in Nuevo México, as well as large Native American nations such as the Navajo, Hopi, and dozens of others. A few relocated further south in American occupation of Mexico City Mexico; the great majority remained in the U.S. Descendants of these Mexican families have risen to prominence in American life, such as United States Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar, and his brother, U.S. Rep. John Salazar, both from Colorado. A month before the end of the war, Polk was criticized in a United States House of Representatives amendment to a bill praising Major General Zachary Taylor for "a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States." This criticism, in which Congressman Abraham Lincoln played an important role with his Spot Resolutions, followed congressional scrutiny of the war's beginnings, including factual challenges to claims made by President Polk.[59] [60] The vote followed party lines, with all Whigs supporting the amendment. Lincoln's attack won luke-warm support from fellow Whigs in Illinois but was harshly counter-attacked by Democrats, who rallied pro-war sentiments in Illinois; Lincoln's Spot resolutions haunted his future campaigns in the heavily Democratic state of Illinois, and was cited by enemies well into his presidency.[61] In much of the U.S., victory and the acquisition of new land brought a surge of patriotism. Victory seemed to fulfill Democrats' belief in their country's Manifest Destiny. While Whig Ralph Waldo Emerson rejected war "as a means of achieving America's destiny," he accepted that "most of the great results of history are brought about by discreditable means."[62] Although the Whigs had opposed the war, they made Zachary Taylor their presidential candidate in the election of 1848, praising his military performance while muting their criticism of the war. Many of the military leaders on both sides of the American Civil War had fought as junior officers in Mexico, including Ulysses S. Grant, George B. McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, Stonewall Jackson, James Longstreet, George Meade, Robert E. Lee, and the future Confederate President Jefferson Davis. In Mexico City's Chapultepec Park, the Monument to the Heroic Cadets commemorates the heroic sacrifice of six teenaged military cadets who fought to their deaths rather than surrender to American troops during the Battle of Chapultepec Castle on September 18, 1847. The monument is an important patriotic site in Mexico. On March 5, 1947, nearly one hundred years after the battle, U.S. President Harry S. Truman placed a wreath at the monument and stood for a moment of silence.

Grant's views on the war
President Ulysses S. Grant, who as a young army lieutenant had served in Mexico under General Taylor, recalled in his Memoirs, published in 1885, that: Generally, the officers of the army were indifferent whether the annexation was consummated or not; but not so all of them. For myself, I was bitterly opposed to the measure, and to this day regard the war, which resulted, as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. It was an instance of a republic following the bad example of European monarchies, in not considering justice in their desire to acquire additional territory.[63]

MexicanAmerican War Grant also expressed the view that the war against Mexico had brought punishment on the United States in the form of the American Civil War: The Southern rebellion was largely the outgrowth of the Mexican war. Nations, like individuals, are punished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary and expensive war of modern times.[64]

352

Combatants
On the American side, the war was fought by regiments of regulars and various regiments, battalions, and companies of volunteers from the different states of the union and the Americans and some of the Mexicans in the territory of California and New Mexico. On the West Coast, the U.S. Navy fielded a battalion in an attempt to recapture Los Angeles.[65]

United States
At the beginning of the war, the U.S. Army had eight regiments of infantry (three battalions), four artillery regiments and three mounted regiments (two dragoons, one of mounted rifles). These regiments were supplemented by 10 new regiments (nine of infantry and one of cavalry) raised for one year's service (new regiments raised for one year according to act of Congress Feb. 11, 1847).[66] State Volunteers were raised in various sized units and for various periods of time, mostly for one year. Later some were raised for the duration of the war as it became clear it was going to last longer than a year.[67] U.S. soldiers' memoirs describe cases of looting and murder of Mexican civilians, mostly by State Volunteers. One officer's diary records: We reached Burrita about 5 pm, many of the Louisiana volunteers were there, a lawless drunken rabble. They had driven away the inhabitants, taken possession of their houses, and were emulating each other in making beasts of themselves.[68] John L. O'Sullivan, a vocal proponent of Manifest Destiny, later recollected: The regulars regarded the volunteers with importance and contempt ... [The volunteers] robbed Mexicans of their cattle and corn, stole their fences for firewood, got drunk, and killed several inoffensive inhabitants of the town in the streets. Many of the volunteers were unwanted and considered poor soldiers. The expression "Just like Gaines's army" came to refer to something useless, the phrase having originated when a group of untrained and unwilling Louisiana troops were rejected and sent back by Gen. Taylor at the beginning of the war. The last surviving U.S. veteran of the conflict, Owen Thomas Edgar, died on September 3, 1929, at age 98. 1,563 U.S. soldiers are buried in the Mexico City National Cemetery, which is maintained by the American Battle Monuments Commission.

Mexico
At the beginning of the war, Mexican forces were divided between the permanent forces (permanentes) and the active militiamen (activos). The permanent forces consisted of 12 regiments of infantry (of two battalions each), three brigades of artillery, eight regiments of cavalry, one separate squadron and a brigade of dragoons. The militia amounted to nine infantry and six cavalry regiments. In the northern territories of Mexico, presidial companies (presidiales) protected the scattered settlements there.[69] One of the contributing factors to loss of the war by Mexico was the inferiority of their weapons. The Mexican army was using British muskets (e.g. Brown Bess) from the Napoleonic Wars. In contrast to the aging Mexican standard-issue infantry weapon, some U.S. troops had the latest U.S.-manufactured breech-loading Hall rifles and Model 1841 percussion rifles. In the later stages of the war, U.S. cavalry and officers were issued Colt Walker

MexicanAmerican War revolvers, of which the U.S. Army had ordered 1,000 in 1846. Throughout the war, the superiority of the U.S. artillery often carried the day. Political divisions inside Mexico were another factor in the U.S. victory. Inside Mexico, the centralistas and republicans vied for power, and at times these two factions inside Mexico's military fought each other rather than the invading American army. Another faction called the monarchists, whose members wanted to install a monarch (some even advocated rejoining Spain), further complicated matters. This third faction would rise to predominance in the period of the French intervention in Mexico. Saint Patrick's Battalion (San Patricios) was a group of several hundred immigrant soldiers, the majority Irish, who deserted the U.S. Army because of ill-treatment or sympathetic leanings to fellow Mexican Catholics. They joined the Mexican army. Most were killed in the Battle of Churubusco; about 100 were captured by the U.S. and roughly ½ were hanged as deserters.

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Impact of the war in the U.S.
Despite initial objections from the Whigs and abolitionists, the war would nevertheless unite the U.S. in a common cause and was fought almost entirely by volunteers. The army swelled from just over 6,000 to more than 115,000. Of these, approximately 1.5% were killed in the fighting and nearly 10% died of disease; another 12% were wounded or discharged because of disease, or both. For years afterward, veterans continued to suffer from the debilitating diseases contracted during the campaigns. The casualty rate was thus easily over 25% for the 17 months of the war; the total casualties may have reached 35–40% if later injury- and disease-related deaths are added. In this respect, the war was proportionately the most deadly in American military history. During the war, political quarrels in the U.S. arose regarding the disposition of conquered Mexico. A brief "All-Mexico" movement urged annexation of the entire territory. Veterans of the war who had seen Mexico at first hand were unenthusiastic. Anti-slavery elements opposed that position and fought for the exclusion of slavery from any territory absorbed by the U.S.[70] In 1847 the House of Representatives passed the Wilmot Proviso, stipulating that none of the territory acquired should be open to slavery. The Senate avoided the issue, and a late attempt to add it to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was defeated.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was the result of Nicholas Trist's unauthorized negotiations. It was approved by the U.S. Senate on March 10, 1848, and ratified by the Mexican Congress on May 25. Mexico's cession of Alta California and Nuevo México and its recognition of U.S. sovereignty over all of Texas north of the Rio Grande formalized the addition of 1.2 million square miles (3.1 million km2) of territory to the United States. In return the U.S. agreed to pay $15 million and assumed the claims of its citizens against Mexico. A final territorial adjustment between Mexico and the U.S. was made by the Gadsden Purchase in 1853. As late as 1880, the "Republican Campaign Textbook" by the Republican Congressional Committee[71] described the war as "Feculent, reeking Corruption" and "one of the darkest scenes in our history—a war forced upon our and the Mexican people by the high-handed usurpations of Pres't Polk in pursuit of territorial aggrandizement of the slave oligarchy." The war was one of the most decisive events for the U.S. in the first half of the 19th century. While it marked a significant waypoint for the nation as a growing military power, it also served as a milestone especially within the U.S. narrative of Manifest Destiny. The resultant territorial gains set in motion many of the defining trends in

"An Available Candidate: The One Qualification for a Whig President." Political cartoon about the 1848 presidential election which refers to Zachary Taylor or Winfield Scott, the two leading contenders for the Whig Party nomination in the aftermath of the Mexican–American War. Published by Nathaniel Currier in 1848, digitally restored.

MexicanAmerican War American 19th-century history, particularly for the American West. The war did not resolve the issue of slavery in the U.S. but rather in many ways inflamed it, as potential westward expansion of the institution took an increasingly central and heated theme in national debates preceding the American Civil War. Furthermore, in doing much to extend the nation from coast to coast, the Mexican–American War was one step in the massive migrations to the West of Americans, which culminated in transcontinental railroads and the Indian wars later in the same century.

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Notes
[1] Christensen and Christensen, The U.S.–Mexican War, Bay Books, San Francisco, 1998 [2] Brian DeLay (2008). War of a thousand deserts: Indian raids and the U.S.–Mexican War (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Mot8hkMa0nkC& dq="U. S. -Mexican+ War"). Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300119329. . [3] See Rives, The United States and Mexico, vol. 2, p. 658 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA658) [4] Rives, ''The United States and Mexico'' vol. 2, pp 45–46 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA45). Books.google.com. 2007-09-28. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [5] Rives, pp. 48–49 [6] See "Republic of Texas" (http:/ / www. tshaonline. org/ handbook/ online/ articles/ RR/ mzr2. html) [7] Rives, vol. 2, pp. 165–168 [8] Rives, vol. 2, pp. 172–173 [9] Smith (1919) p. xi. [10] Jay (1853) p. 117. [11] Jay (1853) p. 119. [12] Donald Fithian Stevens, Origins of Instability in Early Republican Mexico (1991) p. 11. [13] Miguel E. Soto, "The Monarchist Conspiracy and the Mexican War" in Essays on the Mexican War ed by Wayne Cutler; Texas A&M University Press. 1986. pp. 66–67. [14] Brooks (1849) pp. 61–62. [15] Mexican War (http:/ / www. globalsecurity. org/ military/ ops/ mexican_war. htm) from Global Security.com. [16] Gilbert, Joseph. The Mexico Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press Books, 2002, p. 652 [17] James M. McCaffrey, Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846–1848 (1994) p 7 [18] Smith (1919) p. 279. [19] Faragher, John Mack, et al., eds. Out Of Many: A History of the American People. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, 2006. [20] "Message of President Polk, May 11, 1846" (http:/ / www. yale. edu/ lawweb/ avalon/ presiden/ messages/ polk01. htm). . Retrieved 2008-07-20. "Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war." [21] Bauer (1992) p. 68. [22] see A. Brook Caruso: The Mexican Spy Company. 1991, p. 62-79 [23] Jay (1853) pp. 165–166. [24] Jay (1853) p. 165. [25] See O'Sullivan's 1845 article, "Annexation," (http:/ / web. grinnell. edu/ courses/ HIS/ f01/ HIS202-01/ Documents/ OSullivan. html) United States Magazine and Democratic Review [26] Giddings,Joshua Reed, Speeches in Congress [1841–1852], J.P. Jewett and Company, 1853, p.17 [27] Beveridge 1:417. [28] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ speechofhonjohnq00adam [29] "James K. Polk: Third Annual Message – December 7, 1847" (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ print. php?pid=29488). Presidency.ucsb.edu. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [30] Brooks (1849) p. 122. [31] Brooks (1849) pp. 91, 117. [32] Brooks (1849) p. 121. [33] See Captain John Charles Fremont and the Bear Flag Revolt (http:/ / www. militarymuseum. org/ fremont. html). [34] Brooks (1849) p. 257. [35] Bauer (1992) pp. 190–191. [36] Silversteen, p42 [37] Bauer (1992) p. 201. [38] Rives, George Lockhart, The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848: a history of the relations between the two countries from the independence of Mexico to the close of the war with the United States, Volume 2, C. Scribner's Sons, New York, 1913, p.233 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ& pg=233). Books.google.com. 2007-09-28. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [39] "Urban Warfare" (http:/ / www. battleofmonterrey. com/ urbanwarfare. html). Battle of Monterrey.com. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [40] Dishman, Christopher, A Perfect Gibraltar: The Battle for Monterrey, Mexico," University of Oklahoma Press, 2010 ISBN 0-8061-4140-9

MexicanAmerican War
[41] Roger D. Launius (1997). Alexander William Doniphan: portrait of a Missouri moderate (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=xhneotO7Xg8C& pg=PA162& lpg=PA162). University of Missouri Press. ISBN 9780826211323. . [42] Hamalainen, Pekka, The Comanche Empire New Haven: Yale U Press, p.232 [43] Douglas Meed, The Mexican War, 1846–1848 (Routledge, 2003), p. 67. [44] McAllister, Brian. "see Coffman, ''Old Army'' (1988) p. 193" (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ reader/ 0195045556?v=search-inside& keywords=desertion). Amazon.com. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [45] Paul Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair (2002) pp. 25, 103–6. [46] Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair (2002) pp. 105–7. [47] Eisenhower, John S. D. (1989). So Far from God: The U.S. War With Mexico, 1846–1848. New York: Random House. p. 295. ISBN 0806132795. [48] Stephen A. Carney, U.S. Army Campaigns of the Mexican War: The Occupation of Mexico, May 1846-July 1848 (CMH Pub 73-3), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 2005; pp.30-38 (http:/ / www. history. army. mil/ / brochures/ Occupation/ Occupation. htm#b9) [49] pp. 590–593, The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848, vol. 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ), George Lockhart Rives, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1913. [50] Smith (1919) p. 241. [51] Bronwyn Mills U.S.-Mexican war p. 23 ISBN 0-8160-4932-7. [52] Kenneth C. Davis, “Don’t Know Much About History” (Avon Books, New York 1995) p. 143. [53] Howard Zinn, “A People’s History of the United States” (HarperCollins Publishers, New York 2003) p. 169. [54] George Lockhart Rives (1913). The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ). C. Scribner's Sons. pp. 634–636. . [55] PBS, "US-Mexican War" paragraph 3, line 2 http:/ / www. pbs. org/ kera/ usmexicanwar/ prelude/ md_boundary_disputes. html [56] Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. (http:/ / academic. udayton. edu/ race/ 02rights/ guadalu. htm#Original ARTICLE X) Full text (including Protocol) from academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved October 25, 2007. [57] "Treaty with Mexico (Feb 2, 1848) http:/ / www. mexica. net/ guadhida. php; Hamalainen, 293-341 [58] "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo" (http:/ / www. ourdocuments. gov/ doc. php?flash=true& doc=26). www.ourdocuments.gov. . Retrieved 27 June 2007. [59] "Congressional Globe, 30th Session (1848) pp. 93–95" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=020/ llcg020. db& recNum=102). Memory.loc.gov. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [60] "House Journal, 30th Session (1848) pp. 183–184/" (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?ammem/ hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(hj04321))). Memory.loc.gov. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [61] Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln. (1995), pp. 124, 128, 133. [62] Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1860). The Conduct of Life. p. 110. ISBN 1419157361. [63] "Ulysses S Grant Quotes on the Military Academy and the Mexican War" (http:/ / www. fadedgiant. net/ html/ grant_ulysses_s_quotes_west_po. htm). Fadedgiant.net. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [64] Personal Memoirs of General U. S. Grant — Complete by Ulysses S. Grant. (http:/ / www. gutenberg. net/ etext/ 4367) [65] "William Hugh Robarts, "Mexican War veterans : a complete roster of the regular and volunteer troops in the war between the United States and Mexico, from 1846 to 1848 ; the volunteers are arranged by states, alphabetically", BRENTANO'S (A. S. WITHERBEE & CO, Proprietors); WASHINGTON, D. C., 1887" (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ mexicanwarvetera00roba). Archive.org. 2001-03-10. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [66] Robarts, "Mexican War veterans" pp.1–24 [67] Robarts, "Mexican War veterans" pp.39–79 [68] Bronwyn Mills U.S.-Mexican war ISBN 0-8160-4932-7. [69] René Chartrand, ''Santa Anna's Mexican Army 1821–48'', Illustrated by Bill Younghusband, Osprey Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-84176-667-4, 9781841766676 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YImnue0ORwAC& source=gbs_navlinks_s). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [70] John Douglas Pitts Fuller, ''The Movement for the Acquisition of All Mexico, 1846–1848'' (1936) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=Y0JnAAAAMAAJ). Books.google.com. 2008-06-12. . Retrieved 2011-05-28. [71] Mexican–American War description (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ZrkJAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA97) from the Republican Campaign Textbook.

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356

Bibliography
Reference works
• Crawford, Mark; Jeanne T. Heidler; David Stephen Heidler (eds.) (1999). Encyclopedia of the Mexican War. ISBN 1-5760-7059-X. • Frazier, Donald S. ed. The U.S. and Mexico at War, (1998), 584; an encyclopedia with 600 articles by 200 scholars

Surveys
• • • • • Bauer, Karl Jack (1992). The Mexican War: 1846–1848. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-6107-1. De Voto, Bernard, Year of Decision 1846 (1942), well written popular history Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States (2008) Meed, Douglas. The Mexican War, 1846–1848 (2003). A short survey. Merry Robert W. A Country of Vast Designs: James K. Polk, the Mexican War and the Conquest of the American Continent (2009) • Smith, Justin Harvey. The War with Mexico, Vol 1. (2 vol 1919), full text online (http://books.google.com/ books?id=WBkOAAAAIAAJ). • The War with Mexico, Vol 2. (1919). full text online (http://books.google.com/ books?id=xhUOAAAAIAAJ).

Military
• Bauer K. Jack. Zachary Taylor: Soldier, Planter, Statesman of the Old Southwest. Louisiana State University Press, 1985. • Dishman, Christopher, A Perfect Gibraltar: The Battle for Monterrey, Mexico," University of Oklahoma Press, 2010 ISBN 0-8061-4140-9. • Eisenhower, John. So Far From God: The U.S. War with Mexico, Random House (1989). • Eubank, Damon R., Response of Kentucky to the Mexican War, 1846–1848. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2004), ISBN 9780773464957. • Foos, Paul. A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict during the Mexican-War (2002). • Fowler, Will. Santa Anna of Mexico (2007) 527pp; a major scholarly study • Frazier, Donald S. The U.S. and Mexico at War, Macmillan (1998). • Hamilton, Holman, Zachary Taylor: Soldier of the Republic, (1941). • Lewis, Lloyd. Captain Sam Grant (1950). • Johnson, Timothy D. Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory (1998) • Martinez, Orlando. The Great Landgrab, Quartet Books (1975) • McCaffrey, James M. Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846–1848 (1994) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/0814755054) • Smith, Justin H. "American Rule in Mexico," The American Historical Review Vol. 23, No. 2 (Jan., 1918), pp. 287–302 in JSTOR (http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8762(191801)23:2<287:ARIM>2.0.CO;2-U) • Smith, Justin Harvey. The War with Mexico. 2 vol (1919). Pulitzer Prize winner. full text online (http://books. google.com/books?id=xhUOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:Smith+inauthor:Justin+ inauthor:Harvey&lr=&num=100&as_brr=0). • Winders, Richard Price. Mr. Polk’s Army: The American Military Experience in the Mexican War (1997)

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Political and diplomatic
• Beveridge; Albert J. Abraham Lincoln, 1809–1858. Volume: 1. 1928. • Brack, Gene M. Mexico Views Manifest Destiny, 1821–1846: An Essay on the Origins of the Mexican War (1975). • Fowler, Will. Tornel and Santa Anna: The Writer and the Caudillo, Mexico, 1795–1853 (2000). • Fowler, Will. Santa Anna of Mexico (2007) 527pp; the major scholarly study excerpt and text search (http:// www.amazon.com/dp/0803211201) • Gleijeses, Piero. "A Brush with Mexico" Diplomatic History 2005 29(2): 223–254. Issn: 0145-2096 debates in Washington before war. • Graebner, Norman A. Empire on the Pacific: A Study in American Continental Expansion. (1955). • Graebner, Norman A. "Lessons of the Mexican War." Pacific Historical Review 47 (1978): 325–42. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3637470). • Graebner, Norman A. "The Mexican War: A Study in Causation." Pacific Historical Review 49 (1980): 405–26. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3638563). • Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States (2007), survey • Krauze, Enrique. Mexico: Biography of Power, (1997), textbook. • Mayers, David; Fernández Bravo, Sergio A., "La Guerra Con Mexico Y Los Disidentes Estadunidenses, 1846–1848" [The War with Mexico and US Dissenters, 1846–48]. Secuencia [Mexico] 2004 (59): 32–70. Issn: 0186-0348. • Pinheiro, John C. (http://www.aquinas.edu/history/pinheiro.html) Manifest Ambition: James K. Polk and Civil-Military Relations during the Mexican War (2007). • Pletcher David M. The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War. University of Missouri Press, 1973. • Price, Glenn W. Origins of the War with Mexico: The Polk-Stockton Intrigue. University of Texas Press, 1967. • Reeves, Jesse S. "The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo," American Historical Review, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Jan., 1905), pp. 309–324 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1834723). • Rives, George Lockhart. The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848: a history of the relations between the two countries from the independence of Mexico to the close of the war with the United States (1913) full text online (http://books.google.com/books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s) • Rodríguez Díaz, María Del Rosario. "Mexico's Vision of Manifest Destiny During the 1847 War" Journal of Popular Culture 2001 35(2): 41–50. Issn: 0022-3840. • Ruiz, Ramon Eduardo. Triumph and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People, Norton 1992, textbook • Schroeder John H. Mr. Polk's War: American Opposition and Dissent, 1846–1848. University of Wisconsin Press, 1973. • Sellers Charles G. James K. Polk: Continentalist, 1843–1846 (1966), the standard biography vol 1 and 2 are online at ACLS e-books (http://www.historyebook.org/) • Smith, Justin Harvey. The War with Mexico. 2 vol (1919). Pulitzer Prize winner. full text online (http://books. google.com/books?id=xhUOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:Smith+inauthor:Justin+ inauthor:Harvey&lr=&num=100&as_brr=0). • Stephenson, Nathaniel Wright. Texas and the Mexican War: A Chronicle of Winning the Southwest. Yale University Press (1921). • Weinberg Albert K. Manifest Destiny: A Study of Nationalist Expansionism in American History Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935. • Yanez, Agustin. Santa Anna: Espectro de una sociedad (1996).

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Memory and historiography
• Faulk, Odie B., and Stout, Joseph A., Jr., eds. The Mexican War: Changing Interpretations (1974) • Rodriguez, Jaime Javier. The Literatures of the U.S.-Mexican War: Narrative, Time, and Identity (University of Texas Press; 2010) 306 pages. Covers works by Anglo, Mexican, and Mexican-American writers. • Benjamin, Thomas. "Recent Historiography of the Origins of the Mexican War," New Mexico Historical Review, Summer 1979, Vol. 54 Issue 3, pp 169–181 • Vázquez, Josefina Zoraida. "La Historiografia Sobre la Guerra entre Mexico y los Estados Unidos," ["The historiography of the war between Mexico and the United States"] Histórica (02528894), 1999, Vol. 23 Issue 2, pp 475–485

Primary sources
• Calhoun, John C. The Papers of John C. Calhoun. Vol. 23: 1846, ed. by Clyde N. Wilson and Shirley Bright Cook. (1996). 598 pp • Calhoun, John C. The Papers of John C. Calhoun. Vol. 24: December 7, 1846 – December 5, 1847 ed. by Clyde N. Wilson and Shirley Bright Cook, (1998). 727 pp. • Conway, Christopher, ed. The U.S.-Mexican War: A Binational Reader (2010) • Grant, Ulysses S. (1885). Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4367/4367-h/ 4367-h.htm). New York: Charles L. Webster & Co. • Kendall, George Wilkins (1999). Lawrence Dilbert Cress. ed. Dispatches from the Mexican War. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press. • Polk, James, K. (1910). Milo Milton Quaife. ed. The Diary of James K. Polk: During his Presidency, 1845–1849 (http://books.google.com/books?id=FxgOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:james+ inauthor:knox+inauthor:polk&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0). Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. • Robinson, Cecil, The View From Chapultepec: Mexican Writers on the Mexican War, University of Arizona Press (Tucson, 1989). • Smith, Franklin (1991). Joseph E. Chance. ed. The Mexican War Journal of Captain Franklin Smith. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi. • George Winston and Charles Judah, ed (1968). Chronicles of the Gringos: The U.S. Army in the Mexican War, 1846–1848, Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Combatants. Albuquerque, New Mexico: The University of New Mexico Press. • Webster, Daniel (1984). Charles M. Wiltse. ed. The Papers of Daniel Webster, Correspondence. 6. Hanover, New Hampshire: The University Press of New England. • "Treaty of Guadalope Hidalgo" (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1848hidalgo.html). Internet Sourcebook Project. Retrieved 26 November 2008. • "28th Congress, 2nd session" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(hj040T000)):). United States House Journal. Retrieved 26 November 2008. • "29th Congress, 1st session" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(hj041T000)):). United States House Journal. Retrieved 26 November 2008. • "28th Congress, 2nd session" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(sj036T000)):). United States Senate Journal. Retrieved 26 November 2008. • "29th Congress, 1st session" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+ @lit(sj037T000)):). United States Senate Journal. Retrieved 26 November 2008. • William Hugh Robarts, "Mexican War veterans: a complete roster of the regular and volunteer troops in the war between the United States and Mexico, from 1846 to 1848; the volunteers are arranged by states, alphabetically", BRENTANO'S (A. S. WITHERBEE & CO, Proprietors); WASHINGTON, D. C., 1887. (http://www.archive. org/details/mexicanwarvetera00roba)

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External links
Guides, bibliographies and collections
• Library of Congress Guide to the Mexican War (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/mexicanwar/) • The Handbook of Texas Online: Mexican War (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/MM/ qdm2.html) • Reading List (http://www.history.army.mil/reference/mexwar/MW-CVR.htm) compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History • Mexican War Resources (http://www.sonofthesouth.net/mexican-war/war.htm) • The Mexican–American War, Illinois Historical Digitization Projects at Northern Illinois University Libraries (http://dig.lib.niu.edu/mexicanwar/index.html)

Media and primary sources
• Robert E. Lee Mexican War Maps in the VMI Archives (http://www.vmi.edu/archives.aspx?id=4294968301) • The Mexican War and the Media, 1845–1848 (http://www.history.vt.edu/MxAmWar/INDEX.HTM) • Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and related resources at the U.S. Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/rr/ program/bib/ourdocs/Guadalupe.html) • Letters of Winfield Scott including official reports from the front sent to the Secretary of War (http://www. familytales.org/results.php?tla=wfs) • Franklin Pierce's Journal on the March from Vera Cruz (http://www.usa-presidents.info/pierce/mexican-war. html) • Mexican–American War Time line (http://mexicanhistory.org/MexicanAmericanWarTimeline.htm) • Animated History of the Mexican–American War (http://www.civilwaranimated.com/MexicoAnimation. html)

Other
• Battle of Monterrey Web Site (http://www.battleofmonterrey.com) – Complete Info on the battle • Manifest Destiny and the U.S.-Mexican War: Then and Now (http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/ educators/md3_war.html) • The Mexican War (http://www.lnstar.com/mall/texasinfo/mexicow.htm) • PBS site of US-Mexican war program (http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar) • Smithsonian teaching aids for "Establishing Borders: The Expansion of the United States, 1846–48" (http:// www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/lesson_plans/borders/start.html) • A History by the Descendants of Mexican War Veterans (http://www.dmwv.org/mexwar/history/concise. htm) • Mexican–American War (http://histclo.com/country/us/hist/19/ush-mexw.html)

360

American Civil War
American Civil War
The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ("the Confederacy"); the other 25 states supported the federal government ("the Union"). After four years of warfare, mostly within the Southern states, the Confederacy surrendered and slavery was outlawed everywhere in the nation. Issues that led to war were partially resolved in the Reconstruction Era that followed, though others remained unresolved. In the presidential election of 1860, the Republican Party, led by Abraham Lincoln, had campaigned against expanding slavery beyond the states in which it already existed. The Republicans strongly advocated nationalism, and in their 1860 platform they denounced threats of disunion as avowals of treason. After a Republican victory, but before the new administration took office on March 4, 1861, seven cotton states declared their secession and joined to form the Confederate States of America. Both the outgoing administration of President James Buchanan and the incoming administration rejected the legality of secession, considering it rebellion. The other eight slave states rejected calls for secession at this point. No country in the world recognized the Confederacy. Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. Lincoln responded by calling for a volunteer army from each state to recapture federal property, which led to declarations of secession by four more slave states. Both sides raised armies as the Union seized control of the border states early in the war and established a naval blockade. Land warfare in the East was inconclusive in 1861–62, as the Confederacy beat back Union efforts to capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia, notably during the Peninsular Campaign. In September 1862, the confederate campaign in Maryland ended in defeat at the Battle of Antietam, which dissuaded the British from intervening.[1] Days after that battle, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal.[2] In 1863, confederate general Robert E. Lee's northward advance ended in defeat at the Battle of Gettysburg. To the west, the Union gained control of the Mississippi River after the Battle of Shiloh and Siege of Vicksburg, splitting the Confederacy in two and destroying much of their western army. Due to his western successes, Ulysses S. Grant was given command of the eastern army in 1864, and organized the armies of William Tecumseh Sherman, Philip Sheridan and others to attack the Confederacy from all directions, increasing the North's advantage in manpower. Grant restructured the union army, and put other generals in command of divisions of the army that were to support his push into Virginia. He led the Overland Campaign to seize Richmond, though in the face of fierce resistance he altered his plans and led the Siege of Petersburg which nearly finished off the rest of Lee's army. Meanwhile, Sherman captured Atlanta and marched to the sea, destroying Confederate infrastructure along the way. When the Confederate attempt to defend Petersburg failed, the Confederate army retreated but was pursued and defeated, which resulted in Lee's surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The practices of total war, developed by Sherman in Georgia, and of trench warfare around Petersburg foreshadowed World War I in Europe. It remains the deadliest war in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers and an undetermined number of civilian casualties. Historian John Huddleston estimates the death toll at ten percent of all Northern males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40.[3] Victory for the North meant the end of the Confederacy and of slavery in the United States, and strengthened the role of the federal government. The social, political, economic and

American Civil War racial issues of the war decisively shaped the reconstruction era that lasted to 1877.

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Causes of secession
The causes of the Civil War were complex, and have been controversial since the war began. The issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to improve the image of the South by lessening the role of slavery.[4] Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. Following Lincoln's victory, many Southern whites felt that disunion had become their only option. While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery.[5] Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal.[6] Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans.[7] By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats crushed at the 1863 elections in Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.[8]

Slavery
The slavery issue addressed not only the well-being of the slaves (although abolitionists raised the issue) but also the question of whether slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with American values or a profitable economic system protected by the Constitution. All sides agreed slavery exhausted the land and had to find new lands to survive. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. To the South this strategy made Southerners second-class citizens and trampled their Constitutional rights. The anti-slavery movement in the United States had roots in the Declaration of Independence. Slavery was banned in the Northwest Territory with the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. By 1804 all the Northern states (states north of the Mason-Dixon line) had passed laws to abolish slavery gradually. Congress in 1807 banned the international slave trade. Slavery faded in the border states and urban areas but expanded in highly profitable cotton states of the Deep South. Despite compromises in 1820 and 1850, the slavery issues exploded in the 1850s. The new Republican Party angered slavery interests by demanding the end to its expansion. The Republican idea was that without expansion slavery would eventually die out (as it did in other nations). Abraham Lincoln, for example, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, called for America to "arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction."[9] Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories.[10] [11] Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand, it would wither and die.[12] [13] [14] Southern fears of losing control of the federal government to antislavery forces, and Northern resentment of the influence that the Slave Power already wielded in government, brought the crisis to a head in the late 1850s. Disagreements between Abolitionists and others over the morality of slavery, the scope of democracy and the economic merits of free labor versus slave plantations caused the Whig and "Know-Nothing" parties to collapse, and new ones to arise (the Free Soil Party in 1848, the Republicans in 1854, the Constitutional Union in 1860). In 1860, the last national political party, the Democratic Party, split along sectional lines.

American Civil War Northerners ranging from the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison to the moderate Republican leader Lincoln[15] stressed Jefferson's declaration that all men are created equal. Lincoln mentioned this proposition many times, including his 1863 Gettysburg Address. Almost all the inter-regional crises involved slavery, starting with debates on the three-fifths clause and a twenty-year extension of the African slave trade in the Constitutional Convention of 1787. The 1793 invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney increased by fiftyfold the quantity of cotton that could be processed in a day and greatly increased the demand for slave labor in the South.[16] There was controversy over adding the slave state of Missouri to the Union that led to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. A gag rule prevented discussion in Congress of petitions for ending slavery from 1835–1844, while Manifest Destiny became an argument for gaining new territories, where slavery could expand. The acquisition of Texas as a slave state in 1845 along with territories won as a result of the Mexican–American War (1846–1848) resulted in the Compromise of 1850.[17] The Wilmot Proviso was an attempt by Northern politicians to exclude slavery from the territories conquered from Mexico. The extremely popular anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe greatly increased Northern opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850.[18] [19] The 1854 Ostend Manifesto was an unsuccessful Southern attempt to annex Cuba as a slave state. The Second Party System broke down after passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, which replaced the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery with popular sovereignty, allowing the people of a territory to vote for or against slavery. The Bleeding Kansas controversy over the status of slavery in the Kansas Territory included massive vote fraud perpetrated by Missouri pro-slavery Border Ruffians. Vote fraud led pro-South Presidents Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan to attempt to admit Kansas as a slave state. Buchanan supported the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution.[20] Violence over the status of slavery in Kansas erupted with the Wakarusa War,[21] the Sacking of Lawrence,[22] the caning of Republican Charles Sumner by the Southerner Preston Brooks,[23] [24] the Pottawatomie Massacre,[25] the Battle of Black Jack, the Battle of Osawatomie and the Marais des Cygnes massacre. The 1857 Supreme Court Dred Scott decision allowed slavery in the territories even where the majority opposed slavery, including Kansas.

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John Brown being adored by an enslaved mother and child as he walks to his execution on December 2, 1859.

The Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 included Northern Democratic leader Stephen A. Douglas' Freeport Doctrine. This doctrine was an argument for thwarting the Dred Scott decision that, along with Douglas' defeat of the Lecompton Constitution, divided the Democratic Party between North and South. Northern abolitionist John Brown's raid at Harpers Ferry Armory was an attempt to incite slave insurrections in 1859.[26] The North-South split in the Democratic Party in 1860 due to the Southern demand for a slave code for the territories completed polarization of the nation between North and South.

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Support for secession was strongly correlated to the number of plantations in the region.[29] States of the Deep South, which had the greatest concentration of plantations, were the first to secede. The upper South slave states of Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee had fewer plantations and rejected secession until the Fort Sumter crisis forced them to choose sides. Border states had fewer plantations still and never seceded.[30] [31] As of 1860 the percentage of Southern families that owned slaves has been estimated to be 43 percent in the lower South, 36 percent in the upper South and 22 percent in the border states that fought mostly for the Union.[32] Half the owners had one to four slaves. A total of 8000 planters owned 50 or more slaves in 1850 and only 1800 planters owned 100 or more; of the latter, 85% lived in the lower South, as opposed to one percent in the border states.[33] According to the 1860 U.S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8 percent of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[34] Ninety-five percent of African-Americans lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there as opposed to one percent of the population of the North, chiefly in larger cities like New York and Philadelphia. Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North.[35] The Supreme Court decision of 1857 in Dred Scott v. Sandford escalated the controversy. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney's decision said that slaves were "so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect".[36] Taney then overturned the Missouri Compromise, which banned slavery in territory north of the 36°30' parallel. He stated, "[T]he Act of Congress which prohibited a citizen from holding and owning [enslaved persons] in the territory of the United States north of the line therein is not warranted by the Constitution and is therefore void."[37]

James Hopkinson's Plantation. Planting sweet potatoes. ca. 1862/63.

Southern Democrats praised the Dred Scott decision, but Republicans branded it a "willful perversion" of the Constitution. They argued that if Scott could not legally file suit, the Supreme Court had no right to consider the Missouri Compromise's constitutionality. Lincoln warned that "the next Dred Scott decision"[38] could threaten Northern states with slavery. Lincoln said, "This question of Slavery was more important than any other; indeed, so much more important has it become that no other national question can even get a hearing just at present."[39] The slavery issue was related to sectional competition for control of the territories,[40] and the Southern demand for a slave code for the territories was the issue used by Southern politicians to split the Democratic Party in two, which all but guaranteed the election of Lincoln and secession. When secession was an issue, South Carolina planter and state Senator John Townsend said that, "our enemies are about to take possession of the Government, that they intend to rule us according to the caprices of their fanatical theories, and according to the declared purposes of abolishing slavery."[41] Similar opinions were expressed throughout the South in editorials, political speeches and declarations of reasons for secession. Even though Lincoln had no plans to outlaw slavery where it existed, whites throughout the South expressed fears for the future of slavery.

Scars of whipped slave. This famous 1863 photo was distributed by abolitionists to illustrate what they saw as the barbarism of Southern [27] society. The victim likely suffered from keloid, according to Kathleen Collins, making the scars [28] more prominent and extensive.

American Civil War Southern concerns included not only economic loss but also fears of racial equality.[42] [43] [44] [45] The Texas Declaration of Causes for Secession[46] [47] said that the non-slave-holding states were "proclaiming the debasing doctrine of equality of all men, irrespective of race or color", and that the African race "were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race". Alabama secessionist E. S. Dargan warned that whites and free blacks could not live together; if slaves were emancipated and remained in the South, "we ourselves would become the executioners of our own slaves. To this extent would the policy of our Northern enemies drive us; and thus would we not only be reduced to poverty, but what is still worse, we should be driven to crime, to the commission of sin."[48] Beginning in the 1830s, the US Postmaster General refused to allow mail which carried abolition pamphlets to the South.[49] Northern teachers suspected of any tinge of abolitionism were expelled from the South, and abolitionist literature was banned. Southerners rejected the denials of Republicans that they were abolitionists.[50] The North felt threatened as well, for as Eric Foner concludes, "Northerners came to view slavery as the very antithesis of the good society, as well as a threat to their own fundamental values and interests."[51] During the 1850s, slaves left the border states through sale, manumission and escape, and border states also had more free African-Americans and European immigrants than the lower South, which increased Southern fears that slavery was threatened with rapid extinction in this area. Such fears greatly increased Southern efforts to make Kansas a slave state. By 1860, the number of white border state families owning slaves plunged to only 16 percent of the total. Slaves sold to lower South states were owned by a smaller number of wealthy slave owners as the price of slaves increased.[52] Even though Lincoln agreed to the Corwin Amendment, which would have protected slavery in existing states, secessionists claimed that such guarantees were meaningless. Besides the loss of Kansas to free soil Northerners, secessionists feared that the loss of slaves in the border states would lead to emancipation, and that upper South slave states might be the next dominoes to fall. They feared that Republicans would use patronage to incite slaves and antislavery Southern whites such as Hinton Rowan Helper. Then slavery in the lower South, like a "scorpion encircled by fire, would sting itself to death."[53] According to historian Chandra Manning, both Union and Confederate soldiers who did the actual fighting believed slavery to be the cause of the Civil War. He argues that a majority of Confederate soldiers fought to protect slavery, which they viewed as an integral part of southern economy, culture, and manhood. Further, he argues that Union soldiers believed the primary reason for the war was to bring emancipation to the slaves. However, many Union soldiers did not fully endorse the idea of shedding their own blood for African American slaves, whom they viewed as inferior. Manning's research involved reading military camp newspapers and personal correspondence between soldiers and families during the Civil War. Manning stated that the primary debate in Confederate states over secession was not over state rights, but rather "the power of the federal government to affect the institution of slavery, specifically limiting it in newly added territories."[54] Other historians, such as Eric Foner, argue that no two people held the same motivations. He argues that while some were motivated mainly by slavery, most were motivated by some mixture of politics, culture, nationalism, honor, or any other number of motivations.[55]

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Sectionalism
Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South.[56] [57] It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for the poor whites. The South expanded into rich new lands in the Southwest (from Alabama to Texas).[58]
Status of the states, 1861.   States that seceded before April 15,

However, slavery declined in the border states and 1861   States that seceded after April 15, 1861   Union states that permitted slavery   Union states that banned slavery   Territories could barely survive in cities and industrial areas (it was fading out in cities such as Baltimore, Louisville and St. Louis), so a South based on slavery was rural and non-industrial. On the other hand, as the demand for cotton grew the price of slaves soared. Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary.[59] Fears of slave revolts and abolitionist propaganda made the South militantly hostile to abolitionism.[60] [61] Southerners complained that it was the North that was changing, and was prone to new "isms", while the South remained true to historic republican values of the Founding Fathers (many of whom owned slaves, including Washington, Jefferson and Madison). Lincoln said that Republicans were following the tradition of the framers of the Constitution (including the Northwest Ordinance and the Missouri Compromise) by preventing expansion of slavery.[62] The issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.[63] Industrialization meant that seven European immigrants out of eight settled in the North. The movement of twice as many whites leaving the South for the North as vice versa contributed to the South's defensive-aggressive political behavior.[64]

Nationalism and honor
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen like Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists") and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy.[65] C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group, "A great slave society...had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses....When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins."[66] Insults to Southern national honor included Uncle Tom's Cabin (1854)[67] and John Brown in 1859.[68] While the South moved toward a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national platform of 1860 warned that disunion was treason and would not be tolerated: we denounce those threats of disunion...as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever

American Civil War silence.[69] The South ignored the warnings and did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.[70]

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States' rights
Everyone agreed that states had certain rights—but did those rights carry over when a citizen left that state? The Southern position was that citizens of every state had the right to take their property anywhere in the U.S. and not have it taken away—specifically they could bring their slaves anywhere and they would remain slaves. Northerners rejected this "right" because it would violate the right of a free state to outlaw slavery within its borders. Republicans committed to ending the expansion of slavery were among those opposed to any such right to bring slaves and slavery into the free states and territories. The Dred Scott Supreme Court decision of 1857 bolstered the Southern case within territories, and angered the North.[71] Secondly the South argued that each state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at any time, that the Constitution was a "compact" or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a "perpetual union".[71] Historian James McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations: While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the state's-rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, state's rights for what purpose? State's rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.[72]

Slave power and free soil issues
Antislavery forces in the North identified the "Slave Power" as a direct threat to republican values. They argued that rich slave owners were using political power to take control of the Presidency, Congress and the Supreme Court, thus threatening the rights of the citizens of the North.[73]

Marais des Cygnes massacre of anti-slavery Kansans. May 19, 1858.

"Free soil" was a Northern demand that the new lands opening up in the west be available to independent yeoman farmers and not be bought out by rich slave owners who would buy up the best land and work it with slaves, forcing the white farmers onto marginal lands. This was the basis of the Free Soil Party of 1848, and a main theme of the Republican Party.[74] Free Soilers and Republicans demanded a homestead law that would give government land to settlers; it was defeated by Southerners who feared it would attract to the west European immigrants and poor Southern whites.[75]

Tariffs
The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates, so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The South had no complaints but the low rates angered Northern industrialists and factory workers, especially in Pennsylvania, who demanded protection for their growing iron industry. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were finally enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress.[76] [77] Historians in recent decades have minimized the tariff issue, noting that few Southerners in 1860–61 said it was of central importance to them. Some secessionist documents do mention the tariff issue, though not nearly as often as the preservation of slavery.

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Election of Lincoln
The election of Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession.[78] Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment" and the "Crittenden Compromise", failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.
Abraham Lincoln, 16th President (1861–1865)

Battle of Fort Sumter

The Lincoln Administration, just as the outgoing Buchanan administration before it, refused to turn over Ft. Sumter—located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Union Maj. Anderson gave a conditional reply which the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. After a heavy bombardment on April 12–13, 1861 (with no intentional casualties), the fort surrendered. On April 15, Lincoln then called for 75,000 troops from the states to recapture the fort and other federal property.[79] Rather than furnish troops and access for an attack on their fellow southern states, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas elected to join them in secession. North and South the response to Ft. Sumter was an overwhelming demand for war to uphold national honor. Only Kentucky tried to remain neutral. Hundreds of thousands of young men across the land rushed to enlist.[80]

Secession begins
Secession of South Carolina
South Carolina did more to advance nullification and secession than any other Southern state. South Carolina adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union" on December 24, 1860. It argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. All the alleged violations of the rights of Southern states were related to slavery.
Jefferson Davis, the only President of the Confederate States of America (1861–1865)

Secession winter

Before Lincoln took office, seven states had declared their secession from the Union. They established a Southern government, the Confederate States of [81] America on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose

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term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual", but that "the power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union" was not among the "enumerated powers granted to Congress".[82] One quarter of the U.S. Army—the entire garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.

As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.

The Union: blue, yellow (slave); The Confederacy: brown *territories in light shades; control of Confederate territories disputed

The Confederacy
Seven Deep South cotton states seceded by February 1861, starting with South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These seven states formed the Confederate States of America (February 4, 1861), with Jefferson Davis as president, and a governmental structure closely modeled on the U.S. Constitution. Following the attack on Fort Sumter, President Lincoln called for a volunteer army from each state. Within two months, an additional four Southern slave states declared their secession and joined the Confederacy: Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee. The northwestern portion of Virginia subsequently seceded from Virginia, joining the Union as the new state of West Virginia on June 20, 1863. By the end of 1861, Missouri and Kentucky were effectively under Union control, with Confederate state governments in exile.

The Union states
Twenty-three states remained loyal to the Union: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin. During the war, Nevada and West Virginia joined as new states of the Union. Tennessee and Louisiana were returned to Union military control early in the war. The territories of Colorado, Dakota, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Washington fought on the Union side. Several slave-holding Native American tribes supported the Confederacy, giving the Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) a small, bloody civil war.[83] [84] [85]

Border states
The border states in the Union were West Virginia (which separated from Virginia and became a new state), and four of the five northernmost slave states (Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky). Maryland had numerous pro-Confederate officials who tolerated anti-Union rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges. Lincoln responded with martial law and sent in militia units from the North.[86] Before the Confederate government realized what was happening, Lincoln had seized firm control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by arresting all the prominent secessionists and holding them without trial (they were later released). In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (See also:

American Civil War Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.[87] Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.[88]

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A Roman Catholic Union army chaplain celebrating a Mass

After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34% approved the statehood bill (96% approving).[89] The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties[90] in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war[91] engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war.[92] Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000-22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.[93] A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.[94]

Overview
Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40% of them in Virginia and Tennessee.[95] Since separate articles deal with every major battle and many minor ones, this article only gives the broadest outline. For more information see List of American Civil War battles and Military leadership in the American Civil War.

The beginning of the war, 1861
Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860 triggered South Carolina's declaration of secession from the Union. By February 1861, an additional six Southern states made similar declarations. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington in a failed attempt at resolving the crisis. The remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy. Confederate forces seized most of the federal forts within their boundaries. President Buchanan protested but made no military response apart from a failed attempt to resupply Fort Sumter using the ship Star of the West, which was fired upon by South Carolina forces and turned back before it reached the fort.[96] However, governors in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania quietly began buying weapons and training militia units. On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void".[97] He stated he had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but that he would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.[98]
The great meeting in Union Square, New York, to support the government, April 20, 1861

American Civil War The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government.[99] However, Secretary of State William Seward engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.[99] Fort Monroe in Virginia, Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, and Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, all in Florida, were the remaining Union-held forts in the Confederacy, and Lincoln was determined to hold them all. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, troops controlled by the Confederate government under P. G. T. Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12, forcing its capitulation. Northerners rallied behind Lincoln's call for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts and to preserve the Union,[100] citing presidential powers given by the Militia Acts of 1792. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for 90 days.[101] For months before that, several Northern governors had discreetly readied their state militias; they began to move forces the next day.[102] Confederate sympathizers seized Liberty Arsenal in Liberty, Missouri on April 20, eight days after Fort Sumter. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,034 volunteers for a period of three years.[103] Four states in the upper South (Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Virginia), which had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, now refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.[104] The city was the symbol of the Confederacy. Richmond was in a highly vulnerable location at the end of a tortuous Confederate supply line. Although Richmond was heavily fortified, supplies for the city would be reduced by Sherman's capture of Atlanta and cut off almost entirely when Grant besieged Petersburg and its railroads that supplied the Southern capital.

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Anaconda Plan and blockade, 1861
Winfield Scott, the commanding general of the U.S. Army, devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible.[105] His idea was that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy; then the capture of the Mississippi River would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan in terms of a blockade to squeeze to death the Confederate economy, but overruled Scott's warnings that his new army was not ready for an offensive operation because public opinion demanded an immediate attack.[106] In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern 1861 cartoon of Scott's "Anaconda Plan" ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake it was too late. "King Cotton" was dead, as the South could export less than 10% of its cotton.[107] British investors built small, fast blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Bermuda, Cuba and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton and tobacco.[108] When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. Shortages of food and supplies were caused by the blockade, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the impressment of crops by Confederate armies. The standard of living fell even as large-scale printing of paper money caused inflation and distrust of the currency. By 1864 the internal food distribution had broken down, leaving cities without enough food and causing bread riots across the Confederacy.[109]

American Civil War On March 8, 1862, the Confederate Navy waged a fight against the Union Navy when the ironclad CSS Virginia attacked the blockade. Against wooden ships, she seemed unstoppable. The next day, however, she had to fight the new Union warship USS Monitor in the Battle of the Ironclads.[110] Their battle ended in a draw. The Confederacy lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture, and the Union built many copies of Monitor. Lacking the technology to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain. Northern technology achieved another breakthrough on April 10–11, 1862, when a joint Army-Navy expedition reduced a major masonry fortification at Fort Pulaski guarding Savannah, Georgia. Employing the Parrott rifle cannon made masonry coastal defenses obsolete overnight. The Federals left a small garrison, releasing troops and ships for other blockading operations.[111] The Union victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January 1865 closed the last useful Southern port and virtually ended blockade running.

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Conscription and desertion
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law—conscription—as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt.[112] The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers.

A Union Regimental Fife and Drum Corps

When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the machine vote, not realizing it made them liable for the draft.[113] Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.[114] North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. An estimated 120,000 men evaded conscription in the North, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 Northern soldiers deserted during the war,[115] [116] along with at least 100,000 Southerners, or about 10% all together.[117] However, desertion was a very common event in the 19th century; in the peacetime Army about 15% of the soldiers deserted every year.[118] In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their families,[119] then returned to their units.[120] In the North, "bounty jumpers" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.[121]

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Eastern theater 1861–1863
Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at Manassas, Virginia, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces there was halted in the First Battle of Bull Run, or First Manassas,[122] McDowell's troops were forced back to Washington, D.C., by the Confederates under the command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General Thomas Jackson received the nickname of "Stonewall" because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops.[123]

Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the U.S. Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end slavery. Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign,[124] [125] [126] Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson[127] defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South.[128] McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops. Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam[127] near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.[129] Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.[130] When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[131] on December 13, 1862, when over 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.

Union soldiers in trenches before storming Marye's Heights at the Second Battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, May 1863.

Rioters attacking a building on Lexington Avenue during the New York City draft riots of 1863

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Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville[132] in May 1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded by his own men during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg[133] (July 1 to July 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often Confederate dead behind the stone wall of considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, Virginia, killed the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army during the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863 suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).[134] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.

Western theater 1861–1863
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[135] Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy. Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization. The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans[136] without a major fight, which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river. General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville,[137] although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River[138] in Tennessee. The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged. The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh;[139] and the Battle of Vicksburg,[140] which cemented The Battle of Chickamauga was one of the deadliest battles in the Western Theater. Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga,[141] driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.

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Trans-Mississippi theater 1861–1865
Guerrilla activity turned much of Missouri into a battleground. Missouri had, in total, the third-most battles of any state during the war.[142] The other states of the west, though geographically isolated from the battles to the east, saw numerous small-scale military actions. Battles in the region served to secure Missouri, Indian Territory, and New Mexico Territory for the Union. Confederate incursions into New Mexico territory were repulsed in 1862 and a Union campaign to secure Indian Territory succeeded in 1863. Late in the war, the Union's Red River Campaign was a failure. Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war, but was cut off from the rest of the Confederacy after the capture of Vicksburg in 1863 gave the Union control of the Mississippi River.

Conquest of Virginia and end of war: 1864–1865
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.[143] This was total war not in terms of killing civilians but rather in terms of destroying homes, farms, and railroads. Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.

The Peacemakers (1868) by George P.A. Healy. Aboard the River Queen, March 28, 1865, General William T. Sherman, General Ulysses S. Grant, Lincoln, and Admiral David Dixon Porter discuss military plans for final months of the Civil War.

Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles during that phase ("Grant's Overland Campaign") of the Eastern campaign. Grant's battles of attrition at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor[144] resulted in heavy Union losses, but forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Grant was tenacious and, despite astonishing losses (over 65,000 casualties in seven weeks),[145] kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. He pinned down the Confederate army in the Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months. Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market would prove to be the Confederacy's last major victory of the war. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley,[146] a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.

Generals William T. ShermanSherman, Ulysses S. GrantGrant & Phil SheridanSheridanUS Presidents on US postage stamps#Ulysses S. GrantArmy Issue of 1937

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Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president.[147] Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign.[148] Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army. Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched Confederate dead of General Ewell's Corps who with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20% of the farms attacked the Union lines at the Battle of in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Spotsylvania, May 19, 1864. Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south,[149] increasing the pressure on Lee's army. Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. Union forces won a decisive victory at the Battle of Five Forks on April 1, forcing Lee to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond. The Confederate capital fell[150] to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west and after a defeat at Sayler's Creek, it became clear to Robert E. Lee that continued fighting against the United States was both tactically and logistically impossible.

Confederacy surrenders
Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House in the village of Appomattox Court House.[151] In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller. On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them.[152]

Map of Confederate territory losses year by year

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Emancipation during the war
At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As one Congressman put it, the slaves "...cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union."[153] The same Congressman—and his fellow Radical Republicans—put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization.[154] Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually Black and White soldiers in the Union Army. 1860s accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union. The Irish Catholics generally opposed emancipation, and when the draft began in the summer of 1863 they launched a major riot in New York City that was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities.[155] Many of the recent immigrants viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought.[156] Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties, especially at Fredericksburg; their volunteering fell off after 1862.[157] Sentiment among German Americans was largely anti-slavery, especially among Forty-Eighters.[158] Hundreds of thousands of German Americans volunteered to fight for the Union.[159] In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."[160] At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected.[161] Only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".[162] In September 1862 the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.[163] Lincoln had already published a letter[164] encouraging the border states especially to accept emancipation as necessary to save the Union. Lincoln later said that slavery was "somehow the cause of the war".[165] Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."[166] Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.[167] Lincoln also played a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment,[168] which made emancipation universal and permanent.

American Civil War Enslaved African Americans did not wait for Lincoln's action before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines. From early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in occupied areas like Nashville, Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of Sherman's march, etc. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations. In addition, approximately 180,000 or more African-American men served as soldiers and sailors with Union troops. Most of those were escaped slaves. Probably the most prominent of these African-American soldiers is the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry. Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers, and black soldiers especially were shot when trying to surrender at the Fort Pillow Massacre.[169] This led to a breakdown of the prisoner and mail exchange program [170] and the growth of prison camps such as Andersonville prison in Georgia,[171] where almost 13,000 Union prisoners of war died of starvation and disease.[172] In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders — until 1865 — opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As Howell Cobb said, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong." Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and Jefferson Davis was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this plan could be implemented.[173] Historian John D. Winters, in The Civil War in Louisiana (1963), referred to the exhilaration of the slaves when the Union Army came through Louisiana: "As the troops moved up to Alexandria, the Negroes crowded the roadsides to watch the passing army. They were 'all frantic with joy, some weeping, some blessing, and some dancing in the exuberance of their emotions.' All of the Negroes were attracted by the pageantry and excitement of the army. Others cheered because they anticipated the freedom to plunder and to do as they pleased now that the Federal troops were there."[174]

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Union Army soldier on his release from Andersonville prison in May, 1865. After the war, Henry Wirz, the prison's commandant, was tried for war crimes by a military commission and executed.

The Emancipation Proclamation[175] greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in getting border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves fighting on the same side for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.[176] The great majority of the 4 million slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, as Union armies moved south. The 13th amendment,[177] ratified December 6, 1865, finally made slavery illegal everywhere in the United States, thus freeing the remaining slaves—65,000 in Kentucky (as of 1865),[178] 1,800 in Delaware, and 18 in New Jersey as of 1860.[179] Historian Stephen Oates said that many myths surround Lincoln: "man of the people", "true Christian", "arch villain" and racist. The belief that Lincoln was racist was caused by an incomplete picture of Lincoln, such as focusing on only selective quoting of statements Lincoln made to gain the support of the border states and Northern Democrats, and ignoring the many things he said against slavery, and the military and political context within which such statements were made. Oates said that Lincoln's letter to Horace Greeley has been "persistently misunderstood and misrepresented" for such reasons.[180]

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Blocking international intervention
Europe in the 1860s was more fragmented than it had been since before the American Revolution. France was in a weakened state while Britain was still shocked by their poor performance in the Crimean War.[181] France was unable or unwilling to support either side without Britain, where popular support remained with the Union though elite opinion was more varied. They were further distracted by Germany and Italy, who were experiencing unification troubles, and by Russia, who was almost unflinching in their support for the Union.[181] [182] Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators.[181] [182] The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war in order to get cotton.[183] Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further way from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half.[183] When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.[184] Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept as minister to Britain for the U.S. and Britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial ship builders in Britain. The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for European politicians, especially in Britain (who had herself abolished slavery in her own colonies in 1834).[185] War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent Affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of a British mail steamer to seize two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation—though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom’s Cabin three times when deciding on this.[185] The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would continue to remain neutral.[186]

Victory and aftermath

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Comparison of Union and CSA[187]
Union Total population Free population Slave population, 1860 Soldiers Railroad length Manufactured items Firearm production Bales of cotton in 1860 Bales of cotton in 1864 Pre-war U.S. exports 22,100,000 (71%) 21,700,000 400,000 2,100,000 (67%) CSA 9,100,000 (29%) 5,600,000 3,500,000 1,064,000 (33%)

21788 miles (35064 km) (71%) 8838 miles (14223 km) (29%) 90% 97% Negligible Negligible 30% 10% 3% 4,500,000 300,000 70%

Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, such as James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible.[188] McPherson argues that the North’s advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.[189] Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.[189]
Andersonville National Cemetery is the final resting place for the Union prisoners who perished while being held at Camp Sumter.

Some scholars, such as those of the Lost Cause tradition, argue that the Union held an insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in terms of industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back...If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War."[190] The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had succeeded in getting the support of the border states, War Democrats, emancipated slaves, Britain, and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.[191] Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. Although Lincoln's approach to emancipation was slow, the Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.[192] The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly the United Kingdom and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95% effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and the United Kingdom's hostility to the institution of

American Civil War slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either the United Kingdom or France would enter the war. The more industrialized economy of the North aided in the production of arms, munitions and supplies, as well as finances and transportation. The table shows the relative advantage of the Union over the Confederate States of America (CSA) at the start of the war. The advantages widened rapidly during the war, as the Northern economy grew, and Confederate territory shrank and its economy weakened. The Union population was 22 million and the South 9 million in 1861. The Southern population included more than 3.5 million slaves and about 5.5 million whites, thus leaving the South's white population outnumbered by a ratio of more than four to one.[193] The disparity grew as the Union controlled an increasing amount of southern territory with garrisons, and cut off the trans-Mississippi part of the Confederacy. The Union at the start controlled over 80% of the shipyards, steamships, riverboats, and the Navy. It augmented these by a massive shipbuilding program. This enabled the Union to control the river systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline.[194] Excellent railroad links between Union cities allowed for the quick and cheap movement of troops and supplies. Transportation was much slower and more difficult in the South, which was unable to augment its much smaller rail system, repair damage, or even perform routine maintenance.[195] The failure of Davis to maintain positive and productive relationships with state governors (especially Governor Joseph E. Brown of Georgia and Governor Zebulon Baird Vance of North Carolina) damaged his ability to draw on regional resources.[196] The Confederacy's "King Cotton" misperception of the world economy led to bad diplomacy, such as the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started.[197] The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered,[198] further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery. Emancipated slaves mostly handled garrison duties, and fought numerous battles in 1864–65.[199] European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.[200] The railroad industry became the nation's largest employer outside of agriculture. The American Civil War was followed by a boom in railroad construction, which contributed to the Panic of 1873.[201] [202]

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Results
Slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 18, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the

The war produced about 1,030,000 casualties (3% of the population), Republic, organized after the war. [203] including about 620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20% higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000.[204] [205] The war accounted for roughly as many American deaths as all American deaths in other U.S. wars combined.[206] The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6% in the North and 18% in the South.[207] [208] About 56,000 soldiers died in prisons during the Civil War.[209]

American Civil War One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the use of Napoleonic tactics, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer repeating rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined the better part of World War I. The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40% than that of the North, a condition which lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the US federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.[210] Reconstruction Reconstruction began during the war (and continued to 1877) in an effort to solve the issues caused by reunion, specifically the legal status of the 11 breakaway states, the Confederate leadership, and the freedmen. Northern leaders during the war agreed that victory would require more than the end of fighting. It had to encompass the two war goals: secession had to be repudiated and all forms of slavery had to be eliminated. Lincoln and the Radical Republicans disagreed sharply on the criteria for these goals. They also disagreed on the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the South, and the process by which Southern states should be reintegrated into the Union. These disputes became central to the political debates after the Confederacy collapsed.

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Memory and historiography
The Civil War is one of the central events in America's collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.[211] The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty" influencing the world.[212] Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause", which shaped regional identity and race relations for generations.[213]

150th anniversary
The year 2011 will include the American Civil War's 150th anniversary. Many in the South are attempting to incorporate both Black history and white perspectives. A Harris Poll given in March 2011 suggested that Americans were still uniquely divided over the results and appropriate memorials to acknowledge the occasion.[214] While traditionally American films of the Civil War feature "brother versus brother" themes [215] film treatments of the war are evolving to include African American characters. Benard Simelton, president of the Alabama NAACP, said celebrating the Civil War is like celebrating the "Holocaust". In reference to slavery Simelton said that black "rights were taken away" and that blacks "were treated as less than human beings." National Park historian Bob Sutton said that slavery was the "principal cause" of the war. Sutton also claimed that the issue of state rights was incorporated by the Confederacy as a justification for the war in order to get recognition from Britain. Sutton went on to mention that during the 100th anniversary of the Civil War white southerners focused on the genius of southern generals, rather than slavery. In Virginia during the fall of 2010, a conference took place that addressed the slavery issue. During November 2010, black Civil War reenactors from around the country participated in a parade at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.[216]

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Hollywood
Hollywood's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such films as "Birth of a Nation," "Gone with the Wind" and "Glory".[217] Filmography • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Andersonville (1996) An Occurence at Owl Bridge (1962) The Battle of Gettysburg (1913) The Birth of a Nation (1915) The Blue and the Gray (1982 TV series) The Civil War (1990) Civil War Minutes: Confederate (2007) Civil War Minutes: Union (2001) Cold Mountain (2003) The Colt (2005) Dances with Wolves (1990) Dog Jack (2010) Drums in the Deep South (1951) The General (1926) Gettysburg (1993) Glory (1989) Gods and Generals (2003) Gone with the Wind (1939) The Good The Bad and The Ugly (1967) The Horse Soldiers (1959) The Hunley (1999) The Last Confederate: The Story of Robert Adams (2007) Major Dundee (1965) North and South (TV miniseries) Trilogy (1985, 1986, 1994) The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976) Pharaoh's Army (1995) Raintree County (1957) The Red Badge of Courage (1951) Ride with the Devil (1999) The Shadow Riders (1982) Shenandoah (1965) Sommersby (1993)

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Notes
[1] Howard Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War (1999) p. 154. [2] Frank J. Williams, "Doing Less and Doing More: The President and the Proclamation—Legally, Militarily and Politically," in Harold Holzer, ed. The Emancipation Proclamation (2006) pp. 74–5. [3] " Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YpAuHGkuIe0C& pg=PA& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". John Huddleston (2002). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6773-6. [4] James C. Bradford, A companion to American military history (2010) vol. 1 p. 101 [5] Foner, Eric (1981). Politics and Ideology in the Age of the Civil War (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rQSYk-LWTxcC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Politics+ and+ Ideology+ in+ the+ Age+ of+ the+ Civil+ War#v=onepage& q& f=false). ISBN 9780195029260. . [6] Foner, Eric. "The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery" (2011) p 74. [7] McPherson pp 506-8 [8] McPherson p 686 [9] Quoted in Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (2010) p. 100 [10] Glenn M. Linden (2001). Voices from the Gathering Storm: The Coming of the American Civil War (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=F20ZsA5ZeeEC& pg=PA184& lpg=PA184& dq=Prevent+ "any+ of+ our+ friends+ from+ demoralizing+ themselves"). United States: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-8420-2999-5. . "Prevent, as far as possible, any of our friends from demoralizing themselves, and our cause, by entertaining propositions for compromise of any sort, on slavery extension. There is no possible compromise upon it, but which puts us under again, and leaves all our work to do over again. Whether it be a Mo. Line, or Eli Thayer's Pop. Sov. It is all the same. Let either be done, & immediately filibustering and extending slavery recommences. On that point hold firm, as with a chain of steel. – Abraham Lincoln to Elihu B. Washburne, December 13, 1860" [11] Let there be no compromise on the question of extending slavery. If there be, all our labor is lost, and, ere long, must be done again. The dangerous ground—that into which some of our friends have a hankering to run—is Pop. Sov. Have none of it. Stand firm. The tug has to come, & better now, than any time hereafter. – Abraham Lincoln to Lyman Trumbull, December 10, 1860. [12] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 241, 253. [13] Declarations of Causes for: Georgia, Adopted on January 29, 1861; Mississippi, Adopted in 1861 (no exact date found); South Carolina, Adopted on December 24, 1860; Texas, Adopted on February 2, 1861. [14] The New Heresy, Southern Punch, editor John Wilford Overall, September 19, 1864 is one of many references that indicate that the Republican hope of gradually ending slavery was the Southern fear. It said in part, "Our doctrine is this: WE ARE FIGHTING FOR INDEPENDENCE THAT OUR GREAT AND NECESSARY DOMESTIC INSTITUTION OF SLAVERY SHALL BE PRESERVED." [15] Lincoln's Speech in Chicago, December 10, 1856 in which he said, "We shall again be able not to declare, that 'all States as States, are equal,' nor yet that 'all citizens as citizens are equal,' but to renew the broader, better declaration, including both these and much more, that 'all men are created equal.'"; Also, Lincoln's Letter to Henry L. Pierce, April 6, 1859. [16] The People's Chronology, 1994 by James Trager. [17] William E. Gienapp, "The Crisis of American Democracy: The Political System and the Coming of the Civil War." in Boritt ed. Why the Civil War Came 79–123. [18] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 88–91 [19] Most of her slave owners are "decent, honorable people, themselves victims" of that institution. Much of her description was based on personal observation, and the descriptions of Southerners; she herself calls them and Legree representatives of different types of masters.;Gerson, Harriet Beecher Stowe, p. 68; Stowe, Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1953) p. 39. [20] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 201–204, 299–327. [21] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, p. 208. [22] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 208–209. [23] Fox Butterfield; All God's Children p. 17. [24] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 210–211. [25] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 212–213. [26] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 356–384. [27] Miriam Forman-Brunell, Leslie Paris (2010) " The Girls' History and Culture Reader: The Nineteenth Century (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bYE0DuIxkHIC& pg=PA136& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". University of Illinois Press. p.136. ISBN 978-0-252-07765-4 [28] Kathleen Collins, "The Scourged Back," History of Photography 9 (January 1985): 43-45. [29] Lipset looked at the secessionist vote in each Southern state in 1860–61. In each state he divided the counties into high, medium or low proportion of slaves. He found that in the 181 high-slavery counties, the vote was 72% for secession. In the 205 low-slavery counties. the vote was only 37% for secession. (And in the 153 middle counties, the vote for secession was in the middle at 60%). Seymour Martin Lipset, Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (Doubleday, 1960) p. 349. [30] McPherson, Battle Cry, p 242, 255, 282–83. Maps on p. 101 (The Southern Economy) and p. 236 (The Progress of Secession) are also relevant. [31] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 503–505.

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[32] James G. Randall and David Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (1961) p. 68 [33] Randall and Donald, p. 67 [34] 1860 Census Results (http:/ / www. civil-war. net/ pages/ 1860_census. html), The Civil War Home Page. [35] James McPherson, Drawn with the Sword, p. 15. [36] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, p. 275. [37] Roger B. Taney: Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857). [38] First Lincoln Douglas Debate at Ottawa, Illinois August 21, 1858. [39] Abraham Lincoln, Speech at New Haven, Conn., March 6, 1860. [40] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 195. [41] John Townsend, The Doom of Slavery in the Union, its Safety out of it, October 29, 1860. [42] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 243. [43] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, p. 461. [44] William C. Davis, Look Away, pp. 130–140. [45] William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, p. 42. [46] A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union, February 2, 1861 – A declaration of the causes which impel the State of Texas to secede from the Federal Union. (http:/ / www2. tsl. state. tx. us/ ref/ abouttx/ secession/ 2feb1861. html) [47] Winkler, E. "A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union." (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 19th_century/ csa_texsec. asp). Journal of the Secession Convention of Texas. . Retrieved 2007-10-16. [48] Speech of E. S. Dargan to the Secession Convention of Alabama, January 11, 1861, in Wikisource. [49] Schlesinger Age of Jackson, p. 190. [50] David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage (2006) p 197, 409; Stanley Harrold, The Abolitionists and the South, 1831–1861 (1995) p. 62; Jane H. and William H. Pease, "Confrontation and Abolition in the 1850s" Journal of American History (1972) 58(4): 923–937. [51] Eric Foner. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War (1970), p. 9. [52] William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant 1854–1861, pp. 9–24. [53] William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, Secessionists Triumphant, pp. 269–462, p. 274 (The quote about slave states "encircled by fire" is from the New Orleans Delta, May 13, 1860). [54] Eskridge, Larry (Jan 29, 2011). "After 150 years, we still ask: Why ‘this cruel war’?." (http:/ / www. cantondailyledger. com/ topstories/ x1868081570/ After-150-years-we-still-ask-Why-this-cruel-war). Canton Daily Ledger (Canton, Illinois). . Retrieved 2011-01-29. [55] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rQSYk-LWTxcC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Politics+ and+ Ideology+ in+ the+ Age+ of+ the+ Civil+ War& hl=en& ei=TmNkTvHZGoqQsALcu4G0Cg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false [56] Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848 (1948) [57] Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840–1861 (1973) [58] Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (2005). [59] Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War (1981) p 198; Woodworth, ed. The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research (1996), 145 151 505 512 554 557 684; Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1969). [60] Clement Eaton, Freedom of Thought in the Old South (1940) [61] John Hope Franklin, The Militant South 1800–1861 (1956). [62] Abraham Lincoln, Cooper Union Address, New York, February 27, 1860. [63] Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (1972) pp 648–69. [64] James McPherson, "Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question," Civil War History 29 (September 1983). [65] David M. Potter, "The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa," American Historical Review, Vol. 67, No. 4 (July 1962), pp. 924–950 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1845246). [66] C. Vann Woodward, American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue (1971), p.281. [67] Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760s–1880s (2000). [68] Avery Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848–1861 (1953). [69] "Republican Platform of 1860," in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms, 1840–1956, (University of Illinois Press, 1956) p.32 [70] Susan-Mary Grant, North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000); Melinda Lawson, Patriot Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (2005) [71] Forrest McDonald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776–1876 (2002) [72] James McPherson, This Mighty Scourge, pp. 3–9. [73] Before 1850, slave owners controlled the presidency for fifty years, the Speaker's chair for forty-one years, and the chairmanship of the House Ways and Means Committee that set tariffs for forty-two years, while 18 of 31 Supreme Court justices owned slaves. Leonard L. Richards, The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780–1860 (2000) pp. 1–9 [74] Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (1970)

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[75] Charles C. Bolton, Poor Whites of the Antebellum South: Tenants and Laborers in Central North Carolina and Northeast Mississippi (1993) p 67 [76] Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp 115–61 [77] Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War," The American Historical Review Vol. 44, No. 1 (Oct., 1938), pp. 50–55 full text in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1840850) [78] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, p. 485. [79] Bornstein, David (2011-04-14). "Lincoln's Call to Arms" (http:/ / opinionator. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2011/ 04/ 14/ lincoln-declares-war/ ). Opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com. . Retrieved 2011-08-11. [80] Maury Klein, Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War (1999) [81] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 254. [82] President James Buchanan, Message of December 8, 1860 online (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=29501). [83] Gibson, Arrell. Oklahoma, a History of Five Centuries (University of Oklahoma Press, 1981) pg. 117–120 [84] "United States Volunteers — Indian Troops" (http:/ / www. civilwararchive. com/ Unreghst/ unindtr. htm). civilwararchive.com. 2008-01-28. . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [85] "Civil War Refugees" (http:/ / digital. library. okstate. edu/ encyclopedia/ entries/ C/ CI013. html). Oklahoma Historical Society. Oklahoma State University. . Retrieved 2008-08-10. [86] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 284–287. [87] Nevins, The War for the Union (1959) 1:119-29 [88] Nevins, The War for the Union (1959) 1:129-36 [89] "A State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia" (http:/ / www. wvculture. org/ History/ statehood/ statehood10. html). West Virginia Archives & History. . [90] Curry, Richard Orr, A House Divided, A Study of the Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, 1964, map on page 49 [91] Weigley, Russell F., "A Great Civil War, A Military and Political History 1861–1865, Indiana Univ. Press, 2000, pg. 55 [92] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 303 [93] Snell, Mark A., West Virginia and the Civil War, History Press, Charleston, SC, 2011, pg. 28 [94] Mark Neely, Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties 1993 pp. 10–11. [95] Gabor Boritt, ed. War Comes Again (1995) p. 247. [96] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 234–266 [97] Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861. [98] Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1861. [99] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 572–573. [100] "Lincoln's Call for Troops" (http:/ / www. civilwarhome. com/ lincolntroops. htm). . [101] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 274 [102] Massachusetts in the Civil War, William Schouler, 1868 book republished by Digital Scanning Inc, 2003 – See the account at (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN1582180016& id=ub8cqVKoXwgC& pg=PA35& lpg=PA34& vq=baltimore& dq=schouler+ massachusetts+ civil& sig=g5za9rXjH9ttx1vzmWNN39F3YFQ). [103] "Abraham Lincoln: Proclamation 83 - Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy" (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=70123). Presidency.ucsb.edu. . Retrieved 2011-11-03. [104] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 276–307 [105] Allan Peskin, Winfield Scott and the profession of arms (2003) pp 249–52 [106] Timothy D. Johnson, Winfield Scott (1998) p. 228 [107] Dean B. Mahin, One war at a time: the international dimensions of the American Civil War (2000) ch 6 [108] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 378–380 [109] Heidler, 1651–53. [110] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 373–377 [111] Fort Pulaski - National Monument, National Park Service Historical Handbook Series (http:/ / www. google. com/ imgres?imgurl=http:/ / www. cr. nps. gov/ history/ online_books/ hh/ 18/ images/ hh18f1. jpg& imgrefurl=http:/ / www. cr. nps. gov/ history/ online_books/ hh/ 18/ hh18f. htm& usg=__6sa3WbdkbTZm5UCP22OCp4mQi7A=& h=338& w=250& sz=9& hl=en& start=1& zoom=1& um=1& itbs=1& tbnid=X6XQWqMD0Hb9iM:& tbnh=119& tbnw=88& prev=/ search?q=colonel+ charles+ h. + olmstead& um=1& hl=en& sa=N& biw=1260& bih=617& tbm=isch& ei=O4vtTez4M9ScgQet-7CsBw) (about 1962). “Significance of the Siege” [112] Albert Burton Moore. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (1924) online edition (https:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=10517499) [113] Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007) [114] Eugene Murdock, One million men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971) [115] Mark Johnson, That body of brave men: the U.S. regular infantry and the Civil War in the West (2003) p 575 [116] "Desertion No Bar to Pension" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/ pdf?res=9C0CE0D91630E033A2575BC2A9639C94659ED7CF). New York Times. May 28, 1894. . Retrieved 2011-10-03. [117] Mark A. Weitz, More Damning than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army (2005)

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[118] Edward M. Coffman, The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784–1898 (1986) p 193 [119] Hamner, Christopher. " Great Expectations for the Civil War (http:/ / teachinghistory. org/ history-content/ ask-a-historian/ 24413)." Teachinghistory.org (http:/ / www. teachinghistory. org/ ). Retrieved 2011-07-11. [120] Ella Lonn, Desertion during the Civil War (1928) pp205-6 [121] Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American soldier, 1776–2006 (2006) p. 74 [122] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 339–345 [123] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 342. [124] Shelby Foote, The Civil War: Fort Sumter to Perryville, pp. 464–519 [125] Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, pp. 263–296. [126] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 424–427 [127] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 538–544 [128] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 528–533. [129] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 543–545. [130] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 557–558. [131] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 571–574. [132] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 639–645. [133] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 653–663. [134] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 664. [135] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 404–405. [136] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 418–420. [137] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 419–420. [138] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 480–483. [139] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 405–413. [140] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 637–638. [141] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 677–680. [142] "Civil War in Missouri Facts" (http:/ / home. usmo. com/ ~momollus/ MOFACTS. HTM). 1998. . Retrieved 2007-10-16. [143] Mark E. Neely Jr.; "Was the Civil War a Total War?" Civil War History, Vol. 50, 2004 pp 434+ [144] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 724–735. [145] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 741–742. [146] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 778–779. [147] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 773–776. [148] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 812–815. [149] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 825–830. [150] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 846–847. [151] William Marvel, Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox (2002) pp 158–81 [152] Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the Battle of Columbus, Georgia and the Battle of West Point. [153] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 495. [154] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 355, 494–6, quote from George Washington Julian on 495. [155] Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007), ch 6 [156] Baker, Kevin (March 2003). " Violent City (http:/ / americanheritage. com/ articles/ magazine/ ah/ 2003/ 1/ 2003_1_17. shtml)" American Heritage. Retrieved 7-29-2010. [157] Craig A. Warren, "'Oh, God, What a Pity!': The Irish Brigade at Fredericksburg and the Creation of Myth," Civil War History, Sept 2001, Vol. 47 Issue 3, pp 193–221 [158] Wittke, Carl (1952). Refugees of Revolution. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania press. [159] Christian B. Keller, "Flying Dutchmen and Drunken Irishmen: The Myths and Realities of Ethnic Civil War Soldiers", Journal of Military History, Vol/ 73, No. 1, January 2009, pp. 117-145; for primary sources see Walter D. Kamphoefner and Wolfgang Helbich, eds., Germans in the Civil War: The Letters They Wrote Home (2006). [160] Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861 [161] James McPherson in Gabor S. Boritt, ed. Lincoln, the War President pp. 52–54. [162] Stephen B. Oates, Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p. 106. [163] Images of America: Altoona, by Sr. Anne Francis Pulling, 2001, 10. [164] Letter to Greeley, August 22, 1862 [165] Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1865 – Here Lincoln states, "One-eighth of the whole population were colored slaves, not distributed generally over the Union, but localized in the southern part of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful interest. All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest was the object for which the insurgents would rend the Union even by war, while the Government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial enlargement of it." [166] Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864

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[167] James McPherson, The War that Never Goes Away [168] James McPherson, Drawn With the Sword, from the article Who Freed the Slaves? [169] Bruce Catton, Never Call Retreat, p. 335. [170] "Civil War Topics" (http:/ / www. dce. k12. wi. us/ historyday/ Topics/ CivilWar. htm). Dce.k12.wi.us. . Retrieved 2010-10-31. [171] " Blacks labored in Andersonville (http:/ / www. washingtontimes. com/ news/ 2009/ nov/ 12/ book-review-blacks-labored-in-andersonville/ )". Washington Times. November 12, 2009. [172] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 791–798. [173] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 831–837. [174] John D. Winters, The Civil War in Louisiana, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963, ISBN 978-0-8071-0834-5, p. 237 [175] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 557–558, 563. [176] Harper, Douglas (2003). "SLAVERY in DELAWARE" (http:/ / www. slavenorth. com/ delaware. htm). . Retrieved 2007-10-16. [177] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 840–842. [178] Lowell Hayes Harrison and James C. Klotter, A New History of Kentucky (1997) p 235, the number in late 1865. [179] U. S. Census of 1860. [180] Stephen B. Oates, Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, 1984, Harper & Row. [181] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 546–557. [182] George C. Herring, From colony to superpower: U.S. foreign relations since 1776 (2008) p 237 [183] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 386. [184] Allen Nevins, War for the Union 1862–1863, pp. 263–264. [185] Stephen B. Oates, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820–1861, p. 125. [186] George C. Herring, From colony to superpower: U.S. foreign relations since 1776 (2008) p 261 [187] Railroad length is from: Chauncey Depew (ed.), One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795–1895, p. 111; For other data see: 1860 US census (http:/ / www2. census. gov/ prod2/ decennial/ documents/ 1860c-01. pdf) and Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006. [188] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 855. [189] James McPherson, Why did the Confederacy Lose? [190] Ward 1990 p 272 [191] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 771–772. [192] Fehrenbacher, Don (2004). "Lincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days" (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ jala/ 9/ fehrenbacher. html). University of Illinois. . Retrieved 2007-10-16. [193] Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. p. 162. ISBN 978-1-4000-5363-6. [194] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 313–316, 392–393 [195] Heidler, David Stephen, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002), 1591–98 [196] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 432–344 [197] Heidler, David Stephen, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002), 598–603 [198] "Black Regiments" (http:/ / www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/ USACWcolored. htm). . Retrieved 2007-10-16. [199] Ira Berlin et al., eds. Freedom's Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War (1998) [200] Albert Bernhardt Faust, The German Element in the United States (1909) v. 1, p. 523 online (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4xgOAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA523) [201] Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. (1907) Jay Cooke: Financier Of The Civil War, Vol. 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8jHiEwVmB8MC) at Google Books, pp. 378–430 [202] Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. (1926) A History of the United States Since the Civil War 3:69–122 [203] Nofi, Al (2001-06-13). "Statistics on the War's Costs" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070711050249/ http:/ / www. cwc. lsu. edu/ other/ stats/ warcost. htm). Louisiana State University. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. cwc. lsu. edu/ other/ stats/ warcost. htm) on 2007-07-11. . Retrieved 2007-10-14. [204] "U.S. Civil War Took Bigger Toll Than Previously Estimated, New Analysis Suggests" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2011/ 09/ 110921120124. htm). Science Daily. September 22, 2011. . Retrieved 2011-09-22. [205] Hacker, J. David (September 20, 2011). "Recounting the Dead" (http:/ / opinionator. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2011/ 09/ 20/ recounting-the-dead/ ). The New York Times.com. . Retrieved 2011-09-22. [206] C. Vann Woodward, "Introduction" in James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. xix. [207] " Toward a social history of the American Civil War: exploratory essays (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gySktxKYPGoC& pg=PA7& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Maris Vinovskis (1990). Cambridge University Press. p.7. ISBN 978-0-521-39559-5 [208] Richard Wightman Fox (2008)." National Life After Death (http:/ / www. slate. com/ toolbar. aspx?action=read& id=2180856)". Slate.com. [209] " U.S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2003/ 07/ 0701_030701_civilwarprisons. html)". National Geographic News. July 1, 2003. [210] The Economist, " The Civil War: Finally Passing (http:/ / www. economist. com/ node/ 18486035?story_id=18486035)", 2 April 2011, pp. 23-25.

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[211] Joan Waugh and Gary W. Gallagher, eds. Wars within a War: Controversy and Conflict over the American Civil War (U. of North Carolina Press, 2009) [212] David W. Blight, Race and Reunion : The Civil War in American Memory (2001) [213] Gaines M. Foster, Ghosts of the Confederacy: Defeat, the Lost Cause and the Emergence of the New South, 1865–1913 (1988) [214] Braverman, Samantha (March 29, 2011). "150 Years Later Remembering the American Civil War" (http:/ / www. harrisinteractive. com/ NewsRoom/ HarrisPolls/ tabid/ 447/ mid/ 1508/ articleId/ 739/ ctl/ ReadCustom Default/ Default. aspx). Harris Interactive Polls. . Retrieved 2011-04-22. [215] "The Reel Civil War: Mythmaking in ... - Bruce Chadwick - Google Books" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=NfKF9RXLyr8C& pg=PT69& dq=brother+ vs+ brother+ civil+ war& hl=en& ei=Q94HTuOFPMfV0QHt4KnbCw& sa=X& oi=bookresult& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCkQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage& q& f=false). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2011-11-03. [216] "Civil War's 150th anniversary stirs debate on race" (http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ ap/ article/ ALeqM5g02LT3cnj71haIQ8NXfRM-jR69yQ?docId=17de1f3fa7fe4a6999feb41ff12de8a1). Associated Press. Charles, South Carolina. Dec 10, 2010. . Retrieved 2010-12-18. [217] Gary Gallagher, Causes Won, Lost, and Forgotten: How Hollywood and Popular Art Shape What We Know about the Civil War (U. of North Carolina Press, 2008)

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References
Overviews
• Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1986) influential analysis of factors; The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion (1988), abridged version • Catton, Bruce, The Civil War, American Heritage, 1960, ISBN 978-0-8281-0305-3, illustrated narrative • Davis, William C. The Imperiled Union, 1861–1865 3v (1983) • Donald, David et al. The Civil War and Reconstruction (latest edition 2001); 700 page survey • Eicher, David J., The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, (2001), ISBN 978-0-684-84944-7. • Fellman, Michael et al. This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath (2nd ed. 2007), 544 page survey • Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative (3 volumes), (1974), ISBN 978-0-394-74913-6. Highly detailed military narrative covering all fronts • Katcher, Philip. The History of the American Civil War 1861–5, (2000), ISBN 978-0-600-60778-6. Detailed analysis of each battle with introduction and background • McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988), 900 page survey of all aspects of the war; Pulitzer prize • McPherson, James M. Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (2nd ed 1992), textbook • Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947–1971). the most detailed political, economic and military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize winner • 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847–1852; 2. A House Dividing, 1852–1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857–1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859–1861; vol. 5–8 have the series title "War for the Union"; 5. The Improvised War, 1861–1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862–1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863–1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864–1865 • Rhodes, James Ford. A History of the Civil War, 1861–1865 (1918), Pulitzer Prize; a short version of his 5-volume history • Ward, Geoffrey C. The Civil War (1990), based on PBS series by Ken Burns; visual emphasis • Weigley, Russell Frank. A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861–1865 (2004); primarily military

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Biographies
• American National Biography 24 vol (1999), essays by scholars on all major figures; online and hardcover editions at many libraries (http://www.anb.org/aboutanb.html) • McHenry, Robert ed. Webster's American Military Biographies (1978) • Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders, (1964), ISBN 978-0-8071-0822-2 • Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders, (1959), ISBN 978-0-8071-0823-9 Soldiers • • • • • Berlin, Ira, et al., eds. Freedom's Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War (1998) Glatthaar, Joseph T. General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse (2009) Hess, Earl J. The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (1997) McPherson, James. For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (1998) Power, J. Tracy. Lee's Miserables: Life in the Army of Northern Virginia from the Wilderness to Appomattox (2002) • Wiley, Bell Irvin. The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy (1962) (ISBN 978-0-8071-0475-0) • Wiley, Bell Irvin. Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union (1952) (ISBN 978-0-8071-0476-7)

Reference books and bibliographies
• Blair, Jayne E. The Essential Civil War: A Handbook to the Battles, Armies, Navies And Commanders (2006) • Carter, Alice E. and Richard Jensen. The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites- 2nd ed. (2003) • Current, Richard N., et al. eds. Encyclopedia of the Confederacy (1993) (4 Volume set; also 1 vol abridged version) (ISBN 978-0-13-275991-5) • Faust, Patricia L. (ed.) Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War (1986) (ISBN 978-0-06-181261-3) 2000 short entries • Esposito, Vincent J., West Point Atlas of American Wars online edition 1995 • Heidler, David Stephen, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002), 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1-vol editions • North & South - The Official Magazine of the Civil War Society deals with book reviews, battles, discussion & analysis, and other issues of the American Civil War. • Resch, John P. et al., Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 2: 1816–1900 (2005) • Savage, Kirk, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War, and Monument in Nineteenth-Century America (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36470304). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. (The definitive book on Civil War monuments.) • Tulloch, Hugh. The Debate on the American Civil War Era (1999), historiography • Wagner, Margaret E. Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman, eds. The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference (2002) • Woodworth, Steven E. ed. American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research (1996) (ISBN 978-0-313-29019-0), 750 pages of historiography and bibliography online edition (http://www.questia.com/ read/14877569?title=The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research)

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Primary sources
• Commager, Henry Steele (ed.). The Blue and the Gray. The Story of the Civil War as Told by Participants. (1950), excerpts from primary sources • Hesseltine, William B. ed.; The Tragic Conflict: The Civil War and Reconstruction (1962), excerpts from primary sources • Simpson, Brooks D. et al. eds. The Civil War: The First Year Told by Those Who Lived It (Library of America 2011) 840pp, with 120 documents from 1861 online reviews (http://www.amazon.com/ Civil-War-First-Library-America/dp/1598530887/)

External links
• American Civil War (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/History/By_Region/North_America/United_States/ Wars/Civil_War//) at the Open Directory Project • Civil War photos (http://www.archives.gov/research/civil-war/photos/index.html) at the National Archives • View images (http://www.loc.gov/pictures/search?st=grid&c=100&co=cwp) from the Civil War Photographs Collection (http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/cwp/) at the Library of Congress • Civil War Trust (http://www.civilwar.org/) • Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College (http://www.gettysburg.edu/library/gettdigital/ civil_war/civilwar.htm) This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets, maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College. • Civil War 150 (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/artsandliving/civilwar/) Washington Post interactive website on 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War. • Civil War in the American South (http://www.american-south.org/) – An Association of Southeastern Research Libraries (ASERL) portal with links to almost 9,000 digitized Civil War-era items--books, pamphlets, broadsides, letters, maps, personal papers, and manuscripts--held at ASERL member libraries • The Civil War (http://www.sonofthesouth.net/) – site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's Weekly newspapers from the Civil War

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Battle of Gettysburg
[1] The Battle of Gettysburg (locally English pronunciation: /ˈɡɛtɨsbɜrɡ/ ( listen), with an ss sound), was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle with the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War,[2] it is often described as the war's turning point.[3] Union Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lee's invasion of the North.

After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign. With his army in high spirits, Lee intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged northern Virginia and hoped to influence Northern politicians to give up their prosecution of the war by penetrating as far as Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, or even Philadelphia. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade. Elements of the two armies initially collided at Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army and destroy it. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. However, two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, sending the defenders retreating through the streets of town to the hills just to the south. On the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union right, demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. All across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines. On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south, but the main event was a dramatic infantry assault by 12,500 Confederates against the center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge, known as Pickett's Charge. The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great losses to the Confederate army. Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle. That November, President Lincoln used the dedication ceremony for the Gettysburg National Cemetery to honor the fallen Union soldiers and redefine the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.

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Background and movement to battle
Further information: Gettysburg Campaign, Gettysburg Battlefield, Confederate order of battle, and Union order of battle Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a major victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville (April 30 – May 6, 1863), Robert E. Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North (the first was the unsuccessful Maryland Campaign of September 1862, which ended in the bloody Battle of Antietam). Such a move would upset Federal plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly reduce the pressure on the besieged Confederate garrison at Vicksburg. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest. In addition, Lee's 72,000-man army[] could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North.[4] Thus, on June 3, Lee's army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, Virginia. To attain more efficiency in his command, Lee had reorganized his Gettysburg Campaign (through July 3); cavalry movements shown two large corps into three new corps. Lt. Gen. James with dashed lines.   Confederate  Union Longstreet retained command of his First Corps. The old corps of deceased Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson was divided in two, with the Second Corps going to Lt. Gen. Richard S. Ewell and the new Third Corps to Lt. Gen. A.P. Hill. The Cavalry Division was commanded by Maj. Gen. J.E.B. Stuart.[5] The Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of about 94,000 men.[] However, President Lincoln replaced Hooker with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, a Pennsylvanian, because of Hooker's defeat at Chancellorsville and his timid response to Lee's second invasion north of the Potomac River. The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia. The 9,500 Confederate cavalrymen under Stuart were surprised by Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton's combined arms force of two cavalry divisions (8,000 troopers) and 3,000 infantry, but Stuart eventually repulsed the Union attack. The inconclusive battle, the largest predominantly cavalry engagement of the war, proved for the first time that the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart.[6] By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the Potomac River and enter Maryland. After defeating the Federal garrisons at Winchester and Martinsburg, Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on June 15. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on June 24 and June 25. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between the U.S. capital and Lee's army. The Federals crossed the Potomac from June 25 to June 27.[7]

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393 Lee gave strict orders for his army to minimize any negative impacts on the civilian population.[8] Food, horses, and other supplies were generally not seized outright, although quartermasters reimbursing Northern farmers and merchants with Confederate money were not well received. Various towns, most notably York, Pennsylvania, were required to pay indemnities in lieu of supplies, under threat of destruction. During the invasion, the Confederates seized some 40 northern African Americans, a few of whom were escaped fugitive slaves but most were freemen. They were sent south into slavery under guard.[9] On June 26, elements of Maj. Gen. Jubal Early's division of Ewell's Corps occupied the town of Gettysburg after chasing off newly raised Pennsylvania militia in a series of minor skirmishes. Early laid the borough under tribute but did not collect any significant supplies. Soldiers burned several railroad cars and a covered bridge, and destroyed nearby rails and telegraph lines. The following morning, Early departed for adjacent York County.[10]

Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed Jeb Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the east flank of the Union army. Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals share the blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By June 29, Lee's army was strung out in an arc from Chambersburg (28 miles (45 km) northwest of Gettysburg) to Carlisle (30 miles (48 km) north of Gettysburg) to near Harrisburg and Wrightsville on the Susquehanna River.[11] In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the Harpers Ferry garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and Abraham Lincoln and General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck, who were looking for an excuse to get rid of him, immediately accepted. They replaced Hooker early on the morning of June 28 with Maj. Gen. George Gordon Meade, then commander of the V Corps.[12] On June 29, when Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed the Potomac River, he ordered a concentration of his forces around Cashtown, located at the eastern base of South Mountain and eight miles (13 km) west of Gettysburg.[13] On June 30, while part of Hill's Corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades, North Carolinians under Brig. Gen. J. Johnston Pettigrew, ventured toward Gettysburg. In his memoirs, Maj. Gen. Henry Heth, Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that he sent Pettigrew to search for supplies in town—especially shoes.[14] When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on June 30, they noticed Union cavalry under Brig. Gen. John Buford arriving south of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Heth what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Federal force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite General Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant reconnaissance in force the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, July 1, two brigades of Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg.[15]

This 1863 oval-shaped map depicts Gettysburg Battlefield during July 1–3, 1863, showing troop and artillery positions and movements, relief hachures, drainage, roads, railroads, and houses with the names of residents at the time of the Battle of Gettysburg.

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First day of battle
Further information: Battle of Gettysburg, First Day Anticipating that the Confederates would march on Gettysburg from the west on the morning of July 1, Buford laid out his defenses on three ridges west of the town: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge, and Seminary Ridge. These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small cavalry division against superior Confederate infantry forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of Union infantrymen who could occupy the strong defensive positions south of town at Cemetery Hill, Cemetery Ridge, and Culp's Hill. Buford understood that if the Confederates could gain control of these heights, Meade's army would have difficulty dislodging them.[16]

Overview map of the first day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863

Heth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by Brig. Gens. James J. Archer and Joseph R. Davis. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three miles (5 km) west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, the two brigades met light resistance from vedettes of Union cavalry, and deployed into line. According to lore, the Union soldier to fire the first shot of the battle was Lt. Marcellus Jones.[17] In 1886 Lt. Jones returned to Gettysburg to mark the spot where he fired the first shot with a monument.[18] Eventually, Heth's men reached dismounted troopers of Col. First shot monument William Gamble's cavalry brigade, who raised determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with fire from their breechloading carbines.[19] Still, by 10:20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the I Corps (Maj. Gen. John F. Reynolds) finally arrived.[20] North of the pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brig. Gen. Lysander Cutler's brigade but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also known as McPherson's) Woods. The Federal Iron Brigade under Brig. Gen. Solomon Meredith enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.[21] General Reynolds was shot and killed early in the fighting while directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods. Shelby Foote wrote that the Union cause lost a man considered by many to be "the best general in

Battle of Gettysburg the army."[22] Maj. Gen. Abner Doubleday assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 p.m. It resumed around 2:30 p.m., when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. John M. Brockenbrough.[23] As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line, they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with 839 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they had about 152 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any regiment, North or South.[24] Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added Maj. Gen. William Dorsey Pender's division to the assault, and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.[25] As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union XI Corps (Maj. Gen. Oliver O. Howard) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the Federal line ran in a semicircle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.[26] However, the Federals did not have enough troops; Cutler, who was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line.[27] Around 2 p.m., the Confederate Second Corps divisions of Maj. Gens. Robert E. Rodes and Jubal Early assaulted and out-flanked the Union I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town. The Confederate brigades of Col. Edward A. O'Neal and Brig. Gen. Alfred Iverson suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig. Gen. John C. Robinson south of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder by Brig. Gen. Francis C. Barlow, when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient[28] in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran Barlow's division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.[29] As Federal positions collapsed both north and west of town, Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town at Cemetery Hill, where he had left the division of Brig. Gen. Adolph von Steinwehr in reserve.[30] Maj. Gen. Winfield S. Hancock assumed command of the battlefield, sent by Meade when he heard that Reynolds had been killed. Hancock, commander of the II Corps and Meade's most trusted subordinate, was ordered to take command of the field and to determine whether Gettysburg was an appropriate place for a major battle.[31] Hancock told Howard, "I think this the strongest position by nature upon which to fight a battle that I ever saw." When Howard agreed, Hancock concluded the discussion: "Very well, sir, I select this as the battle-field." Hancock's determination had a morale-boosting effect on the retreating Union soldiers, but he played no direct tactical role on the first day.[32] General Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken "if practicable." Ewell, who had previously served under Stonewall Jackson, a general well known for issuing peremptory orders, determined such an assault was not practicable and, thus, did not attempt it; this decision is considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.[33] The first day at Gettysburg, more significant than simply a prelude to the bloody second and third days, ranks as the 23rd biggest battle of the war by number of troops engaged. About one quarter of Meade's army (22,000 men) and one third of Lee's army (27,000) were engaged.[34]

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396

Second day of battle
Further information: Second Day, Little Round Top, Culp's Hill, and Cemetery Hill

Plans and movement to battle
Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of July 2, most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union II, III, V, VI, and XII Corps. Longstreet's third division, commanded by Maj. Gen. George Pickett, had begun the march from Chambersburg early in the morning; it did not arrive until late on July 2.[35] The Union line ran from Culp's Hill southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of Little Round Top. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill; the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill; II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge; and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. The shape of the Union line is popularly described as a "fishhook" formation. The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile (1,600 m) to Robert E. Lee's plan for July 2, 1863 the west on Seminary Ridge, ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Federal army had interior lines, while the Confederate line was nearly five miles (8 km) long.[36] Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for Longstreet's First Corps to position itself stealthily to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the Federal line. The attack sequence was to begin with Maj. Gens. John Bell Hood's and Lafayette McLaws's divisions, followed by Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson's division of Hill's Third Corps. The progressive en echelon sequence of this attack would prevent Meade from shifting troops from his center to bolster his left. At the same time, Maj. Gen. Edward "Allegheny" Johnson's and Jubal Early's Second Corps divisions were to make a demonstration against Culp's and Cemetery Hills (again, to prevent the shifting of Federal troops), and to turn the demonstration into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself.[37] Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Instead of moving beyond the Federals' left and attacking their flank, Longstreet's left division, under McLaws, would face Maj. Gen. Daniel Sickles's III Corps directly in their path. Sickles had been dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge. Seeing higher ground more favorable to artillery positions a half mile (800 m) to the west, he advanced his corps—without orders—to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brig. Gen. Andrew A. Humphreys's division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Maj. Gen. David B. Birney's division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively.[38]

Battle of Gettysburg Longstreet's attack was to be made as early as practicable; however, Longstreet got permission from Lee to await the arrival of one of his brigades, and while marching to the assigned position, his men came within sight of a Union signal station on Little Round Top. Countermarching to avoid detection wasted much time, and Hood's and McLaws's divisions did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m., respectively.[39]

397

Attacks on the Union left flank
As Longstreet's divisions slammed into the Union III Corps, Meade was forced to send 20,000 reinforcements[40] in the form of the entire V Corps, Brig. Gen. John C. Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and small portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. The Confederate assault deviated from Lee's plan since Hood's division moved more easterly than intended, losing its alignment with the Emmitsburg Road,[41] attacking Devil's Den and Little Round Top. McLaws, coming in on Hood's left, drove multiple attacks into the thinly stretched III Corps in the Wheatfield and overwhelmed them in Sherfy's Peach Orchard. McLaws's attack eventually reached Plum Run Valley (the "Valley of Death") before being beaten back by the Pennsylvania Reserves division of the V Corps, moving down from Little Round Top. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle, and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was destroyed piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division, coming from McLaws's left and starting forward around 6 p.m., reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but it could not hold the position in the face of Overview map of the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 2, counterattacks from the II Corps, including an almost 1863 suicidal bayonet charge by the small 1st Minnesota regiment against a Confederate brigade, ordered in desperation by Hancock to buy time for reinforcements to arrive.[42] As fighting raged in the Wheatfield and Devil's Den, Col. Strong Vincent of V Corps had a precarious hold on Little Round Top, an important hill at the extreme left of the Union line. His brigade of four relatively small regiments was able to resist repeated assaults by Brig. Gen. Evander M. Law's brigade of Hood's division. Meade's chief engineer, Brig. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren, had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, an artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the 20th Maine was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War and propelled Col. Joshua L. Chamberlain into prominence after the war.[43]

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Attacks on the Union right flank
About 7:00 p.m., the Second Corps' attack by Johnson's division on Culp's Hill got off to a late start. Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, and the only portion of the corps remaining on the hill was a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. George S. Greene. Because of Greene's insistence on constructing strong defensive works, and with reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, although the Southerners did capture a portion of the abandoned Federal works on the lower part of Culp's Hill.[44]

Union breastworks on Culp's Hill

Just at dark, two of Jubal Early's brigades attacked the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill where Col. Andrew L. Harris of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, came under a withering attack, losing half his men; however, Early failed to support his brigades in their attack, and Ewell's remaining division, that of Maj. Gen. Robert E. Rodes, failed to aid Early's attack by moving against Cemetery Hill from the west. The Union army's interior lines enabled its commanders to shift troops quickly to critical areas, and with reinforcements from II Corps, the Federal troops retained possession of East Cemetery Hill, and Early's brigades were forced to withdraw.[45] Jeb Stuart and his three cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg around noon but had no role in the second day's battle. Brig. Gen. Wade Hampton's brigade fought a minor engagement with newly promoted 23-year-old Brig. Gen. George Armstrong Custer's Michigan cavalry near Hunterstown to the northeast of Gettysburg.[46]

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Third day of battle
Further information: Culp's Hill, Pickett's Charge, and Third Day cavalry battles General Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, July 3, using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Federal left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill.[47] However, before Longstreet was ready, Union XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked, and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11 a.m., after some seven hours of bitter combat.[48] Lee was forced to change his plans. Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Federal II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Federal positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line.[49]

Overview map of the third day of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 3, 1863

Around 1 p.m., from 150 to 170 Confederate guns[50] began an artillery bombardment that was probably the largest of the war. In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew would follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery, under the command of Brig. Gen. Henry Jackson Hunt, at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, about 80 Federal cannons added to the din. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union The "High Water Mark" on Cemetery Ridge as it position. Around 3 p.m., the cannon fire subsided, and 12,500 Southern appears today. The monument to the 72nd soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment a mile (1,200 m) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as ("Baxter's Philadelphia Fire Zouaves") appears at right, the Copse of Trees to the left. "Pickett's Charge". As the Confederates approached, there was fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top, and musket and canister fire from Hancock's II Corps. In the Union center, the commander of artillery had held fire during the Confederate bombardment, leading Southern commanders to believe the Northern cannon batteries had been knocked out. However, they opened fire on the Confederate infantry during their approach with devastating results. Nearly one half of the attackers did not return to their own lines. Although the Federal line

Battle of Gettysburg wavered and broke temporarily at a jog called the "Angle" in a low stone fence, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach, and the Confederate attack was repulsed. The farthest advance of Brig. Gen. Lewis A. Armistead's brigade of Maj. Gen. George Pickett's division at the Angle is referred to as the "High-water mark of the Confederacy", arguably representing the closest the South ever came to its goal of achieving independence from the Union via military victory.[51] There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Federal right and hitting their trains and lines of communications. Three miles (5 km) east of Gettysburg, in what is now called "East Cavalry Field" (not shown on the accompanying map, but between the York and Hanover Roads), Stuart's forces collided with Federal cavalry: Brig. Gen. David McMurtrie Gregg's division and Brig. Gen. Custer's brigade. A lengthy mounted battle, including hand-to-hand sabre combat, ensued. Custer's charge, leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry, blunted the attack by Wade Hampton's brigade, blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the Federal rear. Meanwhile, after hearing news of the day's victory, Brig. Gen. Judson Kilpatrick launched a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest of Big Round Top. Brig. Gen. Elon J. Farnsworth protested against the futility of such a move but obeyed orders. Farnsworth was killed in the attack, and his brigade suffered significant losses.[52]

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Aftermath
Casualties
The two armies suffered between 46,000 and 51,000 casualties. Union casualties were 23,055 (3,155 killed, 14,531 wounded, 5,369 captured or missing),[] while Confederate casualties are more difficult to estimate. Many authors have referred to as many as 28,000 Confederate casualties,[53] but Busey and Martin's more recent definitive 2005 work, Regimental Strengths and Losses, documents 23,231 (4,708 killed, 12,693 wounded, 5,830 captured or missing).[] Nearly a third of Lee's general officers were killed, wounded, or captured.[54] The casualties for both sides during the entire campaign were 57,225.[55] The following tables summarize casualties by corps for the Union and Confederate forces during the three day battle.[56]

"The Harvest of Death": Union dead on the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, photographed July 5 or July 6, 1863, by Timothy H. O'Sullivan.

Union Corps I Corps II Corps III Corps V Corps VI Corps XI Corps XII Corps Cavalry Corps

Casualties (k/w/m) 6059 (666/3231/2162) 4369 (797/3194/378) 4211 (593/3029/589) 2187 (365/1611/211) 242 (27/185/30) 3807 (369/1924/1514) 1082 (204/812/66) 852 (91/354/407)

Artillery Reserve 242 (43/187/12)

Battle of Gettysburg

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Confederate Corps First Corps Second Corps Third Corps Cavalry Corps

Casualties (k/w/m) 7665 (1617/4205/1843) 6686 (1301/3629/1756) 8495 (1724/4683/2088) 380 (66/174/140)

Bruce Catton wrote, "The town of Gettysburg looked as if some universal moving day had been interrupted by catastrophe."[57] But there was only one documented civilian death during the battle: Ginnie Wade (also widely known as Jennie), 20 years old, was hit by a stray bullet that passed through her kitchen in town while she was making bread.[58] Nearly 8,000 had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. Over 3,000 horse carcasses[59] were burned in a series of piles south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench.[60]

Confederate retreat
Further information: Retreat from Gettysburg The armies stared at one another in a heavy rain across the bloody fields on July 4, the same day that the Vicksburg garrison surrendered to Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Lee had reformed his lines into a defensive position on Seminary Ridge the night of July 3, evacuating the town of Gettysburg. The Confederates remained on the battlefield, hoping that Meade would attack, but the cautious Union commander decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized. Both armies began to collect their remaining wounded and bury some of the dead. A proposal by Lee for a prisoner exchange was rejected by Meade.[61]

Gettysburg Campaign (July 5 – July 14, 1863).

Lee started his Army of Northern Virginia in motion late the evening of July 4 towards Fairfield and Chambersburg. Cavalry under Brig. Gen. John D. Imboden was entrusted to escort the miles-long wagon train of supplies and wounded men that Lee wanted to take back to Virginia with him, using the route through Cashtown and Hagerstown to Williamsport, Maryland. Meade's army followed, although the pursuit was half-spirited. The recently rain-swollen Potomac trapped Lee's army on the north bank of the river for a time, but when the Federals finally caught up, the Confederates had forded the river. The rear-guard action at Falling Waters on July 14 added some more names to the long casualty lists, including General Pettigrew, who was mortally wounded.[62] In a brief letter to Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck written on July 7, Lincoln remarked on the two major Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg. He continued: Now, if Gen. Meade can complete his work so gloriously prosecuted thus far, by the literal or substantial destruction of Lee's army, the rebellion will be over.[63]

Battle of Gettysburg Halleck then relayed the contents of Lincoln's letter to Meade in a telegram. Despite repeated pleas from Lincoln and Halleck, which continued over the next week, Meade did not pursue Lee's army aggressively enough to destroy it before it crossed back over the Potomac River to safety in the South. The campaign continued into Virginia with light engagements until July 23, in the minor Battle of Manassas Gap, after which Meade abandoned any attempts at pursuit and the two armies took up positions across from each other on the Rappahannock River.[64]

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Union reaction to the news of the victory
The news of the Union victory electrified the North. A headline in The Philadelphia Inquirer proclaimed "VICTORY! WATERLOO ECLIPSED!" New York diarist George Templeton Strong wrote:[65] The results of this victory are priceless. ... The charm of Robert E. Lee's invincibility is broken. The Army of the Potomac has at last found a general that can handle it, and has stood nobly up to its terrible work in spite of its long disheartening list of hard-fought failures. ... Copperheads are palsied and dumb for the moment at least. ... Government is strengthened four-fold at home and abroad. — George Templeton Strong, Diary, p. 330. However, the Union enthusiasm soon dissipated as the public realized that Lee's army had escaped destruction and the war would continue. Lincoln complained to Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles that "Our army held the war in the hollow of their hand and they would not close it!"[66] Brig. Gen. Alexander S. Webb wrote to his father on July 17, stating that such Washington politicians as "Chase, Seward and others," disgusted with Meade, "write to me that Lee really won that Battle!"[67]

Effect on the Confederacy
The Confederates had lost politically as well as militarily. During the final hours of the battle, Confederate Vice President Alexander Stephens was approaching the Union lines at Norfolk, Virginia, under a flag of truce. Although his formal instructions from Confederate President Jefferson Davis had limited his powers to negotiations on prisoner exchanges and other procedural matters, historian James M. McPherson speculates that he had informal goals of presenting peace overtures. Davis had hoped that Stephens would reach Washington from the south while Lee's victorious army was marching toward it from the north. President Lincoln, upon hearing of the Gettysburg results, refused Stephens's request to pass through the lines. Furthermore, when the news reached London, any lingering hopes of European recognition of the Confederacy were finally abandoned. Henry Adams wrote, "The disasters of the rebels are unredeemed by even any hope of success. It is now conceded that all idea of intervention is at an end."[68] The immediate reaction of the Southern military and public sectors was that Gettysburg was a setback, not a disaster. The sentiment was that Lee had been successful on July 1 and had fought a valiant battle on July 2–3, but could not dislodge the Union Army from the strong defensive position to which it fled. The Confederates successfully stood their ground on July 4 and withdrew only after they realized Meade would not attack them. The withdrawal to the Potomac that could have been a disaster was handled masterfully. Furthermore, the Army of the Potomac had been kept away from Virginia farmlands for the summer and all predicted that Meade would be too timid to threaten them for the rest of the year. Lee himself had a positive view of the campaign, writing to his wife that the army had returned "rather sooner than I had originally contemplated, but having accomplished what I proposed on leaving the Rappahannock, viz., relieving the Valley of the presence of the enemy and drawing his Army north of the Potomac." He was quoted as saying to Maj. John Seddon, brother of the Confederate secretary of war, "Sir, we did whip them at Gettysburg, and it will be seen for the next six months that that army will be as quiet as a sucking dove." Some Southern publications, such as the Charleston Mercury, criticized Lee's actions in the campaign and on August 8 he offered his resignation to President Davis, who quickly rejected it.[69] Gettysburg became a postbellum focus of the "Lost Cause", a movement by writers such as Edward A. Pollard and Jubal Early to explain the reasons for the Confederate defeat in the war. A fundamental premise of their argument

Battle of Gettysburg was that the South was doomed because of the overwhelming advantage in manpower and industrial might possessed by the North. However, they claim it also suffered because Robert E. Lee, who up until this time had been almost invincible, was betrayed by the failures of some of his key subordinates at Gettysburg: Ewell, for failing to seize Cemetery Hill on July 1; Stuart, for depriving the army of cavalry intelligence for a key part of the campaign; and especially Longstreet, for failing to attack on July 2 as early and as forcefully as Lee had originally intended. In this view, Gettysburg was seen as a great lost opportunity, in which a decisive victory by Lee could have meant the end of the war in the Confederacy's favor.[70]

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Gettysburg Address
The ravages of war were still evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on November 19, the Soldiers' National Cemetery was dedicated. During this ceremony, President Abraham Lincoln honored the fallen and redefined the purpose of the war in his historic Gettysburg Address.[71] Today, the Gettysburg National Cemetery and Gettysburg National Military Park are maintained by the U.S. National Park Service as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks.

Gettysburg National Cemetery

Historical assessment
Decisive victory?
The nature of the result of the Battle of Gettysburg has been the subject of controversy for years. Although not seen as overwhelmingly significant at the time, particularly since the war continued for almost two years, in retrospect it has often been cited as the "turning point", usually in combination with the fall of Vicksburg the following day.[3] This is based on the hindsight that, after Gettysburg, Lee's army conducted no more strategic offensives—his army merely reacted to the initiative of Ulysses S. Grant in 1864 and 1865—and by the speculative viewpoint of the Lost Cause writers that a Confederate victory at Gettysburg might have resulted in the end of the war.[72]
[The Army of the Potomac] had won a victory. It might be less of a victory than Mr. Lincoln had hoped for, but it was nevertheless a victory—and, because of that, it was no longer possible for the Confederacy to win the war. The North might still lose it, to be sure, if the soldiers or the people should lose heart, but outright defeat was no longer in the cards. Bruce Catton, Glory Road
[73]

It is currently a widely held view that Gettysburg was a decisive victory for the Union, but the term is imprecise. It is inarguable that Lee's offensive on July 3 was turned back decisively and his campaign in Pennsylvania was terminated prematurely (although the Confederates at the time argued that this was a temporary setback and that the goals of the campaign were largely met). However, when the more common definition of "decisive victory" is intended—an indisputable military victory of a battle that determines or significantly influences the ultimate result of a conflict—historians are divided. For example, David J. Eicher called Gettysburg a "strategic loss for the Confederacy" and James M. McPherson wrote that "Lee and his men would go on to earn further laurels. But they never again possessed the power and reputation they carried into Pennsylvania those palmy summer days of 1863." However, Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones wrote that the "strategic impact of the Battle of Gettysburg was ... fairly limited." Steven E. Woodworth wrote that "Gettysburg proved only the near impossibility of decisive action in the Eastern theater." Edwin Coddington pointed out the heavy toll on the Army of the Potomac and that "after the battle Meade no longer possessed a truly effective instrument for the accomplishments of his task. The army needed a thorough reorganization with new commanders and fresh troops, but these changes were not made until Grant

Battle of Gettysburg appeared on the scene in March 1864." Joseph T. Glatthaar wrote that "Lost opportunities and near successes plagued the Army of Northern Virginia during its Northern invasion," yet after Gettysburg, "without the distractions of duty as an invading force, without the breakdown of discipline, the Army of Northern Virginia [remained] an extremely formidable force." Ed Bearss wrote, "Lee's invasion of the North had been a costly failure. Nevertheless, at best the Army of the Potomac had simply preserved the strategic stalemate in the Eastern Theater ..." Peter Carmichael refers to the "horrendous losses at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg, which effectively destroyed Lee's offensive capacity," implying that these cumulative losses were not the result of a single battle. Thomas Goss, writing in the U.S. Army's Military Review journal on the definition of "decisive" and the application of that description to Gettysburg, concludes: "For all that was decided and accomplished, the Battle of Gettysburg fails to earn the label 'decisive battle'."[74]

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Lee vs. Meade
Prior to Gettysburg, Robert E. Lee had established a reputation as an almost invincible general, achieving stunning victories against superior numbers—although usually at the cost of high casualties to his army—during the Seven Days, the Northern Virginia Campaign (including the Second Battle of Bull Run), Fredericksburg, and Chancellorsville. Only the Maryland Campaign, with its tactically inconclusive Battle of Antietam, had been less than successful. Therefore, historians have attempted to explain how Lee's winning streak was interrupted so dramatically at Gettysburg. Although the issue is tainted by attempts to portray history and Lee's reputation in a manner supporting different partisan goals, the major factors in Lee's loss arguably can be attributed to: (1) Lee's overconfidence in the invincibility of his men; (2) the performance of his subordinates, and his management thereof; (3) health issues, and; (4) the performance of his opponent, George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac.

George G. Meade

Throughout the campaign, Lee was influenced by the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the Army of Northern Virginia had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Union troops at Gettysburg on July 1. Since morale plays an important role in military victory when other factors are equal, Lee did not want to dampen his army's desire to fight and resisted suggestions, principally by Longstreet, to withdraw from the recently captured Gettysburg to select a ground more favorable to his army. War correspondent Peter W. Alexander wrote that Lee "acted, probably, under the impression that his troops were able to carry any position however formidable. If such was the case, he committed an error, such however as the ablest commanders will sometimes fall into." Lee himself concurred with this judgment, writing to President Davis, "No blame can be Robert E. Lee attached to the army for its failure to accomplish what was projected by me, nor should it be censured for the unreasonable expectations of the public—I am alone to blame, in perhaps expecting too much of its prowess and valor."[75] The most controversial assessments of the battle involve the performance of Lee's subordinates. The dominant theme of the Lost Cause writers and many other historians is that Lee's senior generals failed him in crucial ways, directly causing the loss of the battle; the alternative viewpoint is that Lee did not manage his subordinates adequately, and did not thereby compensate for their shortcomings.[76] Two of his corps commanders—Richard S. Ewell and A.P.

Battle of Gettysburg Hill—had only recently been promoted and were not fully accustomed to Lee's style of command, in which he provided only general objectives and guidance to their former commander, Stonewall Jackson; Jackson translated these into detailed, specific orders to his division commanders.[77] All four of Lee's principal commanders received criticism during the campaign and battle:[78] • James Longstreet suffered most severely from the wrath of the Lost Cause authors, not the least because he directly criticized Lee in postbellum writings and became a Republican after the war. His critics accuse him of attacking much later than Lee intended on July 2, squandering a chance to hit the Union Army before its defensive positions had firmed up. They also question his lack of motivation to attack strongly on July 2 and July 3 because he had argued that the army should have maneuvered to a place where it would force Meade to attack them. The alternative view is that Lee was in close contact with Longstreet during the battle, agreed to delays on the morning of July 2, and never criticized Longstreet's performance. (There is also considerable speculation about what an attack might have looked like before Dan Sickles moved the III Corps toward the Peach Orchard.)[79] • J.E.B. Stuart deprived Lee of cavalry intelligence during a good part of the campaign by taking his three best brigades on a path away from the army's. This arguably led to Lee's surprise at Hooker's vigorous pursuit; the meeting engagement on July 1 that escalated into the full battle prematurely; and it also prevented Lee from understanding the full disposition of the enemy on July 2. The disagreements regarding Stuart's culpability for the situation center around the relatively vague orders issued by Lee, but most modern historians agree that both generals were responsible to some extent for the failure of the cavalry's mission early in the campaign.[80] • Richard S. Ewell has been universally criticized for failing to seize the high ground on the afternoon of July 1. Once again the disagreement centers on Lee's orders, which provided general guidance for Ewell to act "if practicable." Many historians speculate that Stonewall Jackson, if he had survived Chancellorsville, would have aggressively seized Culp's Hill, rendering Cemetery Hill indefensible, and changing the entire complexion of the battle. A differently worded order from Lee might have made the difference with this subordinate.[81] • A.P. Hill has received some criticism for his ineffective performance. His actions caused the battle to begin and then escalate on July 1, despite Lee's orders not to bring on a general engagement (although historians point out that Hill kept Lee well informed of his actions during the day). However, illness minimized his personal involvement in the remainder of the battle, and Lee took the explicit step of removing troops from Hill's corps and giving them to Longstreet for Pickett's Charge.[82] In addition to Hill's illness, Lee's performance was affected by his own illness, which has been speculated as chest pains due to angina. He wrote to Jefferson Davis that his physical condition prevented him from offering full supervision in the field, and said, "I am so dull that in making use of the eyes of others I am frequently misled."[83] As a final factor, Lee faced a new and formidable opponent in George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac fought well on its home territory. Although new to his army command, Meade deployed his forces relatively effectively; relied on strong subordinates such as Winfield S. Hancock to make decisions where and when they were needed; took great advantage of defensive positions; nimbly Winfield S. Hancock shifted defensive resources on interior lines to parry strong threats; and, unlike some of his predecessors, stood his ground throughout the battle in the face of fierce Confederate attacks. Lee was quoted before the battle as saying Meade "would commit no blunders on my front and if I make one ... will make haste to take advantage of it." That prediction proved to be correct at Gettysburg. Stephen Sears wrote, "The fact of the matter is that George G. Meade, unexpectedly and against all odds, thoroughly outgeneraled Robert E. Lee at Gettysburg." Edwin B. Coddington wrote that the soldiers of the Army of the Potomac received a "sense of triumph

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Battle of Gettysburg which grew into an imperishable faith in [themselves]. The men knew what they could do under an extremely competent general; one of lesser ability and courage could well have lost the battle."[84] Meade had his own detractors as well. Similar to the situation with Lee, Meade suffered partisan attacks about his performance at Gettysburg, but he had the misfortune of experiencing them in person. Supporters of his predecessor, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, lambasted Meade before the U.S. Congress's Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, where Radical Republicans suspected that Meade was a Copperhead and tried in vain to relieve him from command. Daniel E. Sickles and Daniel Butterfield accused Meade of planning to retreat from Gettysburg during the battle. Most politicians, including Lincoln, criticized Meade for what they considered to be his tepid pursuit of Lee after the battle. A number of Meade's most competent subordinates—Winfield S. Hancock, John Gibbon, Gouverneur K. Warren, and Henry J. Hunt, all heroes of the battle—defended Meade in print, but Meade was embittered by the overall experience.[85]

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Commemoration in U.S. postage and coinage
A commemorative half dollar for the battle was produced in 1936. As was typical for the period, mintage was very low, just 26,928. During the Civil War Centennial, the U.S. Post Office issued five postage stamps commemorating the 100th anniversaries of famous battles, as they occurred over a four-year period, beginning with the Battle of Fort Sumter Centennial issue of 1961. The Battle of Shiloh commemorative stamp was issued in 1962, the Battle of Gettysburg in 1963, the Battle of the Wilderness in 1964, and the Appomattox Centennial commemorative stamp in 1965.[86] On January 24, 2011, the America the Beautiful quarters program will introduce a 25-cent coin commemorating Gettysburg National Military Park and the Battle of Gettysburg. The reverse side of the coin depicts the monument on Cemetery Ridge to the 72nd Pennsylvania Infantry.[87]

Gettysburg Centennial Commemorative issue of 1963

In popular media
The Battle of Gettysburg was depicted in the 1993 film, Gettysburg, based on Michael Shaara's 1974 novel The Killer Angels. The film and novel focused primarily on the actions of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, John Buford, Robert E. Lee, and James Longstreet during the battle. The first day focused on Buford's cavalry defense, the second day on Chamberlain's defense at Little Round Top, and the third day on Pickett's Charge.

Gettysburg National Military Park Quarter, issued 2011

In the 2004 mockumentary C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America, the Battle of Gettysburg is won by the Confederate forces as a result of politician Judah P. Benjamin successfully convincing the United Kingdom and France to aid the Confederacy. This causes a butterfly effect that sees the Confederacy win the Civil War and subsequently conquer all of North and South America except Canada.[88]

Battle of Gettysburg

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External images
GettysburgPhotographs.com CivilWar.org maps & photos
[89] [90] [91]

Gettysburg.edu paintings & photos GettysburgAnimated.com
[92]

References
[1] Robert D. Quigley, Civil War Spoken Here: A Dictionary of Mispronounced People, Places and Things of the 1860's (Collingswood, NJ: C. W. Historicals, 1993), p. 68. ISBN 0-9637745-0-6. [2] The Battle of Antietam, the culmination of Lee's first invasion of the North, had the largest number of casualties in a single day, about 23,000. [3] Rawley, p. 147; Sauers, p. 827; Gallagher, Lee and His Army, p. 83; McPherson, p. 665; Eicher, p. 550. Gallagher and McPherson cite the combination of Gettysburg and Vicksburg as the turning point. Eicher uses the arguably related expression, "High-water mark of the Confederacy". [4] Coddington, pp. 8–9; Eicher, p. 490. [5] Eicher, p. 491. [6] Symonds, p. 36. [7] Trudeau, pp. 45, 66. [8] Lee's orders from Chambersburg, June 27, 1863 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=YmsFAAAAQAAJ& printsec=titlepage#PRA1-PA323,M1) [9] Symonds, pp. 49–54. [10] Nye, pp. 272–78. [11] Symonds, pp. 41–43; Sears, pp. 103–106; Esposito, text for Map 94 ( Map 34b (http:/ / www. military. com/ Resources/ ResourceFileView/ civilwar_maps_map34_largerview. htm) in the online version); Eicher, pp. 504–507; McPherson, p. 649. [12] Sears, p. 123; Trudeau, p. 128. [13] Coddington, pp. 181, 189. [14] Eicher, pp. 508–509, discounts Heth's claim because the previous visit by Early to Gettysburg would have made the lack of shoe factories or stores obvious. However, many mainstream historians accept Heth's account: Sears, p. 136; Foote, p. 465; Clark, p. 35; Tucker, pp. 97–98; Martin, p. 25; Pfanz, First Day, p. 25. [15] Eicher, p. 508; Tucker, pp. 99–102. [16] Sears, pp. 155–58. [17] Battle of Gettysburg: "Who Really Fired the First Shot?" (http:/ / www. historynet. com/ magazines/ american_civil_war/ 3430626. html) [18] Marcellus Jones Monument at Gettysburg (http:/ / www. brotherswar. com/ Gettysburg-Day-1Pic-15. htm) [19] Martin, pp. 80–81. The troopers carried single-shot, breechloading carbines manufactured by Sharps, Burnside, and others. It is a modern myth that they were armed with multi-shot repeating carbines. Nevertheless, they were able to fire two or three times faster than a muzzle-loaded carbine or rifle. [20] Symonds, p. 71; Coddington, p. 266; Eicher, pp. 510–11. [21] Tucker, pp. 112–17. [22] Foote, p. 468 [23] Tucker, p. 184; Symonds, p. 74; Pfanz, First Day, pp. 269–75. [24] Busey and Martin, pp. 298, 501. [25] Pfanz, First Day, pp. 275–93. [26] Clark, p. 53. [27] Pfanz, First Day, p. 158. [28] Pfanz, First Day, p. 230. [29] Pfanz, First Day, pp. 156–238. [30] Pfanz, First Day, p. 294. [31] Pfanz, First Day, pp. 337–38; Sears, pp. 223–25. [32] Martin, pp. 482–88. [33] Pfanz, First Day, p. 344; Eicher, p. 517; Sears, p. 228; Trudeau, p. 253. Both Sears and Trudeau record "if possible." [34] Martin, p. 9, citing Thomas L. Livermore's Numbers & Losses in the Civil War in America (Houghton Mifflin, 1900). [35] Coddington, p. 333; Tucker, p. 327. [36] Clark, p. 74; Eicher, p. 521.

Battle of Gettysburg
[37] Sears, p. 255; Clark, p. 69. [38] Pfanz, Second Day, pp. 93–97; Eicher, pp. 523–24. [39] Pfanz, Second Day, pp. 119–23. [40] Harman, p. 59. [41] Harman, p. 57. [42] Sears, pp. 312–24; Eicher, pp. 530–35; Coddington, p. 423. [43] Eicher, pp. 527–30; Clark, pp. 81–85. [44] Eicher, pp. 537–38; Sauers, p. 835; Pfanz, Culp's Hill, pp. 205–34; Clark, pp. 115–16. [45] Pfanz, Culp's Hill, pp. 235–83; Clark, pp. 116–18; Eicher, pp. 538–39. [46] Sears, p. 257; Longacre, pp. 198–99. [47] Harman, p. 63. [48] Pfanz, Culp's Hill, pp. 284–352; Eicher, pp. 540–41; Coddington, pp. 465–75. [49] Eicher, p. 542; Coddington, pp. 485–86. [50] See discussion of varying gun estimates in Pickett's Charge article footnote. [51] McPherson, pp. 661–63; Clark, pp. 133–44; Symonds, pp. 214–41; Eicher, pp. 543–49. [52] Eicher, pp. 549–50; Longacre, pp. 226–31, 240-44; Sauers, p. 836; Wert, pp. 272–80. [53] Examples of the varying Confederate casualties for July 1–3 are Sears, p. 498 (22,625); Coddington, p. 536 (20,451, "and very likely more"); Trudeau, p. 529 (22,874); Eicher, p. 550 (22,874, "but probably actually totaled 28,000 or more"); McPherson, p. 664 (28,000); Esposito, map 99 ("near 28,000"); Clark, p. 150 (20,448, "but probably closer to 28,000," which he inaccurately cites as a nearly 40% loss); Woodworth, p. 209 ("at least equal to Meade's and possibly as high as 28,000"); NPS (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ hps/ abpp/ battles/ pa002. htm) (28,000). [54] Glatthaar, p. 282. [55] Sears, p. 513. [56] Busey and Martin, pp. 125–47, 260–315. Headquarters element casualties account for the minor differences in army totals stated previously. [57] Catton, p. 325. [58] Sears, p. 391. [59] Sears, p. 511. [60] Woodworth, p. 216. [61] Eicher, p. 550; Coddington, pp. 539–44; Clark, pp. 146–47; Sears, p. 469; Wert, p. 300. [62] Clark, pp. 147–57; Longacre, pp. 268–69. [63] Coddington, p. 564. [64] Coddington, pp. 535–74; Sears, pp. 496–97; Eicher, p. 596; Wittenberg et al., One Continuous Fight, pp. 345–46.. [65] McPherson, p. 664. [66] Donald, p. 446; Woodworth, p. 217. [67] Coddington, p. 573. [68] McPherson, pp. 650, 664. [69] Gallagher, Lee and His Army, pp. 86, 93, 102-05; Sears, pp. 501–502; McPherson, p. 665, in contrast to Gallagher, depicts Lee as "profoundly depressed" about the battle. [70] Gallagher, Lee and His Generals, pp. 207–208; Sears, p. 503; Woodworth, p. 221. Gallagher's essay "Jubal A. Early, The Lost Cause, and Civil War History: A Persistent Legacy" in Lee and His Generals is a good overview of the Lost Cause movement. [71] White, p. 251. White refers to Lincoln's use of the term "new birth of freedom" and writes, "The new birth that slowly emerged in Lincoln's politics meant that on November 19 at Gettysburg he was no longer, as in his inaugural address, defending an old Union but proclaiming a new Union. The old Union contained and attempted to restrain slavery. The new Union would fulfill the promise of liberty, the crucial step into the future that the Founders had failed to take." [72] McPherson, p. 665; Gallagher, Lee and His Generals, pp. 207–208. [73] Catton, p. 331. [74] Eicher, p. 550; McPherson, p. 665; Hattaway and Jones, p. 415; Woodworth, p. xiii; Coddington, p. 573; Glatthaar, p. 288; Bearss, p. 202; Carmichael, p. xvii; Goss, Major Thomas (July–August 2004). "Gettysburg's "Decisive Battle"" (http:/ / www. au. af. mil/ au/ awc/ awcgate/ milreview/ goss. pdf). Military Review: 11–16. . Retrieved November 11, 2009. [75] Sears, pp. 499–500; Glatthaar, p. 287; Fuller, p. 198, states that Lee's "overweening confidence in the superiority of his soldiers over his enemy possessed him." [76] For example, Sears, p. 504: "In the final analysis, it was Robert E. Lee's inability to manage his generals that went to the heart of the failed campaign." Glatthaar, pp. 285–86, criticizes the inability of the generals to coordinate their actions as a whole. Fuller, p. 198, states that Lee "maintained no grip over the operations" of his army. [77] Fuller, p. 195, for example, refers to orders to Stuart that "were as usual vague." Fuller, p. 197, wrote "As was [Lee's] custom, he relied on verbal instructions, and left all details to his subordinates." [78] Woodworth, pp. 209–10. [79] Sears, pp. 501–502; McPherson, pp. 656–57; Coddington, pp. 375–80; A more detailed collection of historical assessments of Longstreet at Gettysburg may be found in James Longstreet#Gettysburg.

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[80] Sears, p. 502; A more detailed collection of historical assessments of Stuart in the Gettysburg Campaign may be found in J.E.B. Stuart#Gettysburg. [81] McPherson, p. 654; Coddington, pp. 317–19; Eicher, pp. 517–18; Sears, p. 503. [82] Sears, pp. 502–503. [83] Sears, p. 500. [84] Sears, p. 506; Coddington, p. 573. [85] Sears, pp. 505–507. [86] Smithsonian National Postal Museum (http:/ / arago. si. edu/ index. asp?con=1& cmd=1& mode=& tid=2038859) [87] U.S. Mint America the Beautiful Quarters Program website (http:/ / www. usmint. gov/ mint_programs/ atb/ ?local=gettysburg) [88] Confederate Legacy Presents C.S.A.: A Historical Timeline (http:/ / www. csathemovie. com/ timeline/ ) [89] http:/ / www. gettysburgphotographs. com/ [90] http:/ / www. civilwar. org/ battlefields/ gettysburg. html [91] http:/ / www. gettysburg. edu/ library/ gettdigital/ civil_war/ civilwar. htm [92] http:/ / www. civilwaranimated. com/ GettysburgAnimation. html

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Bibliography
• Bearss, Edwin C. Fields of Honor: Pivotal Battles of the Civil War. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society, 2006. ISBN 0-7922-7568-3. • Busey, John W., and David G. Martin. Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, 4th ed. Hightstown, NJ: Longstreet House, 2005. ISBN 0-944413-67-6. • Carmichael, Peter S., ed. Audacity Personified: The Generalship of Robert E. Lee. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8071-2929-1. • Catton, Bruce. Glory Road. Garden City, NY: Doubleday and Company, 1952. ISBN 0-385-04167-5. • Clark, Champ, and the Editors of Time-Life Books. Gettysburg: The Confederate High Tide. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1985. ISBN 0-8094-4758-4. • Coddington, Edwin B. The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command. New York: Scribner's, 1968. ISBN 0-684-84569-5. • Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. ISBN 0-684-80846-3. • Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-684-84944-5. • Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. OCLC 5890637. The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website (http://www. dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/american_civil_war/). • Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative. Vol. 2, Fredericksburg to Meridian. New York: Random House, 1958. ISBN 0-394-49517-9. • Fuller, Maj. Gen. J. F. C. Grant and Lee, A Study in Personality and Generalship. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1957. ISBN 0-253-13400-5. • Gallagher, Gary W. Lee and His Army in Confederate History. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0-8078-5769-6. • Gallagher, Gary W. Lee and His Generals in War and Memory. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8071-2958-5. • Glatthaar, Joseph T. General Lee's Army: From Victory to Collapse. New York: Free Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-684-82787-2. • Harman, Troy D. Lee's Real Plan at Gettysburg. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003. ISBN 0-8117-0054-2. • Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. ISBN 0-252-00918-5. • Longacre, Edward G. The Cavalry at Gettysburg. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986. ISBN 0-8032-7941-8.

Battle of Gettysburg • McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-19-503863-0. • Martin, David G. Gettysburg July 1. rev. ed. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Publishing, 1996. ISBN 0-938289-81-0. • Nye, Wilbur S. Here Come the Rebels! Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1984. ISBN 0-89029-080-6. First published in 1965 by Louisiana State University Press. • Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg – The First Day. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. ISBN 0-8078-2624-3. • Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg – The Second Day. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8078-1749-X. • Pfanz, Harry W. Gettysburg: Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1993. ISBN 0-8078-2118-7. • Rawley, James A. Turning Points of the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966. ISBN 0-8032-8935-9. • Sauers, Richard A. "Battle of Gettysburg." In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. ISBN 0-393-04758-X. • Sears, Stephen W. Gettysburg. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003. ISBN 0-395-86761-4. • Symonds, Craig L. American Heritage History of the Battle of Gettysburg. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. ISBN 0-06-019474-X. • Tagg, Larry. The Generals of Gettysburg (http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/). Campbell, CA: Savas Publishing, 1998. ISBN 1-882810-30-9. • Trudeau, Noah Andre. Gettysburg: A Testing of Courage. New York: HarperCollins, 2002. ISBN 0-06-019363-8. • Tucker, Glenn. High Tide at Gettysburg. Dayton, OH: Morningside House, 1983. ISBN 978-0-914427-82-7. First published 1958 by Bobbs-Merrill Co. • Wert, Jeffry D. Gettysburg: Day Three. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-684-85914-9. • White, Ronald C., Jr. The Eloquent President: A Portrait of Lincoln Through His Words. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-6119-9. • Wittenberg, Eric J., J. David Petruzzi, and Michael F. Nugent. One Continuous Fight: The Retreat from Gettysburg and the Pursuit of Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, July 4–14, 1863. New York: Savas Beatie, 2008. ISBN 978-1-932714-43-2. • Woodworth, Steven E. Beneath a Northern Sky: A Short History of the Gettysburg Campaign. Wilmington, DE: SR Books (scholarly Resources, Inc.), 2003. ISBN 0-8420-2933-8. • National Park Service battle description (http://www.nps.gov/history/hps/abpp/battles/pa002.htm)

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Further reading
• Bachelder, John B. The Bachelder Papers: Gettysburg in Their Own Words. Edited by David L. Ladd and Audrey J. Ladd. 3 vols. Dayton, OH: Morningside Press, 1994. ISBN 0-89029-320-1. • Bachelder, John B. Gettysburg: What to See, and How to See It: Embodying Full Information for Visiting the Field (http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b3111589). Boston: Bachelder, 1873. OCLC 4637523. • Ballard, Ted, and Billy Arthur. Gettysburg Staff Ride Briefing Book (http://www.history.army.mil/StaffRide/ Gettysburg/gettysburg_2010.pdf). Carlisle, PA: United States Army Center of Military History, 1999. OCLC 42908450. • Bearss, Edwin C. Receding Tide: Vicksburg and Gettysburg: The Campaigns That Changed the Civil War. Washington DC: National Geographic Society, 2010. ISBN 978-1-4262-0510-1. • Boritt, Gabor S., ed. The Gettysburg Nobody Knows. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-510223-1.

Battle of Gettysburg • Desjardin, Thomas A. These Honored Dead: How the Story of Gettysburg Shaped American Memory. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81267-3. • Frassanito, William A. Early Photography at Gettysburg. Gettysburg, PA: Thomas Publications, 1995. ISBN 1-57747-032-X. • Fremantle, Arthur J. L. The Fremantle Diary: A Journal of the Confederacy. Edited by Walter Lord. Short Hills, NJ: Burford Books, 2002. ISBN 1-58080-085-8. First published 1954 by Capicorn Books. • Gallagher, Gary W., ed. Three Days at Gettysburg: Essays on Confederate and Union Leadership. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-87338-629-9. • Gottfried, Bradley M. Brigades of Gettysburg. New York: Da Capo Press, 2002. ISBN 0-306-81175-8. • Gottfried, Bradley M. The Maps of Gettysburg: An Atlas of the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3 – June 13, 1863. New York: Savas Beatie, 2007. ISBN 978-1-932714-30-2. • Grimsley, Mark, and Brooks D. Simpson. Gettysburg: A Battlefield Guide. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8032-7077-1. • Hall, Jeffrey C. The Stand of the U.S. Army at Gettysburg. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-253-34258-9. • Haskell, Frank Aretas. The Battle of Gettysburg. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2006. ISBN 978-1-4286-6012-0. • Hawthorne, Frederick W. Gettysburg: Stories of Men and Monuments. Gettysburg, PA: Association of Licensed Battlefield Guides, 1988. ISBN 0-9657444-0-X. • Huntington, Tom. Pennsylvania Civil War Trails: The Guide to Battle Sites, Monuments, Museums and Towns. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2007. ISBN 978-0-8117-3379-3. • Laino, Philip, Gettysburg Campaign Atlas, 2nd ed. Dayton, OH: Gatehouse Press 2009. ISBN 978-1-934900-45-1. • McMurry, Richard M. "The Pennsylvania Gambit and the Gettysburg Splash." In The Gettysburg Nobody Knows, edited by Gabor Boritt. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-510223-1. • McPherson, James M. Hallowed Ground: A Walk at Gettysburg. New York: Crown Publishers, 2003. ISBN 0-609-61023-6. • New York (State), William F. Fox, and Daniel Edgar Sickles. New York at Gettysburg: Final Report on the Battlefield of Gettysburg (http://www.archive.org/details/finalreportongettys01burgrich). Albany, NY: J.B. Lyon Company, Printers, 1900. OCLC 607395975. • Paris, Louis-Philippe-Albert d'Orléans. The Battle of Gettysburg: A History of the Civil War in America (http:// books.google.com/books?id=woP8IV7zHGwC). Digital Scanning, Inc., 1999. ISBN 1-58218-066-0. First published 1869 by Germer Baillière. • Petruzzi, J. David, and Steven Stanley. The Complete Gettysburg Guide. New York: Savas Beatie, 2009. ISBN 978-1-932714-63-0. • Shaara, Michael. The Killer Angels: A Novel. New York: Ballantine Books, 2001. ISBN 978-0345444127. First published 1974 by David McKay Co. • Stackpole, Gen. Edward J. They Met at Gettysburg. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1956, OCLC 22643644.

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External links
• • • • • • Gettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service) (http://www.nps.gov/gett/) U.S. Army's Interactive Battle of Gettysburg with Narratives (http://www.army.mil/gettysburg) Military History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg (http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/gettysburg/) The Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg (http://www.brotherswar.com/) Gettysburg Discussion Group archives (http://www.gdg.org/) List of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg (http://www.bklyn-genealogy-info.com/Military/ ConfederateGenerals.html) • List of 67 US generals at Gettysburg (http://www.bklyn-genealogy-info.com/Military/UnionGenerals.html)

413

Miscellany
Alaska Purchase
The Alaska Purchase was the acquisition of the Alaska territory by the United States from Russia in 1867 by a treaty ratified by the Senate. The purchase, made at the initiative of United States Secretary of State William H. Seward, gained unknown operator: u',' square miles (unknown operator: u','km2) of new United States territory. Originally organized as the Department of Alaska, the area was successively the District of Alaska and the Alaska Territory before becoming the modern state of Alaska upon being admitted to the Union as a state in 1959.

Background
Russia was in a difficult financial position and feared losing Russian America without compensation in some future conflict, especially to the British, whom they had fought in the Crimean War (1853–1856). While Alaska attracted little interest at the time, the population of nearby British Columbia started to increase rapidly a few The original check used to pay for Alaska, worth $7.2 million years after hostilities ended, with a large gold rush there prompting the creation of a crown colony on the mainland. The Russians therefore started to believe that in any future conflict with Britain, their hard-to-defend region might become a prime target, and would be easily captured. Therefore the Tsar Alexander II decided to sell the territory. Perhaps in hopes of starting a bidding war, both the British and the Americans were approached, however the British expressed little interest in buying Alaska. The Russians in 1859 offered to sell the territory to the United States, hoping that its presence in the region would offset the plans of Russia’s greatest regional rival, Great Britain. However, no deal was brokered due to the American Civil War.[1] Following the Union victory in the Civil War, the Tsar then instructed the Russian minister to the United States, Eduard de Stoeckl, to re-enter into negotiations with Seward in the beginning of March 1867. The negotiations concluded after an all-night session with the signing of the treaty at 4 a.m. on March 30, 1867,[2] with the purchase price set at $7.2 million, or about 2 cents per acre ($4.74/km2).[3] American public opinion was generally positive, as most editors argued that the U.S. would probably derive great economic benefits from the purchase; friendship of Russia was important; and it would facilitate the acquisition of British Columbia.[4] Historian Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer summarized the minority opinion of some newspaper editors who opposed the purchase:[5]

“

Already, so it was said, we were burdened with territory we had no population to fill. The Indians within the present boundaries of the republic strained our power to govern aboriginal peoples. Could it be that we would now, with open eyes, seek to add to our difficulties by increasing the number of such peoples under our national care? The purchase price was small; the annual charges for administration, civil and military, would be yet greater, and continuing. The territory included in the proposed cession was not contiguous to the national domain. It lay away at an inconvenient and a dangerous distance. The treaty had been secretly prepared, and signed and foisted upon the country at one o'clock in the morning. It was a dark deed done in the night… The New York World

”

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said that it was a ‘sucked orange.’ It contained nothing of value but furbearing animals, and these had been hunted until they were nearly extinct. Except for the Aleutian Islands and a narrow strip of land extending along the southern coast the country would be not worth taking as a gift… Unless gold were found in the country much time would elapse before it would be blessed with Hoe printing presses, Methodist chapels and a metropolitan police. It was ‘a frozen wilderness.’

While criticized by some at the time, the financial value of the Alaska Purchase turned out to be many times greater than what the United States had paid for it. The land turned out to be rich in resources (including gold, copper, and oil).

Senate debate
When it became clear that the Senate would not debate the treaty before its adjournment on March 30, Seward persuaded President Andrew Johnson to call the Senate back into special session the next day. Many Republicans scoffed at “Seward’s folly,” although their criticism appears to have been based less on the merits of the purchase than on their hostility to President Johnson and to Seward as Johnson’s political ally. Seward mounted a vigorous campaign, however, and with support from Charles Sumner, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, won approval of the treaty on April 9 by a vote of 37–2.

Painting by Emanuel Leutze, depicting William H. Seward and Eduard de Stoeckl negotiating the Alaska Purchase.

For more than a year, as congressional relations with President Johnson worsened, the House refused to appropriate the necessary funds. But in June 1868, after Johnson’s impeachment trial was over, Stoeckl and Seward revived the campaign for the Alaska purchase. The House finally approved the appropriation in July 1868, by a vote of 113–48.[6]

American ownership
With the purchase of Alaska, the United States acquired an area twice as large as Texas, but it was not until the great Klondike gold strike in 1896 that Alaska came to be seen generally as a valuable addition to American territory. Senator Sumner had told the nation that the Russians estimated that Alaska contained about 2,500 Russians and those of mixed race, and 8,000 Indigenous people, in all about 10,000 people under the direct government of the Russian fur company, and possibly 50,000 Inuits and Alaska Natives living outside its jurisdiction. The Russians were settled at 23 trading posts, placed at accessible islands and coastal points. At smaller stations only four or five Russians were stationed to collect furs from the natives for storage and shipment when the company’s boats arrived to take it away. There were two larger towns. New Archangel, now named Sitka, had been established in 1804 to handle the valuable trade in the skins of the sea otter and in 1867 contained 116 small log cabins with 968 residents. St. Paul in the Pribilof Islands had 100 homes and 283 people and was the center of the fur seal industry.[7] An Aleut name, “Alaska,” was chosen by the Americans. This name had earlier, in the Russian era, denoted Alaska Peninsula, which the Russians had called Alyaska (also Alyaksa is attested, especially in older sources).

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Transfer ceremony
The transfer ceremony took place in Sitka on October 18, 1867. Russian and American soldiers paraded in front of the governor’s house; the Russian flag was lowered and the American flag raised amid peals of artillery. A rather humorous description of the events was published in Finland six years later, written by a blacksmith named T. Ahllund, who had been recruited to work in Sitka only less than two years previously.[8]

“

We had not spent many weeks at Sitka when two large steam ships arrived there, bringing things that belonged to the American crown [sic!

”

], and a few days later the new governor also arrived in a ship together with his soldiers. The wooden two-story mansion of the Russian governor stood on a high hill, and in front of it in the yard at the end of a tall spar flew the Russian flag with the double-headed eagle in the middle of it. Of course, this flag now had give way to the flag of the United States, which is full of stripes and stars. On a predetermined day in the afternoon a group of soldiers came from the American ships, lead by one who carried the flag. Marching solemnly, but without accompaniment, they came to the governor’s mansion, where the Russian troops were already lined up and waiting for the Americans. Now they started to pull the [Russian double-headed] eagle down, but — whatever had gone into its head — it only came down a little bit, and then entangled its claws around the spar so that it could not be pulled down any further. A Russian soldier was therefore ordered to climb up the spar and disentangle it, but it seems that the eagle cast a spell on his hands, too — for he was not able to arrive at where the flag was, but instead slipped down without it. The next one to try was not able to do any better; only the third soldier was able to bring the unwilling eagle down to the ground. While the flag was brought down, music was played and cannons were fired off from the shore; and then while the other flag was hoisted the Americans fired off their cannons from the ships equally many times. After that American soldiers replaced the Russian ones at the gates of the fence surrounding the Kolosh [i.e.Tlingit] village.

When the business with the flags was finally over, Captain of 2nd Rank Aleksei Alekseyevich Peshchurov said, “General Rousseau, by authority from His Majesty, the Emperor of Russia, I transfer to the United States the territory of Alaska.” General Lovell Rousseau accepted the territory. (Peshchurov had been sent to Sitka as commissioner of the Russian government in the transfer of Alaska.) A number of forts, blockhouses and timber buildings were made over to the Americans. The troops occupied the barracks; General Jefferson C. Davis established his residence in the governor’s house, and most of the Russian citizens went home, leaving a few traders and priests who chose to remain.[9] [10]

Aftermath
After the transfer a number of Russian citizens remained in Sitka, but very soon nearly all of them decided to return to Russia, which was still possible to do at the expense of the Russian-American Company. Ahllund's story “corroborates other accounts of the transfer ceremony, and the dismay felt by many of the Russians and creoles, jobless and in want, at the rowdy troops and gun-toting civilians who looked on Sitka as merely one more western frontier settlement.” Ahllund gives a vivid account of what life was like for civilians in Sitka under U.S. rule, and it helps to explain why hardly any of the Russian subjects wanted to stay there. Moreover, Ahllund’s article is the only known description of the return voyage on the Winged Arrow, a ship especially purchased in order to transport the Russians back to their native country. “The over-crowded vessel, with crewmen who got roaring drunk at every port, must have made the voyage a memorable one. Ahllund mentions stops at the Sandwich (Hawaiian) Islands, Tahiti, Brazil, London, and finally Kronstadt, the port for St. Petersburg, where they arrived on August 28, 1869.”[11]

Alaska Day
Alaska Day celebrates the formal transfer of Alaska from Russia to the United States, which took place on October 18, 1867. The October 18, 1867 date is by the Gregorian calendar, which came into effect in Alaska the following day to replace the Julian calendar used by the Russians (the Julian calendar in the 19th century was 12 days behind the Gregorian calendar). For the selling party, those Russians back in the capital city of St Petersburg, where the next day already started due to nearly 12 hours clock time difference, the handover occurred on October 7, 1867. The official celebration of the 18th October Alaska Day is held in Sitka, where schools release students early, many

Alaska Purchase businesses close for the day, and events such as a parade and reenactment of the flag raising are held.

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Notes
[1] "Purchase of Alaska, 1867" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080410122537/ http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ho/ time/ gp/ 17662. htm). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. state. gov/ r/ pa/ ho/ time/ gp/ 17662. htm) on 2008-04-10. .. [2] Seward, Frederick W., Seward at Washington as Senator and Secretary of State. Volume: 3, 1891, p. 348. [3] A simple consumer price index calculation would put this at the equivalent of around $100 million dollars in 2011. see “Six Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a U.S. Dollar Amount” (http:/ / www. measuringworth. com/ calculators/ uscompare/ index. php). [4] Richard E. Welch, Jr., “American Public Opinion and the Purchase of Canadian America,” American Slavic and East European Review, 1958, Vol. 17 Issue 4, pp. 481–494 . [5] Ellis Paxson Oberholtzer, A History of the United States since the Civil War (1917)1:541. [6] "Treaty with Russia for the Purchase of Alaska: Primary Documents of American History (Virtual Programs & Services, Library of Congress)" (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ program/ bib/ ourdocs/ Alaska. html). Loc.gov. . Retrieved 2008-09-15.. [7] Seward (1869). [8] Ahllund, T. (1873/2006). [9] Bancroft, H. H., (1885) pp. 590–629. [10] Pierce, R. (1990), p 395. [11] Richard Pierce, introduction to Ahllund, T., From the Memoirs of a Finnish Workman (2006).

References
• Ahllund, T., From the Memoirs of a Finnish Workman, trans. Panu Hallamaa, ed. Richard Pierce, Alaska History, 21 (Fall 2006), 1–25. (Originally published in Finnish in Suomen Kuvalehti (edited by Julius Krohn) No. 15/1873 (1 Aug) – No. 19/1873 (1 Oct)). • Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Alaska: 1730–1885 (1886). • Dunning, Wm. A. "Paying for Alaska," Political Science Quarterly Vol. 27, No. 3 (Sep., 1912), pp. 385-398 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2141366) • Grinëv, Andrei. V., and Richard L. Bland. “A Brief Survey of the Russian Historiography of Russian America of Recent Years,” Pacific Historical Review, May 2010, Vol. 79 Issue 2, pp. 265–278. • Pierce, Richard: Russian America: A Biographical Dictionary, p 395. Alaska History no. 33, The Limestone Press; Kingston, Ontario & Fairbanks, Alaska, 1990. • Holbo, Paul S (1983). Tarnished Expansion: The Alaska Scandal, the Press, and Congress 1867–1871. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press. • Jensen, Ronald (1975). The Alaska Purchase and Russian-American Relations. • Oberholtzer, Ellis (1917). A History of the United States since the Civil War. Vol. 1. online (http://books.google. com/books?id=rmUhAAAAMAAJ) • Seward, William H. Alaska: Speech of William H. Seward at Sitka, August 12, 1869 (1869; Digitized page images & text (http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.gdc/mtfgc.1003)), a primary source

External links
• Treaty with Russia for the Purchase of Alaska and related resources at the Library of Congress (http://www.loc. gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Alaska.html) • Text of Treaty with Russia (http://www.bartleby.com/43/43.html) • Meeting of Frontiers, Library of Congress (http://frontiers.loc.gov/intldl/mtfhtml/mfak/mfaksale.html) • Original Document of Check to Purchase Alaska (http://www.footnote.com/viewer.php?image=4346721) • "Milestones: 1866-1898. Purchase of Alaska, 1867" (http://history.state.gov/milestones/1866-1898/ AlaskaPurchase). U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2011-10-19.

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Canal Ring
The Canal Ring referred to the group of corrupt contractors and their political supporters who conspired shortly after the American Civil War to defraud the State of New York by overcharging for repairs and improvement of the state's canal system. It defied an "investigation" in 1868 and for years was powerful enough to prevent interference and to defeat unfriendly candidates for office. The group was finally broken up by Governor Samuel J. Tilden in 1874. Tilden employed a skilled engineer to examine their work and then surprised the legislature by a wholly unexpected special message setting forth in detail the fraudulent methods of the ring. This served as a direct appeal to the people, and so aroused public opinion that the legislature was forced to authorize the governor to appoint a canal commission. The reports of this commission resulted in a marked diminution in the appropriation for canals and the indictment of several officials for defrauding the State.

References
• Dictionary of American History by James Truslow Adams, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1940 •  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Tilden, Samuel Jones". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.

Carpetbagger
Carpetbaggers was a pejorative term Southerners gave to Northerners (also referred to as Yankees) who moved to the South during the Reconstruction era, between 1865 and 1877. The term referred to the observation that these newcomers tended to carry "carpet bags," a common form of luggage at the time (sturdy and made from repurposed carpet). It was used as a derogatory term, suggesting opportunism and exploitation by the outsiders. Together with Republicans they are said to have politically manipulated and controlled former Confederate states for varying periods for their own financial and power gains. In sum, carpetbaggers were seen as insidious Northern outsiders with questionable objectives meddling in local politics, buying up plantations at fire-sale prices and taking advantage of Southerners. Carpetbagger is not to be confused with copperhead, which is a term given to a person from the North who sympathized with the Southern claim of right to Secession.

1872 cartoon depiction of Carl Schurz as a Carpetbagger

The term carpetbaggers was also used to describe the Republican political appointees who came South, arriving with their travel carpet bags. Southerners considered them ready to loot and plunder the defeated South.[1] In modern usage in the U.S., the term is sometimes used derisively to refer to a politician who runs for public office in an area where he or she does not have deep community ties, or has lived only for a short time. In the United Kingdom, the term was adopted to refer informally to those who join a mutual organization, such as a building society, in order to force it to demutualize, that is, to convert into a joint stock company, solely for personal financial gain.

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Background information
Reforming impulse
Beginning in 1862 thousands of Northern abolitionists and other reformers moved to areas in the South where secession by the Confederates states had failed. Many schoolteachers and religious missionaries arrived in the South, some sponsored by northern churches. Some were abolitionists who sought to continue the struggle for racial equality; they often became agents of the federal Freedmen's Bureau, which started operations in 1865 to assist the vast numbers of recently emancipated freedmen. The bureau established public schools in rural areas of the South where public schools had not previously existed. Other Northerners who moved to the South participated in establishing railroads where infrastructure was lacking.[2] [3] During the time African-American families had been enslaved, they were prohibited from education and learning literacy. Southern states had no public school systems, and the planter elite sent their children to private schools. After the war, thousands of Northern white women moved South; many to teach newly freed African-American children.[4] While many Northerners went South with reformist impulses, not all Northerners who went South were reformers.[5]

Economic motives
Many carpetbaggers were businessmen who purchased or leased plantations and became wealthy landowners, hiring freedmen to do the labor. Most were former Union soldiers eager to invest their savings in this promising new frontier, and civilians lured south by press reports of "the fabulous sums of money to be made in the South in raising cotton." Foner notes that "joined with the quest for profit, however, was a reforming spirit, a vision of themselves as agents of sectional reconciliation and the South's "economic regeneration." Accustomed to viewing Southerners—black and white—as devoid of economic initiative and self-discipline, they believed that only "Northern capital and energy" could bring "the blessings of a free labor system to the region."[6] Carpetbaggers tended to be well educated and middle class in origin. Some had been lawyers, businessmen, newspaper editors, Union Army members and other pillars of Northern communities. The majority (including 52 of the 60 who served in Congress during Reconstruction) were veterans of the Union Army.[7] Leading "black carpetbaggers" believed the interests of capital and labor identical, and the freedmen entitled to little more than an "honest chance in the race of life."[8] Many Northern and Southern Republicans shared a modernizing vision of upgrading the Southern economy and society, one that would replace the inefficient Southern plantation regime with railroads, factories and more efficient farming. They actively promoted public schooling and created numerous colleges and universities. The Northerners were especially successful in taking control of Southern railroads, aided by state legislatures. In 1870 Northerners controlled 21% of the South's railroads (by mileage); 19% of the directors were from the North. By 1890 they controlled 88% of the mileage; 47% of the directors were from the North.[9]

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Examples of prominent carpetbaggers in state politics
Mississippi
Union Gen. Adelbert Ames, a native of Massachusetts, was appointed military governor and later was elected as Republican governor of Mississippi during the Reconstruction era. Ames tried unsuccessfully to ensure equal rights for black Mississippians. His political battles with the Southerners and African Americans ripped apart his party.[10] The "Black and Tan" (biracial) constitutional convention in Mississippi in 1868 included 29 southerners, 17 freedmen and 24 nonsoutherners, nearly all of whom were veterans of the Union Army. They included four men who had lived in the South before the war, two of whom had served in the Confederate States Army. Among the more prominent were Gen. Beroth B. Eggleston, a native of New York; Col. A. T. Morgan, of the Second Wisconsin Volunteers; Gen. W. S. Barry, former commander of a Colored regiment raised in Kentucky; an Illinois general and lawyer who graduated from Knox College; Maj. W. H. Gibbs, of the Fifteenth Illinois infantry; Judge W. B. Cunningham, of Pennsylvania; and Cap. E. J. Castello, of the Seventh Missouri infantry. They were among the founders of the Republican party in Mississippi. They were prominent in the politics of the state until 1875, but nearly all left Mississippi in 1875 to 1876 under pressure from the Red Shirts and White Liners. These white paramilitary organizations, described as "the military arm of the Democratic Party", worked openly to violently overthrow Republican rule, using intimidation and assassination to turn Republicans out of office and suppress freedmen's voting.[11] [12] [13] Albert T. Morgan, the Republican sheriff of Yazoo, Mississippi, received a brief flurry of national attention when insurgent white Democrats took over the county government and forced him to flee. He later wrote Yazoo; Or, on the Picket Line of Freedom in the South (1884). On November 6, 1875, Hiram Revels, a Mississippi Republican and the first African-American U.S. Senator, wrote a letter to President Ulysses S. Grant that was widely reprinted. Revels denounced Ames and Northerners for manipulating the Black vote for personal benefit, and for keeping alive wartime hatreds: Since reconstruction, the masses of my people have been, as it were, enslaved in mind by unprincipled adventurers, who, caring nothing for country, were willing to stoop to anything no matter how infamous, to secure power to themselves, and perpetuate it..... My people have been told by these schemers, when men have been placed on the ticket who were notoriously corrupt and dishonest, that they must vote for them; that the salvation of the party depended upon it; that the man who scratched a ticket was not a Republican. This is only one of the many means these unprincipled demagogues have devised to perpetuate the intellectual bondage of my people.... The bitterness and hate created by the late civil strife has, in my opinion, been obliterated in this state, except perhaps in some localities, and would have long since been entirely obliterated, were it not for some unprincipled men who would keep alive the bitterness of the past, and inculcate a hatred between the races, in order that they may aggrandize themselves by office, and its emoluments, to control my people, the effect of which is to degrade them.[14]

North Carolina
Corruption was a charge made by Democrats in North Carolina against the Republicans, notes the historian Paul Escott, "because its truth was apparent."[15] The historians Eric Foner and W.E.B. Du Bois have noted that Democrats as well as Republicans received bribes and participated in decisions about the railroad.[16] Gen. Milton S. Littlefield, was dubbed the "Prince of Carpetbaggers," and bought votes in the legislature "to support grandiose and fraudulent railroad schemes." Escott concludes that some Democrats were involved, but Republicans "bore the main responsibility for the issue of $28 million in state bonds for railroads and the accompanying corruption. This sum, enormous for the time, aroused great concern." Foner says Littlefield disbursed $200,000 (bribes) to win support in the legislature for state money for his railroads, and Democrats as well as Republicans were guilty of taking the bribes and making the decisions on the railroad.[16] North Carolina Democrats condemned the legislature's "depraved

Carpetbagger villains, who take bribes every day;" one local Republican officeholder complained, "I deeply regret the course of some of our friends in the Legislature as well as out of it in regard to financial matters, it is very embarrassing indeed."[15] Extravagance and corruption increased taxes and the costs of government in a state that had always favored low expenditure, Escott pointed out. The context was that a planter elite kept taxes low because it benefited them. They used their money toward private ends rather than public investment. None of the states had established public school systems before the Reconstruction state legislatures created them, and they had systematically underinvested in infrastructure such as roads and railroads. Planters whose properties occupied prime riverfront locations relied on river transportation, but smaller farmers in the backcountry suffered. Escott claimed, "Some money went to very worthy causes— the 1869 legislature, for example, passed a school law that began the rebuilding and expansion of the state's public schools. But far too much was wrongly or unwisely spent" to aid the Republican Party leadership. A Republican county commissioner in Alamance eloquently denounced the situation: "Men are placed in power who instead of carrying out their duties . . . form a kind of school for to graduate Rascals. Yes if you will give them a few Dollars they will liern you for an accomplished Rascal. This is in reference to the taxes that are rung from the labouring class of people. Without a speedy reformation I will have to resign my post."[15] Albion W. Tourgée, formerly of Ohio and a friend of President James A. Garfield, moved to North Carolina, where he practiced as a lawyer and was appointed a judge. He once opined that "Jesus Christ was a carpetbagger." Tourgée later wrote A Fool's Errand, a largely autobiographical novel about an idealistic carpetbagger persecuted by the Ku Klux Klan in North Carolina.

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South Carolina
A politician in South Carolina who was called a carpetbagger was Daniel Henry Chamberlain, a New Englander who had served as an officer of a predominantly black regiment of the United States Colored Troops. He was appointed South Carolina's attorney general from 1868 to 1872 and was elected Republican governor from 1874 to 1877. As a result of the national Compromise of 1877, Chamberlain lost his office. He was narrowly re-elected in a campaign marked by egregious voter fraud and violence against freedmen by Democratic Red Shirts, who succeeded in suppressing the black vote in some majority-black counties.[17] While serving in South Carolina, Chamberlain was a strong supporter of Negro rights. Some historians of the early 1930s, who belonged to the Dunning School that believed that the Reconstruction era was fatally flawed claimed that Chamberlain was later influenced by Social Darwinism to become a white supremacist. They also wrote that he supported states' rights and laissez-faire in the economy. They portrayed "liberty" in 1896 as the right to rise above the rising tide of equality. Chamberlain was said to justify white supremacy by arguing that, in evolutionary terms, the Negro obviously belonged to an inferior social order.[18] Charles Stearns, also from Massachusetts, wrote an account of his experience in South Carolina: The Black Man of the South, and the Rebels: Or, the Characteristics of the Former and the Recent Outrages of the Latter (1873). Francis Lewis Cardozo, a black minister from New Haven, Connecticut, served as a delegate to South Carolina's Constitutional Convention (1868). He made eloquent speeches advocating that the plantations be broken up and distributed among the freedmen. They wanted their own land to farm and believed they had already paid for land by their years of uncompensated labor and the trials of slavery.[18]

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Louisiana
Henry C. Warmoth was the Republican governor of Louisiana from 1868 to 1874. As governor, Warmoth was plagued by accusations of corruption, which continued to be a matter of controversy long after his death. He was accused of using his position as governor to trade in state bonds for his personal benefit. In addition, the newspaper company which he owned received a contract from the state government. Warmoth supported the franchise for freedmen.[19] He struggled to lead the state during the years when the White League, a white Democratic paramilitary organization, conducted an open campaign of violence and intimidation against Republicans, including freedmen, with the goals of regaining Democratic power and white supremacy. They ran Republicans out of office, were responsible for the Coushatta Massacre, disrupted Republican organizing, and preceded elections with such intimidation and violence that black voting was sharply reduced. Warmoth stayed in Louisiana after Reconstruction and following the white Democrats' regaining political power in the state. He died in 1931 at age 89.[19] Algernon Sidney Badger, a Boston, Massachusetts, native, held various appointed federal positions in New Orleans only under Republican national administrations during and after Reconstruction. He first came to New Orleans with the Union Army in 1863 and never left the area. He is interred at Metairie Cemetery there.[20]

Alabama
George E. Spencer was a prominent Republican U.S. Senator. His A cartoon threatening that the Ku Klux Klan would lynch carpetbaggers, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, 1872 reelection campaign in Alabama opened him to allegations of Independent Monitor, 1868 "political betrayal of colleagues; manipulation of Federal patronage; embezzlement of public funds; purchase of votes; and intimidation of voters by the presence of Federal troops." He was a major speculator in a distressed financial paper.[21]

Georgia
Tunis Campbell, a black New York businessman, was hired in 1863 by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton to help former slaves in Port Royal, South Carolina. When the Civil War ended, Campbell was assigned to the Sea Islands of Georgia, where he engaged in an apparently successful land reform program for the benefit of the freedmen. He eventually became vice-chair of the Georgia Republican Party, a state senator and the head of an African-American militia which he hoped to use against the Ku Klux Klan.[19]

Arkansas
William Hines Furbush, born a slave in Kentucky in 1839, received an education in Ohio, and migrated to Helena, Arkansas in 1862. Back in Ohio in February 1865, he joined the Forty-second Colored Infantry at Columbus. After the war Furbush migrated to Liberia through the American Colonization Society. He returned to Ohio after 18 months and moved back to Arkansas by 1870.[Wintory 2004] Furbush was elected to two terms in the Arkansas House of Representatives, 1873–74 (Phillips County) and 1879–80 (Lee County). In 1873 the state passed a civil rights law. Furbush and three other black leaders, including the bill's primary sponsor state Sen. Richard A. Dawson, sued a Little Rock barkeeper for refusing to serve the group service. The suit resulted in the only successful Reconstruction prosecution under the state's civil rights law. In the legislature Furbush worked to create a new county, Lee, from portions of Phillips, Crittenden, Monroe and St. Francis counties.

Carpetbagger Following the end of his 1873 legislative term, Furbush was appointed sheriff by Republican Governor Elisha Baxter. Furbush won reelection as sheriff twice and served from 1873 to 1878. During his term, he adopted a policy of "fusion," a post-Reconstruction power-sharing compromise between Democrats and Republicans. Furbush was originally elected as a Republican, but he switched to the Democratic Party at the end of his time as sheriff. In 1878, Furbush was again elected to the Arkansas House. His election is noteworthy because he was elected as a black Democrat in an election season notorious for white intimidation of black and Republican voters in black-majority eastern Arkansas. Furbush is the first known black Democrat elected to the Arkansas General Assembly. In March 1879 Furbush left Arkansas for Colorado, where he worked as an assayer and barber. In Bonanza, Colorado he avoided a lynch mob after shooting and killing a town constable. At the trial he was acquitted of murder. He returned to Little Rock, Arkansas, by 1888, following another stay in Ohio. In 1889, he and E. A. Fulton, a fellow black Democrat, announced plans for the National Democrat, a party weekly intended to attract black voters to the Democratic Party. After failing to attract black voters and following white Democrats' passage of the Arkansas 1891 Election Law that disfranchised most black voters, Furbush left the state. He traveled to South Carolina and Georgia, but they soon disfranchised black voters, too. The last stop of Furbush was in October 1901 at Marion, Indiana's National Home for Disabled Veterans. He died there on September 3, 1902. He was interred at the Marion National Cemetery.[22]

422

Texas
Carpetbaggers were least visible in Texas. Republicans were in power from 1867 to January 1874. Only one state official and one justice of the state supreme court were Northerners. About 13% to 21% of district court judges were Northerners, along with about 10% of the delegates who wrote the Reconstruction constitution of 1869. Of the 142 men who served in the 12th Legislature, only 12 to 29 were Northerners. At the county level, they included about 10% of the commissioners, county judges and sheriffs.[23] New Yorker George T. Ruby was sent as an agent by the Freedmen's Bureau to Galveston, Texas, where he settled. Later elected a Texas state senator, Ruby was instrumental in various economic development schemes and in efforts to organize African-American dockworkers into the Labor Union of Colored Men. When Reconstruction ended Ruby became a leader of the Exoduster movement, which encouraged Southern blacks to homestead in Kansas to escape white supremacist violence and the oppression of segregation.[23]

Historiography
The Dunning school of American historians (1900–1950) viewed carpetbaggers unfavorably, arguing that they degraded the political and business culture. The revisionist school in the 1930s called them stooges of Northern business interests. After 1960 the neoabolitionist school emphasized their moral courage.

Modern use
United Kingdom
Carpetbagging was used as a term in Great Britain in the late 1990s during the wave of demutualizations of building societies. It indicated members of the public who joined mutual societies with the hope of making a quick profit from the conversion.[24] Contemporarily speaking, the term carpetbagger refers to roving financial opportunists, often of modest means, who spot investment opportunities and aim to benefit from a set of circumstances to which they are not ordinarily entitled. In recent years the best opportunities for carpetbaggers have come from opening membership accounts at building societies for as little as £1, to qualify for windfalls running into thousands of pounds from the process of conversion and takeover. The influx of such transitory ‘token’ members as carpetbaggers, took advantage of these nugatory deposit criteria, often to instigate or accelerate the trend towards wholesale

Carpetbagger demutualisation. Investors in these mutuals would receive shares in the new public companies, usually distributed at a flat rate, thus equally benefiting small and large investors, and providing a broad incentive for members to vote for conversion-advocating leadership candidates. The word was first used in this context in early 1997 by the chief executive of the Woolwich Building Society, who announced the society's conversion with rules removing the most recent new savers' entitlement to potential windfalls and stated in a media interview, "I have no qualms about disenfranchising carpetbaggers." Between 1997 and 2002, a group of pro-demutualization supporters “Members for Conversion” operated a website, carpetbagger.com, which highlighted the best ways of opening share accounts with UK building societies, and organized demutualization resolutions.[25] [26] This led many building societies to implement anti-carpetbagging policies, such as not accepting new deposits from customers who lived outside the normal operating area of the society.

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World War II
During World War II, the U.S. Office of Strategic Services surreptitiously supplied necessary tools and material to anti-Nazi resistance groups in Europe. The OSS called this effort Operation Carpetbagger, and the modified B-24 aircraft used for the night-time missions were referred to as "carpetbaggers." (Among other special features, they were painted a glossy black to make them less visible to searchlights.) Between January and September 1944, Operation Carpetbagger ran 1,860 sorties between RAF Harrington, England, and various points in occupied Europe.
[27]

Australia
In Australia, the term "carpetbagger" refers to unscrupulous dealers and business managers in Indigenous Australian art.[28] [29] [30] [31] The term "carpetbagger" was also used by John Fahey, a former Premier of New South Wales and federal Liberal finance minister, in the context of shoddy "tradespeople" who travelled to Queensland to take advantage of victims following the 2011 Queensland floods.[32] [33]

Notes
[1] Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff. Nation of Nations: A Concise Narrative of the American Republic, 3rd edition, New York: McGraw Hill, 2002 [2] Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins, The Scalawag in Alabama Politics. 1865–1881, Birmingham: University of Alabama Press. 1991. [3] Richard Nelson Current, Those Terrible Carpetbaggers, New York: Oxford University Press. 1988. [4] Williams, Heather Andrea, Self-Taught: African American Education in Slavery and Freedom, University of North Carolina Press, [5] Those Terrible Carpetbaggers by Richard Nelson Current. Oxford University Press.1988 [6] Foner, 1988, pp. 137 [7] Foner 1988 pp 294–295 [8] Foner 1988 pp 289 [9] Klein 1968 p. 269 [10] Garner (1902); Harris (1979) [11] George C. Rable, But There Was No Peace: The Role of Violence in the Politics of Reconstruction, Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1984, p.132 [12] Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War, New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, paperback, 2007, pp.80–87 [13] Garner 187–88 [14] Full text in Garner, pp. 399–400. [15] Escott 160 [16] Foner, 1988, pp. 387 [17] Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War, New York: Farrar, Strauss & Giroux, paperback, 2007 [18] Simkins and Woody. (1932) [19] Foner (1968)

Carpetbagger
[20] "Badger, Algernon Sidney" (http:/ / www. lahistory. org/ site19. php). Louisiana Historical Association, A Dictionary of Louisiana Biography. . Retrieved February 6, 2011. [21] Woolfolk (1966); Foner (1968) p 295 [22] Foner Freedom's Lawmakers p. 79; Wintory 2004, 2006 (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofarkansas. net/ encyclopedia/ entry-detail. aspx?entryID=15); Daniel Phillips Upham (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofarkansas. net/ encyclopedia/ entry-detail. aspx?search=1& entryID=1790); Gov. Powell Clayton (http:/ / www. encyclopediaofarkansas. net/ encyclopedia/ entry-detail. aspx?search=1& entryID=94) [23] Campbell (1994) [24] Matthews, Race (April 16, 2000). Looting the Mutuals: The Ethics and Economics of Demutualisation. Background Paper for an Address on "Succession and Continuance of Mutuals" (http:/ / www. australia. coop/ rm_lm_2000. htm). Brisbane. . Retrieved August 4, 2008 [25] Patrick Sherwen (December 4, 1999). "New king's decree favours 'democratic' way" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ technology/ 1999/ dec/ 04/ efinance. demutualisation). The Guardian (Manchester). . "Mr Yendall offered to take charge of an attack by carpetbagger.com on three building societies before the new rules came into effect and beat the deadline by a matter of hours." [26] The Guardian (Manchester). July 21, 2001. [27] "Operation Carpetbagger" (http:/ / www. nationalmuseum. af. mil/ factsheets/ factsheet. asp?id=1502). Night Flights Over Occupied Europe. . Retrieved 06/28/2011. [28] http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ stories/ 2008/ 07/ 28/ 2315816. htm [29] Dow, Steve (April 27, 2009). "White ignorance about indigenous issues fails everyone" (http:/ / www. theage. com. au/ opinion/ white-ignorance-about-indigenous-issues-fails-everyone-20090426-ajcm. html?page=-1). The Age (Melbourne). . [30] Title=Four Corners ABC Interview - John Ioannou http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ 4corners/ content/ 2008/ s2333833. htm [31] title=Gary Proctor, Warburton Arts Project http:/ / www. warburtonarts. com/ china2011. html [32] http:/ / www. heraldsun. com. au/ news/ breaking-news/ keep-out-flood-carpetbaggers-says-reconstruction-inspectorate-john-fahey/ story-e6frf7jx-1226002024136 [33] "Keep out flood carpetbaggers, says reconstruction inspectorate John Fahey" (http:/ / www. heraldsun. com. au/ news/ breaking-news/ keep-out-flood-carpetbaggers-says-reconstruction-inspectorate-john-fahey/ story-e6frf7jx-1226002024136). The Herald Sun (Melbourne). July 28, 2011. .

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References
• Ash, Stephen V. When the Yankees Came: Conflict and Chaos in the Occupied South, 1861–1865 University of North Carolina Press, 1995. • Barnes, Kenneth C. Who Killed John Clayton. Duke University Press, 1998; violence in Arkansas. • Brown, Canter, Jr. "Carpetbagger Intrigues, Black Leadership, and a Southern Loyalist Triumph: Florida's Gubernatorial Election of 1872" Florida Historical Quarterly, 1994 72 (3): 275–301. ISSN 0015-4113. Shows how African Americans joined Redeemers to defeat corrupt carpetbagger running for reelection. • Bryant, Emma Spaulding. Emma Spaulding Bryant: Civil War Bride, Carpetbagger's Wife, Ardent Feminist; Letters and Diaries, 1860–1900 Fordham University Press, 2004. 503 pp. • Campbell, Randolph B. "Carpetbagger Rule in Reconstruction Texas: an Enduring Myth." Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 1994 97 (4): 587–596. ISSN 0038-478X • Richard Nelson Current. Those Terrible Carpetbaggers: A Reinterpretation (1988), a favorable view. • Currie-Mcdaniel, Ruth. Carpetbagger of Conscience: A Biography of John Emory Bryant, Fordham University Press, 1999; religious reformer in South Carolina. • Davidson, Gienapp, Heyrman, Lytle, Stoff. Nation of Nations: A Concise Narrative of the American Republic. 3rd. New York: McGraw Hill, 2002. • Durden, Robert Franklin; James Shepherd Pike: Republicanism and the American Negro, 1850–1882 Duke University Press, 1957 • Paul D. Escott; Many Excellent People: Power and Privilege in North Carolina, 1850–1900, University of North Carolina Press, 1985. • Fleming, Walter L. Documentary History of Reconstruction: Political, Military, Social, Religious, Educational, and Industrial 2 vol 1906. Uses broad collection of primary sources. • Foner, Eric. Freedom's Lawmakers: A Directory Of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction, Oxford University Press, 1993, Revised, 1996, LSU Press. • Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (1988). Harper & Row, 1988, recent standard history.

Carpetbagger • Fowler, Wilton B. "A Carpetbagger's Conversion to White Supremacy." North Carolina Historical Review, 1966 43 (3): 286–304. ISSN 0029-2494 • Garner, James Wilford. Reconstruction in Mississippi (1902) • Harris, William C. The Day of the Carpetbagger: Republican Reconstruction in Mississippi Louisiana State University Press, 1979. • Harris, William C. "James Lynch: Black Leader in Southern Reconstruction," Historian 1971 34 (1): 40–61. ISSN 0018-2370; Lynch was Mississippi's first African American secretary of state. • Klein, Maury. "Southern Railroad Leaders, 1865–1893: Identities and Ideologies" Business History Review, 1968 42 (3): 288–310. ISSN 0007-6805 Fulltext in JSTOR. • Morrow, Ralph E.; Northern Methodism and Reconstruction Michigan State University Press, 1956. • Olsen, Otto H. Carpetbagger's Crusade: The Life of Albion Winegar Tourgee (1965) • Post, Louis F. "A 'Carpetbagger' in South Carolina," The Journal of Negro History Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan. 1925), pp. 10–79 in JSTOR; autobiography. • Simkins, Francis Butler, and Robert Hilliard Woody. South Carolina during Reconstruction (1932). • Tunnell, Ted. Edge of the Sword: The Ordeal of Carpetbagger Marshall H. Twitchell in the Civil War and Reconstruction. LSU Press, 2001, on Louisiana. • Tunnell, Ted. "Creating 'the Propaganda of History': Southern Editors and the Origins of Carpetbagger and Scalawag," Journal of Southern History, (Nov 2006) 72#4. • Twitchell, Marshall Harvey. Carpetbagger from Vermont: The Autobiography of Marshall Harvey Twitchell. ed by Ted Tunnell; Louisiana State University Press, 1989. 216 pp. • Wiggins, Sarah Woolfolk; The Scalawag in Alabama Politics, 1865–1881. University of Alabama Press, 1991 • Wintory, Blake. "William Hines Furbush: African-American Carpetbagger, Republican, Fusionist, and Democrat," Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 2004 63 (2): 107–165. ISSN 0004-1823 • Wintory, Blake. "William Hines Furbush (1839–1902)" Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture (2006). (http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-detail.aspx?entryID=15) • Woolfolk, Sarah Van V. "George E. Spencer: a Carpetbagger in Alabama," Alabama Review, 1966 19 (1): 41–52. ISSN 0002-4341

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Central Pacific Railroad

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Central Pacific Railroad
Central Pacific Railroad
Locale Sacramento, CA-Ogden, Utah Dates of operation 1863–April 1, 1885 but continued as an SP leased line Successor Track gauge Headquarters Southern Pacific 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in (1435 mm) (standard gauge) Sacramento, CA; San Francisco, CA

The Central Pacific Railroad (CPRR) is the former name of the railroad network built between California and Utah, USA that formed part of the "First Transcontinental Railroad" in North America. It is now part of the Union Pacific Railroad. Many 19th century national proposals to build a transcontinental railroad failed because of the energy consumed by political disputes over slavery. With the secession of the South, the modernizers in the Republican Party controlled the US Congress. They passed legislation to authorize the railroad, and created financing in the form of government railroad bonds. These were all eventually repaid with interest.[1] The government and the railroads both shared in the increased value of the land grants, which the railroads developed.[2] Once the railroad was constructed, the government saved expenses for the transportation of the mails and the military.

The Gov. Stanford locomotive

Authorization and construction
Planned by Theodore Judah, the Central Pacific Railroad was authorized by Congress in 1862. It was financed and built through "The Big Four" (who called themselves "The Associates"): Sacramento, California businessmen Leland Stanford, Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins. Crocker was in charge of construction. The western labor teams were primarily made up of Chinese emigrant workers with up to 12,000 such Trestle, Central Pacific Railroad, c.1869. Photo: Carleton Watkins laborers employed by the Central Pacific Railroad representing 90 percent of the entire work force.[3] They laid the first rails in 1863. The "Golden spike", connecting the western railroad to the Union Pacific Railroad at Promontory, Utah, was hammered on May 10, 1869. Coast-to-coast train travel in eight days became

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possible, replacing months-long sea voyages and lengthy, hazardous travel by wagon trains. In 1885 the Central Pacific Railroad was leased by the Southern Pacific Company. Technically the CPRR remained a corporate entity until 1959, when it was formally merged into Southern Pacific. (It was reorganized in 1899 as the Central Pacific "Railway".) The original right-of-way is now controlled by the Union Pacific, which purchased Southern Pacific in 1996. The Union Pacific-Central Pacific (Southern Pacific) mainline followed the historic Overland Route from Omaha, Nebraska to San Francisco Bay.
The Last Spike, by Thomas Hill, (1881)

Financing
Construction of the road was financed primarily by 30-year, 6% U.S. Government Bonds authorized by Sec. 5 of the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. They were issued at the rate of $16,000 per mile of tracked grade completed West of the designated base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.[4] Sec. 11 of the Act also provided that the issuance of bonds "shall be treble the number per mile" (to $48,000) for tracked grade completed over and within the two mountain ranges (but limited to a total of 300 miles (480 km) at this rate), and "doubled" (to $32,000) per mile of completed grade laid between the two mountain ranges.[5] The U.S. Government Bonds, which constituted a lien upon the railroads and all their fixtures, were repaid in full (and with interest) by the company as and when they became due.

Sec. 10 of the 1864 amending Pacific Railroad Act (13 Statutes at Large, 356) additionally authorized the company to issue its own "First Mortgage Bonds"[6] in total amounts up to (but not exceeding) that of the bonds issued by the United States. Such company-issued securities had priority over the original Government Bonds.[7] (Local and state governments also aided the financing, although the City and County of San Francisco did not do so willingly. This materially slowed early construction efforts.) Sec. 3 of the 1862 Act granted the railroads 10 square miles (26 km2) of public land for every mile laid, except where railroads ran through cities and crossed rivers. This grant was apportioned in 5 sections on alternating sides of the railroad, with each section measuring 0.2 miles (320 m) by 10 miles (16 km).[8] These grants were later doubled to 20 square miles (52 km2) per mile of grade by the 1864 Act.

CPRR logo on a gilded "Staff" uniform button (1867)

Central Pacific Railroad

428 Although the Pacific Railroad eventually benefited the Bay Area, the City and County of San Francisco obstructed financing it during the early years of 1863-1865. When Stanford was Governor of California, the Legislature passed on April 22, 1863, "An Act to Authorize the Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco to take and subscribe One Million Dollars to the Capital Stock of the Western Pacific Rail Road Company and the Central Pacific Rail Road Company of California and to provide for the payment of the same and other matters relating thereto" (which was later amended by Section Five of the "Compromise Act" of April 4, 1864). On May 19, 1863, the electors of the City and County of San Francisco passed this bond by a vote of 6,329 to 3,116, in a highly controversial Special Election.

An 1865 San Francisco Pacific Railroad Bond approved in 1863 but delayed for two years by the opposition of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors

The City and County's financing of the investment through the issuance and delivery of Bonds was delayed for two years, when Mayor Henry P. Coon, and the County Clerk, Wilhelm Loewy, each refused to countersign the Bonds. It took legal actions to force them to do so: in 1864 the Supreme Court of the State of California ordered them under Writs of Mandamus (The People of the State of California ex rel the Central Pacific Railroad Company vs. Henry P. Coon, Mayor; Henry M. Hale, Auditor; and Joseph S. Paxson, Treasurer, of the City and County of San Francisco. 25 Cal. 635) and in 1865, a legal judgment against Loewy (The People ex rel The Central Pacific Railroad Company of California vs. The Board of Supervisors of the City and County of San Francisco, and Wilhelm Lowey, Clerk 27 Cal. 655) directing that the Bonds be countersigned and delivered. In 1863 the legislature's forcing of City and County action became known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle". Critics claimed the CPRR intended to build a railroad only as far as Dutch Flat, to connect to the Dutch Flat Wagon Road which they already controlled.

Museums and archives
A replica of the Sacramento, California Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the California State Railroad Museum, located in the Old Sacramento State Historic Park. Nearly all the company's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University, as part of the Collis Huntington Papers collection. It has been released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have the microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; and Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond. Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariners' Museum at Newport News, Virginia. Alfred A. Hart was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.

CPRR Original Chief Assistant Engineer L.M. [9] Clement (l) & Chief Engineer T.D. Judah (r)

Locomotives
The Central Pacific's first three locomotives were of the then common 4-4-0 type, although with the American Civil War raging in the east, they had difficulty acquiring engines from eastern builders, who at times only had smaller 4-2-4 or 4-2-2 types available. Until the completion of the Transcontinental rail link and the railroad's opening of its own shops, all locomotives had to be purchased by builders in the northeastern U.S. The engines had to be dismantled, loaded on a ship, which would embark on a four month journey that went around South America's Cape Horn until arriving in Sacramento where the locomotives would be unloaded, re-assembled, and placed in service.

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Locomotives at the time came from many manufacturers, such as Cooke, Schenectady, Mason, Rogers, Danforth, Norris, Booth, and McKay & Aldus, among others. Interestingly, the railroad had been on rather unfriendly terms with the Baldwin Locomotive Works, one of the more well-known firms. It is not clear as to the cause of this dispute, though some attribute it to the builder insisting on cash payment (though this has yet to be verified). Consequently, the railroad CPRR #113 FALCON, a Danforth 4-4-0, at refused to buy engines from Baldwin, and three former Western Pacific Argenta, Nevada, March 1, 1869 (Photo: J.B. Railroad (which the CP had absorbed in 1870) engines were the only Silvis) Baldwin engines owned by the Central Pacific. The Central Pacific's dispute with Baldwin remained unresolved until well after the road had been acquired by the Southern Pacific. In the 1870s, the road opened up its own locomotive construction facilities in Sacramento. Central Pacific's 173 was rebuilt by these shops and served as the basis for CP's engine construction. The locomotives built before the 1870s were given names as well as numbers. By the 1870s, it was decided to eliminate the names and as each engine was sent to the shops for service, their names would be removed. However, one engine that was built in the 1880s did receive a name, the El Gobernador.

Preserved locomotives
The following CP engines have been preserved: • • • • Central Pacific 1, Gov. Stanford CP 233, a 2-6-2T the railroad had built, is stored at the California State Railroad Museum. Central Pacific 3, C. P. Huntington Former Western Pacific Mariposa, Central Pacific's second number 31. Was sold to Stockton Terminal and Eastern in 1914. Currently at the Travel Town Museum in Los Angeles. • Virginia and Truckee RR. Engine No. 18, The Dayton Though The Dayton was not built for, nor served on the Central Pacific, the engine was one of two locomotives built by the CP's Sacramento shops in preservation(the other being CP 233). Moreover, its specifications were derived from CP 173, and thus is the only surviving example of that engine's design. • Central Pacific's numbers 60, Jupiter, and 63 Leviathan. Although both engines have been scrapped, and therefore technically do not count as having been preserved, there were exact, full size operating replicas built in recent years. The Jupiter was built for the National Park Service along with a replica of Union Pacific's 119 for use at their Golden Spike National Historic Site. Leviathan was finished in 2009, is privately owned, and travels to various railroads to operate.

Timeline
1861 • June 21, 1861: "Central Pacific Rail Road of California" incorporated; name changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California" on October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer. 1862 • July 1, 1862: President Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorized the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific to build a railroad to the Pacific Ocean. 1863 • January 8, 1863: Ground-breaking ceremonies take place at Sacramento, California, at the foot of "K" Street at the waterfront of the Sacramento River.[10]

Central Pacific Railroad • October 26, 1863: First rail laid at Sacramento. 1864 • April 26, 1864: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, 18 miles (29 km), where it makes a junction with the California Central Rail Road, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln. • June 3, 1864: The first revenue train on the Central Pacific operates between Sacramento and Newcastle, California • October 8, 1864: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to "Central Pacific Railroad of California," a new corporation. 1865 • May 13, 1865: Central Pacific opened 36 miles (58 km) to Auburn, California. • September 1, 1865: Central Pacific opened 54 miles (87 km) to Colfax, California (formerly known as "Illinoistown.") 1866 • December 3, 1866: Central Pacific opened 92 miles (148 km) to Cisco, California. • December 1, 1868: Central Pacific opened to Summit of the Sierra Nevada, 105 miles (169 km). 1869 • April 28, 1869: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay 10 miles (16 km) of track in one day. This is the longest stretch of track that has been built in one day to date. • May 10, 1869: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in Promontory, Utah. • May 15, 1869: The first transcontinental trains are run over the new line to Sacramento. • November 8, 1869: Central Pacific subsidiaries Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad complete the final leg of the route, connecting Sacramento to Oakland. 1870 • June 23, 1870: Central Pacific is consolidated with the Western Pacific Railroad (1862-1870) and San Francisco Bay Railroad Co. to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co." (of June, 1870). • August 22, 1870: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the California & Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland & Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad; to form the "Central Pacific Railroad Co.", a new corporation. 1876 • April 30, 1876: Operates the California Pacific Railroad between South Vallejo and Sacramento, Calistoga and Marysville until April 1, 1885 (see below). 1877 • July 16, 1877: Start of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 when railroad workers on strike in Martinsburg, West Virginia, derail and loot a train; United States President Rutherford B. Hayes calls in Federal troops to break the strike. 1883 • November 18, 1883: A system of one-hour standard time zones for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using standard time. 1885 • April 1, 1885: Central Pacific is leased to Southern Pacific. 1888 • June 30, 1888: Listed by ICC as a "non-operating" subsidiary of Southern Pacific.

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Central Pacific Railroad 1899 • July 29, 1899: Central Pacific is reorganized as the "Central Pacific Railway". 1959 • June 30, 1959: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific.

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Acquisitions
• Stockton and Copperopolis Railroad [11] • Stockton and Visalia Railroad [12] • Western Pacific Railroad (1862)

References
[1] Stuart (1908). "Railroad Reorganization: Union Pacific," Harvard Economic Studies, p. 256. (http:/ / CPRR. org/ Museum/ FAQs. html#repaidDaggett,) [2] LEO SHEEP CO. V. UNITED STATES, 440 U.S. 668 (1979) (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ scripts/ getcase. pl?court=US& vol=440& invol=668#t6) [3] George Kraus, "Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific," Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 37, no. 1 (Winter 1969), pp. 41-57. [4] Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 §5 (http:/ / www. cprr. org/ Museum/ Pacific_Railroad_Acts. html#1862-05) [5] Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 §11 (http:/ / www. cprr. org/ Museum/ Pacific_Railroad_Acts. html#1862-11) [6] FIRST MORTGAGE BONDS OF THE CENTRAL PACIFIC RAILROAD, Business Prospects and Operations of the Company, 1867. (http:/ / cprr. org/ Museum/ Bond_Adv_CPRR_1867. html) [7] Pacific Railroad Act of 1864 §10 (http:/ / www. cprr. org/ Museum/ Pacific_Railroad_Acts. html#1864-10) [8] Pacific Railroad Act of 1862 §3 (http:/ / www. cprr. org/ Museum/ Pacific_Railroad_Acts. html#1862-03) [9] http:/ / cprr. org/ Museum/ Lewis_Metzler_Clement. html [10] Ambrose, Stephen E. (2000). Nothing Like It in the World. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 106. ISBN 0-7432-0317-8. [11] http:/ / www. usgennet. org/ usa/ ca/ state1/ tinkhamch18. html [12] http:/ / www. oakdalehistory. net/ article%2001. htm

Further reading
• Ambrose, Stephen E. (2000). Nothing Like It In The World: The Men Who Built the Transcontinental Railroad, 1863-1869. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84609-8. • Bain, David Haward (1999). Empire Express: Building the First Transcontinental Railroad. New York: Viking. ISBN 067080889X. • Beebe, Lucius (1963). The Central Pacific and Southern Pacific Railroads. Berkeley, CA: Howell-North Books. • Cooper, Bruce C. (2005). Riding the Transcontinental Rails: Overland Travel on the Pacific Railroad 1865-1881. Philadelphia: Polyglot Press. ISBN 1411599934. • Cooper, Bruce Clement (2010). The Classic Western American Railroad Routes. New York: Chartwell Books/Worth Press. ISBN 0785825738. • Daggett, Stuart (1922). Chapters on the History of the Southern Pacific (http://books.google.com/ books?id=KAb7M8x5QQcC&printsec=frontcover&dq=chapters+southern+pacific&source=bl& ots=lFO0PTuHhQ&sig=wiHQ-pCg6kS7b2MhKcyc9QQGgZ4&hl=en&ei=i7XrS_OhC8H68AaO4NzBCA& sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false). New York: The Ronald Press. • Evans, Cerinda W. (1954). Collis Potter Huntington (2 vols.) (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o& d=4045484). Newport News, Va.: Mariners' Museum. • Fleisig, Heywood (1975). "The Central Pacific Railroad and the Railroad Land Grant Controversy". Journal of Economic History 35 (3): 552–566. Questions whether promoters of the Central Pacific Railroad were oversubsidized. Confirms the traditional view that subsidies were not an economic necessity because they

Central Pacific Railroad "influenced neither the decision to invest in the railroad nor the speed of its construction." Notes that estimates of rate of return for the railroad developers using government funds range from 71% to 200%, while estimates of private rates of return range from 15% to 25%. Galloway, John Debo (1950). The First Transcontinental Railroad: Central Pacific, Union Pacific (http://www. questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14065867). New York: Simmons-Boardman. Griswold, Wesley (1962). A Work of Giants: Building the First Trans-continental Railroad. New York: McGraw-Hill. Klein, Maury (1987). Union Pacific (2 vols.). Garden City, NY: Doubleday. ISBN 0385177283, 0385177356. Kraus, George (1969). High Road to Promontory: Building the Central Pacific (Now the Southern Pacific) across the High Sierra. Palo Alto: American West Pub. Co.. Kraus, George (1975). "Chinese Laborers and the Construction of the Central Pacific". Utah Historical Quarterly 37 (1): 41–57. Shows how Chinese railroad workers lived and worked, and managed the finances associated with their employment. Concludes that CPRR officials who employed the Chinese, even those at first opposed to the policy, came to appreciate the reliability of this group of laborers. There are many quotations from accounts by contemporary observers. Lake, Holly (1994). "Construction of the CPRR: Chinese Immigrant Contribution". Northeastern Nevada Historical Society Quarterly 94 (4): 188–199.

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•

• Mercer, Lloyd J. (1970). "Rates of Return for Land-grant Railroads: the Central Pacific System". Journal of Economic History 30 (3): 602–626. Analyzes the impact of land grants from 1864 to 1890 on rates of return from investment in the Central Pacific Railroad. Results suggest that even without land grants, rates of return were high enough to induce investment. Also, land grants did not pay for the construction of the railroad. Land grants, however, did produce large social returns in western states by accelerating construction of the system. • Mercer, Lloyd J. (1969). "Land Grants to American Railroads: Social Cost or Social Benefit?". Business History Review 43 (2): 134–151. Uses econometrics to determine the value of railroad land grants of the 19th century to the railroads and to society. The author summarizes and criticizes previous treatments of this subject, and discusses his own findings. Using the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific systems as the basis for his investigation, the author concludes that the railroad owners received unaided rates of return that substantially exceeded the private rate of return on the average alternative project in the economy during the same period. Thus, the projects were profitable, although contemporary observers expected that the roads would be privately unprofitable without the land grant aid. The land grants did not have a major effect, increasing the private rate of return only slightly. Nevertheless, he says the policy of subsidizing those railroad systems was beneficial for society since the social rate of return from the project was substantial and exceeded the private rate by a significant margin. • Ong, Paul M. (1985). "The Central Pacific Railroad and Exploitation of Chinese Labor". Journal of Ethnic Studies 13 (2): 119–124. Ong tries to resolve the apparent inconsistency in the literature on Asians in early California, with contradictory studies showing evidence both for and against the exploitation of Chinese labor by the CPRR, using monopsony theory as developed by Joan Robinson. Because CPRR set different wages for whites and Chinese (each group had different elasticities of supply) and used the two classes in different types of positions, the two groups were complementary, rather than interchangeable. Calculations thus show higher levels of exploitation of the Chinese than found in previous studies. • Saxton, Alexander (1966). "The Army of Canton in the High Sierra". Pacific Historical Review 35 (2): 141–151. • Tutorow, Norman E. (1970). "Stanford's Responses to Competition: Rhetoric Versus Reality". Southern California Quarterly 52 (3): 231–247. Leland Stanford and the men who ran the CPRR paid lip-service to the idea of free competition, but in practice sought to dominate competing railroad and shipping lines. Analyzing the period 1869-1893, the author shows how Stanford and his associates repeatedly entered into pooling arrangements to prevent competition, bought out competitors, or forced rivals to agree not to compete. He concludes that Stanford and his partners viewed laissez-faire as applicable only to government controls, and not

Central Pacific Railroad to businessmen's destruction of competition within the system. White, Richard (2003). "Information, Markets, and Corruption: Transcontinental Railroads in the Gilded Age". The Journal of American History 90 (1). Williams, John Hoyt (1988). A Great and Shining Road: The Epic Story of the Transcontinental Railroad. New York: Times Books. ISBN 0812916689. "The Iron Road". Neil Goodwin, Peace River Films. The American Experience. PBS. 1990. Best, Gerald M (1969). Iron Horses to Promontory. New York: Golden West.

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• • • •

External links
• Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum (http://CPRR.org) • Railroads in California (http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt6c602823), handwritten report by L. M. Clement. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California. • Central Pacific Railroad number 63 replica. (http://www.leviathan63.com/) • The Nevada Central Narrow Gauge RR a feeder line of CP http://nevada-railways.net/

Crédit Mobilier of America scandal
The Crédit Mobilier scandal of 1872 involved the Union Pacific Railroad and the Crédit Mobilier of America construction company in the building of the First Transcontinental Railroad. The distribution of Crédit Mobilier shares of stock by Congressman Oakes Ames along with cash bribes to congressmen took place during the Andrew Johnson presidency in 1868. The revelation of the congressmen who received cash bribes or shares in Crédit Mobilier took place during the Ulysses S. Grant administration in 1872. The scandal's origins date back to the Abraham Lincoln presidency with the formation of the Crédit Mobilier in 1864.

Background
The federal government in 1864 had chartered a “Union Pacific Railroad,” with $100,000,000 capital, to complete a transcontinental line west from the Missouri River. It offered to assist it by a loan of $16,000 to $48,000 a mile according to location, over $60,000,000 in all, and a land grant of 20,000,000 acres, worth $50,000,000 to $100,000,000. Even this offer attracted no subscribers: it meant building 1,750 miles of road through desert and mountain, at enormous freight costs for supplies, with frequent bloody encounters with Indians, and no probable early business to pay dividends.[1] George Francis Train and Thomas C. Durant, a vice president of the Union Pacific Railroad, formed the Crédit Mobilier in 1864. The original company, Pennsylvania Fiscal Agency, was a loan and contract company chartered in 1859.[1] The creation of Crédit Mobilier of America was a deliberate attempt to falsely present to the Government of the United States and the general public the appearance that an independent (of the Union Pacific Railroad and its principal officers) corporate enterprise had been impartially chosen by the Union Pacific Railroad’s officers and directors to be the principal construction contractor and construction management firm for the Union Pacific Railroad project. It was created by the officers of the Union Pacific to shield the companies' shareholders and management from the then common charge that they were using the construction phase of the Union Pacific project (as opposed to the operating phase of carrying passengers and freight), to line their pockets in excess profits, profits which these corporate officers did not in fact believe would come to exist from the actual operation of the railroad. So they created a sham company to charge the U.S. Government extortionate fees and expenses for the construction of the line. In simplified terms the Crédit Mobilier fraud worked in the following manner. The Union Pacific made contracts with Crédit Mobilier, paid by check, to build the Union Pacific railway. The Crédit Mobilier would use these checks

Crédit Mobilier of America scandal to buy stock and bonds in the Union Pacific at par value, the crux to the whole fraud, and then would sell them on the open market to make huge profits. These construction contracts brought huge profits to the Crédit Mobilier, which was owned by Durant and the other directors and principal stock holders of the Union Pacific. The Crédit Mobilier would split these huge profits with the stockholders. The net result was that the U.S. Congress paid $94,650,287.25 and $50,720,958.94 respectively to the Union Pacific and Crédit Mobilier. This left $43,929,328.31 in profits, counting at par value the shares and bonds that Crédit Mobilier paid itself. The Crédit Mobilier directors reported this as a cash profit of only $23,366,319.81, a financial misrepresentation.[1] [2] The principal means of the fraud was the method of indirect billing. The Union Pacific itself could and did present to the U.S. Government genuine and accurate invoices for construction costs, generated by Crédit Mobilier of America, and presented to the Union Pacific Railroad for payment. The railroad then prepared meticulously detailed invoices to the U.S. Government, requesting payment for these bills, accrued by the Union Pacific from Crédit Mobilier of America, for the construction of the line, with only a small additional fee over the cost stated on the Crédit Mobilier invoices, for the Union Pacific's overhead expenses. Any audit of the Union Pacific and its invoices to the U.S. Government would have revealed no evidence of fraud or profiteering. Union Pacific was only accepting for payment genuine Crédit Mobilier invoices and was only applying an auditable overhead expense for management and administration during construction of the railroad. The underlying fraud of a common and unified ownership of the two companies, as regards their principal officers and directors, was not immediately revealed. Nor was it immediately revealed that in every major construction contract drawn up between the Union Pacific and Crédit Mobilier, the contract’s terms, conditions and price had been offered (by Crédit Mobilier) and accepted (by the Union Pacific) through the actions of corporate officers and directors who were one and the same persons. Furthermore, the company sought, and was largely successful in maintaining, this fraud and its secrecy by giving discounted shares of stock to members of Congress who also agreed to support additional funding for the railroad, when (through the excessive charges for building the line), the Union Pacific had to come back to the government for additional construction funds. For its time, it was a very sophisticated corporate scam, and it was, at the time, largely not illegal.

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Transgression
In 1867, Dr. Thomas C. Durant was replaced as head of Crédit Mobilier by Congressman Oakes Ames.[3] In that year Ames offered to members of Congress shares of stock in Crédit Mobilier at its discounted value rather than market value, which was much higher. The high market value of the stock was due to the superb performance of Crédit Mobilier of America corporation; which was in turn because the company had a major contract in which it was charging the Union Pacific whatever it wanted. The Union Pacific "suspected" Editorial cartoon: Uncle Sam directs U.S. Senators (and nothing; and they "paid" Crédit Mobilier (themselves) Representatives?) implicated in the Crédit Mobilier scheme to whatever "they" asked. Crédit Mobilier's corporate commit Hari-Kari. balance sheet regularly showed huge earnings in excess of its expenses, and very high net profits in every quarter that it was engaged in the construction of the railroad. It also was declaring substantial quarterly dividends on its stock. The Congressmen and others who were allowed to purchase shares at a discount could reap enormous capital gains simply by, in turn, offering their discounted shares to a grossly under-subscribed market, that was very eager to own

Crédit Mobilier of America scandal shares of such a “profitable” company. These same members of Congress voted to appropriate government funds to cover the inflated charges of Crédit Mobilier. Ames' actions became one of the best-known examples of graft in American history. The story was introduced to the public during the presidential election campaign of 1872 by the New York City newspaper The Sun, which was against the re-election of Ulysses S. Grant. Henry Simpson McComb, a future executive of the Illinois Central Railroad and an associate of Ames, had leaked compromising letters to the newspaper following a disagreement with Ames. It was claimed that the $72 million in contracts had been given to Crédit Mobilier for building a railroad only worth $53 million. Union Pacific and other investors were left nearly bankrupt.[3]

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Investigation and outcome
A Congressional investigation of thirteen members led to the censure of Ames and also James Brooks. A federal investigation was also enacted with Aaron F. Perry serving as chief counsel. A number of other political figures had their careers theoretically damaged, including James A. Garfield, Schuyler Colfax, James W. Patterson, and Henry Wilson. During the investigation, it was found that the company had given shares to more than thirty representatives of both parties including future President Garfield. Garfield denied the charges and went on to become President, so the actual impact of the scandal is difficult to judge. Colfax was replaced on the Republican ticket for renomination as Vice President, ironically, by Henry Wilson who was also implicated in the scandals.

References
[1] "Crédit Mobilier of America". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. [2] Ambrose, Stephen E. (2001). Nothing Like It in the World: The Men who built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=TZp_GT7PscIC& pg=PA93). New York, N.Y.: Simon & Schuster. p. 93. ISBN 978-0405137624. . [3] Trent, Logan Douglas (1981), The Credit Mobilier (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FKYRDthKhPYC& pg=PA6#v=onepage& q& f=false), New York, New York: Arno Press Inc., p. 6, ISBN 978-0405137624,

External links
• Martin, Edward Winslow (1873). - "A Complete and Graphic Account of the Crédit Mobilier Investigation" (http://www.cprr.com/Museum/Credit_Mobilier_1873.html). - Behind the Scenes in Washington. - (c/o Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum). •  "Crédit Mobilier of America". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.

Expulsion of the Acadians

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Expulsion of the Acadians
The Expulsion of the Acadians (also known as the Great Upheaval, the Great Expulsion, The Deportation, the Acadian Expulsion, Le Grand Dérangement) was the forced removal by the British of the Acadian people from present day Canadian Maritime provinces: Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island (an area also known as Acadie). The Expulsion (1755–1763) occurred during the French and Indian War. The Expulsion started by the British deporting Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies and then, after 1758, the British sent them to France.[1] Approximately 11,500 Acadians were deported.[2]

St. John River Campaign: Raid on Grimrose (present day Gagetown, New Brunswick). This is the only contemporaneous image of the Expulsion of the Acadians

The British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. The Treaty of Utrecht was signed in 1713, and allowed the Acadians to keep their lands. Over the next forty-five years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of allegiance to Britain. During this period, some Acadians participated in various militia operations against the British and maintained vital supply lines to the French fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour.[3] The Acadian Expulsion was part of the military campaign that the New Englanders used to defeat New France. The British sought to eliminate any future military threat posed by the Acadians and to permanently cut the supply lines they provided to Louisbourg by deporting all Acadians from the area.[4] Without making distinctions between the Acadians who had been peaceful and those who rebelled against the occupation, the British governor Charles Lawrence and the Nova Scotia Council ordered them all expelled.[5] In the first wave of the expulsion, Acadians were deported to other British colonies. During the second wave, they were deported to England and France (from where some Acadians migrated to Louisiana). Many Acadians fled initially to Francophone colonies such as Canada, the unsettled Northern part of Acadia, Isle Saint-Jean and Isle Royale. During the second wave of the expulsion, many of these Acadians were either imprisoned or deported. The deportation led to the deaths of thousands of Acadians primarily by disease and drowning when ships were lost. One historian compared this event to a contemporary ethnic cleansing, while other historians have suggested the event is comparable with other deportations in history.[6] The American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow memorialized the historic event in his poem about the plight of the fictional character Evangeline; it was widely popular and made the expulsion well known. Acadians who lived during the deportation include Noel Doiron and Joseph Broussard ("Beausoleil"), who became icons.

Historical context
The Acadian removal occurred during the French and Indian War. After the initial British Conquest of Acadia, during Queen Anne's War, Catholic Acadians remained the dominant population in Acadia for the next fifty years. Those from the Chignectou peninsula near present day New Brunswick, were most apt to help the French and the Canadiens. Those near the capital Annapolis Royal did not. Thus, their allegiance to the British was determined largely by how close they lived to the capital. The closer the Acadians were to the French-dominated Fort Beauséjour and Fortress Louisbourg, the more their resistance to the British was evident.[7]

Expulsion of the Acadians There was a long history of the British threatening to remove the Acadians. As early as 1720, there was talk of deporting the Acadians. On December 28, 1720 in London, the House of Lords wrote: "It seems as though the French in Nova Scotia will never be good British subjects to her Majesty...This is why we believe that they should be expulsed as soon as the necessary forces, which will be sent to Nova Scotia, are ready."[8] After the first Siege of Louisbourg (1745), the thousands of Acadians on Île-Royale were deported to France.[9]

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Acadian political resistance
After the British officially gained control of Acadia in 1713, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of loyalty to become British subjects. Instead, they negotiated a conditional oath that promised neutrality. Many Acadians might have signed an unconditional oath to the British monarchy had the circumstances been better, while other Acadians did not sign because they were anti-British. The Acadians who might have signed the oath had numerous reasons for refusal: The difficulty was partly religious, as the British monarch was the head of the (Protestant) Church of England and the Acadians were Catholic. They worried that signing the oath might commit male Acadians to fight against France during wartime. Third, they were concerned that signing the oath would be perceived by their Mi'kmaq neighbours as acknowledging the British claim to Acadia rather than that of the Mi'kmaq. To be seen as allies of the British might have put Acadian villages at risk of attack from Mi'kmaq.[10] Other Acadians were adamantly opposed to any British rule. Various historians have observed that many Acadians were labeled "neutral" when they were not.[11] The Acadians either ignored the demands for an unconditional oath or attempted to negotiate the terms by asking to be exempted from taking up arms against their former countrymen during any event of war between Britain and France. During King George's War, after the failure of the Duc d'Anville Expedition to recapture Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia Governor Paul Mascarene told Acadians to avoid all "deluding Hopes of Returning under the Dominion of France."[12] One French officer noted that when the French troops withdrew from Annapolis Royal, the Acadians were alarmed and disappointed, feeling they were being abandoned to British retribution.[13] After King George's War in 1744, many English speakers began calling the Acadians "French neutral," and that label would remain in common use through the 1750s. Some British used the term sarcastically in derision.[14] This stance led to the Acadians becoming known at times as the "neutral French".[15] In 1749, Governor Cornwallis again asked the Acadians to take the oath. Although unsuccessful, he took no drastic action against them. The following governor, Peregrine Hopson, continued the conciliatory policy for the Acadians.[16] Prior to the expulsion, as an example of political resistance, many Acadians left mainland Nova Scotia for other areas during Father Le Loutre's War. From 1749–55, there was massive Acadian migration out of British-occupied mainland Nova Scotia and into French-occupied Ile Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), and Ile Royale (Cape Breton) and present-day New Brunswick. A prominant Acadian who transported Acadians to Ile St. Jean and Ile Royal was Joseph-Nicolas Gautier. While some Acadians were forced to leave, for other Acadians leaving British-occupied territory for French-occupied territory was an act of resistance to the British occupation.[17] On one occasion, when a British naval patrol intercepted Acadians in a vessel making their way to Ile St. Jean, an Acadian passenger said, "They chose rather to quit their lands and estates than possess them upon the terms propos'd by the English [sic] governor."[18] Another example of political resistance was the Acadian refusal to trade with the British. By 1754, the Acadians sent no produce to the Halifax market. When British merchants tried to buy directly from Acadians, they were refused. Acadians refused to supply Fort Edward with any firewood.[19] Lawrence saw the need to neutralize the Acadian military threat. To defeat Louisbourg, the British destroyed the base of supply by deporting the Acadians.[20]

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Acadian and Native armed resistance
By the time of the Expulsion of the Acadians, there was already a long history of Acadian, Mi’kmaq and Maliseet resistance to the British occupation of Acadia – both politically and militarily.[21] The Mi'kmaq and the Acadians were allies through their religious connection to Catholicism and through numerous inter-marriages.[22] The Mi'kmaq held the military strength in Acadia even after the conquest of 1710.[23] They primarily resisted the British occupation of Acadia and were joined in their efforts on numerous occasions by Acadians. The military conflicts involving New France and its native allies against New England and its native allies involved the killing of men, women, children and infants on both sides of the conflict. This "frontier warfare" extended into Acadia during King George's War with the arrival of the Rangers from New England. Examples of Mi'kmaq, Acadians and Maliseet engaging in frontier warfare are their raids on Protestant British settlements of Dartmouth and Lunenburg when they were first established. The escalation of such warfare contributed to the British decision to remove all Acadians, both combatants and non-combatants, from Acadia.[24]

Joseph Broussard ("Beausoleil"). Artist Herb Roe

Before the British Conquest of Acadia in 1710, Acadians fought against the British occupation. While many Acadians traded with the New England Protestants, they were reluctant to be ruled by them. During King William's War, the crews of the very successful French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste were primarily Acadian. The Acadians resisted during the Raid on Chignecto (1696). During Queen Anne's War, Mi’kmaq and Acadians resisted during the Raid on Grand Pré, Piziquid and Chignecto in 1704. Acadians joined French privateer Pierre Maisonnat dit Baptiste as crew members in his victories over many British vessels. The Acadians also assisted the French in protecting the capital in the Siege of Port Royal (1707) and the final Conquest of Acadia. The Acadians and Mi’kmaq were also successful in the Battle of Bloody Creek (1711).[25] During Dummer's War, the Maliseet raided numerous vessels on the Bay of Fundy while the Mi'kmaq engaged in the Raid on Canso, Nova Scotia (1723). In the latter engagement, the Mi'kmaq were aided by Acadians.[26] During King George's War, Abbe Jean-Louis Le Loutre led many efforts which involved both Acadians and Mi’kmaq to recapture the capital, such as the Siege of Annapolis Royal (1744).[25] During the Siege, French officer Marin had taken British prisoners and stopped with them further up the bay at Cobequid. While they were at Cobequid, an Acadian said that the French soldiers should have "left their [the British] carcasses behind and brought their skins."[27] Le Loutre was joined by prominent Acadian resistance leader Joseph Broussard (Beausoleil). Broussard and other Acadians were involved in supporting the French soldiers in the Battle of Grand Pré. During Father Le Loutre’s War, the conflict continued. The Mi'kmaq attacked New England Rangers in the Siege of Grand Pre and Battle at St. Croix. Upon the founding of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Broussard and the Mi'kmaq conducted numerous raids of the village, such as the one in 1751, to try to stop the British colonists' migration into Nova Scotia. (Similarly, during the French and Indian War, Mi’kmaq, Acadians and Maliseet also engaged in numerous raids on Lunenburg, Nova
Charles Lawrence

Expulsion of the Acadians Scotia to stop the migration, including one in 1756.[28] Le Loutre and Broussard also worked together to resist the British occupation of Chignecto (1750) and then later fought together with Acadians in the Battle of Beausejour (1755).[25] During the summer of 1750, Father Le Loutre had his Mi’kmaq warriors burn the church and all the Acadian homes at Beaubassin. He did this to force them to migrate towards Fort Beauséjour. The British finding nothing but ruins in Beaubassin, erected Fort Lawrence where the church once stood.[29] (As early as the summer of 1751, La Valiere reported, approximately 250 Acadians had already enrolled in the local militia at Fort Beauséjour.)[30] Father Le Loutre's War had done much to create the condition of total war; British civilians had not been spared, and, as Lawrence saw it, Acadian civilians had provided intelligence, sanctuary, and logistical support while others fought in armed conflict.[31] When Charles Lawrence took over the post following Hopson’s return to England, he took a stronger stance. He was not only a government official but a military leader for the region. Lawrence came up with a military solution for the forty-five years of an unsettled British conquest of Acadia. Lawrence's primary objectives in Acadia were to defeat the French fortifications at Beausejour and Louisbourg. The British saw many Acadians as a military threat in their allegiance to the French and Mi'kmaq. The British also wanted to interrupt the Acadian supply lines to Fortress Louisbourg, which, in turn, supplied the Mi'kmaq.[32] According to Historian Stephen Patterson, more than any other single factor - including the massive assault that eventually forced the surrender of Louisbourg - the supply problem spelled doom to French power in the region. Lawrence realised he could cut off supplies to the French by deporting the Acadians.[33]

439

British deportation campaigns
Bay of Fundy (1755)
The first wave of the expulsion began on August 10, 1755, with the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755) during the French and Indian War.[34] The British ordered the expulsion of the Acadians after the Battle of Beausejour (1755). The Campaign started at Chignecto and then quickly moved to Grand Pre, Piziquid (Falmouth/ Windsor, Nova Scotia) and finally Annapolis Royal.[35] On November 17, 1755, during the Bay of Fundy Campaign at Chignecto, George Grand Pré: Deportation of the Acadians. Scott took 700 troops and attacked twenty houses at Memramcook. They arrested the Acadians who remained and killed two hundred head of livestock, to deprive the French of supplies.[36] Many Acadians tried to escape the Expulsion by retreating to St. John and Petitcodiac rivers, and the Miramichi in New Brunswick. The British cleared the Acadians from these areas in the later campaigns of Petitcodiac River, St. John River, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1758.

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Cape Sable
Cape Sable included Port La Tour and the surrounding area (a much larger area than simply Cape Sable Island). In April 1756, Major Preble and his New England troops, on their return to Boston, raided a settlement near Port La Tour and captured 72 men, women and children.[37] In the late summer of 1758, Major Henry Fletcher led the 35th regiment and a company of Gorham's Rangers to Cape Sable. He cordoned off the cape and sent his men through it. One hundred Acadians and Father Jean Baptistee de Gray surrendered, while about 130 Acadians and seven Mi'kmaq escaped. The Acadian prisoners were taken to Georges Island in Halifax Harbour.[38] En route to the St. John River Campaign in September 1758, Moncton sent Major Roger Morris, in command of two men-of-war and transport ships with 325 soldiers, to deport more Acadians. On October 28, his troops sent the women and children to Georges Island. The men were kept behind and forced to work with troops to destroy their village. On October 31, they were also sent to Halifax.[39] In the spring of 1759, Joseph Gorham and his rangers arrived to take prisoner the remaining 151 Acadians. They reached Georges Island with them on June 29.[40]

Ile St. Jean and Ile Royale
The second wave of the Deportation began with the French defeat at the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). Thousands of Acadians were deported from Ile Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Ile Royale (Cape Breton). The Ile Saint-Jean Campaign resulted in the largest percentage of deaths of the Acadians deported. The highest single event total of fatalities during the Deportation occurred with the sinking of the Violet, with about 280 persons aboard, and the Duke William, with over 360 persons aboard.[41] By the time the second wave of the expulsion had begun, the British had discarded their policy of relocating the Catholic, French-speaking colonists to the Thirteen Colonies. They deported them directly to France.[42] In 1758, hundreds of Ile Royale Acadians fled to one of Boishebert's refugee camps south of Baie des Chaleurs.[43]

Petitcodiac River Campaign
This was a series of British military operations from June to November 1758 to deport the Acadians who either lived along the river or had taken refuge there from earlier deportation operations, such as the Ile Saint-Jean Campaign. Benoni Danks and Joseph Gorham's Rangers carried out the operation.[35] Contrary to Governor Lawrence's direction, New England Ranger Danks engaged in frontier warfare against the Acadians. On July 1, 1758, Danks himself began to pursue the Acadians on the Petiticodiac. They arrived at present day Moncton and Danks’ Rangers ambushed about thirty Acadians, who were led by Joseph Broussard (Beausoleil). Many were driven into the river, three of them were killed and scalped, and others were captured. Broussard was seriously wounded.[44] Danks reported that the scalps were Mi’kmaq and received payment for them. Thereafter, he went down in local lore as “one of the most reckless and brutal” of the Rangers.[45]

St. John River Campaign
Colonel Robert Monckton led a force of 1150 British soldiers to destroy the Acadian settlements along the banks of the Saint John River until they reached the largest village of Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas (present day Fredericton, New Brunswick) in February 1759.[46] Monckton was accompanied by New England Rangers led by Joseph Goreham, Captain Benoni Danks, Moses Hazen and George Scott.[47] The British started at the bottom of the river with raiding Kennebecais and Managoueche (City of St. John), where the British built Fort Frederick. Then they moved up the river and raided Grimross (Gagetown, New Brunswick), Jemseg, and finally they reached Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas.[47] Contrary to Governor Lawrence's direction, New England Ranger Lieutenant Hazen engaged in frontier warfare against the Acadians in what has become known as the "Ste Anne's Massacre". On 18 February 1759, Lieutenant

Expulsion of the Acadians Hazen and about fifteen men arrived at Sainte-Anne des Pays-Bas. The Rangers pillaged and burned the village of 147 buildings, two Mass-houses, besides all the barns and stables. The Rangers burned a large store-house, and with a large quantity of hay, wheat, peas, oats, etc., killing 212 horses, about 5 head of cattle, a large number of hogs and so forth. They also burned the church (located just west of Old Government House, Fredericton).[48] As well, the rangers tortured and scalped six Acadians and took six prisoners.[48] There is a written record of one of the Acadian survivors Joseph Godin-Bellefontaine. He reported that the Rangers restrained him and then massacred his family in front of him. There are other primary sources that support his assertions.[49]

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Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign
In the Gulf of St. Lawrence Campaign (also known as the Gaspee Expedition), British forces raided French villages along present-day New Brunswick and the Gaspé Peninsula coast of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. Sir Charles Hardy and Brigadier-General James Wolfe commanded the naval and military forces, respectively. After the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), Wolfe and Hardy led a force of 1500 troops in nine vessels to the Gaspé Bay arriving there on September 5. From there they dispatched troops to Miramichi Bay (Sept. 12), Grande-Rivière, Quebec and Pabos (Sept. 13), and Mont-Louis, Quebec (Sept. 14). Over the following weeks, Sir Charles Hardy took four sloops or schooners, destroyed about 200 fishing vessels, and took about 200 prisoners.[50]

Raid on Miramichi Bay - Burnt Church Village by Captain Hervey Smyth (1758)

Restigouche
The Acadians took refuge along the Baie des Chaleurs and the Restigouche River.[51] Boishébert had a refugee camp at Petit-Rochelle (which was located perhaps near present-day Pointe-à-la-Croix, Quebec).[52] The year after the Battle of Restigouche, in late 1761, Captain Roderick Mackenzie and his force captured over 330 Acadians at Boishebert's camp.[53]

Halifax

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After the French conquered Saint John's, Newfoundland in June 1762, the success galvanized both the Acadians and Natives. They began gathering in large numbers at various points throughout the province and behaving in a confident and, according to the British,"insolent fashion". Officials were especially alarmed when Natives concentrated close to the two principal towns in the province, Halifax and Lunenburg, where there were also large groups of Acadians. The government organized an expulsion of 1300 people, shipping them to Boston. The government of Massachusetts refused the Acadians permission to land and sent them back to Halifax.[54] Before the deportation, Acadian population was estimated at 14,000 Acadians. Most were deported.[55] Some Acadians escaped to Quebec, or hid among the Mi'kmaq or in the countryside, to avoid deportation until the situation settled down.[56]

Acadian and Mi’kmaq resistance

Monument to Imprisoned Acadians on Georges Island (background), Bishops Landing, Halifax

During the expulsion, French Officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert led the Mi'kmaq and the Acadians in a guerrilla war against the British.[57] According to Louisbourg account books, by late 1756, the French had regularly dispensed supplies to 700 Natives. From 1756 to the fall of Louisbourg in 1758, the French made regular payments to Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope and other natives for British scalps.[58]

Annapolis (Fort Anne)
The Acadians and Mi’kmaq fought in the Annapolis region. They were victorious in the Battle of Bloody Creek (1757).[25] Acadians being deported from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia on the ship Pembroke rebelled against the British crew, took over the ship and sailed to land. In December 1757, while cutting firewood near Fort Anne, John Weatherspoon was captured by Indians (presumably Mi'kmaq) and carried away to the mouth of the Miramichi River. From there he was eventually sold or traded to the French and taken to Quebec, where he was held until late in 1759 and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham, when General Wolfe's forces prevailed.[59] About 50 or 60 Acadians who escaped the initial deportation are reported to have made their way to the Cape Sable region (which included south western Nova Scotia). From there, they participated in numerous raids on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia.[60]
Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot

Piziquid (Fort Edward)
In the April of 1757, a band of Acadian and Mi'kmaq raided a warehouse near Fort Edward, killing thirteen British soldiers. After loading with what provisions they could carry, they set fire to the building.[61]

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Chignecto (Fort Cumberland)
The Acadians and Mi’kmaq also resisted in the Chignecto region. They were victorious in the Battle of Petitcodiac (1755).[25] In the spring of 1756, a wood-gathering party from Fort Monckton (former Fort Gaspareaux), was ambushed and nine were scalped.[62] In the April of 1757, after raiding Fort Edward, the same band of Acadian and Mi'kmaq partisans raided Fort Cumberland, killing and scalping two men and taking two prisoners.[63] July 20, 1757 Mi'kmaq killed 23 and captured two of Gorham's rangers outside Fort Cumberland near present-day Jolicure, New Brunswick.[64] In March 1758, forty Acadian and Mi'kmaq attacked a schooner at Fort Cumberland and killed its master and two sailors.[65] In the winter of 1759, the Mi'kmaq ambushed five British soldiers on patrol while they were crossing a bridge near Fort Cumberland. They were ritually scalped and their bodies mutilated as was common in frontier warfare.[66] During the night of 4 April 1759, using canoes, a force of Acadians and French captured the transport. At dawn they attacked the ship Moncton and chased it for five hours down the Bay of Fundy. Although the Moncton escaped, it’s crew suffered one killed and two wounded.[67] Others resisted during the St. John River Campaign and the Petitcodiac River Campaign.[68]

Lawrencetown
By June 1757, the settlers had to be withdrawn completely from the settlement of Lawrencetown (established 1754) because the number of Indian raids eventually prevented settlers from leaving their houses.[69] In near-by Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, in the spring of 1759, there was another Mi'kmaq attack on Fort Clarence (located at the present day Dartmouth Refinery), in which five soldiers were killed.[70]

Maine
On 13 August 1758 Boishebert left Miramichi, New Brunswick with 400 soldiers, including Acadians which he led from Port Toulouse. They marched to Fort St George (Thomaston, Maine) and Munduncook (Friendship, Maine). While the former siege was unsuccessful, in the latter raid on Munduncook, they wounded eight British settlers and killed others. This was Boishébert’s last Acadian expedition. From there, Boishebert and the Acadians went to Quebec and fought in the Battle of Quebec (1759).[71]

Lunenburg
The Acadians and Mi'kmaq raided the Lunenburg settlement nine times over a three year period during the war. Boishebert ordered the first Raid on Lunenburg (1756). Following the raid of 1756, in 1757, there was a raid on Lunenburg in which six people from the Brissang family were killed.[72] The following year, March 1758, there was a raid on the Lunenburg Peninsula at the Northwest Range (present-day Blockhouse, Nova Scotia) when five people were killed from the Ochs and Roder families.[73] By the end of May 1758, most of those on the Lunenburg Peninsula abandoned their farms and retreated to the protection of the fortifications around the town of Lunenburg, losing the season for sowing their grain.[74] For those that did not leave their farms for the town, the number of raids intensified. During the summer of 1758, there were four raids on the Lunenburg Peninsula. On 13 July 1758, one person on the LaHave River at Dayspring was killed and another seriously wounded by a member of the Labrador family.[75] The next raid happened at Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia on 24 August 1758, when eight Mi'kmaq attacked the family homes of Lay and Brant. While they killed three people in the raid, the Mi'kmaq were unsuccessful in taking their scalps, which was the common practice for payment from the French.[76] Two days, later, two soldiers were killed in a raid on the blockhouse at LaHave, Nova Scotia.[77] Almost two weeks later, on 11 September, a child was killed in a raid on the Northwest Range.[78] Another raid happened on 27 March 1759, in which three members of the Oxner family were killed.[72] The last raid happened on 20 April 1759. The Mi’kmaq killed four settlers at Lunenburg who were members of the Trippeau and Crighton families.[79]

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Halifax
Acadian Pierre Gautier, son of Joseph-Nicolas Gautier, led Mi’kmaq warriors from Louisbourg on three raids against Halifax in 1757. In each raid, Gautier took prisoners or scalps or both. The last raid happened in September and Gautier went with four Mi’kmaq and killed and scalped two British men at the foot of Citadel Hill. (Pierre went on to participate in the Battle of Restigouche.) [80]

Deportation destinations
In the first wave the Expulsion, most Acadian exiles were assigned to rural communities in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and South Carolina. In general, they refused to stay where they were put; a large number migrated to the colonial port cities, where they gathered in isolated, impoverished French-speaking Catholic neighbourhoods, exactly the sort of communities Britain's colonial officials had hoped to discourage. More worrisome still, a number of Acadians threatened to make their way north to French-controlled regions, including the St. John River, Ile Royale, the coasts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Canada.[81] Because the British believed their policy of sending the Acadians to the Thirteen Colonies had failed, during the second wave of the Expulsion, they deported the Acadians to France.

Maryland
Approximately 1000 Acadians went to Maryland, where they lived in a section of Baltimore that became known as French Town.[82] [83] The Irish Catholics were reported to have shown charity to the Acadians by taking some of the orphaned children into their homes.[84]

Massachusetts Destinations for deported Acadians[85]
Colony Massachusetts Virginia Maryland Connecticut Pennsylvania North Carolina South Carolina Georgia New York TOTAL England France TOTAL # of Exiles 2000 1100 1000 700 500 500 500 400 250 6950 866 3,500 11, 316 [86]

Approximately 2,000 Acadians disembarked at Massachusetts. For four long winter months, they were not allowed to disembark on orders of the one who had given orders to deport them, William Shirley. As consequence, half died of cold and starvation aboard the ships. Many of the children were taken away from their parents to be distributed to various families throughout Massachusetts.[87] The government also arranged the adoption of orphaned children and

Expulsion of the Acadians provided subsidies for housing and food for a year.[88]

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Connecticut
Connecticut prepared for the arrival of 700 Acadians.[89] Like Maryland, the Connecticut legislature declared that “[the Acadians] be made welcome, helped and settled under the most advantageous conditions, or if they have to be sent away, measures be taken for their transfer.”[90]

Pennsylvania and Virginia
Pennsylvania accommodated 500 Acadians. Because they arrived unexpectedly, the Acadians had to remain in port on their vessels for several months. Likewise, Virginia refused to accept the Acadians on grounds that no notice was given of their arrival.[91] They were detained for some time at Williamsburg, where hundreds died from disease and malnutrition. They were then sent to England where they were held as prisoners until the Treaty of Paris in 1763.[92]

Carolinas and Georgia
The Acadians who had offered the most resistance to the British - particularly those who were at Chignecto - were reported to have been sent the furthest south to the British colonies of the Carolinas and Georgia.[93] About 1400 Acadians settled in these colonies. The Acadians were “subsidized” and put to work on plantations.[94] Under the leadership of Jacques Maurice Vigneau of Baie Verte, the majority of the Acadians in Georgia received a passport from the governor Renyolds.[95] Without such passports, travel between borders was not allowed.[96] As soon as the Acadians bearing passports from Georgia reached the Carolinas, the colonies granted passports to the Acadians in their territories.[97] Along with these papers, the Acadians were given two vessels.[98] After running aground numerous times in the ships, some Acadians did make it back to the Bay of Fundy.[94] Along the way, many were captured and imprisoned.[99] Only 900 made it to Acadia, less than half who had begun the voyage.[94] Others also tried to return home. The South Carolina Gazette reported that in February, about 30 Acadians fled the island to which they were confined and escaped their pursuers.[100] Alexandre Broussard, brother of the famed resistance leader Joseph Broussard, dit Beausoleil, was among them.[101] About a dozen are recorded to have returned to Acadia after an overland journey of 1,400 leagues.[102] Such Acadians returning to the homeland were exceptions.

France and England
After the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), the British began to deport the Acadians directly to France rather than to the British colonies. Many deported to France never reached their destination. Three hundred and sixty died when the transport ship Duke William sank, as did the Violet and Ruby, in 1758 en route from Île St.-Jean to France. About 3,000 eventually gathered in France’s port cities; many went to Nantes. The Virginians sent other Acadians to Britain as prisoners of war. British officials distributed them to districts in segregated quarters in cities along the British coast. These prisoners were eventually Mémorial des Acadiens de Nantes repatriated to France. They said the area where they were held, which they called La Grand’ Ligne (the King’s Highway), yielded no harvest for two years. Following the Treaty of Paris 1763, many Acadians were repatriated to Belle-Île-en-Mer off the western coast of Brittany.

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446

Louisiana
Many Acadians left France (under the influence of Henri Peyroux de la Coudreniere) to settle in Louisiana, which was then a colony of Spain.[103] The British did not deport Acadians to Louisiana.[104] The transfer of Louisiana to the Spanish government was done in 1762.[105] Good relations between the two nations, and their common Catholic religion resulted in many Acadians choosing to take oaths of allegiance to the Spanish government.[92] Soon the Acadians comprised the largest ethnic group within Louisiana.[106] Acadians settled, first in areas along the Mississippi River, then later in the Atchafalaya Basin and in the prairie lands to the west, a region later renamed Acadiana. During the 19th century, as Acadians reestablished their culture, "Acadian" was elided locally into "Cajun".

Aftermath of the Seven Years War
Of the 12,000 or so Acadians deported, several thousands died either of drowning aboard ill fated ships, starvation, illness, and misery.[107] Of the 60,000 French sailors captured by the British Royal Navy, 8,500 died prisoners aboard old British pontoons.[108] In 1763, after the signing of the peace treaty, some Acadians returned to Nova Scotia. They quickly found out that they no longer owned land, it had been redistributed to Protestant settlers, and they were forced to live as fisherman on the west side of Nova Scotia known as the French Shore.[109] As for the other Acadians, the British authorities scattered them in small groups along the shores of the Atlantic and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It was only in the 1930s with the arrival of the Acadian co-operative movements that the Acadians became less economically disadvantaged.[110]

Historical comparisons
The Expulsion of the Acadians has been compared to many such military operations during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The French had carried out their own expulsion in Newfoundland in 1697 when they occupied all of the English portion of Newfoundland during Pierre d'Iberville's Avalon Peninsula Campaign, burning every English settlement and exiling all the surviving English inhabitants.[111] One historian compared the Acadian Exodus to the retreating Russians burning their own lands before Napoleon's invasion, while comparing the British actions to General Sherman's destroying everything in his path as his unchallenged army drove its powerful way across Georgia in the American Civil War.[112] Another historian compared the deportation to the fate the of the United Empire Loyalists, who were expelled from the United States to present-day Canada after the American Revolution.[113] Another deportation was the Highland Clearances in Scotland between 1762 and 1886.[114] Another parallel cited in North America was the relocation of the Cherokee and other Native Americans from the South-East United States in the 1830s in the Indian Removal.[115]

Commemorations
• American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow published a long, narrative poem about the plight of the Acadians called Evangeline in 1847.[116] The Evangeline Oak is a tourist attraction in Louisiana. • The song "Acadian Driftwood", recorded in 1975 by The Band, portrays the Great Upheaval and the displacement of the Acadian people.[117] • The author Antonine Maillet wrote a novel about the aftermath of the Great Upheaval, Pélagie-la-Charrette. The novel was awarded the Prix Goncourt in 1979. • Grand-Pré Park, situated in present-day Grand-Pré, Nova Scotia is now a National Historic Site of Canada. It has been preserved as a living monument to the Expulsion, complete with a memorial church and a statue of Evangeline, the subject and title of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's stirring poem on the experience. • In December 2003, Governor General Adrienne Clarkson, representing Canada's Monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, declared the Crown's acknowledgement of (but did not apologise for) the Expulsion. She designated July 28 as "A

Expulsion of the Acadians Day of Commemoration of the Great Upheaval."[118] This proclamation, often referred to as the Royal Proclamation of 2003, closed one of the longest open cases in the history of the British courts, initiated when the Acadian representatives first presented their grievances of forced dispossession of land, property and livestock in 1760. • December 13, the day the Duke William sank during the Expulsion, is commemorated every year as Acadian Remembrance Day.[119] • There is a museum dedicated to Acadian history and culture, including detailed reconstruction of the Great Uprising, in the town of Bonaventure, Quebec.[120]

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End notes
[1] The French and Indian war began in 1754, two years prior to the formalization of conflict between France and Britain in the Seven Years War, commonly referred to by French Canadians as the Guerre de la Conquête britannique ("War of British Conquest"). [2] Geoffrey Plank, An Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania. 2001, 149 [3] John Grenier, Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710-1760, Oklahoma University Press. 2008 [4] Stephen E. Patterson. "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-61: A Study in Political Interaction", in Buckner, P, Campbell, G. and Frank, D. (eds). The Acadiensis Reader Vol 1: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation, 1998. pp. 105-106.; Also see Stephen Patterson, Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples, p. 144. [5] British officer John Winslow raised his concern that officials were not distinguishing between Acadians who rebelled against the British and those who did not. (See John Faragher, p. 337 [6] John Faragher compares this event to "ethnic cleansing" while Elizabeth Griffith suggest that "the Acadian deportation, as a government action, was a pattern with other contemporary happenings" (Griffith, p. 462). A.J.B Johnston argues that the evidence for the removal of the Acadians indicates the decision makers thought the Acadians were a military threat, therefore, the deportation of 1755 does not qualify as an ethnic cleansing. As the deportation continued, Johnston identifies that it was a "cleansing", however, not an ethnic cleansing because the persecutors cared much more about religious adherence than about ethnicity. (See "The Acadian Deportation in a Comparative Context: An Introduction," Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society: The Journal, 2007. pp. 114-131) [7] Geoffery Pleck. An Unsettled Conquest, 2001, p. 89 [8] Lionel-Groulx, "L'histoire Acadienne" dans : Notre maître le passé, page 168, édition 10-10, 1977 [9] Johnson, A.J.B. Storied Shore. University College of Cape Breton Press. 2004., p. 70 [10] Ried, John. Nova Scotia: A Pocket History, Fernwood Publishing. 2009. p. 49. [11] Marice Basque (2004). "Family and Political Culture in Pre-Conquest Acadia," In The Conquest of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, and Aboriginal Constructions. 2004, University of Toronto Press. p. 49; John Reid, Six Crucial Decades, 29-32; John Reid. 1686-1720: Imperial Instrusions; Barnes, "Twelve Apostles" or a "Dozen Traitors?"; Basque, Des hommes de pouvoir, 51-99; Basque and Brun, La neutralite l' epreuve.; Bernard Potheir, Course d l'Accadie; Bobert Rumilly, L'Acadie angalise. [12] John Grenier. (2008). The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia 1710-1760 University of Oklahoma Press, p. 133 [13] Brenda Dunn. Port Royal-Annapolis Royal. Nimbus Press. 2004. p. 166 [14] Georrery Plank. An Unsettled Conquest, University of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 105. [15] R. Douglas Francis, Richard Jones, and Donald B. Smith, Origins: Canadian History to Confederation, 6th ed. (Toronto: Nelson Education, 2009), 117 [16] John Brebner, New England’s Outpost: Acadia before the Conquest of Canada, (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1965), 190. [17] John Johnston. "French Attitudes Toward the Acadians, ca. 1680-1756", In Du Grand Dérangement à la Déportation. pp. 152 [18] John Faragher (2005) A Great and Noble Scheme. p. 262 [19] Stephen Patterson. Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples, University of Toronto Press. p. 142 [20] Stephen E. Patterson. "Indian-White Relations in Nova Scotia, 1749-61: A Study in Political Interaction," in The Acadiensis Reader Vol 1: Atlantic Canada Before Confederation, Buckner, P, Campbell, G. and Frank, D. (eds). 1998. pp. 105-106.; Also see Stephen Patterson, Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples, p. 144. [21] Faragher, John Mack, A Great and Noble Scheme New York; W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. pp. 110–112 ISBN 0-393-05135-8 [22] Geoffery Plank. An Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 72 [23] Geoffery Plank. An Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania. 2001. p. 67 [24] John Grenier. First Way of War. [25] Faragher, John Mack, A Great and Noble Scheme, New York; W. W. Norton & Company, 2005. pp. 110–112 ISBN 0-393-05135-8 [26] John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire. pp. 46-73 [27] (William Pote's Journal, 1745, p. 34) [28] Winthrop Pickard Bell. (1961). The "Foreign Protestants" and the Settlement of Nova Scotia; Mather Byles DesBrisay (1895). History of the county of Lunenburg. [29] Bona Arsenault, History of the Acadians, 1978, p. 156. [30] Faragher, p. 271

Expulsion of the Acadians
[31] Patterson, 1994, p. 146 [32] Stephen Patterson, Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples, [33] Patterson, 1994, p. 152 [34] Faragher, John Mack (2005-02-22). A great and noble scheme: the tragic story of the expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dZiRciF_rbMC& pg=PA338). W. W. Norton & Company. p. 338. ISBN 9780393051353. . [35] John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press. 2008 [36] John Grenier, p. 184 [37] Winthrop Bell. Foreign Protestants, University of Toronto, 1961, p. 504; Peter Landry. The Lion and the Lily, Trafford Press. 2007.p. 555 [38] John Grenier, The Far Reaches of Empire, Oklahoma Press. 2008. p. 198 [39] Marshall, p. 98; see also Bell. Foreign Protestants. p. 512 [40] Marshall, p. 98; Peter Landry. The Lion and the Lily, Trafford Press. 2007. p. 555 [41] Earle Lockerby, The Expulsion of the Acadians from Prince Edward Island. Nimbus Publications. 2009 [42] Plank, p. 160 [43] John Grenier, p. 197 [44] Grenier, p. 198; Faragher, p. 402. [45] Grenier, p. 198 [46] John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760, Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199-200. Note that John Faragher in the Great and Nobel Scheme indicates that Monckton had a force of 2000 men for this campaign. p. 405. [47] John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760, Oklahoma University Press. 2008, pp. 199-200 [48] John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760. Oklahoma University Press, p. 202; Also see Plank, p. 61 [49] A letter from Fort Frederick which was printed in Parker’s New York Gazette or Weekly Post-Boy on 2 April 1759 provides some additional details of the behavior of the Rangers. Also see William O. Raymond. The River St. John: Its Physical Features, Legends and History from 1604 to 1784. St. John, New Brunswick. 1910. pp. 96-107 [50] J.S. McLennan, Louisbourg: From its Founding to its Fall, Macmillan and Co. Ltd London, UK 1918, pp. 417-423, Appendix 11 (see http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ louisbourgfromit00mcleuoft/ louisbourgfromit00mcleuoft_djvu. txt) [51] Lockerby, 2008, p.17, p.24, p.26, p.56 [52] Faragher, p. 414; also see History: Commodore Byron's Conquest. The Canadian Press. July 19, 2008 http:/ / www. acadian. org/ La%20Petite-Rochelle. html [53] John Grenier, p. 211; John Faragher, p. 41; see the account of Captain Mackenzie's raid at MacKenzie's Raid (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=RqoOAAAAYAAJ& printsec=frontcover& dq=Gamaliel+ Smethurst& source=bl& ots=c_j-_HAidc& sig=vIONxjidbBRqlTWmqgFSrFu-Jz4& hl=en& ei=93uyTNSTJoG8lQeu5fTXAQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CC0Q6AEwAw#v=onepage& q& f=false) [54] Patterson, 1994, p. 153; Brenda Dunn, p. 207 [55] Griffith, 2005, p. 438 [56] Faragher, p. 423–424 [57] John Gorham. The Far Reaches of Empire: War In Nova Scotia (1710-1760). University of Oklahoma Press. 2008. p. 177-206 [58] Patterson, Stephen E. 1744-1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples. In Phillip Buckner and John Reid (eds.) The Atlantic Region to Conderation: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1994. p. 148 [59] The journal of John Weatherspoon was published in Collections of the Nova Scotia Historical Society for the Years 1879-1880 (Halifax 1881) that has since been reprinted (Mika Publishing Company, Belleville, Ontario, 1976). [60] Winthrop Bell, Foreign Protestants, University of Toronto. 1961. p.503 [61] John Faragher. Great and Noble Scheme. Norton. 2005. p. 398. [62] Webster as cited by bluepete, p. 371 [63] John Faragher.Great and Noble Scheme. Norton. 2005. p. 398. [64] John Grenier, p. 190; New Brunswick Military Project (http:/ / www. unb. ca/ nbmhp/ counties/ Westmorland. html) [65] John Grenier, p. 195 [66] John Faragher, p. 410 [67] New Brunswick Military Project (http:/ / www. unb. ca/ nbmhp/ counties/ Westmorland. html) [68] John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760, Oklahoma University Press.pp. 199–200 [69] Bell Foreign Protestants. p. 508 [70] Harry Chapman, p. 32; John Faragher, p. 410 [71] Phyllis E. Leblanc, Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online; Cyrus Eaton's history, p. 77 (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ historythomasto03eatogoog/ historythomasto03eatogoog_djvu. txt); William Durkee Williamson, The history of the state of Maine: from its first discovery, A. D ..., Volume 2, p. 333 (Williamson's Book) (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=XEMlAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA459& lpg=PA459& dq=thomaston+ maine+ William+ Durkee& source=bl& ots=rUfN2oU-PX& sig=WswUGTfR6Ootn5aGIq7W-owZu3M& hl=en& ei=59DSTdHiJIXs0gGc9qX2Cw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CC4Q6AEwAw#v=snippet& q=meduncook& f=false) [72] Archibald McMechan, Red Snow of Grand Pre. 1931. p. 192 [73] Bell, p. 509

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Expulsion of the Acadians
[74] Bell. Foreign Protestants. p. 510, p. 513 [75] Bell, p. 510 [76] Bell, Foreign Protestants, p. 511 [77] Bell, p. 511 [78] Bell, p. 512 [79] Bell, p. 513 [80] Earle Lockerby. Pre-Deportation Letters from Ile Saint Jean. Les Cahiers. La Societe hitorique acadienne. Vol. 42, No2. June 2011. pp. 99-100 [81] Plank, 2005, p. 70 [82] Arsenault 155 [83] Writers' Program of the Work Projects Administration in the State of Maryland (August 1940). Maryland: A Guide to the Old Line State (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=K6BlU1wPV7oC& pg=PA206& lpg=PA206& dq=acadia+ French-town+ baltimore#v=onepage& q& f=false). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 206. . Retrieved 30 April 2011. "In time the Acadians were able to construct small houses along South Charles Street; for a century this section of Baltimore was called French Town" [84] Rieder, Milton P. Jr. and Rieder, Norma G. Acadian Exiles in the American Colonies, Metairie, LA, 1977, p. 2; Faragher 375 [85] Statistics for the British colonies found in Geoffrey Plank. Unsettled Conquest. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2001. p. 149. [86] Total exiles for England and France found in R.A. LEBLANC. "Les migrations acadiennes", in Cahiers de géographie du Québec, Vol. 23, no 58, April 1979, p. 99-124. [87] Arsenault 197 [88] Faragher 374 [89] Rieder and Rieder 1 [90] Arsenault 153 [91] Arsenault 156 [92] Arsenault 203 [93] Arsenault 157; Farragher 383 [94] Arsenault 157 [95] (Faragher 386) [96] Farragher 389 [97] Farragher 386 [98] Rieder 2 [99] LeBlanc, Dudley J. The True Story of the Acadians (1932), p. 48 [100] Doughty 140 [101] Arsenault 160 [102] Faragher 388 [103] Winzerling 91 [104] Doughty 150 [105] Winzerling 59 [106] Faragher 436 [107] Bona Arsenault, p192. [108] Jean-Pierre Duteil et Patrick Villiers, op. cit., p. 103. [109] Bona Arsenault, p326. [110] The Canadian Encyclopedia, Hurtig Publishers, p6. [111] Reid, John G. "1686-1720 Imperial Intrusions" In Phillip Buckner and John Reid (eds.) The Atlantic Region to Conderation: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1994. p. 84 [112] Patterson, 1994, p. 147 [113] (See Johnston, p. 120). [114] Johnston, p. 121). [115] (Johnston, p. 121). [116] Calhoun, Charles C. Longfellow: A Rediscovered Life. Boston: Beacon Press, 2004: 189. ISBN 0807070262. [117] "Acadian Driftwood" (http:/ / theband. hiof. no/ lyrics/ acadian_driftwood. html). The Band. . Retrieved 2011-07-15. [118] "Acadian Affairs" (http:/ / www. gov. ns. ca/ acadien/ en/ lacadie-celebrations. htm). Government of Nova Scotia. . Retrieved 2011-07-15. [119] "Acadian Remembrance Day Dec. 13" (http:/ / www. journalpioneer. com/ Living/ Faith/ 2009-12-09/ article-1397141/ Acadian-Remembrance-Day-Dec. -13/ 1). The Journal Pioneer. 2009-12-09. . Retrieved 2011-07-15. [120] "Musée Acadien du Québec" (http:/ / www. museeacadien. com). Musée Acadien du Québec. . Retrieved 2011-07-15.

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450

References
English • Brenda Dunn, A History of Port-Royal/Annapolis Royal 1605-1800, Halifax: Nimbus, 2004 ISBN 1551097400 • Griffiths, E. From Migrant to Acadian (http://books.google.ca/books?id=cG4wSmIlziYC&lpg=PP1& dq=From Migrant to Acadian&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). McGill-Queen's University Press. 2005 ISBN 0773526994 • John Grenier. The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760 (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=jVG5h6G5fWMC&lpg=PP1&dq=The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710-1760& pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). Oklahoma University Press. 2008 ISBN 9780806138763 • John G. Reid. The 'Conquest' of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, an Aboriginal Constructions (http://books. google.ca/books?id=MqJ9qFqWK4IC&lpg=PP1&dq=The 'Conquest' of Acadia, 1710: Imperial, Colonial, an Aboriginal Constructions&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true) University of Toronto Press. 2004 ISBN 0802037550 • Geoffrey Plank, An Unsettled Conquest (http://books.google.ca/books?id=XWwtrvUzceIC&lpg=PP1& dq=An Unsettled Conquest&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true). University of Pennsylvania. 2001 ISBN 0812218698 • Faragher, John Mack (2005). A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland (http://books.google.ca/books?id=dZiRciF_rbMC&lpg=PP1&dq=A Great and Noble Scheme: The Tragic Story of the Expulsion of the French Acadians from their American Homeland&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true), New York: W.W. Norton, 562 pages ISBN 0-393-05135-8 • Jobb, Dean (2005). The Acadians: A people's story of exile and triumph (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=bzksi8dKPCsC&lpg=PP1&dq=The Acadians: A people's story of exile and triumph& pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true), Mississauga (Ont.): John Wiley & Sons Canada, 296 p. ISBN 0-470-83610-5 • Johnston, John. The Acadian Deportation in a Comparative Context: An Introduction. Royal Nova Scotia Historical Society: The Journal. 2007. pp. 114–131 • Moody, Barry (1981). The Acadians, Toronto: Grolier. 96 pages ISBN 0717218104 • *Patterson, Stephen E. 1744-1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples. In Phillip Buckner and John Reid (eds.) The Atlantic Region to Conderation: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 1994. pp. 125–155 • Rosemary Neering, Stan Garrod (1976). Life in Acadia, Toronto: Fitzhenry and Whiteside. ISBN 0889021805 • Belliveau, Pierre (1972). French neutrals in Massachusetts; the story of Acadians rounded up by soldiers from Massachusetts and their captivity in the Bay Province, 1755-1766, Boston : Kirk S. Giffen, 259 p. • Griffiths, N.E.S. (1969). The Acadian deportation: deliberate perfidy or cruel necessity?, Toronto: Copp Clark Pub. Co., 165 p. • Doughty, Arthur G. (1916). The Acadian Exiles. A Chronicle of the Land of Evangeline (http://books.google.ca/ books?id=qaQDiPgPSooC&lpg=PA1&dq=The Acadian Exiles.A Chronicle of the Land of Evangeline& pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=true), Toronto: Glasgow, Brook & Co. 178 pages • Government of Nova Scotia transcripts from Journal of John Winslow (http://www.gov.ns.ca/ LEGISLATURE/LIBRARY/digitalcollection/background.stm) • Text of Charles Lawrence's orders to Captain John Handfield (http://www.handfield.ca/documentsen/ appendix3.htm) - Halifax 11 August 1755 French • LeBlanc, Ronnie-Gilles, ed. (2005). Du Grand dérangement à la Déportation : nouvelles perspectives historiques, Moncton: Chaire d'études acadiennes, Université de Moncton, 465 p. • Arsenault, Bona and Pascal Alain (2004). Histoire des Acadiens, Saint-Laurent, Québec: Éditions Fides, 502 p. • Sauvageau, Robert (1987). Acadie : La guerre de Cent Ans des français d'Amérique aux Maritimes et en Louisiane 1670-1769 Paris: Berger-Levrault

Expulsion of the Acadians • Gaudet, Placide (1922). Le Grand Dérangement : sur qui retombe la responsabilité de l'expulsion des Acadiens, Ottawa: Impr. de l'Ottawa Printing Co. • d'Arles, Henri (1918). La déportation des Acadiens, Québec: Imprimerie de l'Action sociale

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External links
• Deportation Transports/ Ships - Departures and Arrivals (http://www.blupete.com/Hist/Gloss/ AcadianTransports.htm) • Grand-Pré National Historic Site of Canada (http://www.grand-pre.com) • Acadian Ancestral Home – a repository for Acadian History & Genealogy (http://www.acadian-home.org/) • Find-A-Grave article (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=19903) on a memorial to the Acadians in Georgia • French and Indian War: Expulsion of the Acadians (http://histclo.com/essay/war/swc/18/7yw/fiw-aca.html)

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
The Fourteenth Amendment (Amendment XIV) to the United States Constitution was adopted on July 9, 1868, as one of the Reconstruction Amendments. Its Citizenship Clause provides a broad definition of citizenship that overruled the Dred Scott v. Sandford ruling by the Supreme Court (1857) that held that blacks could not be citizens of the United States.[1] Its Due Process Clause prohibits state and local governments from depriving persons of life, liberty, or property without certain steps being taken to ensure fairness. This clause has been used to make most of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states, as well as to recognize substantive and procedural rights. Its Equal Protection Clause requires each state to provide equal protection under the law to all people within its jurisdiction. This clause was the basis for Brown v. Board of Education (1954), the Supreme Court decision which precipitated the dismantling of racial segregation in the United States. In Reed v. Reed (1971), the Supreme Court for the first time ruled that laws arbitrarily requiring sex discrimination violated the Equal Protection Clause. The amendment also includes a number of clauses dealing with the Confederacy and its officials.

Text
Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article.

452

Citizenship and civil rights

The two pages of the Fourteenth Amendment in the National Archives

Background
Section 1 formally defines citizenship and protects a person's civil and political rights from being abridged or denied by any state. This represented the overruling of the Dred Scott decision's ruling that black people were not, and could not become, citizens of the United States or enjoy any of the privileges and immunities of citizenship.[2] The Civil Rights Act of 1866 had already granted U.S. citizenship to all persons born in the United States, as long as those persons were not subject to a foreign power; the framers of the Fourteenth Amendment added this principle into the Constitution to prevent the Supreme Court from ruling the Civil Rights Act of 1866 to be unconstitutional for lack of congressional authority to enact such a law and to prevent a future Congress from altering it by a mere majority vote. This section was also in response to the Black Codes that southern states had passed in the wake of the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery in the United States.[3] The Black Codes attempted to return former slaves to something like their former condition by, among other things, restricting their movement, forcing them to enter into year-long labor contracts, prohibiting them from owning firearms, and by preventing them from suing or testifying in court.[4] Finally, this section was in response to violence against black people within the southern states. A Joint Committee on Reconstruction found that only a Constitutional amendment could protect black people's rights and welfare within those states.[5]

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

453

Citizenship Clause
There are varying interpretations of the original intent of Congress, based on statements made during the congressional debate over the amendment.[6] [7] During the original debate over the amendment Senator Jacob M. Howard of Michigan—the author of the Citizenship Clause[8] —described the clause as having the same content, despite different wording, as the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1866, namely, that it excludes Native Americans who maintain their tribal ties and "persons born in the United States who are foreigners, aliens, who belong to the families of ambassadors or foreign ministers."[9] According to historian Glenn W. LaFantasie of Western Kentucky University, "A good number of his fellow senators supported his view of the citizenship clause."[8] Others also agreed that the children of ambassadors and foreign ministers were to be excluded.[10] [11] However, concerning children born in the United States to parents who are not U.S. citizens (and not foreign diplomats), three Senators, including Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Lyman Trumbull, the author of the Civil Rights Act, as well as President Andrew Johnson, asserted that both the Civil Rights Act and the Fourteenth Amendment would confer citizenship on them at birth, and no Senator offered a contrary opinion.[12] [13] [14] Senator James Rood Doolittle of Wisconsin asserted that all Native Americans were subject to the jurisdiction of the United States, so that the phrase "Indians not taxed" would be preferable,[15] but Trumbull and Howard disputed this, arguing that the U.S. government did not have full jurisdiction over Native American tribes, which govern themselves and make treaties with the United States.[16] [17] In Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U.S. 94 [18] (1884), the clause's meaning was tested regarding whether birth in the United States automatically extended national citizenship. The Supreme Court held that Native Americans who voluntarily quit their tribes did not automatically gain national citizenship.[19] The clause's meaning was tested again in the case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark 169 U.S. 649 [20] (1898). The Supreme Court held that under the Fourteenth Amendment a man born within the United States to Chinese citizens who have a permanent domicile and residence in the United States and are carrying on business in the United States—and whose parents were not employed in a diplomatic or other official capacity by a foreign power—was a citizen of the United States. Subsequent decisions have applied the principle to the children of foreign nationals of non-Chinese descent.[21] Loss of citizenship Loss of national citizenship is possible only under the following circumstances: • Fraud in the naturalization process. Technically, this is not loss of citizenship but rather a voiding of the purported naturalization and a declaration that the immigrant never was a United States citizen. • Voluntary relinquishment of citizenship. This may be accomplished either through renunciation procedures specially established by the State Department or through other actions that demonstrate desire to give up national citizenship.[22] For much of the country's history, voluntary acquisition or exercise of a foreign citizenship was considered sufficient cause for revocation of national citizenship.[23] This concept was enshrined in a series of treaties between the United States and other countries (the Bancroft Treaties). However, the Supreme Court repudiated this concept in Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253 [24] (1967), as well as Vance v. Terrazas, 444 U.S. 252 [25] (1980), holding that the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment barred the Congress from revoking citizenship.

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Due Process Clause
Beginning with Allgeyer v. Louisiana (1897), the Court interpreted the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as providing substantive protection to private contracts and thus prohibiting a variety of social and economic regulation, under what was referred to as "freedom of contract".[26] Thus, the Court struck down a law decreeing maximum hours for workers in a bakery in Lochner v. New York (1905) and struck down a minimum wage law in Adkins v. Children's Hospital (1923). However, the Court did uphold some economic regulation such as state prohibition laws (Mugler v. Kansas [27]), laws declaring maximum hours for mine workers (Holden v. Hardy, 1898), laws declaring maximum hours for female workers (Muller v. Oregon, 1908), President Wilson's intervention in a railroad strike (Wilson v. New, 1917), as well as federal laws regulating narcotics (United States v. Doremus, 1919). The Court repudiated the "freedom of contract" line of cases in West Coast Hotel v. Parrish (1937). By the 1960s, the Court had extended its interpretation of substantive due process to include rights and freedoms that are not specifically mentioned in the Constitution but that, according to the Court, extend or derive from existing rights.[26] The Court has also significantly expanded the reach of procedural due process, requiring some sort of hearing before the government may terminate civil service employees, expel a student from public school, or cut off a welfare recipient's benefits.[28] [29] The Court has ruled that, in certain circumstances, the Due Process Clause requires a judge to recuse himself on account of concern of there being a conflict of interest. For example, in Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co. (2009) the Court ruled that a justice of the Supreme Court of Appeals of West Virginia had to recuse himself from a case involving a major contributor to his campaign for election to that court.[30] The Due Process Clause has been used to apply most of the Bill of Rights to the states (see below for details).

Equal Protection Clause
In the decades following the adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Supreme Court overturned laws barring blacks from juries (Strauder v. West Virginia, 1880) or discriminating against Chinese Americans in the regulation of laundry businesses (Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 1886), as violations of the Equal Protection Clause. However, in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), the Supreme Court held that the states could impose segregation so long as they provided similar facilities—the formation of the “separate but equal” doctrine.[31] The Court went even further in restricting the Equal Protection Clause in U.S. circuit judges Robert Katzmann, Damon Berea College v. Kentucky (1908), holding that the states could force Keith, and Sonia Sotomayor at a 2004 exhibit on private actors to discriminate by prohibiting colleges from having both the Fourteenth Amendment, Thurgood Marshall, and Brown v. Board of Education. black and white students. By the early twentieth century, the Equal Protection Clause had been eclipsed to the point that Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. dismissed it as "the usual last resort of constitutional arguments."[32] The Court held to the "separate but equal" doctrine for more than fifty years, despite numerous cases in which the Court itself had found that the segregated facilities provided by the states were almost never equal, until Brown v. Board of Education (1954) reached the Court. In Brown the Court ruled that even if segregated black and white schools were of equal quality in facilities and teachers, segregation by itself was harmful to black students and so was unconstitutional. Brown met with a campaign of resistance from white Southerners, and for decades the federal courts attempted to enforce Brown's mandate against repeated attempts at circumvention.[33] This resulted in the controversial desegregation busing decrees handed down by federal courts in various parts of the nation (see Milliken v. Bradley, 1974).[34] In Hernandez v. Texas (1954) the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment protects those beyond the racial classes of white or "Negro" and extends to other racial and ethnic groups, such as Mexican

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution Americans in this case. In the half century since Brown, the Court has extended the reach of the Equal Protection Clause to other historically disadvantaged groups, such as women and illegitimate children, although it has applied a somewhat less stringent standard than it has applied to governmental discrimination on the basis of race (United States v. Virginia, 1996; Levy v. Louisiana, 1968).[35] The Supreme Court, since Wesberry v. Sanders (1964)[36] and Reynolds v. Sims (1964),[37] has interpreted the Equal Protection Clause as requiring the states to apportion their congressional districts and state legislative seats according to "one man, one vote".[38] The Court has also struck down redistricting plans in which race was a key consideration. In Shaw v. Reno (1993), the Court prohibited a North Carolina plan aimed at creating majority-black districts to balance historic underrepresentation in the state's congressional delegations.[39] In League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry (2006), the Court ruled that Tom DeLay's Texas redistricting plan intentionally diluted the votes of Latinos and thus violated the Equal Protection Clause.

455

Incorporation
In Barron v. Baltimore (1833), the Supreme Court ruled that the Bill of Rights did not apply to the states. While many state constitutions are modeled after the United States Constitution and federal laws, those state constitutions did not necessarily include provisions comparable to the Bill of Rights. According to Akhil Reed Amar, the framers and early supporters of the Fourteenth Amendment believed that it would ensure that the states would be required to recognize the individual rights the federal government was already required to respect in the Bill of Rights and in other constitutional provisions; all of these rights were likely understood as falling within the "privileges or immunities" safeguarded by the amendment.[40] However, in the Slaughter-House Cases (1873), the Supreme Court ruled that the amendment's Privileges or Immunities Clause was limited to "privileges or immunities" granted to citizens by the federal government by virtue of national citizenship. The Court further held in the Civil Rights Cases (1883) that the amendment was limited to "state action" and, therefore, did not authorize the Congress to outlaw racial discrimination on the part of private individuals or organizations. Neither of these decisions has been overturned and have been specifically reaffirmed several times.[41] However, by the latter half of the 20th century, nearly all of the rights in the Bill of Rights had been applied to the states, under what is known as the incorporation doctrine.[42] The Supreme Court has held that the amendment's Due Process Clause incorporates all of the substantive protections of the First, Second, Fourth, Fifth (except for its Grand Jury Clause) and Sixth Amendments and the Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause of the Eighth Amendment.[43] While the Third Amendment has not been applied to the states by the Supreme Court, the Second Circuit ruled that it did apply to the states within that circuit's jurisdiction in Engblom v. Carey.[44] The Seventh Amendment has been held not to be applicable to the states.[43] [45]

Apportionment of Representatives
Section 2 altered the way how much representation each state receives in the House of Representatives is determined. It counts all residents for apportionment, overriding Article I, Section 2, Clause 3 of the Constitution, which counted only three-fifths of each state's slave population. Section 2 also reduces a state's apportionment if it wrongfully denies any adult male's right to vote, while explicitly permitting felony disenfranchisement. However, this provision was never enforced while the southern states continued to use various pretexts to prevent many blacks from voting right up until the passage of Voting Rights Act in 1965.[46] Some have argued that Section 2 was implicitly repealed by the Fifteenth Amendment,[47] but the Supreme Court has acknowledged the provisions of Section 2 in recent times. For example, in Richardson v. Ramirez, 418 U.S. 24 [48] (1974) the Court cited Section 2 as justification for the states disenfranchising felons. In his dissent, Justice Marshall explained the history of the Section 2 in relation to the Post-Civil War Reconstruction era:

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution The historical purpose for section 2 itself is, however, relatively clear and, in my view, dispositive of this case. The Radical Republicans who controlled the 39th Congress were concerned that the additional congressional representation of the Southern States which would result from the abolition of slavery might weaken their own political dominance. There were two alternatives available—either to limit southern representation, which was unacceptable long-term, or to ensure that southern Negroes, sympathetic to the Republican cause, would be enfranchised; but an explicit grant of suffrage to Negroes was thought politically unpalatable at the time. Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment was the resultant compromise. It put Southern States to a choice—enfranchise Negro voters or lose congressional representation. [...] Section 2 provides a special remedy—reduced representation—to cure a particular form of electoral abuse—the disenfranchisement of Negroes.[49]

456

Participants in rebellion
Section 3 prohibits the election or appointment to any federal or state office of any person who had held any of certain offices and then engaged in insurrection, rebellion or treason. However, a two-thirds vote by each House of the Congress can override this limitation. In 1898, the Congress enacted a general removal of Section 3's limitation.[50] In 1975, Robert E. Lee's citizenship was restored by a joint congressional resolution, retroactive to June 13, 1865.[51] In 1978, pursuant to Section 3, the Congress posthumously removed the service ban from Jefferson Davis.[52]

Validity of public debt
Section 4 confirmed the legitimacy of all United States public debt appropriated by the Congress. It also confirmed that neither the United States nor any state would pay for the loss of slaves or debts that had been incurred by the Confederacy. For example, several English and French banks had lent money to the South during the war.[53] In Perry v. United States (1935), the Supreme Court ruled that under Section 4 voiding a United States government bond "went beyond the congressional power."[54] The United States debt-ceiling crisis in 2011 raised the question of what powers Section 4 gives to the President. Legal analyst Jeffrey Rosen has argued that Section 4 gives the President unilateral authority to raise or ignore the national debt ceiling, and that if challenged the Supreme Court would likely rule in favor of expanded executive power or dismiss the case altogether for lack of standing.[55] Erwin Chemerinsky, professor and dean at University of California, Irvine School of Law, has argued that not even in a "dire financial emergency" could the President raise the debt ceiling as "there is no reasonable way to interpret the Constitution that [allows him to do so]".[56] The issue of what effect Section 4 has regarding the debt ceiling remains unsettled.[57]

Power of enforcement
Section 5, the last section, was construed broadly by the Supreme Court in Katzenbach v. Morgan (1966).[58] However, the Court, in City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), said: Any suggestion that Congress has a substantive, non-remedial power under the Fourteenth Amendment is not supported by our case law.[59]

Proposal and ratification
The 39th United States Congress proposed the Fourteenth Amendment on June 13, 1866. Ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment was bitterly contested: all the Southern state legislatures, with the exception of Tennessee, refused to ratify the amendment. This refusal led to the passage of the Reconstruction Acts. Ignoring the existing state governments, military government was imposed until new civil governments were

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution established and the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified.[60] By July 9, 1868, three-fourths of the states (28 of 37) ratified the amendment:[61] 1. Connecticut (June 25, 1866) 2. New Hampshire (July 6, 1866) 3. Tennessee (July 19, 1866) 4. New Jersey (September 11, 1866)* 5. Oregon (September 19, 1866) 6. Vermont (October 30, 1866) 7. Ohio (January 4, 1867)* 8. New York (January 10, 1867) 9. Kansas (January 11, 1867) 10. Illinois (January 15, 1867) 11. West Virginia (January 16, 1867) 12. Michigan (January 16, 1867) 13. Minnesota (January 16, 1867) 14. Maine (January 19, 1867) 15. Nevada (January 22, 1867) 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Indiana (January 23, 1867) Missouri (January 25, 1867) Rhode Island (February 7, 1867) Wisconsin (February 7, 1867) Pennsylvania (February 12, 1867) Massachusetts (March 20, 1867) Nebraska (June 15, 1867) Iowa (March 16, 1868) Arkansas (April 6, 1868, after having rejected it on December 17, 1866) Florida (June 9, 1868, after having rejected it on December 6, 1866) North Carolina (July 4, 1868, after having rejected it on December 14, 1866) Louisiana (July 9, 1868, after having rejected it on February 6, 1867) South Carolina (July 9, 1868, after having rejected it on December 20, 1866)

457

*Ohio passed a resolution that purported to withdraw its ratification on January 15, 1868. The New Jersey legislature also tried to rescind its ratification on February 20, 1868, citing procedural problems with the amendment's congressional passage, including that specific states were unlawfully denied representation in the House and the Senate at the time.[62] The New Jersey governor had vetoed his state's withdrawal on March 5, and the legislature overrode the veto on March 24. On July 20, 1868, Secretary of State William H. Seward certified that the amendment had become part of the Constitution if the rescissions were ineffective, and presuming also that the later ratifications by states whose governments had been reconstituted superseded the initial rejection of the prior state legislatures.[63] The Congress responded on the following day, declaring that the amendment was part of the Constitution and ordering Seward to promulgate the amendment. Meanwhile, two additional states had ratified the amendment: 1. Alabama (July 13, 1868, the date the ratification was "approved" by the governor) 2. Georgia (July 21, 1868, after having rejected it on November 9, 1866) Thus, on July 28, Seward was able to certify unconditionally that the amendment was part of the Constitution without having to endorse the Congress's assertion that the withdrawals were ineffective.

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution There were additional ratifications and rescissions; by 2003, the amendment had been ratified by all of the 37 states that were in the Union in 1868:[64] 1. Virginia (October 8, 1869, after having rejected it on January 9, 1867) 2. Mississippi (January 17, 1870, after having rejected it on January 31, 1868) 3. Texas (February 18, 1870, after having rejected it on October 27, 1866) 4. Delaware (February 12, 1901, after having rejected it on February 7, 1867) 5. Maryland (1959, after having rejected it on March 23, 1867) 6. California (1959) 7. Oregon (1973, after withdrawing it on October 15, 1868) 8. Kentucky (1976, after having rejected it on January 8, 1867) 9. New Jersey (2003, after having rescinded on February 20, 1868)[65] 10. Ohio (2003, after having rescinded on January 15, 1868)

458

Supreme Court cases
Citizenship
• • • 1884: Elk v. Wilkins • 1898: United States v. Wong Kim Ark • 1967: Afroyim v. Rusk 1980: Vance v. Terrazas 1982: Plyler v. Doe

Corporate personhood
• 1886: Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad • 2010: Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission

Privileges or immunities
• • • 1868: Crandall v. Nevada • 1873: Slaughter-House Cases • 1908: Twining v. New Jersey • 1920: United States v. Wheeler 1948: Oyama v. California 1999: Saenz v. Roe

Procedural due process/Incorporation
• • • • • • • • • • 1833: Barron v. Baltimore 1873: Slaughter-House Cases 1883: Civil Rights Cases 1884: Hurtado v. California 1897: Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad v. Chicago 1900: Maxwell v. Dow 1908: Twining v. New Jersey 1925: Gitlow v. New York 1932: Powell v. Alabama 1934: Snyder v. Massachusetts • • • • • • • • • 1937: Palko v. Connecticut 1947: Adamson v. California 1952: Rochin v. California 1961: Mapp v. Ohio 1962: Robinson v. California 1963: Gideon v. Wainwright 1964: Malloy v. Hogan 1966: Miranda v. Arizona 1967: Reitman v. Mulkey • • • • • • • • • 1968: Duncan v. Louisiana 1969: Benton v. Maryland 1970: Goldberg v. Kelly 1972: Furman v. Georgia 1974: Calero-Toledo v. Pearson Yacht Leasing Co. 1974: Goss v. Lopez 1975: O'Connor v. Donaldson 1976: Gregg v. Georgia 2010: McDonald v. Chicago

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Substantive due process
• • • • • • • • 1876: Munn v. Illinois 1887: Mugler v. Kansas 1897: Allgeyer v. Louisiana 1905: Lochner v. New York 1908: Muller v. Oregon 1923: Meyer v. Nebraska 1925: Pierce v. Society of Sisters • • • • • • 1934: Nebbia v. New York 1937: West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish 1965: Griswold v. Connecticut 1973: Roe v. Wade 1992: Planned Parenthood v. Casey 1996: BMW of North America, Inc. v. Gore 2003: Lawrence v. Texas

1923: Adkins v. Children's Hospital •

Equal protection
• • • • • • • • • • • 1880: Strauder v. West Virginia 1886: Yick Wo v. Hopkins 1896: Plessy v. Ferguson 1908: Berea College v. Kentucky 1917: Buchanan v. Warley 1942: Skinner v. Oklahoma 1944: Korematsu v. United States 1948: Shelley v. Kraemer 1954: Hernandez v. Texas 1962: Baker v. Carr • • • • • • • • • 1967: Loving v. Virginia 1971: Reed v. Reed 1973: San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez 1976: Examining Board v. Flores de Otero 1978: Regents of the University of California v. Bakke 1982: Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan 1986: Posadas de Puerto Rico Associates v. Tourism Company of Puerto Rico 1996: United States v. Virginia 1996: Romer v. Evans 2000: Bush v. Gore

1954: Brown v. Board of Education •

Apportionment of Representatives
• 1974: Richardson v. Ramirez

Power of enforcement
• • • • • 1883: Civil Rights Cases 1966: Katzenbach v. Morgan 1997: City of Boerne v. Flores 1999: Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank 2000: United States v. Morrison • • • • 2000: Kimel v. Florida Board of Regents 2001: Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett 2003: Nevada Department of Human Resources v. Hibbs 2004: Tennessee v. Lane

References
[1] McDonald v. Chicago, 130 S. Ct. 3020, 3060 (2010) ("This unambiguously overruled this Court's contrary holding in Dred Scott.") [2] Tsesis, Alexander, The Inalienable Core of Citizenship: From Dred Scott to the Rehnquist Court. Arizona State Law Journal, Vol. 39, 2008. Ssrn.com. SSRN 1023809. [3] Duhaime, Lloyd. "Legal Definition of Black Code" (http:/ / www. duhaime. org/ LegalDictionary/ B/ BlackCode. aspx). duhaime.org. . Retrieved 2009-03-25. [4] Foner, Eric. Reconstruction. pp. 199–200. ISBN 0807122343. [5] Finkelman, Paul, John Bingham and the Background to the Fourteenth Amendment. Akron Law Review, Vol. 36, No. 671, 2003. Ssrn.com. 2009-04-02. SSRN 1120308. [6] Messner, Emily. “Born in the U.S.A. (Part I)” (http:/ / blog. washingtonpost. com/ thedebate/ 2006/ 03/ born_in_the_usa. html), The Debate, washingtonpost.com (2006-03-30). [7] Robert Pear (1996-08-07). "Citizenship Proposal Faces Obstacle in the Constitution" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9503E7DE143EF934A3575BC0A960958260). New York Times. .

Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
[8] LaFantasie, Glenn (2011-03-20) The erosion of the Civil War consensus (http:/ / www. salon. com/ news/ politics/ war_room/ 2011/ 03/ 20/ lafantasie_civil_war_consensus/ index. html), Salon.com [9] Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2893 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=073/ llcg073. db& recNum=11) Senator Reverdy Johnson said in the debate: "Now, all this amendment provides is, that all persons born in the United States and not subject to some foreign Power--for that, no doubt, is the meaning of the committee who have brought the matter before us--shall be considered as citizens of the United States...If there are to be citizens of the United States entitled everywhere to the character of citizens of the United States, there should be some certain definition of what citizenship is, what has created the character of citizen as between himself and the United States, and the amendment says citizenship may depend upon birth, and I know of no better way to give rise to citizenship than the fact of birth within the territory of the United States, born of parents who at the time were subject to the authority of the United States." [10] Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2897 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=073/ llcg073. db& recNum=11). [11] Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 1, p. 572 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=070/ llcg070. db& recNum=702). [12] Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 1, p. 498 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=070/ llcg070. db& recNum=603).The debate on the Civil Rights Act contained the following exchange: Mr. Cowan: “I will ask whether it will not have the effect of naturalizing the children of Chinese and Gypsies born in this country?” Mr. Trumbull: “Undoubtedly.” ... Mr. Trumbull: “I understand that under the naturalization laws the children who are born here of parents who have not been naturalized are citizens. This is the law, as I understand it, at the present time. Is not the child born in this country of German parents a citizen? I am afraid we have got very few citizens in some of the counties of good old Pennsylvania if the children born of German parents are not citizens.” Mr. Cowan: “The honorable Senator assumes that which is not the fact. The children of German parents are citizens; but Germans are not Chinese; Germans are not Australians, nor Hottentots, nor anything of the kind. That is the fallacy of his argument.” Mr. Trumbull: “If the Senator from Pennsylvania will show me in the law any distinction made between the children of German parents and the children of Asiatic parents, I may be able to appreciate the point which he makes; but the law makes no such distinction; and the child of an Asiatic is just as much of a citizen as the child of a European.” [13] Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, pp. 2891-2 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=073/ llcg073. db& recNum=11) During the debate on the Amendment, Senator John Conness of California declared, "The proposition before us, I will say, Mr. President, relates simply in that respect to the children begotten of Chinese parents in California, and it is proposed to declare that they shall be citizens. We have declared that by law [the Civil Rights Act]; now it is proposed to incorporate that same provision in the fundamental instrument of the nation. I am in favor of doing so. I voted for the proposition to declare that the children of all parentage, whatever, born in California, should be regarded and treated as citizens of the United States, entitled to equal Civil Rights with other citizens.". [14] See veto message (http:/ / teachingamericanhistory. org/ library/ index. asp?document=1944) by President Andrew Johnson. [15] Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, pp. 2890,2892-4,2896 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=073/ llcg073. db& recNum=11). [16] Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2893 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=073/ llcg073. db& recNum=14). Trumbull, during the debate, said, "What do we [the committee reporting the clause] mean by 'subject to the jurisdiction of the United States'? Not owing allegiance to anybody else. That is what it means." He then proceeded to expound upon what he meant by "complete jurisdiction": "Can you sue a Navajoe Indian in court?...We make treaties with them, and therefore they are not subject to our jurisdiction....If we want to control the Navajoes, or any other Indians of which the Senator from Wisconsin has spoken, how do we do it? Do we pass a law to control them? Are they subject to our jurisdiction in that sense?....Would he [Sen. Doolittle] think of punishing them for instituting among themselves their own tribal regulations? Does the Government of the United States pretend to take jurisdiction of murders and robberies and other crimes committed by one Indian upon another?...It is only those persons who come completely within our jurisdiction, who are subject to our laws, that we think of making citizens." [17] Congressional Globe, 1st Session, 39th Congress, pt. 4, p. 2895 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llcg& fileName=073/ llcg073. db& recNum=16).Howard additionally stated the word jurisdiction meant "the same jurisdiction in extent and quality as applies to every citizen of the United States now" and that the United States possessed a “full and complete jurisdiction” over the person described in the amendment. [18] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 112/ 94/ case. html [19] Urofsky, Melvin I.; Finkelman, Paul (2002). A March of Liberty: A Constitutional History of the United States (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=LQVDZ9jg8m0C). 1 (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195126351. . [20] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 169/ 649/ case. html [21] Rodriguez, C.M. (2009). ""The Second Founding: The Citizenship Clause, Original Meaning, and the Egalitarian Unity of the Fourteenth Amendment" [PDF (http:/ / www. pennjcl. com/ issues/ 11/ 11. 5/ 11-5 Rodriguez. pdf)"]. U. Pa. J. Const. L. 11: 1363–1475. . Retrieved 2011-01-20 [22] U.S. Department of State (February 1, 2008). "Advice about Possible Loss of U.S. Citizenship and Dual Nationality" (http:/ / travel. state. gov/ law/ citizenship/ citizenship_778. html). . Retrieved 2009-04-17.

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[23] For example, see Perez v. Brownell, 356 U.S. 44 (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 356/ 44/ case. html) (1958), overruled by Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253 (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 387/ 253/ case. html) (1967) [24] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 387/ 253/ case. html [25] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 444/ 252/ case. html [26] "Due Process of Law – Substantive Due Process" (http:/ / law. jrank. org/ pages/ 6312/ Due-Process-Law-Substantive-Due-Process. html). West's Encyclopedia of American Law. Thomson Gale. 1998. . [27] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 123/ 623/ case. html [28] White, Bradford (2008). Procedural Due Process in Plain English. National Trust for Historic Preservation. ISBN 0891335730. [29] See also Mathews v. Eldridge (1976). [30] Jess Bravin and Kris Maher (June 8, 2009). "Justices Set New Standard for Recusals" (http:/ / online. wsj. com/ article/ SB124447000965394255. html). The Wall Street Journal. . Retrieved 2009-06-09. [31] Abrams, Eve (2009-02-12). "Plessy/Ferguson plaque dedicated" (http:/ / www. publicbroadcasting. net/ wwno/ news. newsmain?action=article& ARTICLE_ID=1468970). WWNO (University New Orleans Public Radio). . Retrieved 2009-04-17. [32] "Last paragraph in Opinion of the Court in ''Buck v. Bell'' (1927)" (http:/ / www. michaelariens. com/ ConLaw/ cases/ buck. htm). Michaelariens.com. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [33] Patterson, James (2002). Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (Pivotal Moments in American History). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195156323. [34] "Forced Busing and White Flight" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,912178,00. html). Time. September 25, 1978. . Retrieved 2009-06-17. [35] Gerstmann, Evan (1999). The Constitutional Underclass: Gays, Lesbians, and the Failure of Class-Based Equal Protection. University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226288609. [36] Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1 (http:/ / www. oyez. org/ cases/ 1960-1969/ 1963/ 1963_22) (1964). [37] Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (http:/ / www. oyez. org/ cases/ 1960-1969/ 1963/ 1963_23) (1964). [38] Epstein, Lee; Walker, Thomas G. (2007). Constitutional Law for a Changing America: Rights, Liberties, and Justice (6th ed.). Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. p. 775. ISBN 0871876132. "Wesberry and Reynolds made it clear that the Constitution demanded population-based representational units for the U.S. House of Representatives and both houses of state legislatures...." [39] Aleinikoff, T. Alexander; Samuel Issacharoff (1993). "Race and Redistricting: Drawing Constitutional Lines after Shaw v. Reno". Michigan Law Review (Michigan Law Review, Vol. 92, No. 3) 92 (3): 588–651. doi:10.2307/1289796. JSTOR 1289796. [40] Amar, Akhil Reed (1992). "The Bill of Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment" (http:/ / www. saf. org/ LawReviews/ Amar1. html). Yale Law Journal (The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 101, No. 6) 101 (6): 1193–1284. doi:10.2307/796923. JSTOR 796923. . [41] e.g., United States v. Morrison (2000) [42] "[[Duncan v. Louisiana (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ supct/ html/ historics/ USSC_CR_0391_0145_ZC. html)] (Mr. Justice Black, joined by Mr. Justice Douglas, concurring)"]. Cornell Law School – Legal Information Institute. May 20, 1968. . Retrieved 2009-04-26. [43] Levy, Leonard (1970). Fourteenth Amendment and the Bill of Rights: The Incorporation Theory (American Constitutional and Legal History Series). Da Capo Press. ISBN 0306700298. [44] 677 F.2d 957 (1982) [45] "Minneapolis & St. Louis R. Co. v. Bombolis (1916)" (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 241/ 211/ case. html). Supreme.justia.com. 1916-05-22. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [46] For more on Section 2 go to Findlaw.com (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ data/ constitution/ amendment14/ 36. html#1) [47] Chin, Gabriel J. (2004). "Reconstruction, Felon Disenfranchisement, and the Right to Vote: Did the Fifteenth Amendment Repeal Section 2 of the Fourteenth?". Georgetown Law Journal 92: 259. [48] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 418/ 24/ case. html [49] "''Richardson v. Ramirez'', 418 U.S. 24, 74 (1974)" (http:/ / faculty. maxwell. syr. edu/ tmkeck/ Cases/ RichardsonvRamirez1974. htm). Faculty.maxwell.syr.edu. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [50] "Sections 3 and 4: Disqualification and Public Debt" (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ data/ constitution/ amendment14/ 37. html). Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. 1933-06-05. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [51] "Pieces of History: General Robert E. Lee's Parole and Citizenship" (http:/ / www. archives. gov/ publications/ prologue/ 2005/ spring/ piece-lee. html). Prologue Magazine (The National Archives) 37 (1). 2005. . [52] Goodman, Bonnie K. (2006). "History Buzz: October 16, 2006: This Week in History" (http:/ / hnn. us/ blogs/ archives/ 52/ 2006/ 10/ ). History News Network. . Retrieved 2009-06-18. [53] For more on Section 4 go to Findlaw.com (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ data/ constitution/ amendment14/ 37. html#1) [54] "294 U.S. 330 at 354" (http:/ / www. findlaw. com/ scripts/ getcase. pl?navby=case& court=us& vol=294& invol=330#354). Findlaw.com. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [55] Rosen, Jeffrey. "How Would the Supreme Court Rule on Obama Raising the Debt Ceiling Himself?" (http:/ / www. tnr. com/ article/ politics/ 92884/ supreme-court-obama-debt-ceiling). The New Republic. . Retrieved 29 July 2011. [56] Chemerinsky, Erwin. "The Constitution, Obama and raising the debt ceiling" (http:/ / opinion. latimes. com/ opinionla/ 2011/ 07/ erwin-chemerinsky-on-why-obama-cant-raise-the-debt-ceiling. html). Los Angeles Times. . Retrieved 30 July 2011. [57] Liptak, Adam. "The 14th Amendment, the Debt Ceiling and a Way Out" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2011/ 07/ 25/ us/ politics/ 25legal. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved 30 July 2011. "In recent weeks, law professors have been trying to puzzle out the meaning and

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relevance of the provision. Some have joined Mr. Clinton in saying it allows Mr. Obama to ignore the debt ceiling. Others say it applies only to Congress and only to outright default on existing debts. Still others say the president may do what he wants in an emergency, with or without the authority of the 14th Amendment." [58] "FindLaw: U.S. Constitution: Fourteenth Amendment, p. 40" (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ data/ constitution/ amendment14/ 40. html). Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [59] "''City of Boerne v. Flores'', Opinion of the Court, Part III-A-3" (http:/ / supct. law. cornell. edu/ supct/ html/ 95-2074. ZO. html). Supct.law.cornell.edu. 1997-06-25. . Retrieved 2010-08-01. [60] "The Civil War And Reconstruction" (http:/ / www. america. gov/ st/ educ-english/ 2008/ April/ 20080407120920eaifas0. 4535639. html). . Retrieved October 21, 2010. [61] Mount, Steve (January 2007). "Ratification of Constitutional Amendments" (http:/ / www. usconstitution. net/ constamrat. html). . Retrieved February 24, 2007. [62] Department of, State. Documentary History of the Constitution of the United States, Vol. 5. pp. 533–543. ISBN 0837720451. [63] Congress, Library of. A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774-1875 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ ampage?collId=llsl& fileName=015/ llsl015. db& recNum=740). pp. 707. . [64] Chin, Gabriel J.; Abraham, Anjali (2008). "Beyond the Supermajority: Post-Adoption Ratification of the Equality Amendments" (http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/ papers. cfm?abstract_id=1076805). Arizona Law Review 50: 25. . [65] P.L. 2003, Joint Resolution No. 2; 4/23/03

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Further reading
• Nelson, William E. The Fourteenth Amendment: from political principle to judicial doctrine (Harvard University Press, 1988) online edition (http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.00490)

External links
• "Amendments to the Constitution of the United States" (http://www.gpoaccess.gov/constitution/pdf/con001. pdf) (PDF). GPO Access. Retrieved September 11, 2005. (PDF, providing text of amendment and dates of ratification) • CRS Annotated Constitution: Fourteenth Amendment (http://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/ amdt14toc_user.html) • Fourteenth Amendment and related resources at the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ ourdocs/14thamendment.html) • National Archives: Fourteenth Amendment (http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/ constitution_amendments_11-27.html#14)

Panic of 1873

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Panic of 1873
The Panic of 1873 triggered a severe international economic depression in both Europe and the United States that lasted until 1879, and even longer in some countries. The depression was known as the Great Depression until the 1930s, but is now known as the Long Depression.[1] The panic was caused by the fall in demand for silver internationally, which followed Germany's decision to abandon the silver standard in the wake of the Franco-Prussian war.[2] In 1871, Otto von Bismarck extracted a large indemnity in gold from France and ceased minting silver thaler coins. The first symptoms of the crisis were financial failures in the Austro-Hungarian capital, Vienna, which spread to most of Europe and North America by 1873. It was one of a series of economic crises in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In Britain, the result was two decades of stagnation known as the "Long Depression", which weakened Britain's economic leadership in the world.[3] In U.S. literature this global event is usually known as the Panic of 1873, while in Europe it is known as the Long Depression or Great Depression.[4]

A bank run on the Fourth National Bank, No. 20 Nassau Street, New York City, 1873. From Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper, October 4, 1873.

Factors in the U.S.
The American Civil War was followed by a boom in railroad construction. 56000 miles (90000 km) of new track were laid across the country between 1866 and 1873. Much of the craze in railroad investment was driven by government land grants and subsidies to the railroads. At that time, the railroad industry was the nation's largest employer outside of agriculture, and it involved large amounts of money and risk. A large infusion of cash from speculators caused abnormal growth in the industry as well as overbuilding of docks, factories and ancillary facilities. At the same time, too much capital was involved in projects offering no immediate or early returns.[5]

Coinage Act of 1873
The decision of the German Empire to cease minting silver thaler coins in 1871 caused a drop in demand and downward pressure on the value of silver; this had a knock-on effect in the USA, where much of the supply was then mined. As a result, the Coinage Act of 1873 was introduced and this changed the United States silver policy. Before the Act, the United States had backed its currency with both gold and silver, and it minted both types of coins. The Act moved the United States to a 'de facto' gold standard, which meant it would no longer buy silver at a statutory price or convert silver from the public into silver coins (though it would still mint silver dollars for export in the form

Panic of 1873 of trade dollars)[6] The Act had the immediate effect of depressing silver prices. This hurt Western mining interests, who labeled the Act "The Crime of '73." Its effect was offset somewhat by the introduction of a silver trade dollar for use in the Orient, and by the discovery of new silver deposits at Virginia City, Nevada, resulting in new investment in mining activity.[7] But the coinage law also reduced the domestic money supply, which raised interest rates, thereby hurting farmers and anyone else who normally carried heavy debt loads. The resulting outcry raised serious questions about how long the new policy would last.[8] This perception of instability in United States monetary policy caused investors to shy away from long-term obligations, particularly long-term bonds. The problem was compounded by the railroad boom, which was in its later stages at the time. In September 1873, the American economy entered a crisis. This followed a period of post-Civil War economic over-expansion that arose from the Northern railroad boom. It came at the end of a series of economic setbacks: the Black Friday panic of 1869, the Chicago fire of 1871, the outbreak of equine influenza in 1872, and demonetization of silver in 1873. Jay Cooke & Company fails In September 1873, Jay Cooke & Company, a major component of the United States banking establishment, found itself unable to market several million dollars in Northern Pacific Railway bonds. Cooke's firm, like many others, was invested heavily in the railroads. At a time when investment banks were anxious for more capital for their enterprises, President Ulysses S. Grant's monetary policy of contracting the money supply (again, also thereby raising interest rates) made matters worse for those in debt. While businesses were expanding, the money they needed to finance that growth was becoming more scarce. Cooke and other entrepreneurs had planned to build the nation's second transcontinental railroad, called the Northern Pacific Railway. Cooke's firm provided the financing, and ground was broken near Duluth, Minnesota, for the line on February 15, 1870. But just as Cooke was about to swing a $300 million government loan in September 1873, reports circulated that his firm's credit had become nearly worthless. On September 18, the firm declared bankruptcy.[9] [10]

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Effects in the U.S.
The failure of the Jay Cooke bank, followed quickly by that of Henry Clews, set off a chain reaction of bank failures and temporarily closed the New York stock market. Factories began to lay off workers as the United States slipped into depression. The effects of the panic were quickly felt in New York, and more slowly in Chicago; Virginia City, Nevada; and San Francisco.[11] [12] The New York Stock Exchange closed for ten days starting September 20.[13] Of the country's 364 railroads, 89 went bankrupt. A total of 18,000 businesses failed between 1873 and 1875. Unemployment reached 14% by 1876. Construction work halted, wages were cut, real estate values fell and corporate profits vanished.[14]

Railroad strike
American railroad unions commenced the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, preventing the trains from moving, especially in Pennsylvania and the great railway hub of Chicago. President Rutherford B. Hayes sent in federal troops in an attempt to stop the strikes. Fights between strikers and troops killed more than 100 and left many more injured. Further trouble came in July 1877 in the form of a crash in the market for lumber, resulting in the bankruptcy of several leading Michigan lumbering concerns.[15] The effects of the resulting second business slump reached California by 1878.[16] The tension between workers and the leaders of banking and manufacturing interests lingered on well after the depression lifted in the spring of 1879, the end of the crisis coinciding with the beginning of the great wave of

Panic of 1873 immigration into the United States which lasted until the early 1920s. Poor economic conditions caused voters to turn against the Republican Party. In the 1874 congressional elections, the Democrats assumed control of the House. Public opinion during the period made it difficult for the Grant Administration to develop a coherent policy regarding the Southern states. The North began to steer away from Reconstruction. With the depression, ambitious railroad building programs crashed across the South, leaving most states deep in debt and burdened with heavy taxes. Retrenchment was a common response of southern states to state debts during the depression. One by one each Southern state fell to the Democrats, and the Republicans lost power.

465

Europe
The panic and depression hit all industrial nations.

Germany and Austria
A similar process of over-expansion was going on in Germany and Austria, where the period from German unification in 1870/71 to the crash in 1873 came to be called the Gründerjahre or "founders' years". A liberalized incorporation law in Germany led to the founding of new enterprises, such as the Deutsche Bank, as well as the incorporation of established ones. Euphoria over the military victory against France in 1871, combined with the influx of capital from the payment by France of war reparations, encouraged stock market speculation in railways, Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock factories, docks, steamships - in short, the same areas of Exchange. over-expansion as in the United States.[17] It was in the immediate aftermath of Otto von Bismarck's victory against France that he began the process of silver demonetization. The process began on 23 November 1871 and culminated in the introduction of the gold mark on 9 July 1873 as the currency for the new united Reich to replace the silver coins of all the constituent parts. Germany was now on the gold standard.[2] Demonetization of silver was therefore a common element in the crises on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. On May 9, 1873, the Vienna Stock Exchange crashed, no longer able to sustain false expansion, insolvency, and dishonest manipulations. A series of Viennese bank failures resulted, causing a contraction of the money available for business lending. One of the more famous private individuals who went bankrupt in 1873 was Stephan Keglevich of Vienna. He was a relative of Gábor Keglevich, who had been the main royal treasurer of Hungary (1842–1848) and who had founded in 1845 with some others a financing association to finance the Hungarian industry and to protect the loan repayments, similar to the Kreditschutzverband von 1870 (Austria's association for the protection of creditors and for the protection of the interests of its members in cases of bankruptcy). Therefore it was possible that a series of Austrian banks were newly established in 1873 after the Vienna Stock Exchange crash.[18] In contrast to Berlin, where the railway empire of Bethel Henry Strousberg crashed after a ruinous settlement with the Romanian government, bursting the speculation bubble in Germany. The contraction of the German economy was exacerbated by the conclusion of war reparations payments to Germany by France in September 1873. Coming two years after the founding of the German Empire, the panic became known as the Gründerkrach or "founders' crash".[19] [20] [21] Keglevich and Strousberg had come in the year 1865 in direct competition in a project in today's Slovakia, whereupon, in 1870, the Government of Hungary and finally in 1872 the Emperor and King Franz Joseph I of Austria cleared the question of these competing projects.[22] [23] Although the collapse of the foreign loan financing had been foreshadowed, the anticipatory events of that year were in themselves comparatively unimportant. Buda the old capital of Hungary and Óbuda were officially united with Pest,[24] thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest in 1873. The difference in stability between Vienna and Berlin

Panic of 1873 had the effect that the French indemnity to Germany overflowed thence to Austria and Russia, but these indemnity payments aggravated the crisis in Austria, which had been benefited by the accumulation of capital not only in Germany, but also in England, Holland, Belgium, France and Russia.[25] Recovery from the crash was much quicker in Europe than in the United States.[26] [27] Moreover, German businesses managed to avoid the sort of deep wage cuts that embittered American labor relations at the time.[27] There was an anti-Semitic component to the economic recovery in Germany and Austria as small investors irrationally blamed the Jews for their losses in the crash.[28] [29] False expansions have been reconsidered. Monetary distribution issues are first and foremost a question of income distribution between labour economics and capital (economics).[30] Soon more luxury hotels and villas were built in Opatija and a new railway line was extended in 1873 from the Vienna-Trieste line to Rijeka, from where it was possible to go by tram to Opatija. The strong increase of port traffic meant that there was a permanent request for expansion.[31] The Suez Canal was opened in 1869. 1875-1890 became "the golden years" of Giovanni de Ciotta in Fiume (Rijeka).

466

Britain
The construction of the Suez Canal, which opened in 1869, was one of the causes of the Panic of 1873, because the goods from the Far East were carried in sailing vessels around the Cape of Good Hope and were stored in British warehouses, but sailing vessels were not adaptable for use through the Suez Canal, because the prevailing winds of the Mediterranean Sea blow from west to east.[32] In Britain the long depression resulted in bankruptcies, escalating unemployment, a halt in public works, and a major trade slump that lasted until 1897.[33] Compared with Germany During the depression of 1873–96, most European countries experienced a drastic fall in prices. Still, many corporations were able to reduce production costs and achieve better productivity rates, and, as a result, industrial production increased by 40% in Britain and by over 100% in Germany. A comparison of capital formation rates in the two countries helps to account for the different industrial growth rates. During the depression the British ratio of net national capital formation to net national product fell from 11.5% to 6.0% while Germany's rose from 10.6% to 15.9%. In essence, during the course of the depression, Britain took the course of static supply adjustment while Germany stimulated effective demand and expanded industrial supply capacity by increasing and adjusting capital formation. For example, Germany dramatically increased investment with regard to social overhead capital, such as in the management of electric power transmission lines, roads, and railroads, while this input stagnated or decreased in Britain and the investment helped to stimulate industrial demand in Germany. The resulting difference in capital formation accounts for the divergent levels of industrial production in the two countries and the different growth rates during and after the depression.[34]

Ottoman Empire
In the periphery, the Ottoman Empire's economy also suffered. Rates of growth of foreign trade dropped, external terms of trade deteriorated, declining wheat prices affected peasant producers, and the establishment of European control over Ottoman finances led to large debt payments abroad. The growth rates of agricultural and aggregate production were also lower during the "Great Depression" as compared to the later period.[35]

Global protectionism
After the 1873 depression, agricultural and industrial groups lobbied for protective tariffs. The 1879 tariffs protected these interests, stimulated economic revival through state intervention, and refurbished political support for the conservative politicians Bismarck and John A. Macdonald (the Canadian prime minister). Chancellor Bismarck gradually veered away from classic liberal economic policies in the 1870s, finally embracing a full conservative

Panic of 1873 program, including tariffs, nationalization of railroads, and compulsory social insurance.[36] [37] [38] This political and economic nationalism also reduced the fortunes of the German and Canadian Liberal parties, and stimulated the rise of antisemitism in Germany and Austria. France, like Britain, also entered into a prolonged stagnation that extended to 1897. The French also attempted to deal with their economic problems through the implementation of tariffs. New French laws in 1880 and in 1892 imposed stiff tariffs on many agricultural and industrial imports, an attempt at protectionism.[39] The U.S., still in the period after the Civil War, continued to be very protectionist.[40]

467

Notes
[1] "What history teaches us about the welfare state" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ opinions/ what-history-teaches-us-about-the-welfare-state/ 2011/ 07/ 01/ AGGfhFuH_story. html?wprss=rss_opinions). The Washington Post. 2011-08-29. . Retrieved 2011-09-10. [2] Charles Savoie, (April 2005). "Monetary Madhouse" (http:/ / www. silver-investor. com/ charlessavoie/ cs_3-29-05_monetarymadhouse. htm). Silver-Investor.com. . Retrieved 2011-09-10. [3] Musson (1959) [4] Rodrigo Quesada Monge: El siglo de los totalitarismos (1871–1991) (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=JCJSEX_UVUsC& pg=PA21& lpg=PA21& dq=depresion+ de+ 1873& source=bl& ots=aOvuXkyA1K& sig=uX-qRZbDd55lbYiyH8mQ3zl9VVo& hl=en& ei=MajkS8T7OoOcsgPl5-mlAQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=14& ved=0CIABEOgBMA0#v=onepage& q=depresion de 1873& f=false), p. 21. Euned, 1993. ISBN 9789977647326 (Spanish) [5] Oberholtzer, A History of the United States Since the Civil War (1926) 3:79–122 [6] Unger (1964) ch 8 [7] Loomis (1968), pp. 219–220, 224–225. [8] Silver coinage was resumed under the Bland–Allison Act of 1878. [9] Oberholtzer, Jay Cooke (1907) [10] Wheeler (1973), p. 81. [11] Loomis (1968), pp. 119–120. [12] Masur (1970), p. 65. [13] Historical economics: art or science?, page 321, Charles Poor Kindleberger, University of California Press, 1990. ISBN 9780520073432 [14] Rezneck (1950) [15] Among the lumbering firms that failed were the Danaher & Melendy Company and Oliver O. Stanchfield of Ludington, Michigan, and Cushman, Calkins & Company and Tyson, Sweet & Company of Manistee, Michigan. History of Manistee, Mason and Oceana Counties, Michigan (1882), "History of Mason County", p. 50, and "History of Manistee County", pp. 52, 53 (separate pagination). [16] Loomis (1968), pp. 241–243. [17] Masur (1970), pp. 63–65. [18] Fünfundzwanzig Jahre oesterreichischer Finanzpolitik: (1848 bis 1873) : ein historischer Rückblick, Wilhelm Emil Angerstein, Luckhardt'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1874. (German) [19] Manchester (1968), p. 135. [20] Marek (1974), pp. 181–182. [21] Masur (1970), pp. 64–65. [22] Technické noviny, číslo 46, rok 1988, ročník 36 [23] Historické štúdie, Volume 1-2, p.239, Slovenská akadémia vied, Historický ústav SAV., Československá akademie věd, Vyd-vo Slovenskej akadémie vied, Bratislava 1955. [24] Kinga Frojimovics, Géza Komoróczy, Jewish Budapest: monuments, rites, history, Central European University Press, 1999 p.67 (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=-wUg6rlWS2kC& pg=PA67& dq=Buda+ óbuda+ pest+ 1873& hl=en& ei=AKHQTJmcMMLBswbc9NXNCA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CEwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q& f=false) [25] British Economic History, 1870-1914, W.H.B. Court, Cambridge University Press 1965. [26] Marek (1974), pp. 182–183. [27] Masur (1970), pp. 74–75. [28] Marek (1974), p. 182. [29] Masur (1970), pp. 75–76. [30] Globale Krisen und europäische Verantwortung: Visionen für das 21. Jahrhundert, S. 92, Martina Haedrich, Werner Ruf, Baden-Baden 1992. ISBN 3789041556 [31] Dienel, Hans-Liudger (2004). Unconnected transport networks: European intermodal traffic junctions 1800-2000. Frankfurt/Main: Campus Verlag. p. 146. ISBN 359337661X. [32] The economic development of the American nation, p. 356, Reginald Charles McGrane, Ginn & Co., Boston 1950. [33] W. B Sutch, The long depression, 1865-1895 (1957) [34] Park, Young Goo (1997). "Depression and capital formation: The United Kingdom and Germany, 1873–96". Journal of European Economic History 26 (3): 511–534.

Panic of 1873
[35] Pamuk, Sevket (1984). "The Ottoman Empire in the 'Great Depression' of 1873–1896". Journal of Economic History 44 (1): 107–118. doi:10.1017/S0022050700031399. [36] Eyck (1950), pp. 223–236, 252–261. [37] Masur (1970), pp. 75–80. [38] Richter (1962), pp. 219–220, 255–256. [39] Breton, Yves; et al. (1997). La Longue Stagnation en France: L'Autre Grande Depression, 1873–1897. Paris: Économica. ISBN 2717831304. [40] Morgan, H. Wayne (1969). From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877-1896. Syracuse: University Press.

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Eyck, Erich (1950), Bismarck and the German Empire. Fawcett, W.L. (1877), Gold and Debt; An American Hand-Book of Finance. Fels, Rendigs. (1951) "American Business Cycles, 1865–79", The American Economic Review, Vol. 41, Issue 3, pp. 325–349. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1802106) Fels, Rendigs, (1949). "The Long-Wave Depression, 1873–97," Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Feb., 1949), pp. 69–73 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1927196) Foner, Eric (1990), A Short History of Reconstruction 1863–1877. Glasner, David (1997). "Crisis of 1873". In Glasner, David; Cooley, Thomas F., eds. Business cycles and depressions: an encyclopedia. New York: Garland Publishing. pp. 132–33. ISBN 0824009444. Kirkland, Edward Chase (1967), Industry Comes of Age: Business, Labor, and Public Policy 1860–1897. Loomis, Noel M. (1968), Wells Fargo. Lubetkin, M. John (2006), Jay Cooke’s Gamble: The Northern Pacific Railroad, the Sioux, and the Panic of 1873, focused on construction in the West Manchester, William (1968), The Arms of Krupp. ISBN 978-0316529402 Marek, George R. (1974), The Eagles Die: Franz Joseph, Elisabeth, and Their Austria. Harper & Row, ISBN 978-0246108807 Masur, Gerhard (1970), Imperial Berlin. Moseley, Fred (1997). "Depression of 1873–1879". in David Glasner and Thomas F. Cooley, eds. Business cycles and depressions: an encyclopedia. pp. 148–49. ISBN 0-8240-0944-4. Musson, A. E. (1959) The Great Depression in Britain, 1873–1896: A Reappraisal," Journal of Economic History, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Jun., 1959), pp. 199–228 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2114975) Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. (1907) Jay Cooke: Financier Of The Civil War, Vol. 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8jHiEwVmB8MC) at Google Books, pp. 378–430 Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. (1926) A History of the United States Since the Civil War 3:69–122 Persons, Warren M.; Tuttle, Pierson M.; Frickey, Edwin (1920), "Business and Financial Conditions Following the Civil War in the United States", Review of Economic Statistics, Vol. 2, Supplement 2, pp. 5–21. Rezneck, Samuel. "Distress, Relief, and Discontent in the United States during the Depression of 1873–78," Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 58, No. 6 (Dec., 1950), pp. 494–512 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/1827088) Richter, Hans Werner (1962), Bismarck. Scott, Jr., Ira O. "A Comparison of Production during the Depressions of 1873 and 1929," American Economic Review, Vol. 42, No. 4 (Sep., 1952), pp. 569–576 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1810159) Sprague, Oliver Mitchell Wentworth. (1910) History of crises under the national banking system (http:/ / books.google.com/books?id=Q4AsAAAAYAAJ) at Google Books, pp. 1–107

Panic of 1873 Unger, Irwin. The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance, 1865–1879 (1964) excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/dp/1597404314), pp. 213–28 Wheeler, Keith (1973), The Railroaders. New York: Time-Life Books.

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Yearbooks
• Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia...for 1873 (1879) (http://books.google.com/books?id=c6QoAAAAYAAJ) at Google Books • Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia...for 1875 (1877) (http://books.google.com/books?id=2WcMAAAAYAAJ) at Google Books • Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia...for 1876 (1885) (http://books.google.com/books?id=r6MYAAAAIAAJ) at Google Books • Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia...for 1877 (1878) (http://books.google.com/books?id=Do4EAAAAYAAJ) at Google Books

Red-baiting
Red-baiting is the act of accusing, denouncing, attacking or persecuting an individual or group as communist,[1] socialist, or anarchist, or sympathetic toward communism,[2] socialism, or anarchism. The word "red" in "red-baiting" is derived from the red flag signifying radical left-wing politics.[3] In the United States the term "red-baiting" dates from at least 1927.[4] In 1928, black-listing by the Daughters of the American Revolution was charterized as a 'red-baiting relic'. [5] It is a term commonly used in the United States, and in United States history, red-baiting is most often associated with McCarthyism, which had its origins in the two historic Red Scare periods of the 1920s (First Red Scare) and 1950s (Second Red Scare).[6] In the 21st century, red-baiting does not have quite the same effect it previously did due to the fall of Soviet-style Communism,[7] but some pundits have argued that notable events in current American politics indicates a resurgence of red-baiting consistent with the 1950s.[8]

History
20th century
Red-baiting was employed in opposition to anarchists in the United States as early as the late 1870s when businessmen, religious leaders and editorial writers tried to rally middle class workers to oppose dissident railroad workers and again during the Haymarket affair in the mid-1880s. Red-baiting was well established in the U.S. during the decade before World War I. In the post-war period of 1919-1921 the U.S. government employed it as a central tactic in dealing with labor radicals, anarchists, communists, and foreign agents. These actions in reaction to the First Red Scare, served as part of the organizing principle shaping counter-revolutionary policies and serving to institutionalize anti-communism as a force in American politics.[9] The period between the first and second Red Scares was relatively calm owing to the success of government anti-communism, the suppressive effects of New Deal policies on radical organized labor, and the patriotism associated with total mobilization during World War II.[9] Red-baiting reemerged in the late 1940s and early 1950s during the period known as the Second Red Scare due to mounting Cold War tensions and the spread of communism abroad. U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy's controversial red-baiting of suspected communists and communist sympathizers in the U.S. Department of State, and the creation of an entertaintment industry blacklist, led to the term “McCarthyism” being coined to signify any type of reckless political persecution or witch-hunt.[10] The history of anti-communist red-baiting in general and McCarthyism in particular continues to be hotly debated, and the political divisions this controversy creates continue to make themselves felt. Conservative critics contend

Red-baiting that revelations such as the Venona project decryptions and the FBI Silvermaster File at least mute if not outright refute the charge that red-baiting in general was unjustified.[11] [12] Historian Nicholas von Hoffman wrote in The Washington Post that evidence revealed in the Venona project forced him to admit that McCarthy was "closer to the truth than those who ridiculed him".[13] Liberal critics contend that, even if it was proven that the U.S. government was infiltrated by Soviet spies, McCarthy was censured by the U.S. Senate because he was in fact reckless and politically opportunistic, and his red-baiting ruined the lives of countless innocent persons.[14] Historian Ellen Schrecker wrote that "in this country, McCarthyism did more damage to the constitution than the American Communist Party ever did."[15]

470

21st century
In the 21st century, red-baiting does not have quite the same effect it previously did due to the fall of Soviet-style Communism,[7] but some pundits have argue that notable events in current American politics indicates a resurgence of red-baiting consistent with the 1950s.[8] The United States government's measures in 2008 to address the subprime mortgage crisis, such as TARP, were not only criticized as “corporate welfare” but red-baited as a “gateway to socialism”.[16] [17] [18] [19] Political activist and author Tim Wise, however, argues that the emergence of red-baiting may be motivated by racism towards U.S. President Barack Obama and fear that the progressive policies of his administration will erode white privilege in the United States.[8] Some commentators argue that red-baiting was used by John McCain, Republican presidential nominee in the 2008 United States election, when he argued that Democratic nominee and current president Obama's improvised comments on wealth redistribution to “Joe the Plumber” was a promotion of “socialism”. Journalist David Remnick, who wrote the biography The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama,[20] countered that it should now be obvious that after one year in office Obama is a centre-left president and the majority of his policies are in line with the center-left Democrat tradition; [21] while, in July 2011, The Fiscal Times columnist Bruce Barlett argues that an honest examination of the Obama presidency must conclude that he has in fact been a moderately conservative Democrat and that it may take 20 years before Obama’s basic conservatism is widely accepted.[22] In April 2009, Spencer Bachus claimed that 17 of his Congressional colleagues were socialists, but would only name one, Bernie Sanders, who has been openly describing himself as a democratic socialist for years.[23] Sanders countered that American conservatives blur the differences between socialism and communism, between democracy and totalitarianism. He argued that the United States would benefit from a serious debate about comparing the quality of life for the middle class in the U.S. and in Nordic countries with a long social-democratic tradition like Sweden, Norway, and Finland.[24] In May 2009, a number of conservative members of the Republican National Committee were pressing the committee and by extension, RNC chairman Michael Steele, to officially adopt the position that the Democratic Party is socialist. Over a dozen members of the conservative wing of the RNC submitted a new resolution, to be eventually voted on by the entire RNC, that would call on the Democratic party to rename itself the “Democrat Socialist Party.” If the RNC adopted this resolution, the RNC’s official view would become that Democrats are socialists.[25] From the resolution:

“

RESOLVED, that we the members of the Republican National Committee call on the Democratic Party to be truthful and honest with the American people by acknowledging that they have evolved from a party of tax and spend to a party of tax and nationalize and, therefore, [26] should agree to rename themselves the Democrat Socialist Party.

”

On Wednesday 20 May 2009, supporters of the resolution instead agreed to accept language urging Democrats to "stop pushing our country towards socialism and government control", thus ending a fight within the ranks of the Republican Party that reflected the divide between those who want a more centrist message and those seeking a more aggressive, conservative voice,[27] such as the one expressed by the Tea Party movement. Frank Llewellyn, national

Red-baiting director of Democratic Socialists of America, argued that Republicans never really define what they mean by “socialism” and are simply engaging in the politics of fear.[28] In July 2009, talk show host Glenn Beck began to devote what would become many episodes on his TV and radio shows, focusing on President Obama's Director of White House Council on Environmental Quality, Van Jones. Beck was especially critical of Jones' involvement in STORM, a far-left groupuscule of professional revolutionaries and therefore referred to him as a "communist-anarchist radical".[29] In September 2009, Jones resigned his position in the Obama administration, after a number of his past statements became fodder for conservative critics and Republican officials.[29] Time magazine credited Beck with leading conservatives' attack on Jones,[30] which Jones would characterize a "vicious smear campaign" and an effort to use "lies and distortions to distract and divide".[31]

471

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] "red-baiting." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2010. (http:/ / www. merriam-webster. com/ dictionary/ red-baiting) http:/ / www. thefreedictionary. com/ redbaiting " Story of the Red Flag (http:/ / revcom. us/ a/ 045/ story-red-flag. html)", Revolution, 05-19-2006. Retrieved 1-08-2010. "New York Times" 23 August 1927 'City Crowds Silent On News Of Deaths' "New York Times" 3 April 1928 'D.A.R. Head Defends Order's Blacklist' "red-baiting." The Free Dictionary by Farlex. 2010. (http:/ / encyclopedia. farlex. com/ redbaiting) http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 03/ 01/ weekinreview/ 01leibovich. html?_r=1 retrieved 2/8/2010

[8] Socialism as the New Black Bogeyman: Red-Baiting and Racism (http:/ / www. counterpunch. org/ wise08112009. html) [9] Ronald Edsforth and Larry Bennett (1991), Popular culture and political change in modern America , SUNY PRESS, ISBN 978-0791407653 [10] http:/ / encyclopedia. farlex. com/ redbaiting [11] Haynes, John Earl, and Harvey Klehr (2003). In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage. Encounter. ISBN 1-893554-72-4. [12] Radosh, Ronald (July 11, 2001). "The Persistence Of Anti-Anti-Communism" (http:/ / www. frontpagemag. com/ Articles/ Printable. asp?ID=1491). FrontPageMagazine.com. . Retrieved 2009-02-27. [13] Thomas E. Woods, The politically incorrect guide to American history, pg.170 ISBN 978-0895260475 [14] Theoharis, Athan (2002). Chasing Spies: How the FBI Failed in Counter-Intelligence But Promoted the Politics of McCarthyism in the Cold War Years. Ivan R. Dee. ISBN 1-56663-420-2. [15] Schrecker, Ellen (Winter 2000). "Comments on John Earl Haynes' The Cold War Debate Continues" (http:/ / www. fas. harvard. edu/ ~hpcws/ comment15. htm). Journal of Cold War Studies. Harvard University—Faculty of Arts and Sciences. . Retrieved 2009-02-27. Emphasis in original. [16] "TARP Is The Gateway To Socialism Doesn’t Add Up." New Ledger. 2010. (http:/ / newledger. com/ 2009/ 04/ morriss-claim-that-tarp-is-the-gateway-to-socialism-doesnt-add-up/ ) [17] "The President's Permanent TARP Bailout Socialism Bill" ipi.org. 2010. (http:/ / www. ipi. org/ ipi/ ipipressreleases. nsf/ 97704cbd573c70d88625763a007cd241/ efa77015ce4881af862577130055121d?OpenDocument) [18] "Socialism - TARP, Stimulus fraud" glennbeck.com. 2010. (http:/ / www. glennbeck. com/ content/ articles/ article/ 198/ 26159/ ) [19] "A[n] 'S' for Socialism" glennbeck.com. 2009. (http:/ / mediamatters. org/ mmtv/ 200904290001) [20] Remnick, David (2010). The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama. Knopf. ISBN 1400043603. [21] http:/ / transcripts. cnn. com/ TRANSCRIPTS/ 1004/ 09/ acd. 02. html retrieved 12/4/2010 [22] "Barack Obama: The Democrats’ Richard Nixon?" thefiscaltimes.com. 2011 (http:/ / www. thefiscaltimes. com/ Columns/ 2011/ 07/ 22/ Barack-Obama-The-Democrats-Richard-Nixon. aspx#page1) [23] Spencer Bachus's Past With Socialists (http:/ / voices. washingtonpost. com/ sleuth/ 2009/ 04/ spencer_bachuss_past_with_soci. html?hpid=sec-politics) [24] ...and socialism (http:/ / www. boston. com/ bostonglobe/ editorial_opinion/ oped/ articles/ 2009/ 04/ 22/ and_socialism/ ) [25] Ralph Z. Hallow: Steele urged to label Obama a socialist (http:/ / www. washingtontimes. com/ news/ 2009/ apr/ 23/ steele-urged-to-label-obama-a-socialist/ ) [26] Proposed RNC Resolution Recognizing the Democrats' March Towards Socialism (http:/ / www. repconcaucus. com/ content/ proposed_rnc_resolution_recognizing_democrats_march_towards_socialism) [27] Ben Havens: GOP Votes To Condemn Democrats' "March To Socialism" (http:/ / www. huffingtonpost. com/ 2009/ 05/ 20/ gop-votes-to-condemn-demo_n_206052. html) [28] Frank Llewellyn: Socialism And The Politics Of Fear (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2009/ 07/ 22/ opinion/ main5180886. shtml?tag=cbsnewsLeadStoriesAreaMain;cbsnewsLeadStoriesHeadlines) [29] Brodey, John (2009-09-06). "White House Official Resigns After G.O.P. Criticism" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 09/ 07/ us/ politics/ 07vanjones. html?_r=1). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2009-09-22. [30] Von Drehle, David (September 28, 2009). "Mad Man: Is Glenn Beck Bad for America?" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ politics/ article/ 0,8599,1924348,00. html?xid=rss-topstories). Time 174 (12): 30. ISSN 0040-781X. . Retrieved 2009-09-18. ( cover (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ covers/ 0,16641,20090928,00. html))

Red-baiting
[31] Wilson, Scott; Garance Franke-Ruta (2009-09-06). "White House Adviser Van Jones Resigns Amid Controversy Over Past Activism" (http:/ / voices. washingtonpost. com/ 44/ 2009/ 09/ 06/ van_jones_resigns. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2009-09-22.

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Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
The Sixteenth Amendment (Amendment XVI) to the United States Constitution allows the Congress to levy an income tax without apportioning it among the states or basing it on Census results. This amendment exempted income taxes from the constitutional requirements regarding direct taxes, after income taxes on rents, dividends, and interest were ruled to be direct taxes in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895). It was ratified on February 3, 1913.

The Sixteenth Amendment in the National Archives

Text

“

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

”

Other Constitutional provisions regarding taxes
Article I, Section 2, Clause 3: Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers...[1] Article I, Section 8, Clause 1: The Congress shall have power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises...but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States... Article I, Section 9, Clause 4: No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. This clause basically refers to a tax on property, such as a tax based on the value of land,[2] as well as a capitation.

Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

473

Income taxes pre-Pollock
To raise revenue to fund the Civil War, Congress introduced the income tax through the Revenue Act of 1861.[3] It levied a flat tax of 3% on annual income above $800, which was equivalent to $19490 in today's money.[4] This act was replaced the following year with the Revenue Act of 1862, which levied a graduated tax of 3–5% on income above $600 (worth $13156 today[4] ) and specified a termination of income taxation in 1866. The Socialist Labor Party advocated a graduated income tax in 1887.[5] The Populist Party "demand[ed] a graduated income tax" in its 1892 platform.[6] The Democratic Party, led by William Jennings Bryan, advocated the income tax law passed in 1894,[7] and proposed an income tax in its 1908 platform.[8] Prior to the Supreme Court's decision in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., all income taxes had been considered indirect taxes imposed without respect to geography, unlike direct taxes, that must be apportioned among the states according to population.[9] [10] The Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act of 1894 attempted to impose a federal tax of 2% on incomes over $4,000 (worth $101200 today[4] ). Derided as "un-Democratic, inquisitorial, and wrong in principle,"[11] it was challenged in federal court.

The Pollock case
In Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. the Supreme Court declared certain taxes on incomes — such as those from property under the 1894 Act — to be unconstitutionally unapportioned direct taxes. The Court reasoned that a tax on income from property should be treated as a tax on "property by reason of its ownership" and so should be required to be apportioned. The reasoning was that taxes on the rents from land, the dividends from stocks and so forth burdened the property generating the income in the same way that a tax on "property by reason of its ownership" burdened that property. After Pollock, while income taxes on wages (as indirect taxes) were still not required to be apportioned by population, taxes on interest, dividends and rent income were required to be apportioned by population. The Pollock ruling made the source of the income (e.g., property versus labor, etc.) relevant in determining whether the tax imposed on that income was deemed to be "direct" (and thus required to be apportioned among the states according to population) or, alternatively, "indirect" (and thus required only to be imposed with geographical uniformity).[12] In his dissent to the Pollock decision, Justice John Marshall Harlan stated: When, therefore, this court adjudges, as it does now adjudge, that Congress cannot impose a duty or tax upon personal property, or upon income arising either from rents of real estate or from personal property, including invested personal property, bonds, stocks, and investments of all kinds, except by apportioning the sum to be so raised among the States according to population, it practically decides that, without an amendment of the Constitution — two-thirds of both Houses of Congress and three-fourths of the States concurring — such property and incomes can never be made to contribute to the support of the national government.[13] In responding to the decision, members of Congress reflected widespread concern that many of the wealthiest Americans had consolidated too much economic power.[14]

Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

474

Adoption
On June 16, 1909, President William Howard Taft, in an address to Congress, proposed a 2% federal income tax on corporations by way of an excise tax and a constitutional amendment to allow the previously enacted income tax. Upon the privilege of doing business as an artificial entity and of freedom from a general partnership liability enjoyed by those who own the stock.[15] [16] An income tax amendment to the Constitution was first proposed by Senator Norris Brown of Nebraska. He submitted two proposals, Senate Resolutions Nos. 25 and 39. The amendment proposal finally accepted was Senate Joint Resolution No. 40, introduced by Senator Nelson W. Aldrich of Rhode Island, the Senate majority leader and Finance Committee Chairman.[17] On July 12, 1909, the resolution proposing the Sixteenth Amendment was passed by the Sixty-first Congress and submitted to the state legislatures. Support for the income tax was strongest in the western states and opposition was strongest in the northeastern states.[18] In 1910, New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes, shortly before becoming a Supreme Court justice, spoke out against the income tax amendment. While he supported the idea of a federal income tax, Hughes believed the words "from whatever source derived" in the proposed amendment implied that the federal government would have the power to tax state and municipal bonds. He believed this would excessively centralize governmental power and "would make it impossible for the state to keep any property".[19] The presidential election of 1912 was contested between three advocates of an income tax.[20] On February 25, 1913, Secretary of State Philander Knox proclaimed that the amendment had been ratified by the necessary three-fourths of the states; thus, it had become part of the Constitution.[21] The Revenue Act of 1913 was enacted shortly thereafter. According to the United States Government Printing Office, the following states ratified the amendment:[22] 1. Alabama (August 10, 1909) 2. Kentucky (February 8, 1910) 3. South Carolina (February 19, 1910) 4. Illinois (March 1, 1910) 5. Mississippi (March 7, 1910) 6. Oklahoma (March 10, 1910) 7. Maryland (April 8, 1910) 8. Georgia (August 3, 1910) 9. Texas (August 16, 1910) 10. Ohio (January 19, 1911) 11. Idaho (January 20, 1911) 12. Oregon (January 23, 1911) 13. Washington (January 26, 1911) 14. Montana (January 27, 1911) 15. Indiana (January 30, 1911) 16. California (January 31, 1911) 17. Nevada (January 31, 1911) 18. South Dakota (February 1, 1911) 19. Nebraska (February 9, 1911) 20. North Carolina (February 11, 1911) 21. Colorado (February 15, 1911) 22. North Dakota (February 17, 1911) 23. Michigan (February 23, 1911) 24. Iowa (February 24, 1911) 25. Kansas (March 2, 1911) 26. Missouri (March 16, 1911)

Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Maine (March 31, 1911) Tennessee (April 7, 1911) Arkansas (April 22, 1911), after having previously rejected the amendment Wisconsin (May 16, 1911) New York (July 12, 1911) Arizona (April 3, 1912) Minnesota (June 11, 1912) Louisiana (June 28, 1912) West Virginia (January 31, 1913) Delaware (February 3, 1913)

475

Ratification (by the requisite 36 states) was completed on February 3, 1913 with the ratification by Delaware. The amendment was subsequently ratified by the following states, bringing the total number of ratifying states to forty-two of the forty-eight then existing: 37. New Mexico (February 3, 1913) 38. Wyoming (February 3, 1913) 39. New Jersey (February 4, 1913) 40. Vermont (February 19, 1913) 41. Massachusetts (March 4, 1913) 42. New Hampshire (March 7, 1913), after rejecting the amendment on March 2, 1911 The legislatures of the following states rejected the amendment without ever subsequently ratifying it: Connecticut Rhode Island Utah Virginia[23] The legislatures of the following states never considered the proposed amendment: Florida Pennsylvania

Pollock nullified
The Sixteenth Amendment nullified the effect of Pollock.[24] [25] That means the Congress may impose taxes on income from any source without having to apportion the total dollar amount of tax collected from each state according to each state's population in relation to the total national population.[26] In Abrams v. Commissioner, the United States Tax Court stated:[27] Since the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment, it is immaterial with respect to income taxes, whether the tax is a direct or indirect tax. The whole purpose of the Sixteenth Amendment was to relieve all income taxes when imposed from [the requirement of] apportionment and from [the requirement of] a consideration of the source whence the income was derived.

Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

476

Case law
The federal courts' interpretations of the Sixteenth Amendment have changed considerably over time and there have been many disputes about the applicability of the amendment.

The Brushaber case
In Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad, 240 U.S. 1 [28] (1916), the Supreme Court ruled that (1) the Sixteenth Amendment removes the Pollock requirement that certain income taxes (such as taxes on income "derived from real property" that were the subject of the Pollock decision), be apportioned among the states according to population;[29] (2) the federal income tax statute does not violate the Fifth Amendment's prohibition against the government taking property without due process of law; (3) the federal income tax statute does not violate the Article I, Section 8's uniformity clause (relating to the requirement that excises, also known as indirect taxes, be imposed with geographical uniformity).

The Kerbaugh-Empire Co. case
In Bowers v. Kerbaugh-Empire Co., 271 U.S. 170 stated:
[30]

(1926), the Supreme Court, through Justice Pierce Butler,

It was not the purpose or the effect of that amendment to bring any new subject within the taxing power. Congress already had the power to tax all incomes. But taxes on incomes from some sources had been held to be "direct taxes" within the meaning of the constitutional requirement as to apportionment. [cites omitted] The Amendment relieved from that requirement and obliterated the distinction in that respect between taxes on income that are direct taxes and those that are not, and so put on the same basis all incomes "from whatever source derived". [cites omitted] "Income" has been taken to mean the same thing as used in the Corporation Excise Tax of 1909 (36 Stat. 112), in the Sixteenth Amendment, and in the various revenue acts subsequently passed. [cites omitted] After full consideration, this court declared that income may be defined as gain derived from capital, from labor, or from both combined, including profit gained through sale or conversion of capital.

The Glenshaw Glass case
In Commissioner v. Glenshaw Glass Co., 348 U.S. 426 [31] (1955), the Supreme Court laid out what has become the modern understanding of what constitutes 'gross income' to which the Sixteenth Amendment applies, declaring that income taxes could be levied on "accessions to wealth, clearly realized, and over which the taxpayers have complete dominion." Under this definition, any increase in wealth — whether through wages, benefits, bonuses, sale of stock or other property at a profit, bets won, lucky finds, awards of punitive damages in a lawsuit, qui tam actions — are all within the definition of income, unless the Congress makes a specific exemption, as it has for items such as life insurance proceeds received by reason of the death of the insured party,[32] gifts, bequests, devises and inheritances,[33] and certain scholarships.[34]

Income taxation of wages, etc.
The courts have ruled that the Sixteenth Amendment allows a direct tax on "wages, salaries, commissions, etc. without apportionment."[35]

The Penn Mutual case
Although the Sixteenth Amendment is often cited as the "source" of the Congressional power to tax incomes, at least one court has reiterated the point made in Brushaber and other cases that the Sixteenth Amendment itself did not grant the Congress the power to tax incomes (a power the Congress has had since 1789), but only removed the requirement, if any, that any income tax be apportioned among the states according to their respective populations. In

Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution the Penn Mutual Indemnity case, the United States Tax Court stated:[36] In dealing with the scope of the taxing power the question has sometimes been framed in terms of whether something can be taxed as income under the Sixteenth Amendment. This is an inaccurate formulation [ . . . ] and has led to much loose thinking on the subject. The source of the taxing power is not the Sixteenth Amendment; it is Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution. In that same Penn Mutual Indemnity case, on appeal, the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit agreed, stating:[37] It did not take a constitutional amendment to entitle the United States to impose an income tax. Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 157 U. S. 429, 158 U. S. 601 (1895), only held that a tax on the income derived from real or personal property was so close to a tax on that property that it could not be imposed without apportionment. The Sixteenth Amendment removed that barrier. Indeed, the requirement for apportionment is pretty strictly limited to taxes on real and personal property and capitation taxes. It is not necessary to uphold the validity of the tax imposed by the United States that the tax itself bear an accurate label. Indeed, the tax upon the distillation of spirits, imposed very early by federal authority, now reads and has read in terms of a tax upon the spirits themselves, yet the validity of this imposition has been upheld for a very great many years. It could well be argued that the tax involved here [an income tax] is an "excise tax" based upon the receipt of money by the taxpayer. It certainly is not a tax on property and it certainly is not a capitation tax; therefore, it need not be apportioned. We do not think it profitable, however, to make the label as precise as that required under the Food and Drug Act. Congress has the power to impose taxes generally, and if the particular imposition does not run afoul of any constitutional restrictions then the tax is lawful, call it what you will.

477

The Murphy case
On December 22, 2006, a three-judge panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit vacated[38] its unanimous August 2006 opinion in Murphy v. Internal Revenue Service and United States.[39] In an unrelated matter, the court had also granted the government's motion to dismiss Murphy's suit against the "Internal Revenue Service." Under federal sovereign immunity, a taxpayer may sue the federal government, but not a government agency, officer, or employee (with few exceptions). The court stated: Insofar as the Congress has waived sovereign immunity with respect to suits for tax refunds under 28 U.S.C. § 1346(a)(1) [40], that provision specifically contemplates only actions against the "United States." Therefore, we hold the IRS, unlike the United States, may not be sued eo nomine in this case. An exception to federal sovereign immunity is in the United States Tax Court, where a taxpayer may sue the Commissioner of Internal Revenue.[41] The original three-judge panel then agreed to rehear the case itself. In its original decision, the Court had ruled that 26 U.S.C. § 104(a)(2) [42] was unconstitutional under the Sixteenth Amendment to the extent that the statute purported to tax, as income, a recovery for a non-physical personal injury for mental distress and loss of reputation not received in lieu of taxable income such as lost wages or earnings. Because the August 2006 opinion was vacated, the full court did not hear the case en banc. On July 3, 2007, the Court (through the original three-judge panel) ruled (1) that the taxpayer's compensation was received on account of a non-physical injury or sickness; (2) that gross income under section 61 of the Internal Revenue Code[43] does include compensatory damages for non-physical injuries, even if the award is not an "accession to wealth," (3) that the income tax imposed on an award for non-physical injuries is an indirect tax, regardless of whether the recovery is restoration of "human capital," and therefore the tax does not violate the constitutional requirement of Article I, Section 9, Clause 4, that capitations or other direct taxes must be laid among the states only in proportion to the population; (4) that the income tax imposed on an award for non-physical injuries does not violate the constitutional requirement of Article I, Section 8, Clause 1, that all duties, imposts and excises

Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution be uniform throughout the United States; (5) that under the doctrine of sovereign immunity, the Internal Revenue Service may not be sued in its own name.[44] The Court stated that "[a]lthough the 'Congress cannot make a thing income which is not so in fact,' [ . . . ] it can label a thing income and tax it, so long as it acts within its constitutional authority, which includes not only the Sixteenth Amendment but also Article I, Sections 8 and 9."[45] The court ruled that Ms. Murphy was not entitled to the tax refund she claimed, and that the personal injury award she received was "within the reach of the congressional power to tax under Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution" -- even if the award was "not income within the meaning of the Sixteenth Amendment".[46] See also the Penn Mutual case cited above. On April 21, 2008, the Supreme Court declined to review the Court of Appeals decision.[47]

478

Notes
[1] Knowlton v. Moore 178 U.S. 41 (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 178/ 41/ case. html) (1900) and Flint v. Stone Tracy Co. 220 U.S. 107 (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 220/ 107/ case. html) (1911) [2] Hylton v. United States 3 U.S. 171 (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 3/ 171/ case. html) (1796) [3] http:/ / www. findingdulcinea. com/ news/ on-this-day/ July-August-08/ On-this-Day--Congress-Enacts-First-Income-Tax. html [4] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–2008 (http:/ / www. minneapolisfed. org/ community_education/ teacher/ calc/ hist1800. cfm). Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved December 7, 2010. [5] Socialist Labor Party Platform (http:/ / www. slp. org/ pdf/ platforms/ plat1887. pdf) [6] Populist Party Platform, 1892 (http:/ / historymatters. gmu. edu/ d/ 5361) [7] Speeches of William Jennings Bryan, pp. 159-179 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WORfl6qe2ewC& pg=PA159& lpg=PA159& dq="point+ of+ attack+ is+ the+ income+ tax"& source=web& ots=qmUzGYDw8V& sig=D43o-g5ZGrR2SisjH6mTYjBboVo) [8] 1908 Democratic party platform (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ showplatforms. php?platindex=D1908) [9] Commentary, James W. Ely, Jr., on the case of Springer v. United States, in answers.com, at (http:/ / www. answers. com/ topic/ springer-v-united-states) [10] "Again the situation is aptly illustrated by the various acts taxing incomes derived from property of every kind and nature which were enacted beginning in 1861, and lasting during what may be termed the Civil War period. It is not disputable that these latter taxing laws were classed under the head of excises, duties, and imposts because it was assumed that they were of that character inasmuch as, although putting a tax burden on income of every kind, including that derived from property real or personal, they were not taxes directly on property because of its ownership.” Brushaber v. Union Pac. Railroad, 240 U.S. 1 (http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 240/ 1/ case. html) (1916), at 15 [11] "Mr. Cockran's Final Effort" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/ pdf?res=9907E7D81638E233A25752C3A9679C94659ED7CF) (PDF). New York Times. 1894-01-31. . [12] Read a description of the decision at the Tax History Museum (http:/ / www. tax. org/ Museum/ 1866-1900. htm) [13] Justice Harlan's dissenting opinion in Pollock (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ supct/ html/ historics/ USSC_CR_0158_0601_ZD. html) [14] See the quotes from Theodore Roosevelt at the Tax History Museum (http:/ / www. tax. org/ Museum/ 1901-1932. htm) [15] Taft Address of June 16, 1909 (American Presidency Project) (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ print. php?pid=68517) [16] President Taft Presidential addresses (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?pg=PA166& vq=june+ 16+ 1909+ "income+ tax"& dq=june+ 16+ 1909+ "income+ tax"& id=Sm9aaKTgAWsC& output=html) [17] Volume 36, Statutes at Large, 61st Congress Session I, Senate Joint Resolution No. 40, p. 184, approved July 31, 1909 [18] The Ratification of the Federal Income Tax Amendment, John D. Buenker (http:/ / www. cato. org/ pubs/ journal/ cj1n1/ cj1n1-10. pdf) [19] The Sixteenth Amendment: The Historical Background, Arthur A. Ekirch, Jr. (http:/ / www. cato. org/ pubs/ journal/ cj1n1/ cj1n1-9. pdf) [20] Adam Young, " The Origin of the Income Tax (http:/ / www. mises. org/ story/ 1597)", Ludwig von Mises Institute, Sept. 7, 2004 [21] http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ data/ constitution/ amendments. html [22] Amendments to the Constitution of the United States of America (http:/ / www. gpoaccess. gov/ constitution/ html/ conamt. html), United States Government Printing Office [23] "Virginia House Opposes Federal Clause by 54 to 37", The Washington Post, March 8, 1910 [24] Boris Bittker, "Constitutional Limits on the Taxing Power of the Federal Government," The Tax Lawyer, Fall 1987, Vol. 41, No. 1, p. 3 (American Bar Association) (Pollock case "was in effect reversed by the sixteenth amendment") [25] "The Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution overruled Pollock [ . . . ]" Graf v. Commissioner, 44 T.C.M. (CCH) 66, TC Memo. 1982-317, CCH Dec. 39,080(M) (1982). [26] Findlaw: Sixteenth Amendment, History and Purpose of the Amendment (http:/ / caselaw. lp. findlaw. com/ data/ constitution/ amendment16/ 01. html#2) [27] 82 T.C. 403, CCH Dec. 41,031 (1984) [28] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 240/ 1/ case. html [29] "As construed by the Supreme Court in the Brushaber case, the power of Congress to tax income derives from Article I, Section 8, Clause 1, of the original Constitution rather than from the Sixteenth Amendment; the latter simply eliminated the requirement that an income tax, to the

Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
extent that it is a direct tax, must be apportioned among the states." Boris I. Bittker, Martin J. McMahon, Jr. & Lawrence A. Zelenak, Federal Income Taxation of Individuals, ch. 1, paragr. 1.01[1][a], Research Institute of America (2d ed. 2005), as retrieved from 2002 WL 1454829 (W. G. & L.). [30] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 271/ 170/ case. html [31] http:/ / supreme. justia. com/ us/ 348/ 426/ case. html [32] 26 U.S.C.  § 101 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 26/ 101. html). [33] 26 U.S.C.  § 102 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 26/ 102. html). [34] 26 U.S.C.  § 117 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 26/ 117. html). [35] Parker v. Commissioner, 724 F.2d 469, 84-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9209 (5th Cir. 1984) (closing parenthesis in original has been omitted). For other court decisions upholding the taxability of wages, salaries, etc. see United States v. Connor, 898 F.2d 942, 90-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,166 (3d Cir. 1990); Perkins v. Commissioner, 746 F.2d 1187, 84-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9898 (6th Cir. 1984); White v. United States, 2005-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,289 (6th Cir. 2004), cert. denied, ____ U.S. ____ (2005); Granzow v. Commissioner, 739 F.2d 265, 84-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9660 (7th Cir. 1984); Waters v. Commissioner, 764 F.2d 1389, 85-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9512 (11th Cir. 1985); United States v. Buras, 633 F.2d 1356, 81-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9126 (9th Cir. 1980). [36] Penn Mutual Indemnity Co. v. Commissioner, 32 T.C. 653 at 659 (1959), aff'd, 277 F.2d 16, 60-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9389 (3d Cir. 1960). [37] Penn Mutual Indemnity Co. v. Commissioner, 277 F.2d 16, 60-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 9389 (3d Cir. 1960) (footnotes omitted). [38] Order, Dec. 22, 2006, Murphy v. Internal Revenue Service and United States, United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. [39] 460 F.3d 79, 2006-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,476, 2006 WL 2411372 (D.C. Cir. August 22, 2006). [40] http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 28/ 1346. html#a_1 [41] ( Murphy v. United States (http:/ / pacer. cadc. uscourts. gov/ docs/ common/ opinions/ 200608/ 05-5139a. pdf)) [42] http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 26/ 104. html#a_2 [43] 26 U.S.C.  § 61 (http:/ / www. law. cornell. edu/ uscode/ 26/ 61. html) ( Murphy v United States, on rehearing (http:/ / pacer. cadc. uscourts. gov/ docs/ common/ opinions/ 200707/ 05-5139b. pdf)) [44] Opinion on rehearing, July 3, 2007, Murphy v. Internal Revenue Service and United States, case no. 05-5139, United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, 2007-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,531 (D.C. Cir. 2007) [45] Opinion on rehearing, July 3, 2007, p. 16, Murphy v. Internal Revenue Service and United States, case no. 05-5139, United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, 2007-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,531 (D.C. Cir. 2007). [46] Opinion on rehearing, July 3, 2007, p. 5-6, Murphy v. Internal Revenue Service and United States, case no. 05-5139, United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, 2007-2 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,531 (D.C. Cir. 2007). [47] Denniston, Lyle (April 21, 2008). "Court to hear anti-dumping, sentencing cases" (http:/ / www. scotusblog. com/ 2008/ 04/ court-to-hear-anti-dumping-case/ ). SCOTUSblog. . Retrieved 21 April 2008.

479

External links
• National Archives: Sixteenth Amendment (http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/ constitution_amendments_11-27.html#16) • Sixteenth Amendment and 1913 tax return form (http://www.footnote.com/image/4346755) Images of original documents • CRS Annotated Constitution: Sixteenth Amendment (http://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/ amdt16toc_user.html) • Pollock Decision (http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0157_0429_ZO.html) The decision nullified by the Sixteenth Amendment • Brushaber Decision (http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=search&court=US&case=/us/ 240/1.html) Supreme Court opinion on the apportionment clause of the Constitution. • Stanton Decision (http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=240&invol=103) - no new power of taxation (affirming constitutionality of income tax after Sixteenth Amendment) • History of the U.S. Tax System (http://www.policyalmanac.org/economic/archive/tax_history.shtml) Almanac of Policy Issues; annotated as "US Department of the Treasury Undated.".

Watered stock

480

Watered stock
Watered stock is an asset with an artificially-inflated value. The term is most commonly used to refer to a form of securities fraud common under older corporate laws that placed a heavy emphasis upon the par value of stock.

Origin of term
"Stock watering" was originally a method used to increase the weight of cows before sale. It entailed forcing a cow to bloat itself with water before it was weighed for sale. Its introduction to the New York financial district is popularly credited to Daniel Drew, a cattle driver turned financier.

Explanation
American stock promoters in the late 1800s could inflate their claims about a company's assets and profitability, and sell stocks and bonds in excess of the company's actual value. To do so, they would contribute property to a new corporation in return for stock at an inflated par value. On the balance sheet, the property would be the corporation's only capital, and because legal capital was fixed to aggregate par value, the value of the property would go up. While the promoter had $10,000 in stock, the corporation might only have $5,000 worth of assets, but would still be worth $10,000 on paper. Holders of watered stock could be personally liable if creditors foreclosed on the corporation's assets. If they had received $10,000 in stock for a $5,000 capital contribution, they would not only lose their $5,000 investment but would also be personally liable for the additional $5,000, whether they were the aforementioned promoter lying about the value of their contribution, or an innocent investor relying on par value to gauge the true value of the corporation. Because par value was such an unreliable indicator of the actual value of stock, and because high par values could create liability for investors if the corporation went belly up, corporate lawyers began advising their clients to issue stocks with low par values. The legal capital or "stated capital" of the corporation would still be determined based on par value, but the balance sheet would include the investment over par value as a capital surplus, and everything would still balance. In 1912, New York authorized corporations to issue "no par stock" with no par value at all, in which case the board of directors would allocate the incoming capital between stated capital and capital surplus. All other states followed suit. Thanks in large part to a proliferation of low par and no par stock, watered stock is less of an issue these days. The last major American court case dealing with watered stock was in 1956.

References
Dodd, David LeFevre, "Stock Watering: the judicial valuation of property for stock-issue purposes" (January 1, 1930), Columbia University Press

Whiskey Ring

481

Whiskey Ring
Further information: Ulysses S. Grant presidential administration scandals In the United States, the Whiskey Ring was a scandal, exposed in 1875, involving diversion of tax revenues in a conspiracy among government agents, politicians, whiskey distillers, and distributors. The Whiskey Ring began in St. Louis but was also organized in Chicago, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and Peoria. Before they were caught, a group of mostly Republican politicians were able to siphon off millions of dollars in federal taxes on liquor; the scheme involved an extensive network of bribes involving distillers, rectifiers, gaugers, storekeepers, and internal revenue agents. U.S. Secretary of the Treasury Benjamin H. Bristow, working without the Whiskey Ring knowledge of the President or the Attorney General, broke the tightly connected and politically powerful ring in 1875 using secret agents from outside the Treasury department to conduct a series of raids across the country on May 10, 1875. The trials began at Jefferson City, Mo. in October, 1875. Ultimately, 110 convictions were made and over $3 million in taxes were recovered. President Grant appointed General John Brooks Henderson (a former U.S. Senator from Missouri) to serve as special prosecutor in charge of the indictments and trials, but Grant eventually fired Gen. Henderson for challenging Grant's interference in the prosecutions. Grant replaced Henderson with the competent attorney, James Broadhead. The Whiskey Ring was seen by many as a sign of corruption under the Republican governments that took power across the nation following the American Civil War. General Orville E. Babcock, the private secretary to the President, was indicted as a member of the ring — for this reason, President Ulysses S. Grant, although not directly involved in the ring, came to be seen as emblematic of Republican corruption, and later scandals involving his Secretary of War William W. Belknap only confirmed that perception. The Whiskey Ring scandal, along with other alleged abuses of power by the Republican party, contributed to national weariness of Reconstruction, which ended after Grant's presidency with the Compromise of 1877.

External links
• Rives, Timothy, "Grant, Babcock, and the Whiskey Ring," Prologue, Fall 2000, Vol. 32, No. 3. [1] • Whiskey Ring Scandal [2]

References
[1] http:/ / www. archives. gov/ publications/ prologue/ 2000/ fall/ whiskey-ring-1. html [2] http:/ / www. american-presidents. org/ 2007/ 10/ whiskey-ring-scandal. html

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American Revolutionary War  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=462734656  Contributors: $1LENCE D00600D, (jarbarf), 130.94.122.xxx, 16calvertt, 1exec1, 200.191.188.xxx, 24.38.114.xxx, 24.93.53.xxx, 2help, 4shizzal, 66.32.72.xxx, 67th Tigers, 6SJ7, ABTU, AYE R, Aaaa57, Aantia, AaronS, Abc518, Abonazzi, Acadienne, Acalamari, Acroterion, Acthomas, Adam Keller, Adamarthurryan, Adambro, Adamjackson77, Adashiel, AdjustShift, Adrian, Ahoerstemeier, Aigiqinf, Airplaneman, Ajaxkroon, Al Ameer son, Al Lemos, Al Wiseman, Alansohn, Alba, Albrecht, Alephh, Alessandroandcharlie, Alex756, AlexPlank, Alexandria, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Algont, Alison, AllStarZ, Allixpeeke, Almost Famous, AlottaF, Alphageekpa, Alphax, Alxeedo, Ancapistan, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andres rojas22, Andrew Dalby, Andrewlp1991, Andrewpmk, Andrewrp, Andrews Palop, Andrewtss, Andrwsc, Andy M. 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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

496

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:JamestownShips.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JamestownShips.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Warfieldian file:Usa edcp location map-2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Usa_edcp_location_map-2.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Usa_edcp_location_map.svg: Uwe Dedering derivative work:  –droll [chat] File:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie Image:Location of jamestown virginia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Location_of_jamestown_virginia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Aude File:JamestownSwampland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JamestownSwampland.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Ser Amantio di Nicolao File:Jamestownzuniga.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jamestownzuniga.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bkwillwm, Frank Schulenburg, Ibn Battuta, Morgan Riley, Strothra, 1 anonymous edits File:Graveyard at Jamestowne Historic National Park.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Graveyard_at_Jamestowne_Historic_National_Park.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Sarah Stierch File:Jamestown Virginia ruin.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jamestown_Virginia_ruin.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Robert Sears, A pictorial description of the United States (s.n., 1854), pg. 315 http://books.google.com/books?id=sfKAAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s Image:Historic Triangle Virginia.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Historic_Triangle_Virginia.png  License: Public domain  Contributors: Arx Fortis, Hlj, Oda Mari, 1 anonymous edits Image:View of James Town Island, Captain John Smith Statue.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:View_of_James_Town_Island,_Captain_John_Smith_Statue.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Morgan Riley, Signaleer Image:Jamestown logo 1907.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jamestown_logo_1907.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bkwillwm, Dcoetzee, Ibn Battuta, Javierme, Man vyi, Morgan Riley, Origamiemensch, Themightyquill, 1 anonymous edits Image:Queen elizabeth and prince phillip.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Queen_elizabeth_and_prince_phillip.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kilom691, Stunteltje Image:Virginia quarter, reverse side, 2000.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Virginia_quarter,_reverse_side,_2000.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dbenbenn, Jpk, 2 anonymous edits Image:Jtsdobv.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jtsdobv.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (Designer) Image:Jtg5dobv.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jtg5dobv.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (Designer) File:Boston Tea Party Currier colored.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Nathaniel Currier File:Boston Tea Party Plaque - Independence Wharf 2009.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boston_Tea_Party_Plaque_-_Independence_Wharf_2009.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CaribDigita File:Edenton-North-Carolina-women-Tea-boycott-1775.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edenton-North-Carolina-women-Tea-boycott-1775.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Churchh, Ecummenic, Jacklee, Ji-Elle, Mu, Ranveig, TwoWings Image:BostonTeaPartyJoyceNotice.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BostonTeaPartyJoyceNotice.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bobo192, John J. Bulten, Karlthegreat, 9 anonymous edits Image:Boston Tea Party-Cooper.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boston_Tea_Party-Cooper.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: W.D. Cooper File:Boston Tea Party-1973 issue-3c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boston_Tea_Party-1973_issue-3c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office image:Us declaration independence.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Us_declaration_independence.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Stone Image:Thomas Jefferson rev.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Jefferson_rev.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ABF, Anne97432, Bohème, Frank C. Müller, Infrogmation, Jon Harald Søby, Kilom691, Kjetil r, Lupo, Rocket000, Rüdiger Wölk, Shizhao, Themightyquill, WTCA, 1 anonymous edits Image:Independence Hall Assembly Room.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Independence_Hall_Assembly_Room.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: 555, Eoghanacht, Evrik, Gildemax, Ibn Battuta, Klare Kante, Man vyi, Morgan Riley, Rdsmith4, 2 anonymous edits File:Writing the Declaration of Independence 1776 cph.3g09904.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Writing_the_Declaration_of_Independence_1776_cph.3g09904.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BrokenSphere, Howcheng Image:Jefferson's+desk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jefferson's+desk.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution Image:Yale Dunlap Broadside.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yale_Dunlap_Broadside.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original printing by John Dunlap (1747-1812) uploader was Mkimberl at en.wikipedia Image:John Locke.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Locke.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bohème, J JMesserly, Jebur, Kelson, Kilom691, Raymond, Schlurcher, 1 anonymous edits Image:USA declaration independence.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USA_declaration_independence.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Drafted by Thomas Jefferson between June 11 and June 28, 1776, as authorized by the Continental Congress, July 2, 1776 with minor revisions and released publicly on July 4, 1776. image:JohnHancocksSignature.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JohnHancocksSignature.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Λua∫Wise (talk) Image:Johannes Adam Simon Oertel Pulling Down the Statue of King George III, N.Y.C. ca. 1859.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Johannes_Adam_Simon_Oertel_Pulling_Down_the_Statue_of_King_George_III,_N.Y.C._ca._1859.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Johannes Adam Simon Oertel. Original uploader was Shoreranger at en.wikipedia image:William Whipple.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Whipple.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ibn Battuta, Sebastian Wallroth File:ArchivesRotunda.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ArchivesRotunda.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: w:en:User:KkmdKelvin Kay Image:Declaration independence.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Declaration_independence.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Aavindraa, Amandajm, Americophile, Beyond My Ken, Bohème, Cambalachero, Editor at Large, Elemaki, Fred J, Geni, GrawpSock, Hluup, Ibn Battuta, Mhby87, Misogi, Mutter Erde, Nonenmac, Panoptik, Patstuart, Pmlineditor, UpstateNYer, WTCA, Wst, Xavigivax, 16 anonymous edits image: Abelincoln1846.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abelincoln1846.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Nicholas H. Shepherd image:ElizabethCadyStanton-1848-Daniel-Henry.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ElizabethCadyStanton-1848-Daniel-Henry.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown File:Signing_of_Declaration_1869_Issue-24c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Signing_of_Declaration_1869_Issue-24c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office File:Population Density in the American Colonies 1775.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Population_Density_in_the_American_Colonies_1775.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:American Foot Soldiers.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:American_Foot_Soldiers.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: by Jean-Baptiste-Antoine DeVerger File:British Army in Concord Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_Army_in_Concord_Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amada44, Magicpiano, Sfan00 IMG, Smooth O, Verica Atrebatum, 4 anonymous edits File:BattleofLongisland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BattleofLongisland.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Domenick D'Andrea File:Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze, MMA-NYC, 1851.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_by_Emanuel_Leutze,_MMA-NYC,_1851.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alex Blokha, Aylaross, Berrucomons, Bukk, CommonsDelinker, Jonkerz, Kelly, Kozuch, Mattes, Nanae, Neukoln, Nguyên Lê, Patriot8790, Saibo, Scewing, Thierry Caro

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Joseph Brant painting by George Romney 1776.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joseph_Brant_painting_by_George_Romney_1776.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Nonenmac, Skeezix1000, Stilfehler File:Surrender of General Burgoyne.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surrender_of_General_Burgoyne.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Davepape, Dspark76, Huntj, Jappalang, Magicpiano, Mbdortmund, Michael Devore, Neutrality, PericlesofAthens, Rcbutcher, Teofilo, UpstateNYer, 9 anonymous edits File:Washington and Lafayette at Valley Forge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washington_and_Lafayette_at_Valley_Forge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:SreeBot File:Combat de la Dominique 17 Avril 1780 Rossel de Cercy 1736 1804.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Combat_de_la_Dominique_17_Avril_1780_Rossel_de_Cercy_1736_1804.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: PHGCOM, Rossel_de_Cercy_1736_1804 File:Plan de stationnement des troupes francaise et de la marine a Newport en 1780.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plan_de_stationnement_des_troupes_francaise_et_de_la_marine_a_Newport_en_1780.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mullon File:The Siege and Relief of Gibraltar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Siege_and_Relief_of_Gibraltar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John Singleton Copley File:Bernardo de Galvez.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bernardo_de_Galvez.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adam Faanes, Infrogmation, Makthorpe, Zaqarbal, 2 anonymous edits File:Jaillot-Elwe, Norteamerica, 1792.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jaillot-Elwe,_Norteamerica,_1792.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jaillot-Elwe File:Suffren meeting with Haider Ali J B Morret engraving 1789.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Suffren_meeting_with_Haider_Ali_J_B_Morret_engraving_1789.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: J_B_Morret_engraving_1789 File:Banastre-Tarleton-by-Joshua-Reynolds.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banastre-Tarleton-by-Joshua-Reynolds.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anathema, Ecummenic, FieldMarine, Ham, Kilom691, Kürschner, Shakko, Teofilo File:Ftsackville.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ftsackville.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Deadstar, Huwmanbeing, Julius Morton, Raymond File:Surrender of Lord Cornwallis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Barbe-Noire, Clindberg, Davepape, DeYoung9, Gavin.collins, Ingolfson, Jappalang, Neutrality, Panoptik, PericlesofAthens, Pharos, Smooth O, Teofilo, UpstateNYer, Vprajkumar, Xiengyod, 23 anonymous edits File:American Revolution Campaigns 1775 to 1781.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:American_Revolution_Campaigns_1775_to_1781.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Briangotts, Exdaix, Nonenmac, Tomia, Zeimusu, 1 anonymous edits File:Congress voting independence.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Congress_voting_independence.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: "Edward Savage and/or Robert Edge Pine" Image:John stark.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_stark.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CommonsDelinker, Daderot, Kilom691, Sebastian Wallroth, Wknight94 Image:Map of Bennington battlefield.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_Bennington_battlefield.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: (Cartographer unknown) File:Battle of Bennington 1777.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Bennington_1777.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown, engraving after a painting by Alonzo Chappel Image:Bennington Flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bennington_Flag.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DevinCook (talk) Image:CW memorial Bennington VT.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CW_memorial_Bennington_VT.jpg  License: Public domain  Contributors: Eixo File:Bennington Battlefield Marker.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bennington_Battlefield_Marker.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: UpstateNYer File:Unfinished portrait of Daniel Boone by Chester Harding 1820.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Unfinished_portrait_of_Daniel_Boone_by_Chester_Harding_1820.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bogdan, DieBuche, Kevin Myers, Nonenmac, Shakko, Wrelwser43, 2 anonymous edits File:Blue Licks monument.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blue_Licks_monument.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: User:Kevin Myers Image:Brandywine Osborne's Hill View.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brandywine_Osborne's_Hill_View.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Djmaschek File:Battle of Brandywine.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Brandywine.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:BirmingtonMeetinghouseBrandywine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BirmingtonMeetinghouseBrandywine.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Monkeybait, Smallbones File:BrandywineFieldToday.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BrandywineFieldToday.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Original uploader was AlbertHerring at en.wikipedia File:PyleNationmakersPre1911.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PyleNationmakersPre1911.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Smallbones File:Brandywine Battlefield Washington Headquarters.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brandywine_Battlefield_Washington_Headquarters.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Sdwelch1031 File:Brandywine Flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brandywine_Flag.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DevinCook (talk). Original uploader was DevinCook at en.wikipedia File:Bunker Hill by Pyle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_Hill_by_Pyle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, Cecil, Concord, Howcheng, Krinkle, Magicpiano, Man vyi, Mattes, Quibik, Shauni, 4 anonymous edits File:Bunker hill first attack.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_hill_first_attack.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ILoveFuturama, J Clear, Magicpiano, Will Pittenger, 1 anonymous edits File:Lexington Concord Siege of Boston.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lexington_Concord_Siege_of_Boston.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Clindberg, Flying Jazz, Gaius Cornelius, Jeff G., M2545, Magicpiano, Nonenmac, Urban, 3 anonymous edits File:Bunker hill second attack.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_hill_second_attack.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ILoveFuturama, Magicpiano File:Bunker hill final attack.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_hill_final_attack.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ILoveFuturama, Magicpiano, 5 anonymous edits File:Bunker Hill Monument 2005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_Hill_Monument_2005.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: MECU (self) File:Map of the Battle of Bunker Hill area.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_the_Battle_of_Bunker_Hill_area.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: George E Ellis File:AttackBunkerHill.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AttackBunkerHill.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Engraving by Lodge after the drawing by Millar Image:New England pine flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:New_England_pine_flag.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was IMeowbot at en.wikipedia Image:Bunker Hill Flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunker_Hill_Flag.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was DevinCook at en.wikipedia (Original text : DevinCook (talk)) File:bunkerhillclipper.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunkerhillclipper.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/pantufla/ File:Statue of william prescott in charlestown massachusetts.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Statue_of_william_prescott_in_charlestown_massachusetts.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Unknown; Sculptor: William Wetmore Story (1819–1895)

497

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Battle of Camden.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Camden.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:HoratioGatesByStuart.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HoratioGatesByStuart.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beyond My Ken, Magicpiano Image:Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves, by Francesco Bartolozzi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Graves,_1st_Baron_Graves,_by_Francesco_Bartolozzi.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ecummenic, Magicpiano, Rcbutcher Image:Comte De Grasse gravure couleur.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Comte_De_Grasse_gravure_couleur.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Antoine Maurin File:Battle of Virginia Capes diagram.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Virginia_Capes_diagram.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Oliver Stevens and Allan Westcott File:Reddition de Cornwalis 1781 french engraving 1784 avec texte.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reddition_de_Cornwalis_1781_french_engraving_1784_avec_texte.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Godefroy François Image:DanielMorgan.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DanielMorgan.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jappalang, Kilom691, Scewing, Sebastian Wallroth, Teofilo Image:Banastre-Tarleton-by-Joshua-Reynolds.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Banastre-Tarleton-by-Joshua-Reynolds.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anathema, Ecummenic, FieldMarine, Ham, Kilom691, Kürschner, Shakko, Teofilo Image:Cowpens Reenactors.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cowpens_Reenactors.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Circuitloss, 4 anonymous edits Image:Cowpens225.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cowpens225.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: KyleAndMelissa22 Image:Cowpens225-2.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cowpens225-2.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was KyleAndMelissa22 at en.wikipedia File:Battle of Cowpens - Britsh Attack - First Phase.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Cowpens_-_Britsh_Attack_-_First_Phase.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:Battle of Cowpens - American Attack - Second Phase.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Cowpens_-_American_Attack_-_Second_Phase.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:Battle of Cowpens.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Cowpens.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy Image:Cowpens Flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cowpens_Flag.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DevinCook (talk) Image:Cowpens reenactors american.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cowpens_reenactors_american.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Circuitloss Image:BattleofCowpensMonument.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BattleofCowpensMonument.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kelly, Vidor File:Battle of Guilford Courthouse 15 March 1781 (DWR).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Guilford_Courthouse_15_March_1781_(DWR).jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:Richard Harvey File:Map Battle of Guilford Court House.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_Battle_of_Guilford_Court_House.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MarmadukePercy, Pe-Jo File:Guilford Courthouse Flag.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Guilford_Courthouse_Flag.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: DevinCook (talk) File:Guilford re-enactment20.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Guilford_re-enactment20.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Wahkeenah at en.wikipedia File:George Washington Comte de Rochambeau 1781.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_Washington_Comte_de_Rochambeau_1781.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: George Washington File:Gathering-of-overmountain-men-branson-tn1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gathering-of-overmountain-men-branson-tn1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lloyd Branson (painter) File:SCMap-doton-Blacksburg.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SCMap-doton-Blacksburg.PNG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Seth Ilys at en.wikipedia File:Thomas Gage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Gage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: not specified File:Francis Smith.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francis_Smith.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: FalconL, Magicpiano, Man vyi, Sebastian Wallroth, 2 anonymous edits File:Margaret Kemble Gage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Margaret_Kemble_Gage.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ardfern, Frank C. Müller, Infrogmation, Kilom691, Léna, Magicpiano, Mattes, Sebastian Wallroth, Shakko, TFCforever, Thorvaldsson File:Concord Expedition and Patriot Messengers.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Concord_Expedition_and_Patriot_Messengers.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States National Park Service. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipedia File:Battle of Lexington Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Lexington_Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amos Doolittle (engraver), Ralph Earl. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Dumarest at en.wikipedia. File:Old North Bridge, Concord, Massachusetts, July 2005.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_North_Bridge,_Concord,_Massachusetts,_July_2005.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Daderot at en.wikipedia File:North Bridge Fight Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:North_Bridge_Fight_Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amos Doolittle (engraver) and Ralph Earl.. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Dumarest at en.wikipedia. File:Minuteman statue 3 - Old North Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minuteman_statue_3_-_Old_North_Bridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dave Pape File:Concord Retreat.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Concord_Retreat.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Park Service. Original uploader was Irayo at en.wikipedia File:Minute Man Statue Lexington Massachusetts.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minute_Man_Statue_Lexington_Massachusetts.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Magicpiano, Man vyi, Postdlf, Urban, Wst File:Percy's Rescue at Lexington Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Percy's_Rescue_at_Lexington_Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amos Doolittle (engraver) and Ralph Earl.. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Dumarest at en.wikipedia. File:Percys return.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Percys_return.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: J. De Costa. Original uploader was Flying Jazz at en.wikipedia File:Jason Russell House - Arlington, Massachusetts.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jason_Russell_House_-_Arlington,_Massachusetts.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Daderot File:Minuteman statue 1 - Old North Bridge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minuteman_statue_1_-_Old_North_Bridge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dave Pape File:Washington at Cambridge 1925 Issue-2c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washington_at_Cambridge_1925_Issue-2c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office File:Lexington and Concord-2c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lexington_and_Concord-2c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office File:Lexington Concord-5c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lexington_Concord-5c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gwillhickers File:Infantry, Continental Army, 1779-1783.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Infantry,_Continental_Army,_1779-1783.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Brian0918 at en.wikipedia File:The British fleet in the lower bay 1876.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_British_fleet_in_the_lower_bay_1876.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Harper Brothers. Original uploader was Shoreranger at en.wikipedia

498

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:British flat-bottomed boat American Revolution.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:British_flat-bottomed_boat_American_Revolution.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 7mike5000 File:Denyse s landing 1776.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Denyse_s_landing_1776.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A. Brown. Original uploader was Shoreranger at en.wikipedia File:Battle of Long Island.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Long_Island.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:Battle of Brooklyn.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Brooklyn.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: British Royal Engineers under Major James Moncrief File:WilliamHowe1777ColorMezzotint.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WilliamHowe1777ColorMezzotint.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Richard Purcell aka Charles Corbutt (ca 1736-ca 1766) File:Howard's Tavern, East New York, 1776.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Howard's_Tavern,_East_New_York,_1776.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 7mike5000 File:Brooklyn Museum - Battle Pass Vally Grove - Hayward and Lepine.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brooklyn_Museum_-_Battle_Pass_Vally_Grove_-_Hayward_and_Lepine.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Man vyi Image:Vechte-Cortelyou House-Brooklyn.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vechte-Cortelyou_House-Brooklyn.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 7mike5000 Image:Battleoflongisland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battleoflongisland.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alonzo Chappel File:U.S. Army - Artillery Retreat from Long Island 1776.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:U.S._Army_-_Artillery_Retreat_from_Long_Island_1776.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 7mike5000 File:Fulton Ferry House 1746.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fulton_Ferry_House_1746.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown Image:Washington at Brooklyn 1951 Issue-3cjpg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washington_at_Brooklyn_1951_Issue-3cjpg.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office Image:Retreat from long island.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Retreat_from_long_island.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Engraving by J.C. Armytage from painting by M.A. Wageman. Original uploader was Shoreranger at en.wikipedia File:Englishfleetrevolution.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Englishfleetrevolution.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: An original sketch by an English officer on board of one of Adml. Howe's Fleet while at anchor in New York Harbor, just after the Battle of Long Island Davies, Thomas, ca. 1737-1812. Original uploader was Bernstein2291 at en.wikipedia File:NCMooresCreek1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NCMooresCreek1.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Thomas Kitchin; User:Magicpiano File:NCMooresCreek2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NCMooresCreek2.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors: Thomas Kitchin; User:Magicpiano File:Oriskany creek.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oriskany_creek.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Flask File:Herkimer monument.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herkimer_monument.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Flask File:Earl Ralph Marinus Willett.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Earl_Ralph_Marinus_Willett.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Janneman, Staszek99 File:Oriskany officers.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oriskany_officers.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Flask File:De Grasse surrendering to Rodney.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:De_Grasse_surrendering_to_Rodney.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown, created for use by George Frederick Raymond. Image:BurgoyneByReynolds.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BurgoyneByReynolds.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ecummenic, Magicpiano, Pitke, Shakko, 1 anonymous edits Image:HoratioGatesByStuart.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HoratioGatesByStuart.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beyond My Ken, Magicpiano File:Burgoyne 1777.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Burgoyne_1777.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Feydey, Magicpiano, Man vyi, Nonenmac, UpstateNYer File:First Battle of Saratoga.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Battle_of_Saratoga.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:First Battle of Saratoga 1300 Hours.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Battle_of_Saratoga_1300_Hours.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy Image:Saratoga-freeman.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saratoga-freeman.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Americasroof, Magicpiano, UpstateNYer, Ö, 1 anonymous edits File:First Battle of Saratoga 1500 Hours.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Battle_of_Saratoga_1500_Hours.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:First Battle of Saratoga 1700 Hours.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_Battle_of_Saratoga_1700_Hours.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy Image:John Neilson House, Bemis Heights, Stillwater, Saratoga County, NY.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Neilson_House,_Bemis_Heights,_Stillwater,_Saratoga_County,_NY.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Clindberg, Sebastian Wallroth, Stan Shebs, Vidor Image:Arnold at Saratoga.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arnold_at_Saratoga.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was CPret at en.wikipedia Image:Benedict Arnold 1color.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benedict_Arnold_1color.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Thomas Hart File:Second Battle of Saratoga.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Second_Battle_of_Saratoga.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy Image:Arnold-boot.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Arnold-boot.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was Americasroof at en.wikipedia File:Saratoga Battlefied.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saratoga_Battlefied.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: UpstateNYer File:Saratoga 1777 Oriskany 1927 Issue-2c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Saratoga_1777_Oriskany_1927_Issue-2c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office File:Battle-of-Trenton.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle-of-Trenton.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Center of Military History File:Battle-trenton-sketch-rochambeau.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle-trenton-sketch-rochambeau.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andreas Wiederholt (b. 1752?) File:1819 Passage OfThe Delaware byThomasSully MFABoston.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1819_Passage_OfThe_Delaware_byThomasSully_MFABoston.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, M2545, Magicpiano, 1 anonymous edits File:Battle of Trenton.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Trenton.Dean.USMA.edu.history.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:Henry-revolutionary-war.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Henry-revolutionary-war.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Illman Brothers from painting by E.L. Henry File:The Capture of the Hessians at Trenton December 26 1776.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Capture_of_the_Hessians_at_Trenton_December_26_1776.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bukk, Jonkerz, MarmadukePercy File:General-Sir-Guy-Carleton 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:General-Sir-Guy-Carleton_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002, Ardfern, Frank C. Müller, Magicpiano, Miesianiacal, Thingg, Thomas Gun, TomasoAlbinoni

499

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:ChamplainValley1777.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ChamplainValley1777.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Louis Brion de la Tour File:ValcourIslandMap1776Detail.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ValcourIslandMap1776Detail.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Geagea, Magicpiano, Mu File:ValcourIslandMap1776Overview.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ValcourIslandMap1776Overview.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Faden File:Benedict arnold illustration.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Benedict_arnold_illustration.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Engraving by H.B. Hall after John Trumbull File:GunboatPhiladelphia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GunboatPhiladelphia.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown (US government employee); Original uploader was Renegade at nl.wikipedia File:Valcour canadianarchive c013202k.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Valcour_canadianarchive_c013202k.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Charles Randle, fl. 1775-1813 File:Valcour canadianarchive c013203k.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Valcour_canadianarchive_c013203k.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Charles Randle, fl. 1775-1813 File:Elijahmillerhouse.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elijahmillerhouse.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: NortyNort (talk). Original uploader was NortyNort at en.wikipedia File:White Plains Battle Plans.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:White_Plains_Battle_Plans.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Magicpiano, Tseno Maximov, TwoWings File:Battle of White Plains 1926 Issue-2c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_White_Plains_1926_Issue-2c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gwillhickers File:USS White Plains (CVE-66) at San Diego, 8 March 1944.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USS_White_Plains_(CVE-66)_at_San_Diego,_8_March_1944.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Navy Employee Image:Cumberland md braddock road.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cumberland_md_braddock_road.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John Kennedy Lacock Image:French British Forts 1753 1758.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_British_Forts_1753_1758.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Thomas Cool Image:Braddock's death at the Battle of Monongahela 9-July-1755.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Braddock's_death_at_the_Battle_of_Monongahela_9-July-1755.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002, GeorgHH, Magicpiano, Man vyi, Nonenmac File:FrenchAndIndianWar.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FrenchAndIndianWar.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gump Stump, SaltyBoatr, 1 anonymous edits image:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Constitutional Convention File:James Madison.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_Madison.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John Vanderlyn (1775–1852) File:JusticeJamesWilson.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JusticeJamesWilson.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bob Burkhardt, Kelson, 3 anonymous edits File:US Capitol 1814c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Capitol_1814c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Munger, George, 1781-1825, artist. File:The President's House by George Munger, 1814-1815 - Crop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_President's_House_by_George_Munger,_1814-1815_-_Crop.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Scewing File:Senate Revisions to House Proposed Amendments to the U.S. Constitution.djvu  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Senate_Revisions_to_House_Proposed_Amendments_to_the_U.S._Constitution.djvu  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dominic, Inductiveload File:Proposed Amendments to the U.S. Constitution as Passed by the Senate, Printed September 14, 1789.djvu  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Proposed_Amendments_to_the_U.S._Constitution_as_Passed_by_the_Senate,_Printed_September_14,_1789.djvu  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Inductiveload File:John Marshall by Henry Inman, 1832.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman,_1832.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Scewing, Shakko File:Joseph Story.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joseph_Story.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Docu, Jaqen File:Slide national archives.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slide_national_archives.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AgnosticPreachersKid File: Jose rizal 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jose_rizal_01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BrokenSphere, EPO, Igiveup, Jakosalem, Krokodyl, Pieter Kuiper, Rootology, Zufs, 1 anonymous edits File: Sun Yat Sen portrait 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sun_Yat_Sen_portrait_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sun_Yat_Sen_portrait.jpg: K.T. Thompson derivative work: MiguelM (talk) File:Fort mackinac painting.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fort_mackinac_painting.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Seth Eastman (1808–1875) File:French ship under atack by barbary pirates.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:French_ship_under_atack_by_barbary_pirates.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Angrense, Docu, Madame Grinderche, Martin H., Mattes, Mu, Multichill, Tekstman, Vincent Steenberg File:Paxton Boys march on Philadelphia.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paxton_Boys_march_on_Philadelphia.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 123readysetgo, Beao, Medvedenko, Mwanner, Sfan00 IMG, Smallbones File:George Washington 1795.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_Washington_1795.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dcoetzee, Diomede, Docu, Ecummenic, Kevin Myers, Martin H., Origamiemensch, PericlesofAthens, Pruneau, RedAndr, Rlbberlin, Warburg, 1 anonymous edits File:Nathaniel Gorham.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nathaniel_Gorham.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was JW1805 at en.wikipedia File:WytheGeorge.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WytheGeorge.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Longacre, James Barton (1794-1869) File:Major William Jackson.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Major_William_Jackson.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Fishal at en.wikipedia File:Washington Constitutional Convention 1787.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washington_Constitutional_Convention_1787.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Junius Brutus Stearns, painter File:EdRand.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EdRand.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BaomoVW, Scooter, Wikifreund, Yot File:William Paterson copy.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Paterson_copy.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: C. Gregory Stapko (1913–2006), UNIQ-ref-4-4ba88a7e7bd50f07-QINU original by James Sharples (1751–1811) UNIQ-ref-5-4ba88a7e7bd50f07-QINU File:BenFranklinDuplessis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BenFranklinDuplessis.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Androstachys, Bohème, Eubulides, Ezeu, Kilom691, Nonenmac, Quadell, Raymond, Scewing, Semnoz, Slomox, Zolo, 2 anonymous edits File:RogerShermanPortrait.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:RogerShermanPortrait.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Contemporary portrait File:George Mason.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_Mason.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Beria, Beyond My Ken, Ecummenic, Foroa, Nathanael G. Molineux File:Charles Pinckney.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_Pinckney.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ecummenic, Scooter, Sebastian Wallroth File:Oliver ellsworth.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oliver_ellsworth.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Plaigueis File:JohnDickinson4.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JohnDickinson4.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Complex01 File:Richard Ansdell hunted slaves.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Richard_Ansdell_hunted_slaves.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mattes, Staszek99 File:GeorgeRead.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GeorgeRead.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hystrix, Scooter, Sebastian Wallroth, 3 anonymous edits File:LutherMartinBig.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LutherMartinBig.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Etching by Albert Rosenthal

500

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Gunning bedford jr.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gunning_bedford_jr.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gothika, Mendaliv, Pieter Kuiper, Southgeist, Túrelio File:Elbridge-gerry-painting.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elbridge-gerry-painting.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: James Bogle after John Vanderlyn File:Dickinson, John (bust) - NARA - 532841.tif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dickinson,_John_(bust)_-_NARA_-_532841.tif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Dominic, Kilom691, PKM File:John Rutledge color painting.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Rutledge_color_painting.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Robert Hinckley File:Rufus King.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rufus_King.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Painter: File:Map of territorial growth 1775.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_territorial_growth_1775.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: see below File:Checks and balances.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Checks_and_balances.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: debaird File:Gouverneur Morris 1753.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gouverneur_Morris_1753.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Pierre Eugène Du Simitière File:George Clymer.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_Clymer.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Connormah, Rlbberlin, Sebastian Wallroth File:The United States 1783 to 1803.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_United_States_1783_to_1803.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Briangotts, EugeneZelenko, Exdaix, Flamarande, Magog the Ogre, Peregrine981 File:Patrick henry.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Patrick_henry.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: BaomoVW, Complex01, Mu, PeterSymonds, Royalbroil, Wouterhagens, 1 anonymous edits File:Washington's Inauguration.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Washington's_Inauguration.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Ramon de Elorriaga File:John Locke by Herman Verelst.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Locke_by_Herman_Verelst.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Herman Verelst (died 1690) File:Edward coke.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edward_coke.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: attributed to Thomas Athow, after Unknown artist, after Cornelius Johnson File:Montesquieu 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Montesquieu_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Gabor, Luestling File:SirWilliamBlackstone.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SirWilliamBlackstone.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adam sk, AgnosticPreachersKid File:Red Jacket 2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_Jacket_2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chromolithograph by Corbould from a painting by C.B. King; printed by C. Hallmandel File:Joseph Brant.jpeg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joseph_Brant.jpeg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User Kevin Myers on en.wikipedia File:Indians giving a talk to Bouquet.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Indians_giving_a_talk_to_Bouquet.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Engraving by Charles Grignion (1717–1810), based on a painting by Benjamin West (1738–1820) File:Constitution We the People.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Constitution_We_the_People.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Constitution_Pg1of4_AC.jpg: derivative work: Bluszczokrzew (talk) File:SFBMorseHAllHoR.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SFBMorseHAllHoR.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was GearedBull at en.wikipedia File:USCapitol1800.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USCapitol1800.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: William Russell Birch, 1755-1834 File:Old sen ch 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Old_sen_ch_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Clindberg, Gryffindor, Mangoman88, Southgeist File:HobanWHProgressDrawing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HobanWHProgressDrawing.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: GearedBull, 1 anonymous edits File:United States Capitol, circa 1846, by John Plumbe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:United_States_Capitol,_circa_1846,_by_John_Plumbe.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Daderot, M2545, Mangoman88 File:OldSupremeCourt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OldSupremeCourt.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown (employee of the Architect of the Capitol) Image:Bill of Rights Pg1of1 AC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amada44, CommonsDelinker, Erutuon, Fvasconcellos, Hystrix, Interpretix, Jan.Kamenicek, Keeleysam, Nagy, Pownerus, Tryphon, Túrelio, UpstateNYer, Yonatanh, 29 anonymous edits File:Flag of France.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anomie File:US flag 15 stars.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_flag_15_stars.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Himasaram, Homo lupus, Jacobolus, Zscout370, 1 anonymous edits File:US flag 49 stars.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_flag_49_stars.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Flag design by the U.S. Government; SVG created by w:user:jacobolusjacobolus using w:Adobe IllustratorAdobe Illustrator, and released into the public domain File:LouisianaPurchase.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:LouisianaPurchase.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Deadstar, Factumquintus, Infrogmation, Manutius, Maximaximax, Peregrine981, Quasipalm, 1 anonymous edits File:Louisiana1804a.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louisiana1804a.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Samuel Lewis (ca.1753-1822) File:louisiana purchase treaty.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louisiana_purchase_treaty.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Clindberg, Darwinek, Eteru, Man vyi, WeFt File:Louisianatransfer exposition1904 vc180.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louisianatransfer_exposition1904_vc180.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jengod, Sdrtirs, 1 anonymous edits File:Louisana Purchase 1953 Issue-3c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Louisana_Purchase_1953_Issue-3c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office File:U.S. Territorial Acquisitions.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:U.S._Territorial_Acquisitions.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States federal government (en:User:Black and White converted it from JPEG to PNG and retouched it) File:Fort Madison 1810.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fort_Madison_1810.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Billwhittaker at en.wikipedia File:Map of the Frigate Chesapeake's First War of 1812 Cruise.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Map_of_the_Frigate_Chesapeake's_First_War_of_1812_Cruise.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gordon Calhoun File:USS Constitution vs Guerriere.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USS_Constitution_vs_Guerriere.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BLueFiSH.as, HenkvD, J Clear, Jarekt, Kilom691, Longbow4u, Rave, Soerfm, Urban, 1 anonymous edits File:John Christian Schetky, H.M.S. Shannon Leading Her Prize the American Frigate Chesapeake into Halifax Harbour (c. 1830).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Christian_Schetky,_H.M.S._Shannon_Leading_Her_Prize_the_American_Frigate_Chesapeake_into_Halifax_Harbour_(c._1830).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Brad101, Jacklee, Skeezix1000, Verne Equinox, WarBaCoN File:BurningofWashington1814.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BurningofWashington1814.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gwillhickers, Infrogmation, SalomonCeb File:Ft. Henry bombardement 1814.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ft._Henry_bombardement_1814.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Dr.frog at en.wikipedia File:Anglo American War 1812 Locations map-en.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anglo_American_War_1812_Locations_map-en.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: Anglo_American_War_1812_Locations_map-fr.svg: Sémhur derivative work: P. S. Burton (talk) File:Battle erie.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_erie.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002, Barbe-Noire, DIREKTOR, EurekaLott, Jkelly, Mattes, Shauni, 1 anonymous edits Image:Attack on Fort Oswego (May 1914), War of 1812.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Attack_on_Fort_Oswego_(May_1914),_War_of_1812.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Victoriaedwards File:Six Nations survivors of War of 1812.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Six_Nations_survivors_of_War_of_1812.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jkelly, Man vyi, Skeezix1000, Themightyquill, Tkinias, YUL89YYZ

501

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Upper Mississippi 1812.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Upper_Mississippi_1812.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Bill Whittaker (Billwhittaker at en.wikipedia) File:Couplandart.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Couplandart.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: HBW 40 File:Lake Borgne de la Tour map 1720.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_Borgne_de_la_Tour_map_1720.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BlackIceNRW, Infrogmation, Kkmurray, 1 anonymous edits File:Battle of New Orleans 1815.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_New_Orleans_1815.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Deadstar, Infrogmation, Stefan Kühn File:NewOrleansBattle.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NewOrleansBattle.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: History Department, United States Military Academy File:Battle of New Orleans.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_New_Orleans.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Edward Percy Moran. File:Battle of NewOrleans 1965 Issue-5c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_NewOrleans_1965_Issue-5c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office File:UrsulinesFQExtRiverSidePromptSuccorMosaic1815.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:UrsulinesFQExtRiverSidePromptSuccorMosaic1815.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Infrogmation of New Orleans File:Mexican war overview.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mexican_war_overview.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: BrokenSphere, PhilFree, 3 anonymous edits File:firstbearflag.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Firstbearflag.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Conscious, Epolk, Himasaram, Homo lupus, Quibik, Starscream, Valentinian, 15 anonymous edits File:Ustroopsmarchonmonterrey.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ustroopsmarchonmonterrey.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lithograph by after a drawing by File:Battle of Churubusco2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Churubusco2.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: John Cameron (artist), Nathaniel Currier (lithographer and publisher) File:Battle of Chapultepec.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Chapultepec.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lithograph by after a drawing by File:Wpdms mexican cession.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wpdms_mexican_cession.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Matthew Trump, File:Mexican Cession in Mexican View.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mexican_Cession_in_Mexican_View.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States federal government (en:User:Black and White converted it from JPEG to PNG and retouched it) File:Mexico nebel.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mexico_nebel.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lithograph by after a drawing by File:Whig primary 1848c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whig_primary_1848c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: N. Currier (firm) File:John Brown, The Martyr.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:John_Brown,_The_Martyr.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Currier & Ives File:James Hopkinsons Plantation Slaves Planting Sweet Potatoes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_Hopkinsons_Plantation_Slaves_Planting_Sweet_Potatoes.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Henry P. Moore File:Cicatrices de flagellation sur un esclave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cicatrices_de_flagellation_sur_un_esclave.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown. Part of the Blakeslee Collection, apparently collected by John Taylor of Hartford, Connecticut, USA File:US Secession map 1861.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Secession_map_1861.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Tomf688 File:Marais-massacre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marais-massacre.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unk. Original uploader was Americasroof at en.wikipedia File:Abraham Lincoln seated, Feb 9, 1864.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abraham_Lincoln_seated,_Feb_9,_1864.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Anthony Berger File:President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andros64, Howcheng, Infrogmation, Kelson, Materialscientist, NuclearWarfare, Poulos, Red devil 666, ¡0-8-15! File:US Secession map 1865 (BlankMap derived).PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:US_Secession_map_1865_(BlankMap_derived).PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kenmayer, Man vyi, Porsche997SBS File:American Civil War Chaplain.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:American_Civil_War_Chaplain.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Smith2006 at en.wikipedia File:Great Meeting Union Square.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Great_Meeting_Union_Square.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown File:Scott-anaconda.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Scott-anaconda.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: J.B. Elliott File:CivilWarFifeandDrum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CivilWarFifeandDrum.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Legoktm File:Union soldiers entrenched along the west bank of the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg, Virginia (111-B-157).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Union_soldiers_entrenched_along_the_west_bank_of_the_Rappahannock_River_at_Fredericksburg,_Virginia_(111-B-157).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: A. J. Russell File:NYRiot.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NYRiot.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was MadMax at en.wikipedia File:Conf dead chancellorsville edit1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Conf_dead_chancellorsville_edit1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Transwiki trivia irrelevent to authorship Conf_dead_chancellorsville.jpg: Photographed by Capt. en:Andrew J. Russell Original uploader was Darwinek at en.wikipedia derivative work: Mfield (talk) File:Chickamauga.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Chickamauga.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kurz & Allison File:The Peacemakers 1868.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Peacemakers_1868.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Berrucomons, Bob Burkhardt, Brad101, CommonsDelinker, Docu, Infrogmation, Scewing, Singapore1, Thierry Caro, 5 anonymous edits File:Sherman Grant Sheridan 1937 Issue-3c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sherman_Grant_Sheridan_1937_Issue-3c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: U.S. Post Office, 1937 File:EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:EwellsDeadSpotsylvania1864crop01.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Berean Hunter, Mtsmallwood, Túrelio, 1 anonymous edits File:Civil war 1861-1865.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Civil_war_1861-1865.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Chris 73, Malo File:Soldiers White Black 1861.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Soldiers_White_Black_1861.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: not indicated File:Andersonvillesurvivor.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andersonvillesurvivor.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unnamed United States Army photographer File:AndersonvilleCemetary.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AndersonvilleCemetary.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Bubba73 (talk), Jud McCranie File:Grand Army of the Republic by Swatjester.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Grand_Army_of_the_Republic_by_Swatjester.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: KTo288 File:Speaker Icon.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speaker_Icon.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blast, G.Hagedorn, Mobius, 2 anonymous edits File:Gettysburg Campaign.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gettysburg_Campaign.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Hlj, Ipankonin, LERK, Shyam File:FieldOfGettysburg1863.PNG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FieldOfGettysburg1863.PNG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Theodore Ditterline. Original uploader was Suntag at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Pedentic at en.wikipedia. File:Gettysburg Battle Map Day1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day1.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Edmund Ferman, Hlj, Mtsmallwood File:First shot marker.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:First_shot_marker.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:Lpockras

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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Gettysburg Day2 Plan.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gettysburg_Day2_Plan.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Hlj, Mtsmallwood, Rheo1905 File:Gettysburg Battle Map Day2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day2.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Hlj, Mtsmallwood, Rheo1905 File:Union breastworks Culp's Hill Gettysburg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Union_breastworks_Culp's_Hill_Gettysburg.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hlj, Wikipelli, 3 anonymous edits File:Gettysburg Battle Map Day3.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day3.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Original uploader was Hlj at en.wikipedia File:High Water Mark - Cemetery Ridge, Gettysburg Battlefield.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:High_Water_Mark_-_Cemetery_Ridge,_Gettysburg_Battlefield.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Sculpture: signed Stephens.Photo: Robert Swanson (en:User:Ryssby) File:Battle of Gettysburg.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Gettysburg.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Andrew c, Avron, Choess, Flominator, George Ho, Jfire, KAMiKAZOW, Panoptik, Peter Weis, Thuresson, Timeshifter, Wouterhagens, 2 anonymous edits File:Gettysburg Campaign Retreat.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gettysburg_Campaign_Retreat.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Drawn by Hal Jespersen in Adobe Illustrator CS5 File:Gettysburg national cemetery img 4164.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gettysburg_national_cemetery_img_4164.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Photo: Henryhartley at en.wikipedia Statue: Randolph Rogers (1825-1892) Image:George G. Meade Standing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:George_G._Meade_Standing.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mathew Brady (cleaned up by Hal Jespersen at en.wikipedia) Image:Robert Edward Lee.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_Edward_Lee.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Vannerson, Julian, b. 1827 photographer. Image:WinfieldSHancock.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WinfieldSHancock.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Finavon, FlickreviewR, Tseno Maximov File:Gettysburg Centenial 1963-5c.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gettysburg_Centenial_1963-5c.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Post Office File:01Gettysburg-National-Military-Park-Quarter-Design-300x300.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:01Gettysburg-National-Military-Park-Quarter-Design-300x300.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: US Mint File:Nuvola apps kview.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nuvola_apps_kview.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Ch1902, Saibo Image:Searchtool.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Searchtool.svg  License: GNU Lesser General Public License  Contributors: Anomie Image:Nuvola apps kaboodle.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Tkgd2007, Waldir, 1 anonymous edits Image:Alaska Purchase (hi-res).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alaska_Purchase_(hi-res).jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: CommonsDelinker, Coriolis ende, Diego pmc, Gryffindor, Kelson, Quadell, Struthious Bandersnatch File:Alaska purchase.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alaska_purchase.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was The Mystery Man at en.wikipedia Image:wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Nicholas Moreau Image:Carpetbagger.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Carpetbagger.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Howcheng, Infrogmation, Jospe, Lilared Image:Kkk-carpetbagger-cartoon.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kkk-carpetbagger-cartoon.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Bogdan, Erri4a, HenkvD, Herr Satz, Howcheng, Infrogmation, JMCC1, Mattes, Okki, Quadell, R. Engelhardt, 1 anonymous edits Image:Uploco.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Uploco.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Greenmountainboy at en.wikipedia Image:Trestle CPRR.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trestle_CPRR.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: Carleton E. Watkins Image:The Last Spike 1869.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Last_Spike_1869.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Centpacrr at en.wikipedia File:CPRR Button 1867.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CPRR_Button_1867.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Photographed and digital illustration created by User:Centpacrr, the illustration's uploade File:San Francisco Pacific Railroad Bond WPRR 1865.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Francisco_Pacific_Railroad_Bond_WPRR_1865.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: City and County of San Francisco, California (bond); DigitalImageServices.com (scanning, reconstruction, digital restoration, and enhancement). Original uploader was Centpacrr at en.wikipedia Image:Lmc tdj.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lmc_tdj.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Bruce C. Cooper (Wikipedia user "Centpacrr") File:CPRR Locomotive -113 FALCON 1869.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CPRR_Locomotive_-113_FALCON_1869.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original photograph: John B. Silvis; Digital restoration: DigitalImageServices.com (uploader). Original uploader was Centpacrr at en.wikipedia File:Keppler Credit Mobilier Hari-Kari.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Keppler_Credit_Mobilier_Hari-Kari.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Joseph Keppler File:A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grymross, by Thomas Davies, 1758.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_View_of_the_Plundering_and_Burning_of_the_City_of_Grymross,_by_Thomas_Davies,_1758.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hantsheroes, Jappalang, Skeezix1000 File:Joseph Broussard Beausoleil acadian HRoe.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Joseph_Broussard_Beausoleil_acadian_HRoe.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Herb Roe, www.chromesun.com Original uploader was Heironymous Rowe at en.wikipedia File:CharlesLawrenceNovaScotiaHistoricalSocietyc.1753.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CharlesLawrenceNovaScotiaHistoricalSocietyc.1753.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown File:Deportation Grand-Pré.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Deportation_Grand-Pré.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: George Craig

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File:A View of Miramichi, 1760, oil painting by Francis Swaine after a view by Captain Hervey Smyth. Credit National Gallery of CanadaNo 4976.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:A_View_of_Miramichi,_1760,_oil_painting_by_Francis_Swaine_after_a_view_by_Captain_Hervey_Smyth._Credit_National_Gallery_of_CanadaNo_4976.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Attributed to Francis Swaine after a view by Captain Hervey Smyth. File:Acadian memorial Halifax.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acadian_memorial_Halifax.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Skeezix1000 File:Marquis de Boishébert - Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot (1753) McCord Museum McGill.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marquis_de_Boishébert_-_Charles_Deschamps_de_Boishébert_et_de_Raffetot_(1753)_McCord_Museum_McGill.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Hantsheroes, Jappalang, Kürschner, Skeezix1000 Image:Acadiens Nantes.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Acadiens_Nantes.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported  Contributors: Jibi44 Image:14th Amendment Pg1of2 AC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:14th_Amendment_Pg1of2_AC.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Archives of the United States Image:14th Amendment Pg2of2 AC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:14th_Amendment_Pg2of2_AC.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Archives of the United States File:Brown V. Board of Education Exhibit.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Brown_V._Board_of_Education_Exhibit.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jmundo, Jonathan Schilling File:Panic of 1873 bank run.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panic_of_1873_bank_run.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnRo0002, Bkwillwm, Electron, Infrogmation, Jmabel, Man vyi, Mdd, Protonk, 1 anonymous edits File:Schwarzer Freitag Wien 1873.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Schwarzer_Freitag_Wien_1873.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unkown; uploaded by User:el_bes

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File:16th Amendment Pg1of1 AC.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:16th_Amendment_Pg1of1_AC.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: National Archives of the United States Image:Whiskeyring.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Whiskeyring.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Henswick, Leontios

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License
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