AP Government - Course Description

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GOVERNMENT
AND POLITICS
UNITED STATES
COMPARATIVE
Course Description
E f f e c t i v e F a l l 2 0 1 0
AP Course Descriptions are updated regularly. Please visit AP Central
®

(apcentral.collegeboard.com) to determine whether a more recent Course
Description PDF is available.
The College Board
The College Board is a not-for-profit membership association whose mission is to connect students
to college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, the association is composed of more than 5,600
schools, colleges, universities, and other educational organizations. Each year, the College Board
serves seven million students and their parents, 23,000 high schools, and 3,800 colleges through
major programs and services in college admissions, guidance, assessment, financial aid, enrollment,
and teaching and learning. Among its best-known programs are the SAT
®
, the PSAT/NMSQT
®
,
and the Advanced Placement Program
®
(AP
®
). The College Board is committed to the principles of
excellence and equity, and that commitment is embodied in all of its programs, services, activities,
and concerns.
For further information visit www.collegeboard.com.
The College Board and the Advanced Placement Program encourage teachers, AP Coordinators,
and school administrators to make equitable access a guiding principle for their AP programs. The
College Board is committed to the principle that all students deserve an opportunity to participate in
rigorous and academically challenging courses and programs. All students who are willing to accept
the challenge of a rigorous academic curriculum should be considered for admission to AP courses.
The Board encourages the elimination of barriers that restrict access to AP courses for students from
ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic groups that have been traditionally underrepresented in the AP
Program. Schools should make every effort to ensure that their AP classes reflect the diversity of their
student population.
© 2010 The College Board. All rights reserved. College Board, Advanced Placement Program, AP, AP Central, SAT, and the acorn
logo are registered trademarks of the College Board. PSAT/NMSQT is a registered trademark of the College Board and National
Merit Scholarship Corporation. All other products and services may be trademarks of their respective owners. Permission to use
copyrighted College Board materials may be requested online at: www.collegeboard.com/inquiry/cbpermit.html.
i
Contents
Welcome to the AP Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
AP Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
AP Exams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
AP Course Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
AP Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
AP Exam Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Credit and Placement for AP Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Setting Credit and Placement Policies for AP Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
AP Government and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Courses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Teaching AP Government and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
United States Government and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
I. Constitutional Underpinnings of United States Government . . . . . . . . . . 6
II. Political Beliefs and Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
III. Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Mass Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
IV. Institutions of National Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
V. Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
VI. Civil Rights and Civil Liberties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Curriculum Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Sample Multiple-Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Sample Free-Response Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Comparative Government and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
The Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
I. Introduction to Comparative Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
III. Political Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
IV. Citizens, Society, and the State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
V. Political and Economic Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
VI. Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Curriculum Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
The Exam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Sample Multiple-Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Sample Free-Response Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
ii
Teacher Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
AP Central (apcentral.collegeboard.com ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
AP Publications and Other Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Teacher’s Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Course Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Released Exams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
1
Welcome to the AP
®
Program
For over 50 years, the College Board’s Advanced Placement Program (AP) has
partnered with colleges, universities, and high schools to provide students with the
opportunity to take college-level course work and exams while still in high school.
Offering more than 30 different subjects, each culminating in a rigorous exam, AP
provides motivated and academically prepared students with the opportunity to earn
college credit or placement and helps them stand out in the college admissions
process. Taught by dedicated, passionate AP teachers who bring cutting-edge content
knowledge and expert teaching skills to the classroom, AP courses help students
develop the study skills, habits of mind, and critical thinking skills that they will need
in college.
AP is accepted by more than 3,600 colleges and universities worldwide for college
credit, advanced placement, or both on the basis of successful AP Exam grades. This
includes over 90 percent of four-year institutions in the United States.
More information about the AP Program is available at the back of this Course
Description and at AP Central
®
, the College Board’s online home for AP teachers
(apcentral.collegeboard.com). Students can find more information at the AP student
site (www.collegeboard.com/apstudents).
AP Courses
More than 30 AP courses in a wide variety of subject areas are now available. A
committee of college faculty and master AP teachers designs each AP course to cover
the information, skills, and assignments found in the corresponding college course.
AP Exams
Each AP course has a corresponding exam that participating schools worldwide
administer in May. Except for AP Studio Art, which is a portfolio assessment, each AP
Exam contains a free-response section (essays, problem solving, oral responses, etc.)
as well as multiple-choice questions.
Written by a committee of college and university faculty and experienced AP
teachers, the AP Exam is the culmination of the AP course and provides students with
the opportunity to earn credit and/or placement in college. Exams are scored by
college professors and experienced AP teachers using scoring standards developed by
the committee.
AP Course Audit
The intent of the AP Course Audit is to provide secondary and higher education
constituents with the assurance that an “AP” designation on a student’s transcript is
credible, meaning the AP Program has authorized a course that has met or exceeded
the curricular requirements and classroom resources that demonstrate the academic
rigor of a comparable college course. To receive authorization from the College Board
to label a course “AP,” teachers must participate in the AP Course Audit. Courses
authorized to use the “AP” designation are listed in the AP Course Ledger made
available to colleges and universities each fall. It is the school’s responsibility to ensure
that its AP Course Ledger entry accurately reflects the AP courses offered within each
academic year.
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
2
The AP Program unequivocally supports the principle that each individual school
must develop its own curriculum for courses labeled “AP.” Rather than mandating any
one curriculum for AP courses, the AP Course Audit instead provides each AP teacher
with a set of expectations that college and secondary school faculty nationwide have
established for college-level courses. AP teachers are encouraged to develop or main-
tain their own curriculum that either includes or exceeds each of these expectations;
such courses will be authorized to use the “AP” designation. Credit for the success of
AP courses belongs to the individual schools and teachers that create powerful, locally
designed AP curricula.
Complete information about the AP Course Audit is available at www.collegeboard
.com/apcourseaudit.
AP Reading
AP Exams—with the exception of AP Studio Art, which is a portfolio assessment—
consist of dozens of multiple-choice questions scored by machine, and free-response
questions scored at the annual AP Reading by thousands of college faculty and expert
AP teachers. AP Readers use scoring standards developed by college and university
faculty who teach the corresponding college course. The AP Reading offers educators
both significant professional development and the opportunity to network with
colleagues. For more information about the AP Reading, or to apply to serve as a
Reader, visit apcentral.collegeboard.com/readers.
AP Exam Grades
The Readers’ scores on the free-response questions are combined with the results of
the computer-scored multiple-choice questions; the weighted raw scores are summed
to give a composite score. The composite score is then converted to a grade on AP’s
5-point scale:
AP GRADE QUALIFICATION
5 Extremely well qualified
4 Well qualified
3 Qualified
2 Possibly qualified
1 No recommendation
AP Exam grades of 5 are equivalent to A grades in the corresponding college course.
AP Exam grades of 4 are equivalent to grades of A–, B+, and B in college. AP Exam
grades of 3 are equivalent to grades of B–, C+, and C in college.
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
3
Credit and Placement for AP Grades
Thousands of four-year colleges grant credit, placement, or both for qualifying
AP Exam grades because these grades represent a level of achievement equivalent to
that of students who have taken the corresponding college course. This college-level
equivalency is ensured through several AP Program processes:
* College laculty are involved in course and exam development and other A! activities.
Currently, college faculty:
* Serve as chairs and members ol the committees that develop the Course
Descriptions and exams in each AP course.
* Are responsible lor standard setting and are involved in the evaluation ol student
responses at the AP Reading. The Chief Reader for each AP subject is a college
faculty member.
* Lead prolessional development seminars lor new and experienced A! teachers.
* Serve as the senior reviewers in the annual A! Course Audit, ensuring
AP teachers’ syllabi meet the curriculum guidelines of college-level courses.
* A! courses and exams are reviewed and updated regularly based on the
results of curriculum surveys at up to 200 colleges and universities, collaborations
among the College Board and key educational and disciplinary organizations, and
the interactions of committee members with professional organizations in their
discipline.
* !eriodic college comparability studies are undertaken in which the perlormance ol
college students on AP Exams is compared with that of AP students to confirm that
the AP grade scale of 1 to 5 is properly aligned with current college standards.
For more information about the role of colleges and universities in the AP Program,
visit the Higher Ed Services section of the College Board Web site at professionals
.collegeboard.com/higher-ed.
Setting Credit and Placement Policies for AP Grades
The College Board Web site for education professionals has a section specifically for
colleges and universities that provides guidance in setting AP credit and placement
policies. Additional resources, including links to AP research studies, released exam
questions, and sample student responses at varying levels of achievement for each AP
Exam are also available. Visit professionals.collegeboard.com/higher-ed/placement/ap.
The “AP Credit Policy Info” online search tool provides links to credit and place-
ment policies at more than 1,000 colleges and universities. This tool helps students
find the credit hours and/or advanced placement they may receive for qualifying exam
grades within each AP subject at a specified institution. AP Credit Policy Info is
available at www.collegeboard.com/ap/creditpolicy.
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
4
AP Government and Politics
I N T R O D U C T I O N
The Advanced Placement Program (AP) offers two courses and exams in government
and politics. Each is intended for qualified students who wish to complete studies in
secondary school equivalent to a one-semester college introductory course in United
States government and politics or in comparative government and politics. Each exam
presumes at least one semester of college-level preparation. This book describes the
areas covered by similar college courses; the two exams cover these areas as well.
The material included in this Course Description and the two exams is not intended
as an endorsement by the College Board or ETS of the content, ideas, or values
expressed therein. The material has been selected by political scientists who serve as
members of the AP Govern ment and Politics Development Committees. In their
judgment, the content reflects important aspects of college courses of study. The
exams are representative of these courses and are therefore appropriate tools to
measure skills and knowledge in the fields of government and politics.
T H E C O U R S E S
An introductory college course in United States government and politics or in
comparative government and politics is generally one semester in length. In both
subject areas there is considerable variety among the courses offered by colleges. In
terms of content, there is no specific college course curriculum that an AP course in
United States Government and Politics or in Comparative Government and Politics
must follow. Therefore, the aim of an AP course should be to provide the student with
a learning experience equivalent to that obtained in most college introductory U.S. or
comparative government and politics courses.
Teaching AP Government and Politics
The description of AP United States Government and Politics is offered first, followed
by AP Comparative Government and Politics. There is no prescribed sequence of
study, and a school with students taking one of the two exams is not required to have
students also taking the other. If, however, a school wishes to prepare students for
both AP Government and Politics Exams, there are three possible approaches, each
with advantages and disadvantages. The instructor may decide to schedule the
AP United States Government and Politics course first because of greater student
familiarity with that subject and the consequent ease of introducing political science
concepts in the context of familiar institutions and practices. Alternatively, the
instructor may prefer to start with Comparative Government and Politics in order to
benefit from student interest in a less familiar subject. Also, because the May AP Exam
date can constrict a second semester, a teacher may decide to present the comparative
government course first. In this case, students will have a longer period in which to
prepare for an exam that is bound to include less familiar material. Finally, some
AP instructors have successfully used a third alternative: they teach the two courses
simultaneously. Teachers can thus emphasize the comparative dimensions, drawing
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
5
contrasts between political experiences and institutions in the United States and other
countries. Schools and instructors should weigh the advantages and disadvantages of
each approach.
The Teachers’ Resources section of AP Central (apcentral.collegeboard.com) offers
reviews of textbooks, articles, Web sites, and other teaching resources. The electronic
discussion groups (EDGs) accessible through AP Central also provide a moderated
forum for exchanging ideas, insights, and practices among members of the AP -
professional community.
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
6
United States Government and Politics
United States Government and Politics
T H E C O U R S E
A well-designed AP course in United States Government and Politics will give students
an analytical perspective on government and politics in the United States. This course
includes both the study of general concepts used to interpret U.S. government and
politics and the analysis of specific examples. It also requires familiarity with the
various institutions, groups, beliefs, and ideas that constitute U.S. government and
politics. While there is no single approach that an AP United States Government and
Politics course must follow, students should become acquainted with the variety of
theoretical perspectives and explanations for various behaviors and outcomes. Certain
topics are usually covered in all college courses. The following is a discussion of these
topics and some questions that should be explored in the course.
Goals
Students successfully completing this course will:
* know important facts, concepts, and theories pertaining to U.S. government and
politics
* understand typical patterns of political processes and behavior and their
consequences (including the components of political behavior, the principles
used to explain or justify various government structures and procedures, and the
political effects of these structures and procedures)
* be able to analyze and interpret basic data relevant to U.S. government and
politics (including data presented in charts, tables, and other formats)
* be able to critically analyze relevant theories and concepts, apply them
appropriately, and develop their connections across the curriculum
To help students meet these goals, the course should cover the following topics.
Topics
I. Constitutional Underpinnings of United States Government
The study of modern politics in the United States requires students to examine the
kind of government established by the Constitution, paying particular attention to
federalism, the separation of powers, and checks and balances.
Understanding these developments involves both knowledge of the historical
situation at the time of the Constitutional Convention and an awareness of the
ideological and philosophical traditions on which the framers drew. Such
understanding addresses specific concerns of the framers: for example, why did
Madison fear factions? What were the reasons for the swift adoption of the Bill of
Rights? Familiarity with the United States Supreme Court’s interpretation of key
provisions of the Constitution will aid student understanding of theoretical and practical
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
7
United States Government and Politics
features of federalism, separation of powers, and checks and balances. Students
should be familiar with a variety of theoretical perspectives relating to the
Constitution, such as democratic theory, theories of republican government,
pluralism, and elitism.
II. Political Beliefs and Behaviors
Individual citizens hold a variety of beliefs about their government, its leaders, and the
U.S. political system in general; taken together, these beliefs form the foundation of
U.S. political culture. It is important for students to understand how these beliefs are
formed, how they evolve, and the processes by which they are transmitted. Students
should know why U.S. citizens hold certain beliefs about politics, and how families,
schools, and the media act to perpetuate or change these beliefs. Understanding
the ways in which political culture affects and informs political participation is also
critical. For example, students should know that individuals often engage in multiple
forms of political participation, including voting, protest, and mass movements.
Students should understand why individuals engage in various forms of political
participation and how that participation may affect the political system.
Finally, it is essential that students understand what leads citizens to differ from
one another in their political beliefs and behaviors and the political consequences
of these differences. To understand these differences, students should focus on the
demographic features of the American population and the different views that people
hold of the political process. They should be aware of group differences in political
beliefs and behavior. Students should also understand how changes in political
participation affect the political system.
III. Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Mass Media
Students should understand the mechanisms that allow citizens to organize and
communicate their interests and concerns. Among these are political parties,
elections, political action committees (PACs), interest groups, and the mass media.
Students should examine the significance of the historical evolution of the U.S. party
system, the functions and structures of political parties, and the effects they have on
the political process. Examination of issues of party reform and of campaign strategies
and financing in the electronic age provides students with important perspectives. A
study of elections, election laws, and election systems on the national and state levels
will help students understand the nature of both party and individual voting behavior.
Treatment of the development and the role of PACs in elections and the ideological
and demographic differences between the two major parties, as well as third parties,
forms an important segment of this material.
Students must also consider the political roles played by a variety of lobbying and
interest groups. Important features of this section of the course include an explanation
for why some interests are represented by organized groups while others are not, and
the consequences of this difference in representation. Students study what interest
groups do, how they do it, and how this affects both the political process and public
policy. Why are certain segments of the population able to exert pressure on political
institutions and actors in order to obtain favorable policies?
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
8
United States Government and Politics
The media are a major force in U.S. politics. Students are expected to understand
the role of the media in the political system. In addition, the impact of the media on
public opinion, voter perceptions, campaign strategies, electoral outcomes, agenda
development, and the images of officials and candidates should be explored and
understood by students. Under stand ing the often symbiotic and frequently conflictual
relationship among candidates, elected officials, and the media is also important.
Students should be aware of the goals and incentives of the media as an industry and
how those goals influence the nature of news coverage. They should also understand
the consequences of the increasing concentration of major media outlets in fewer
hands, as well as the growing role of the Internet.
IV. Institutions of National Government
Students must become familiar with the organization and powers, both formal and
informal, of the major political institutions in the United States: the Congress, the
presidency, the bureaucracy, and the federal courts. Students should understand that
these are separate institutions sharing powers and the implications of that
arrangement. The functions these institutions perform and do not perform, as well as
the powers that they do and do not possess, are important. It is necessary for students
to understand that power balances and relationships between these institutions may
evolve gradually or change dramatically as a result of crises. Students are also
expected to understand ties between the various branches of national government and
political parties, interest groups, the media, and state and local governments. For
example, a study of the conflicting interests and powers of the president and Congress
may help explain repeated struggles to adopt a national budget.
V. Public Policy
Public policy is the result of interactions and dynamics among actors, interests,
institutions, and processes. The formation of policy agendas, the enactment of public
policies by Congress and the president, and the implementation and interpretation of
policies by the bureaucracy and the courts are all stages in the policy process with
which students should be familiar. Students should also investigate policy networks
and issue networks in the domestic and foreign policy areas. The study of these will
give students a clear understanding of the impact of federalism, interest groups,
parties, and elections on policy processes and policymaking in the federal context.
Students should be familiar with major public policies.
VI. Civil Rights and Civil Liberties
An understanding of United States politics includes the study of the development of
individual rights and liberties and their impact on citizens. Basic to this study is an
analysis of the workings of the United States Supreme Court and familiarity with its
most significant decisions. Students should examine judicial interpretations of various
civil rights and liberties such as freedom of speech, assembly, and expression; the
rights of the accused; and the rights of minority groups and women. For example,
students should understand the legal, social, and political evolution following the
Supreme Court’s decisions regarding racial segregation. Students should also be
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
9
United States Government and Politics
aware of how the Fourteenth Amendment and the doctrine of selective incorporation
have been used to extend protection of rights and liberties. Finally, it is important that
students be able to assess the strengths and weaknesses of Supreme Court decisions
as tools of social change.
© 2010 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www.collegeboard.com.
10
United States Government and Politics
Curriculum Outline
Below is an outline of the major content areas covered by the AP Exam in United
States Government and Politics. The multiple-choice portion of the exam is devoted to
each content area in the approximate percentages indicated. The free-response
portion of the exam will test students in some combination of the six major categories
outlined below. The outline is a guide and is by no means an exhaustive list of topics
or the preferred order of topics.
Percentage Goals for Exam
Content Area (multiple-choice section)
I. Constitutional Underpinnings of United States Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–15%
A. Considerations that influenced the formulation and adoption of the
Constitution
B. Separation of powers
C. Checks and balances
D. Federalism
E. Theories of democratic government
II. Political Beliefs and Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–20%
A. Beliefs that citizens hold about their government and its leaders
B. Processes by which citizens learn about politics
C. The nature, sources, and consequences of public opinion
D. The ways in which citizens vote and otherwise participate in
political life
E. Factors that influence citizens to differ from one another in terms
of political beliefs and behaviors
III. Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Mass Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–20%
A. Political parties and elections
1. Functions
2. Organization
3. Development
4. Effects on the political process
5. Electoral laws and systems
B. Interest groups, including political action committees (PACs)
1. The range of interests represented
2. The activities of interest groups
3. The effects of interest groups on the political process
4. The unique characteristics and roles of PACs in the political process
C. The mass media
1. The functions and structures of the news media
2. The impacts of the news media on politics
3. The news media industry and its consequences
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United States Government and Politics
Percentage Goals for Exam
Content Area (multiple-choice section)
IV. Institutions of National Government: The Congress, the Presidency, the
Bureaucracy, and the Federal Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35–45%
A. The major formal and informal institutional arrangements of power
B. Relationships among these four institutions and varying balances
of power
C. Linkages between institutions and the following:
1. Public opinion and voters
2. Interest groups
3. Political parties
4. The media
5. State and local governments
V. Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–15%
A. Policymaking in a federal system
B. The formation of policy agendas
C. The role of institutions in the enactment of policy
D. The role of the bureaucracy and the courts in policy implementation
and interpretation
E. Linkages between policy processes and the following:
1. Political institutions and federalism
2. Political parties
3. Interest groups
4. Public opinion
5. Elections
6. Policy networks
VI. Civil Rights and Civil Liberties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5–15%
A. The development of civil liberties and civil rights by judicial
interpretation
B. Knowledge of substantive rights and liberties
C. The impact of the Fourteenth Amendment on the constitutional
development of rights and liberties
T H E E X A M
The AP United States Government and Politics Exam is 2 hours and 25 minutes long.
It includes a 45-minute multiple-choice section consisting of 60 questions and a
100-minute free-response section consisting of 4 questions.
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
Sample Multiple-Choice Questions
The following sample questions reflect both the topics and the levels of difficulty in
questions found in the actual exam.
Multiple-choice scores are based on the number of questions answered correctly.
Points are not deducted for incorrect answers, and no points are awarded for
unanswered questions. Because points are not deducted for incorrect answers,
students are encouraged to answer all multiple-choice questions. On any questions
students do not know the answer to, students should eliminate as many choices as
they can, and then select the best answer among the remaining choices. An answer
key to the sample multiple-choice questions is on page 19.
Directions: Each of the questions or incomplete statements below is followed by five
suggested answers or completions. Select the one that is best in each case and then fill
in the corresponding oval on the answer sheet.
1. In the organization of government, the principle of federalism is illustrated best
by the
(A) president’s power as commander in chief
(B) separation of powers between the United States Supreme Court and
Congress
(C) representation system for electing senators
(D) qualifications for the office of president
(E) federal bureaucracy
2. All of the following contribute to the success of incumbent members of Congress
in election campaigns EXCEPT:
(A) Incumbents usually raise more campaign funds than do their challengers.
(B) Incumbents tend to understand national issues better than do their
challengers.
(C) Incumbents are usually better known to voters than are their challengers.
(D) Incumbents can use legislative staff to perform campaign services.
(E) Incumbents often sit on committees that permit them to serve district
interests.
3. The voting patterns of members of Congress correlate most strongly with
(A) the population density of their districts
(B) their economic background
(C) their educational level
(D) their political party affiliation
(E) the location of their districts
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
4. The Constitution and its amendments expressly prohibit all of the following
EXCEPT
(A) slavery
(B) double jeopardy
(C) cruel and unusual punishment
(D) unreasonable searches and seizures
(E) sex discrimination in employment
5. In vetoing a bill, the president does which of the following?
(A) Rejects only a part of the bill without rejecting it entirely.
(B) Prevents any further action on the bill.
(C) Sends the bill back to conference committee.
(D) Rejects all sections of the bill.
(E) Decides the bill’s constitutionality.
6. All of the following are true about the relationship between regulatory agencies
and the industries they regulate EXCEPT:
(A) Agency employees are often recruited from the regulated industry.
(B) Agencies often rely on support from regulated industries in making budget
requests before Congress.
(C) An agency’s relationship with a regulated industry may change when a new
president takes office.
(D) Agencies usually make decisions without consulting the regulated industry.
(E) Agency employees often are employed by the regulated industry once they
leave the agency.
7. The largest source of federal revenue is the
(A) capital gains tax
(B) Social Security tax
(C) property tax
(D) income tax
(E) sales tax
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
8. Which of the following statements about trends in presidential approval ratings is
supported by information presented in the graph above?
(A) President Reagan was the most popular president since 1953.
(B) There is little relationship between military conflicts and presidential
approval ratings.
(C) Presidents have tended to become more popular over time.
(D) A president’s popularity tends to fall during the president’s term in office.
(E) President Carter suffered the largest drop in popularity of any president
since 1953.
9. In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the Supreme Court established which
of the following principles?
(A) A school official can search a student for drugs.
(B) Everyone must go to school at least until the age of 16.
(C) Tuition for private schools cannot be tax deductible.
(D) Separation of students by race, even in equally good schools, is
unconstitutional.
(E) A moment of silent prayer at the beginning of the school day is allowable
under the First Amendment.

Source: Gallup Poll
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
10. Which of the following statements best describes the organization of the two
major political parties in the United States?
(A) Parties have no organization except at the national level.
(B) Parties are centrally organized to provide a smooth transition from one
national campaign to the next.
(C) Parties are organized much like a large corporation, in that decisions flow
from national to state and local levels.
(D) Local and state parties have virtually no power in the party system.
(E) Separate and largely independent party organizations exist at national, state,
and local levels.
11. Which of the following is NOT a core value of United States political culture?
(A) Legal equality
(B) Political equality
(C) Economic equality
(D) Freedom of religion
(E) Freedom of speech
12. All of the following were concerns about the Articles of Confed eration that led to
the calling of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 EXCEPT
(A) dissatisfaction over safeguards of individual rights and liberties
(B) fear for the stability of the central government
(C) desire to promote trade among the states
(D) the need to give the central government the power to levy taxes
(E) dissatisfaction with the central government’s ability to provide for national
defense
13. A member of the House of Representatives who wishes to be influential in the
House itself would most likely seek a place on which of the following committees?
(A) Agriculture
(B) International Relations
(C) Transportation and Infrastructure
(D) Rules
(E) Veterans’ Affairs

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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
14. Political parties serve which of the following functions in the United States?
I. Informing the public about political issues
II. Mobilizing voters and getting them to the polls
III. Organizing diverse interests within society
IV. Establishing the rules governing financial contributions to political
candidates
(A) II only
(B) I and II only
(C) III and IV only
(D) I, II, and III only
(E) I, III, and IV only
15. The primary election system of selecting presidential candidates has had which
of the following effects?
(A) It has increased the importance of state party organizations.
(B) It has loosened the hold of party leaders over the nomination process.
(C) It has reduced the role of citizens in the candidate selection process.
(D) It has lowered the cost of running for office.
(E) It has led to a decline in the importance of party voter-registration drives.
16. Considering all elections at all levels of government, which of the following best
describes electoral behavior in the United States?
(A) Primary elections tend to elicit a higher voter turnout than do general
elections.
(B) The majority of the electorate does not vote in most elections.
(C) Voter turnout plays an insignificant role in election outcomes.
(D) Adult citizens under the age of 30 tend to have the highest rate of
voter turnout.
(E) Voters with strong party identification vote less regularly than do
independents.
17. In the United States, which of the following is a rule on voting found in the
Constitution or its amendments?
(A) No person may be denied the right to vote merely for lack of either state or
federal citizenship.
(B) No person eighteen years of age or older may be denied the right to vote on
account of age.
(C) No person may be denied the right to vote merely because he or she has
previously served a prison sentence.
(D) A state may not establish a residency requirement for voting.
(E) A state may require a person to pay a poll tax in order to register to vote.
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
Item 59 on page 31 oI released test

Presidential Judicial Nominations (as oI Jan. 1994)

CLINTON BUSH REAGAN CARTER
Nominations
(total)
48 239 378 258
WHITE 34 (70.8°) 212 (88.7°) 355 (93.9°) 203 (78.7°)
BLACK 11 (22.9°) 15 (6.3°) 8 (2.1°) 37 (14.3°)
LATINO 3 (6.3°) 11 (4.6°) 13 (3.4°) 16 (6.2°)
ASIAN - 1 (.4°) 2 (.5°) 2 (.8°)
WOMEN 18 (37.5°) 41 (17.2°) 31 (8.2°) 40 (15.5°)
Source: People Ior the American Way
18. Which of the following statements is supported by the chart above?
(A) Both Republican presidents nominated a greater proportion of Latinos to the
judiciary than did either Democratic president.
(B) President Carter made more judicial nominations than President Reagan.
(C) The percentage of nominees to the judiciary who were minorities was higher
for Republican presidents than for Democratic presidents.
(D) The percentage of nominees to the judiciary who were women was higher
for Republican presidents than for Democratic presidents.
(E) President Reagan nominated the smallest percentage of women to the
judiciary.
Source: People for the American Way
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
19. Which of the following is generally true of the gerrymandering of congressional
districts?
(A) It results in more Democrats being elected to the House.
(B) It results in more Republicans being elected to the House.
(C) It guarantees that all minority parties will be equally represented.
(D) It creates districts that favor one political party over another.
(E) It violates the principle of one-person, one vote.
20. Which of the following is argued by James Madison in The Federalist paper
number 10?
(A) A system of republican representation helps to limit the excesses of
factionalism.
(B) Small republics are better able to ensure individual liberty than are large
republics.
(C) The presence of a few large factions helps to protect the rights of minorities.
(D) Participatory democracy is the surest way to prevent tyranny.
(E) The elimination of the causes of factionalism is the best protection
against tyranny.
21. An interest group is most likely to have influence in Congress when the issue at
stake
(A) is narrow in scope and low in public visibility
(B) is part of the president’s legislative package
(C) has been dramatized by the media
(D) engages legislators’ deeply held convictions
(E) divides legislators along party lines
22. Federal spending for which of the following is determined by laws that lie outside
the regular budgetary process?
(A) Military procurement
(B) Regulatory agency funding
(C) Government-subsidized housing programs
(D) Educational assistance programs such as student loans
(E) Entitlement programs such as Social Security
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
23. Which of the following is true of amicus curiae briefs?
(A) They are used by interest groups to lobby courts.
(B) They are used exclusively by liberal interest groups.
(C) They are used exclusively by conservative interest groups.
(D) They are now unconstitutional.
(E) They are the means by which a litigant seeks Supreme Court review of a
lower court decision.
24. Political socialization is the process by which
(A) the use of private property is regulated by the government
(B) governments communicate with each other
(C) public attitudes toward government are measured and reported
(D) political values are passed to the next generation
(E) children are trained for successful occupations
25. Which of the following is true of a presidential veto of a piece of legislation?
(A) It is rarely overridden by Congress.
(B) It is not binding unless supported by the cabinet.
(C) It can only be sustained on revenue bills.
(D) It is automatically reviewed by the United States Supreme Court.
(E) It is subject to approval by a congressional committee.
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions
1–C
2–D
3–D
4–E
5–D
6–D
7–D
8–D
9–D
10–E
11–C
12–A
13–D
14–D
15–B
16–B
17–B
18–E
19–D
20–A
21–A
22–E
23–A
24–D
25–A
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
Sample Free-Response Questions
In the free-response section of the exam, students have 100 minutes to answer four
questions. The score on each response will account for one-fourth of the student’s total
free-response score, so students should spend approximately one-fourth of their time
(25 minutes) answering each question. The questions generally ask students to
integrate knowledge and respond to questions from the different content areas. They
may require a discussion of examples, the elucidation or evaluation of general
principles of U.S. government and politics, and/or the analysis of political relationships
that exist and events that occur in the United States. Students are expected to show
both analytic and organizational skills and to incorporate specific examples in their
responses. A student may be expected to interpret and analyze material in a table,
chart, or graph and draw logical conclusions from such data in relation to general
concepts or relationships in politics. Students should read each question carefully and
perform the tasks asked for by each question.
Directions: You have 100 minutes to answer all four of the following questions. Unless
the directions indicate otherwise, respond to all parts of all four questions. It is
suggested that you take a few minutes to plan and outline each answer. Spend
approximately one-fourth of your time (25 minutes) on each question. In your
response, use substantive examples where appropriate. Make certain to number each
of your answers as the question is numbered below.
1. While interest groups and political parties each play a significant role in the
United States political system, they differ in their fundamental goals.
(a) Identify the fundamental goal of interest groups in the political process.
(b) Identify the fundamental goal of major political parties in the political
process.
(c) Describe two different ways by which interest groups support the
fundamental goal of political parties in the political process.
(d) For one of the forms of support you described in (c), explain two different
ways in which that form of support helps interest groups to achieve their
fundamental goal in the political process.
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
SOCIAL SECURITY RECEIPTS, SPENDING, AND RESERVE ESTIMATES, 2001–2035
2. In recent decades, entitlement programs have constituted a substantial portion
of the United States federal budget. Social Security is the largest entitlement
program in the United States. From the information in the chart above and your
knowledge of United States government and politics, perform the following tasks.
(a) Define entitlement program.
(b) What is the primary source of revenue for the Social Security program?
(c) Identify one threat to the future of the Social Security program should the
trends depicted in the chart above continue.
(d) Describe one demographic trend that threatens the future of the Social
Security program AND explain how it is responsible for the threat that you
identified in (c).
(e) Explain how any one of the trends in the chart above would change if the age
of eligibility for Social Security were raised.
Source: 2001 OASDI Trustees Report
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Sample Questions for United States Government and Politics
3. The United States Congress and the president together have the power to enact
federal law. Federal bureaucratic agencies have the responsibility to execute
federal law. However, in the carrying out of these laws, federal agencies have
policy-making discretion.
(a) Explain two reasons why Congress gives federal agencies policy-making
discretion in executing federal laws.
(b) Choose one of the bureaucratic agencies listed below. Identify the policy
area over which it exercises policy-making discretion AND give one specific
example of how it exercises that discretion.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
Federal Reserve Board
(c) Describe two ways in which Congress ensures that federal agencies follow
legislative intent.
4. The framers of the United States Constitution created a legislative system that is
bicameral. However, it is not just bicameral; the framers also established two
houses of distinctly different character and authority.
(a) Discuss two reasons why the framers created a bicameral legislature.
(b) Identify one power unique to the House of Representatives and explain why
the framers gave the House that power.
(c) Identify one power unique to the Senate and explain why the framers gave
the Senate that power.
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Comparative Government and Politics
Comparative Government and Politics
T H E C O U R S E
The AP course in Comparative Government and Politics introduces students to
fundamental concepts used by political scientists to study the processes and outcomes
of politics in a variety of country settings. The course aims to illustrate the rich
diversity of political life, to show available institutional alternatives, to explain
differences in processes and policy outcomes, and to communicate to students the
importance of global political and economic changes. Comparison assists both in
identifying problems and in analyzing policymaking. For example, we only know that a
country has a high population growth rate or serious corruption when we compare it
to other countries. Careful comparison of political systems produces useful knowledge
about the institutions and policies countries have employed to address problems, or,
indeed, what they have done to make things worse. We can compare the effectiveness
of policy approaches to poverty or overpopulation by examining how different
countries solve similar problems. Furthermore, by comparing the political institutions
and practices of wealthy and poor countries, we can begin to understand the political
consequences of economic well-being. Finally, comparison assists explanation. Why
are some countries stable democracies and not others? Why do many democracies
have prime ministers instead of presidents?
In addition to covering the major concepts that are used to organize and interpret
what we know about political phenomena and relationships, the course should cover
specific countries and their governments. Six countries form the core of the AP
Comparative Government and Politics course: China, Great Britain, Iran, Mexico,
Nigeria, and Russia.
1
By using these six countries, the course can move the discussion
of concepts from abstract definition to concrete example, noting that not all concepts
will be equally useful in all country settings. The following sections provide general
descriptions of the major themes and concepts of the course.
Goals
Students successfully completing this course will:
* understand ma|or comparative political concepts, themes, and generalizations
* have knowledge ol important lacts pertaining to the governments and politics ol
China, Great Britain, Iran, Mexico, Nigeria, and Russia
* understand typical patterns ol political processes and behavior and their
consequences
* be able to compare and contrast political institutions and processes across
countries and to derive generalizations
* be able to analyze and interpret basic data relevant to comparative government
and politics
1. We recognize that the official names of these countries are People’s Republic of China, United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Islamic Republic of Iran, United Mexican States, Federal Republic of Nigeria,
and Russian Federation, respectively. However, for purposes of the AP Comparative Government and Politics
Exam, we use the commonly known forms of these names.
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Comparative Government and Politics
Topics
I. Introduction to Comparative Politics
The beginning of a college comparative politics course and the beginning of most
textbooks in comparative politics introduce students to the study of politics by
explaining how political scientists study politics and why it is important for students to
be informed about politics abroad. It is useful to distinguish between normative, or
value-related, questions and empirical or factual questions at this early stage, and to
emphasize that political scientists are interested in both sorts of questions. In
explaining how political scientists divide up their field of study, it is important to make
clear what comparative inquiry has to offer.
We live in an interdependent world: what happens in Mexico, for example, impacts
the United States. This point provides a good opportunity to introduce the theme of
globalization and the general political and economic permeability of national borders.
It is here that teachers will want to contrast the concepts of state, nation, regime, and
government—a lesson inevitably leading to discussions about legitimacy, authority,
and bases of political power, as well as the differences between these concepts. Thus,
students might learn that the “state” is generally used to refer to the political power
exercised over a defined geographic territory through a set of public institutions, in
contrast to the “nation,” which is often understood as a human community with a
shared culture and history. This course treats governments as collections of
individuals who occupy political office or exercise state power, whereas regimes are
treated as the sets of rules and institutions that control access to, and exercise of,
political power and that typically endure from government to government. Regime
change occurs when these rules and institutions are replaced.
Students will need to grasp the conceptual differences between and similarities
among types of political systems. Despite vast differences between economies and
regime types, most countries face similar challenges, including those presented by the
natural environment, social and ethnic diversity, economic performance, and the
delivery of health care to citizens.
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power
The study of politics requires an understanding of power. Comparative politics
recognizes that power is territorially organized into states, or countries, that more or
less control what happens within their borders, which is to say that they exercise
sovereignty. At the same time, it is important that students recognize that there has
not always been a system of states. The modern nation-state first emerged in Europe
in the seventeenth century. Today there are some challenges to the sovereignty of the
nation-state in the form of supra national systems of governance, such as the emerging
European Union (EU) and the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS). It is also important to emphasize that sovereignty can be affected by
internal divisions over power and its distribution.
Across national borders, the sources of power that are the foundation for politics
vary in importance, and these different sources have an effect on the construction of
the rules of politics. These rules—which generally take the form of constitutions—
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25
Comparative Government and Politics
need to be understood in this context. Constitu tions define both the role and
constituent parts of a government and the limits and obligations of government with
respect to the rights of citizens. Studying different types of political regimes, from
forms of democracy to the various nondemocratic forms, enables students to gain a
clearer picture of how states strike a balance between citizen rights and government
power. The exercise of power requires justification, and political scientists use the
concept of legitimacy to refer to the popularly accepted use of power by a government.
Students must conceptualize the different ways in which political legitimacy is
expressed in states, as well as recognize when legitimacy has been lost.
State power is exercised within the context of specific economic systems. The
course should introduce students to the scope and role of government in the economy.
Students also should be familiar with belief systems that might form the foundation for
claims to legitimacy. Ultimately both the belief systems that strengthen the legitimacy
of the political system and the structures of the economy will have an impact on
governmental effectiveness, capacity, and control over state resources. Students
should seek to understand the basics of the relationship between sources of authority,
political power, and governance.
Political scientists are interested in political culture, core values, and beliefs, and
how these values are fostered and disseminated through the process of political
socialization. Such values are often organized in specific ideologies that influence the
direction of the exercise of power. Students should be encouraged to explore the
differences in political values and beliefs. For instance, in some countries religious
belief systems play this important political role. In other countries more overt political
agendas and ideologies perform this role.
III. Political Institutions
The study of political institutions should include the formal structure and workings of
states and governments. In this introductory course, this means that students should
master knowledge about different authority systems and government structures. A
deep level of detail is not expected; rather, students should become familiar with the
more general descriptions of major political institutions. Determining what levels to
focus on should be driven by the contextual environment in each of the six countries.
Thus, for example, every state has multiple levels of authority, though the powers that
correspond to each vary widely. Some countries keep most policymaking at the
national level, while others distribute powers more widely to regions and localities.
Depending on the country, some authority is now passing to supranational
organizations such as the European Union (EU) as well.
It is important that students are familiar with the branches of government in the
countries they study and understand how these branches relate to one another.
Students should understand different arrangements of executive power, different
legislative structures, and the different models of executive–legislative relations.
Beyond basic concepts such as parliamentary and presidential systems, or separation
and fusion of power, students should be able to characterize the advantages and
drawbacks of different institutional arrangements and understand how executive and
legislative policymakers interact with other branches of the state apparatus. Some
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26
Comparative Government and Politics
countries, such as Great Britain, have independent court systems, while China and
others do not. Often, these judicial features depend on the roots of the legal system—
whether the system uses code or common law, ideology, custom and traditional
authority, or religious codes. Students should understand the implications of whether a
country has judicial review and whether it operates through an independent national
court system, theocratic oversight, or supranational courts.
Note, however, that the course curriculum must take students beyond constitutional
arrangements. Since politics has both formal and informal components, students need
to understand formal constitutional patterns as well as procedures that are more
informal. In this context, comparing institutions in different political and country
settings will be very helpful. For instance, students should understand how political
elites are recruited and how political preferences are aggregated. The countries
studied offer examples of the major electoral systems, as well as cases of one-party
systems (China); dominant-party systems (Mexico under the Institutional
Revolutionary Party [PRI]); two-party systems (Great Britain); and multiparty systems
(Russia, contemporary Mexico, Nigeria, and Iran since the late 1990s). The number of
parties in a particular country is usually connected to the country’s social cleavages as
well as the electoral system. Students should also explore how interest groups exercise
political influence and be able to apply the concepts of corporatism and pluralism.
The six countries covered in the AP course provide good examples of how the
exercise of real political power often does not correspond to the model implied by
formal political structures. For China, Nigeria, and Mexico before the PRI’s decline,
revealing contrasts can be drawn between written constitutions and informal political
realities. The composition and recruitment of political elites and how they are linked to
other elites in society reveal much about informal political power.
The bureaucracy is a crucial part of the political system. Technical experts advise
and administer policy that, in principle, is fashioned by political leaders. The
ideological sympathies and traditions (e.g., professionalism) of the bureaucracy and its
channels of recruitment influence its political role. The military also affects politics in
many countries through informal pressure, as in China and Russia, or through periodic
seizures of power, as in Nigeria. The professional or political role of the armed forces
and the nature of civilian control over them varies across countries and time. The
intelligence community or secret police can be an additional locus of coercion.
Similarly, the judiciary plays a variety of roles in the six countries; in some places it
exhibits important levels of autonomy, and in other countries it is used to establish
religious or ideological domination. Students should become familiar with the ways in
which the judiciary does or does not exercise independent power and how it shapes
public policies and political practices of citizens as well as of the state.
IV. Citizens, Society, and the State
Ultimately, politics hinges on the interactions between state and society. Therefore, the
course should not be confined to the internal workings or the institutional
underpinnings of states. Through country cases, students can learn how certain kinds
of cleavages such as ethnicity, religion, or class become politically relevant. Some
regimes like China and Iran have formal arrangements for representing social groups
such as ethnic or religious minorities. A country’s political patterns are influenced by
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27
Comparative Government and Politics
the characteristics and demands of its population. Institutions can blunt or exacerbate
cleavages in society. The countries studied in this course provide ample evidence for
pursuing questions about how states manage and respond to deeply held divisions
among their citizens.
Gaining an understanding of civil society both conceptually and within countries
gives students useful tools to explore the ways in which state power is mediated and
the power of citizens may be enhanced. Much of politics is affected by the extent and
nature of citizen organization independent of the state. Interest groups and social
networks assist in the generation of social capital and mobilize political forces. The
interaction between type of regime and patterns in civil society is often crucial.
Students should explore the range of ways that a citizenry can act politically, through
both traditional means such as voting and more forceful political action such as strikes
and insurgencies. Events in some of the covered countries, such as Iran’s 1979
revolution, China’s 1989 Tiananmen crisis, and Mexico’s 1994 Chiapas revolt, provide
examples of extraordinary political pressures. The emergence of global civil society,
such as transnational networks of human rights and environmental groups, is also
having a significant effect on government–citizen relations.
The media have also played an important role, not only within countries but as
purveyors of global culture. Students should consider the relations between the
various media and the state, as well as the ways the media influence and shape public
perceptions, beliefs, and practices.
Citizens participate in politics in a variety of ways. A significant form of political
behavior in most societies is political participation. Students should learn how to
define the concept and be able to describe the ways in which political participation can
both support and undermine a political system. Since participation can take a variety of
forms and be either voluntary or coerced, students will need to discuss the different
ways that citizens in China, for instance, participate and contrast those methods with
methods used by citizens in other countries. In this process, students should be
exposed to the continuum of participation, ranging from behavior supportive of a
regime to behavior that seeks to change or overthrow it.
Participation takes both individual and group forms. In political science, citizen
participation is often framed by social movements as well as by more organized
interest groups. Contemporary social movements—ranging from antiglobalization to
environmental issues, civil rights, and enfranchisement claims—have specific forms
and particular methods. While it would be impossible to cover all the social
movements in each of the countries, the curriculum should enable students to gain
some insight into major social movements. In this process, students will need to
grapple with the connection between social movements, interest groups, and
representation, especially since this is often the most basic claim put forward by
groups demanding the attention of their states.
V. Political and Economic Change
Much of the cross-case coverage will inevitably deal with processes of change, since
this has been a primary theme of politics. One way to introduce students to the notion
of change is to explore the interaction between political and economic trends. The
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28
Comparative Government and Politics
countries studied will provide illustrative examples of this interaction, which can take
the form of political and economic reform, revolutions, and even coups d’état. Students
should be able to distinguish among these types of political and economic change.
Since the end of the Cold War, a wave of democratization has occurred throughout
much of the developing world and in the former Communist bloc. Comparing Russia,
Mexico, and Nigeria in light of their democratic transitions offers an interesting study
in contrasts. The study of democratization should include examination of the
preconditions, processes, and outcomes of these transitions. The success of
democratization can be compared across countries, just as contrasts can be drawn with
countries like China in which democratization has barely begun or has foundered.
Democratic consolidation often requires new elite pacts, constitutional arrangements
to minimize conflict, and acceptance of democracy by key social groups. The economic
preconditions and effects of stable democracy will provide a useful counterpoint to
studies of countries facing the upheavals of political change. In addition to
democratization, students should reflect on the conditions that lead to breakdowns of
authoritarianism. Cleavages within a regime, breakdowns in state capacity,
international pressure, and a substantial degree of mobilization by opponents are all
frequently associated with regime change.
All six countries studied in the AP course have undergone significant economic
policy shifts over the past 25 years. Students should investigate the consequences of
economic reform packages. Not only should students understand the basic economic
policies, but they also need to understand the interaction between domestic economic
reforms and their political effects. For instance, countries such as China and Mexico
have revised fundamental national “bargains,” changing the relationship between
capital and labor that dates back half a century or more. Students should be
encouraged to trace outcomes such as income gaps, rising standards of living, or
differential access to social services and education to economic policies and their
impact. Within the context of economic change, the course should address issues such
as corruption and economic inequality.
Students should be introduced to a variety of approaches to development, such as
dependency, import substitution industrialization, export-led growth, and globalization,
given that political and economic interdependence among countries has become
increasingly important. How do global and domestic forces interact in such a context?
Certain previously domestic economic policy responsibilities have been pooled by
participating states in supranational organizations such as the World Trade
Organization (WTO) and the EU. Additionally, some attention should be given to the
dynamics of globalization. Students should evaluate how these dynamics bear on
themes such as sovereignty and the ideal of the nation-state. Some responses to
globalization reaffirm the sovereignty of the modern state, while others transcend it by
taking religious, cultural, or ethnic identities as a reference point. Furthermore, the
cultural aspects of globalization must be examined. Fragmentation and the interplay
between a worldwide consumer culture and class, gender, ethnic, and religious
identities are important aspects to consider.
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29
Comparative Government and Politics
VI. Public Policy
Public policy will require analysis within each country as well as comparatively. Policy
issues need to be approached both as domestic and as global policy matters, since
there are broad and enduring policy areas common to most countries: How to ensure
successful economic performance where poverty is widespread? How to provide for
social welfare needs for citizens? How to extend and protect individual liberties and
freedoms? In every state, the approach to these problems will be different, but in all
states, these recurring puzzles demand the attention of the state’s policymakers.
Policymaking is influenced by a broad range of factors. First, consideration must be
given to formal and informal institutional influences on policymaking. Interest groups,
political parties, and executive, judicial, and legislative branches all participate in the
creation of policy. For many of the systems studied, changes in the economic
substructure have been the result of policy changes as well as causal factors in policy
development. For example, privatization in Mexico has resulted in changing policy
needs. Often, conservative economic trends that move away from the traditional social
welfare state and its benefits also have an impact on liberal/left party politics, as has
happened in the Labour Party of Great Britain. Interest groups make different
demands on government, with different consequences for public policy.
Second, development strategies have changed over time and resulted in numerous
shifts and alterations in policy requirements. Thus, as the Chinese economy has
transformed to a market socialist system, policymakers have been confronted with
unintended consequences in noneconomic areas such as population and education.
Likewise, Russian economic structural changes since 1990 have caused a wide range
of policy challenges in the areas of civil rights, environmental concerns, and so on.
Third, global pressures are exerted on policymakers in both developed and
developing systems. International agreements and organizations such as the WTO, the
World Bank, the EU, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) push for policy changes in all six of the systems
studied. Many of the countries have witnessed considerable policy debates over such
issues as sovereignty and the conflicting interests of world and domestic policy needs.
Globalization creates considerable tension in areas such as environmental policy,
income distribution, taxation policy, and the like. Very often, global considerations
have produced a divergence among different interest groups within the system itself.
Policy concerns are broad and may differ from country to country. Issues may
include social welfare policy (including education, pension policy, poverty issues); civil
liberties, rights, and freedoms; the environment; control and management of natural
resources; economic performance (including employment, inflation, monetary policy
in general, income distribution); and population and migration policies. Gender and
ethnicity are also critical concerns to policymakers in all systems. Students should be
able to discuss and analyze policy differences in a comparative context, exploring how
different systems create different solutions to domestic and global problems.
Throughout the course, students should develop the ability to move back and forth
between conceptualizing political problems and the practice of politics in the different
countries. The emphasis should be on broad trends that allow comparison, rather than
on details that are unrelated to larger trends and concepts.
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30
Comparative Government and Politics
Curriculum Outline
Below is an outline of the major content areas covered by the AP Exam in Comparative
Government and Politics. The multiple-choice portion of the exam is devoted to each
content area in the approximate percentages indicated. The free-response portion of
the exam will test students in some combination of the six major categories outlined
below. The outline is a guide and is by no means an exhaustive list of topics or the
preferred order of topics.
All percentages are +/᎐ 5%.
Percentage Goals for Exam
Content Area (multiple-choice section)
I. Introduction to Comparative Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5%
A. Purpose and methods of comparison and classification
1. Ways to organize government
2. Normative and empirical questions
B. Concepts (state, nation, regime, government)
C. Process and policy (what is politics; purpose of government;
what are political science and comparative politics; common policy challenges)
II. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20%
A. Political culture, communication, and socialization
B. Nations and states
C. Supranational governance (e.g., European Union)
D. Sources of power
E. Constitutions (forms, purposes, application)
F. Regime types
G. Types of economic systems
H. State building, legitimacy, and stability
I. Belief systems as sources of legitimacy
1. Religion
2. Ideology (liberalism, communism, socialism, conservatism,
fascism)
J. Governance and accountability
III. Political Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35%
A. Levels of government
1. Supranational/national/regional/local
2. Unitary/federal
3. Centralization/decentralization
B. Executives (head of state, head of government, cabinets)
1. Single or dual
2. President
3. Prime Minister
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Comparative Government and Politics
Percentage Goals for Exam
Content Area (multiple-choice section)
C. Legislatures
1. Unicameral/bicameral (symmetric/asymmetric)
2. Organization
3. Membership (representation)
D. Parliamentary and presidential systems
1. Institutional relations
E. Elections
1. Presidential
2. Parliamentary
3. Referendums
4. Noncompetitive
F. Electoral systems
1. Proportional representation
2. Single member district (plurality, majority runoff)
G. Political parties (organization, membership, institutionalization, ideological
position)
H. Party systems
I. Leadership and elite recruitment
J. Interest groups and interest group systems
K. Bureaucracies
L. Military and other coercive institutions
M. Judiciaries
1. Degrees of autonomy
2. Judicial review (including European Union in relation to states, citizens)
3. Types of law
IV. Citizens, Society, and the State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15%
A. Cleavages and politics (ethnic, racial, class, gender, religious, regional)
B. Civil society and social capital
C. Media roles
D. Political participation (forms/modes/trends) including political violence
E. Social movements
F. Citizenship and representation
V. Political and Economic Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15%
A. Revolution, coups, and war
B. Trends and types of political change (including democratization)
1. Components
2. Promoting or inhibiting factors
3. Consequences
C. Trends and types of economic change (including privatization)
1. Components
2. Promoting or inhibiting factors
3. Consequences
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32
Sample Questions for Comparative Government and Politics
Percentage Goals for Exam
Content Area (multiple-choice section)
D. Relationship between political and economic change
E. Globalization and fragmentation: interlinked economies, global
culture, reactions against globalization, regionalism
F. Approaches to development
VI. Public Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10%
A. Common policy issues
1. Economic performance
2. Social welfare (e.g., education, health, poverty)
3. Civil liberties, rights, and freedoms
4. Environment
5. Population and migration
6. Economic development
B. Factors influencing public policymaking and implementation
1. Domestic
2. International
T H E E X A M
The AP Comparative Government and Politics Exam is 2 hours and 25 minutes long.
It includes a 45-minute multiple-choice section consisting of 55 questions and a
100-minute free-response section consisting of 5 short-answer concept questions,
1 conceptual-analysis question, and 2 country-context questions. The two sections are
designed to complement each other and to measure a wide range of skills and
knowledge.
Sample Multiple-Choice Questions
The following sample questions reflect both the topics and the levels of difficulty in
questions found in the actual exam. All six countries may be covered in this section.
Multiple-choice scores are based on the number of questions answered correctly.
Points are not deducted for incorrect answers, and no points are awarded for
unanswered questions. Because points are not deducted for incorrect answers,
students are encouraged to answer all multiple-choice questions. On any questions
students do not know the answer to, students should eliminate as many choices as
they can, and then select the best answer among the remaining choices. An answer
key to the sample multiple-choice questions is on page 37.
1. In the developed and developing worlds, respectively, the greatest demographic
pressures on policy come from which of the following?
Developed Developing
(A) Gender imbalances Aging
(B) Aging Overpopulation
(C) Emigration Immigration
(D) Overpopulation High death rates
(E) High birth rates Emigration
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Sample Questions for Comparative Government and Politics
2. An illiberal democracy would typically be characterized by
(A) high voter turnout in single-party elections
(B) military rule coupled with political freedoms
(C) colonial rule and a procedure-based legal system
(D) market-based economic arrangements and limited suffrage
(E) elections coupled with restrictions on individual civil liberties
3. In which of the following groups of countries has Islam served as a key symbol
for regional political movements?
(A) Great Britain, China, Nigeria
(B) Mexico, Russia, Iran
(C) Nigeria, Great Britain, Iran
(D) Nigeria, Russia, China
(E) Russia, Mexico, China
4. Compared to parties in a proportional-representation system, parties in a single-
member-district system are typically
(A) less centrist
(B) less ideological and less class-based
(C) more region-specific
(D) more likely to have their own social networks
(E) more tightly linked to specific cultural identities
5. The political systems of Mexico, Nigeria, and Russia all have
(A) common-law legal systems
(B) two-ballot systems for presidential selection
(C) effective independent judiciaries with judicial review
(D) unitary systems with strong states and a weak central government
(E) bicameral legislatures based partly on regions and partly on population
6. Which of the following is typically a function of the head of state in a
parliamentary system?
(A) Making foreign policy
(B) Greeting new foreign ambassadors
(C) Giving final rulings in judicial appeals
(D) Approving a comprehensive annual budget
(E) Assembling a majority coalition in the legislature
7. The major motivation for neoliberal economic reforms in Mexico and Nigeria has
come from which of the following?
(A) Political uprising by the urban poor
(B) Collapse of longstanding labor unions
(C) Widespread opposition to globalization
(D) Debt burdens and pressures from international lenders
(E) The need to expand the economic base for military
modernization
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34
Sample Questions for Comparative Government and Politics
8. Which of the following is a feature of the Iranian political system?
(A) Male suffrage only
(B) The president must also be a cleric
(C) The religious character of the state
(D) Diplomatic recognition only of Muslim states
(E) Having a supreme religious leader, a prime minister, and a president
9. In British politics, which of the following has created the most conflict over the
European Union?
(A) Tax policy
(B) Health policy
(C) Defense policy
(D) Regional policy
(E) Monetary policy
10. Which of the following political blocs would be most likely to favor nationalization
of large industrial enterprises?
(A) Liberals
(B) Islamists
(C) Socialists
(D) Libertarians
(E) Conservatives
11. The low number of parliamentary seats in the House of Commons held by
Great Britain’s Liberal Democratic Party is due mainly to
(A) the effects of devolution
(B) ideological radicalism that alienates centrist voters
(C) its opposition to membership in the European Union
(D) the effects of the single-member-district electoral system
(E) frequent defection of its members of Parliament to other parties
12. Which of the following groups of countries all have code-law legal systems?
(A) Great Britain, Nigeria, Iran
(B) Great Britain, Russia, Nigeria
(C) China, Mexico, Iran
(D) China, Russia, Mexico
(E) Russia, Mexico, Great Britain
13. Which of the following is an achievement of the Maoist period that has been
overturned by economic reforms in China?
(A) Guaranteed employment
(B) Extensive female employment
(C) Effective environmental policies
(D) Competitive educational opportunities
(E) State subsidies for defense industries
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35
Sample Questions for Comparative Government and Politics
14. Which of the following is the best example of charismatic authority?
(A) Tony Blair
(B) Vicente Fox
(C) Margaret Thatcher
(D) Mohammad Khatami
(E) Ayatollah Khomeini
15. In the twentieth century, the greatest social cleavage manifested in British
politics was
(A) class
(B) gender
(C) religion
(D) urban versus rural
(E) native versus immigrant
16. Which of the following is NOT a common form of corruption in China?
(A) Tax evasion
(B) Bribing police
(C) Illegal profiteering
(D) Ballot-counting fraud in national elections
(E) Fee extortion by Communist Party officials
17. Nigeria’s multistate structure was primarily designed to
(A) promote economic development
(B) reduce loyalty to the previous military regime
(C) splinter the power of its main ethnic groups
(D) mobilize higher voter turnout in local elections
(E) allocate resources from the federal government more directly
18. A pluralist interest group system is best characterized by
(A) high levels of control by business elites in policymaking
(B) competition among multiple associational groups
(C) negotiations among groups with government support
(D) a system wherein only the interests of the government are considered
(E) the inclusion of only a few corporations during the public policymaking
process
19. A theocracy is best described as a political system based on
(A) military authority
(B) maternal authority
(C) clerical authority
(D) popular sovereignty
(E) major party dominance
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36
Sample Questions for Comparative Government and Politics
20. One of the chief criticisms of corporatism is that it
(A) encourages labor unrest
(B) creates too many groups
(C) often limits representative processes
(D) involves too little government participation
(E) involves too little interest group participation
21. Cleavages that split a society into different groups with regard to different issues
are referred to as
(A) stabilizing
(B) coinciding
(C) corporatist
(D) subordinate
(E) crosscutting
22. Gross domestic product (GDP) is a measure used to compare countries with
respect to
(A) their average cost of living
(B) the general health of their citizens
(C) the efficiency of their bureaucracies
(D) the output of their economies
(E) the degree of professionalism of their militaries
23. Which of the following concepts most accurately characterizes Mexico’s
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI)?
(A) Pluralist
(B) Socialist
(C) Capitalist
(D) Corporatist
(E) Internationalist
24. The most persistent political challenge facing Nigeria since independence has been
(A) border disagreements
(B) the weakness of its military
(C) ideologically driven insurgencies
(D) regional and ethno-religious cleavages
(E) its lack of resources and foreign exchange

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37
Sample Questions for Comparative Government and Politics
25. Which of the following is a core principle of the present-day Islamist regime
in Iran?
(A) Promotion of social justice through class struggle
(B) Violent conflict with the West to promote religious conversions
(C) Closer connection of Islam with its pre-Islamic Persian identity
(D) Accommodation of Islam to a constitutional framework
(E) Nonmembership in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) because of non-Muslim OPEC members
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions
1–B
2–E
3–D
4–B
5–E
6–B
7–D
8–C
9–E
10–C
11–D
12–D
13–A
14–E
15–A
16–D
17–C
18–B
19–C
20–C
21–E
22–D
23–D
24–D
25–D
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Sample Questions for Comparative Government and Politics
Sample Free-Response Questions
(50% of exam grade)
Type: Short-Answer Concepts
Time: 30 minutes
Weight: 25% of free-response grade
Students will provide brief definitions or descriptions of five concepts or terms, noting
their significance. Students may be asked to provide an example of the concept in one
or more of the countries studied or to contrast concepts.
1. Define political socialization. Identify one agent of political socialization. Explain
how the agent you have identified promotes political socialization.
2. Explain what it means to say that a government has transparency. Describe two
examples that show how the Chinese government since 1997 limits transparency.
3. Define sovereignty. Describe two ways in which member states give up some
sovereignty as members of the European Union.
4. Define theocracy. Identify two national-level institutions in Iran for which
members are directly elected by citizens.
5. Define a welfare state. Describe two examples of social welfare policy important
to Great Britain.
Type: Conceptual Analysis
Time: 30 minutes
Weight: 25% of free-response grade
This question requires students to use major concepts from comparative politics,
identify and explain important relationships, and, where appropriate, discuss the
causes and implications of politics and policy.
1. States vary in terms of their party systems and electoral systems.
(a) Identify and explain the type of electoral system that tends to create a
multiparty system.
(b) Identify and explain the type of electoral system that tends to create a
two-party system.
(c) Describe one reason that a one-party system might emerge.
(d) Explain one advantage each of multiparty, two-party, and one-party systems
in a multiethnic society.
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Sample Questions for Comparative Government and Politics
Type: Country Context
Time: 40 minutes (20 minutes each for two questions)
Weight: 50% of free-response grade (two questions at 25% per question)
Two questions will require students to use core concepts in an analysis of one or more
of the countries studied. For example, students might be asked to discuss a concept
and then apply this concept in a comparative context.
1. Various economic changes have affected the legal system in China.
(a) Describe two reforms to the legal system in China in the past two decades.
(b) Explain two reasons that reforms to the legal system have occurred.
(c) Describe two important features of the Chinese legal system that have not
changed in the past two decades.
2. Mexico and Russia have each experienced economic liberalization and political
liberalization.
(a) Define economic liberalization and define political liberalization.
(b) Describe one economic liberalization policy pursued in Mexico since 1985
and one economic liberalization policy pursued in Russia since 1991.
(c) Describe one political liberalization policy undertaken in Mexico since 1985
and one political liberalization policy undertaken in Russia since 1991.
(d) Compare one consequence of economic liberalization on social class in
Mexico with one consequence of economic liberalization on social class in
Russia.
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Teacher Support
AP Central
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(apcentral.collegeboard.com)
You can find the following Web resources at AP Central:
* A! Course Descriptions, A! Lxam questions and scoring guidelines, sample
syllabi, and feature articles.
* A searchable !nstitutes and Workshops database, providing inlormation about
professional development events.
* The Course Home !ages (apcentral.collegeboard.com/coursehomepages),
which contain articles, teaching tips, activities, lab ideas, and other course-specific
content contributed by colleagues in the AP community.
* Moderated electronic discussion groups (LDCs) lor each A! course, provided to
facilitate the exchange of ideas and practices.
AP Publications and Other Resources
Free AP resources are available to help students, parents, AP Coordinators, and high
school and college faculty learn more about the AP Program and its courses and
exams. Visit www.collegeboard.com/apfreepubs.
Teacher’s Guides and Course Descriptions may be downloaded free of charge from
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at the College Board Store.
Teacher’s Guides
For those about to teach an AP course for the first time, or for experienced AP
teachers who would like to get some fresh ideas for the classroom, the Teacher’s
Guide is an excellent resource. Each Teacher’s Guide contains syllabi developed by
high school teachers currently teaching the AP course and college faculty who teach
the equivalent course at colleges and universities. Along with detailed course outlines
and innovative teaching tips, you’ll also find extensive lists of suggested teaching
resources.
Course Descriptions
Course Descriptions are available for each AP subject. They provide an outline of each
AP course’s content, explain the kinds of skills students are expected to demonstrate
in the corresponding introductory college-level course, and describe the AP Exam.
Sample multiple-choice questions with an answer key and sample free-response
questions are included. (The Course Description for AP Computer Science is available
in PDF format only.)
Released Exams
Periodically the AP Program releases a complete copy of each exam. In addition to
providing the multiple-choice questions and answers, the publication describes the
process of scoring the free-response questions and includes examples of students’
actual responses, the scoring standards, and commentary that explains why the
responses received the scores they did.
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Serving Arkansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma,
and Texas
4330 Gaines Ranch Loop, Suite 200
Austin, TX 78735-6735
866 392-3017
E-mail: [email protected]
Western Regional Office
Serving Alaska, Arizona, California, Colorado, Hawaii,
Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington,
and Wyoming
2099 Gateway Place, Suite 550
San Jose, CA 95110-1051
866 392-4078
E-mail: [email protected]
Contact Us
2008-09 Development Committees and Chief Readers
C O M P A R AT I V E G O V E R N M E N T A N D P O L I T I C S
Minion Kenneth Chauncey Morrison, University of Missouri, Columbia, Chair
Suzanne Bailey, Virgil I. Grissom High School, Huntsville, Alabama
Sussan Siavoishi, Trinity University, San Antonio, Texas
Stephen Popp, St. John’s School, Houston, Texas
Jeff Key, Hardin-Simmons University, Abilene, Texas
Janet Johnson, Brooklyn College, City University of New York, New York
Chief Reader: Jean Robinson, Indiana University, Bloomington
ETS Consultants: Ed Wagner, Vinod Menon
U N I T E D S TAT E S G O V E R N M E N T A N D P O L I T I C S
Kathleen Bratton, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Chair
Joseph Cammarano, Providence College, Rhode Island
Jenny Esler, Round Rock High School, Texas
B. D’Andra Orey, Jackson State University, Mississippi
Julie Strong, Albemarle High School, Charlottesville, Virginia
Chief Reader: Gary Copeland, University of Oklahoma, Norman
ETS Consultants: Vinod Menon, Ed Wagner
apcentral.collegeboard.com
I.N. 100083479

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