C. Difficile Diagnosis and Treatment

Clinical Review & Education

Review

Diagnosis and Treatment of Clostridium difficile in Adults
A Systematic Review
Natasha Bagdasarian, MD, MPH; Krishna Rao, MD; Preeti N. Malani, MD, MSJ

IMPORTANCE Since 2000, the incidence and severity of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)
have increased.
OBJECTIVE To review current evidence regarding best practices for the diagnosis and
treatment of CDI in adults (age ⱖ18 years).

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EVIDENCE REVIEW Ovid MEDLINE and Cochrane databases were searched using keywords
relevant to the diagnosis and treatment of CDI in adults. Articles published between January
1978 and October 31, 2014, were selected for inclusion based on targeted keyword searches,
manual review of bibliographies, and whether the article was a guideline, systematic review,
or meta-analysis published within the past 10 years. Of 4682 articles initially identified, 196
were selected for full review. Of these, the most pertinent 116 articles were included. Clinical
trials, large observational studies, and more recently published articles were prioritized in the
selection process.
FINDINGS Laboratory testing cannot distinguish between asymptomatic colonization and
symptomatic infection with C difficile. Diagnostic approaches are complex due to the
availability of multiple testing strategies. Multistep algorithms using polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) for the toxin gene(s) or single-step PCR on liquid stool samples have the best
test performance characteristics (for multistep: sensitivity was 0.68-1.00 and specificity was
0.92-1.00; and for single step: sensitivity was 0.86-0.92 and specificity was 0.94-0.97).
Vancomycin and metronidazole are first-line therapies for most patients, although treatment
failures have been associated with metronidazole in severe or complicated cases of CDI.
Recent data demonstrate clinical success rates of 66.3% for metronidazole vs 78.5% for
vancomycin for severe CDI. Newer therapies show promising results, including fidaxomicin
(similar clinical cure rates to vancomycin, with lower recurrence rates for fidaxomicin, 15.4%
vs vancomycin, 25.3%; P = .005) and fecal microbiota transplantation (response rates of
83%-94% for recurrent CDI).
CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Diagnostic testing for CDI should be performed only in

symptomatic patients. Treatment strategies should be based on disease severity, history of
prior CDI, and the individual patient’s risk of recurrence. Vancomycin is the treatment of
choice for severe or complicated CDI, with or without adjunctive therapies. Metronidazole is
appropriate for mild disease. Fidaxomicin is a therapeutic option for patients with recurrent
CDI or a high risk of recurrence. Fecal microbiota transplantation is associated with symptom
resolution of recurrent CDI but its role in primary and severe CDI is not established.

Author Affiliations: Division of
Infectious Disease, Department of
Infection Control, St John Hospital
and Medical Center, Detroit, Michigan
(Bagdasarian); Department of
Internal Medicine, Wayne State
University, Detroit, Michigan
(Bagdasarian); Division of Infectious
Diseases, Department of Internal
Medicine, University of Michigan
Medical School, University of
Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor
(Rao, Malani); Veterans Affairs Ann
Arbor Healthcare System, Ann Arbor,
Michigan (Rao, Malani).
Corresponding Author: Preeti N.
Malani, MD, MSJ, Division of
Infectious Diseases, Department of
Internal Medicine, University of
Michigan Medical School, University
of Michigan Health System, 3119
Taubman Center, Ann Arbor, MI
48109-5378 ([email protected]).

JAMA. 2015;313(4):398-408. doi:10.1001/jama.2014.17103
398

Section Editor: Mary McGrae
McDermott, MD, Senior Editor.
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Diagnosis and Treatment of C difficile in Adults

C

lostridium difficile was first identified as the major infectious cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in 1978.1 However, since the emergence of the epidemic BI/NAP1/027
strain of C difficile in 2000,2 C difficile infections (CDIs) have increased in prevalence and become less responsive to treatment.2-4
In the United States, the number of CDI hospital discharge diagnoses more than doubled from 2001 (≈148 900 discharges) to
2005 (≈301 200 discharges).5 The incidence of CDI has increased
from 4.5 per 1000 adult discharges in 2001 to 8.2 per 1000 discharges in 2010.6 Patients with CDI have higher health care costs:
annual attributable costs exceed $1.5 billion in the United States.7
CDI requires both acquisition of C difficile and disruption of the
gut microbiota. The exact mechanism by which C difficile causes symptomatic infection is unclear. The organism is not invasive, and toxin
production is the key to pathogenesis (nontoxigenic strains of C difficile do not cause diarrhea) (Figure 1). The toxin disrupts epithelial integrity via microtubules and cell-cell tight junctions, resulting in release of inflammatory mediators such as IL-8.8 These actions promote
an inflammatory infiltrate in the colonic mucosa, fluid shifts leading
to diarrhea, and epithelial necrosis. Antibiotics disrupt the microbiota, increasing CDI risk.9 Other factors associated with CDI include
older age, recent hospitalization, longer hospitalization, use of multiple antibiotics, longer antibiotic duration, proton pump inhibitors,
chemotherapy, chronic kidney disease, and feeding tubes.10-14 This
review focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of CDI in adults, including new diagnostic and therapeutic modalities.

Methods
A literature search of the Ovid MEDLINE and Cochrane databases
was conducted using search terms and synonyms for Clostridium difficile (eAppendix in the Supplement). We searched for studies of diagnostic testing and treatment of CDI published between January
1978 and October 31, 2014. Studies published in non-English languages and studies involving animals or children were excluded. We
identified 4682 articles. Bibliographies of the retrieved studies and
previous reviews were searched for other relevant studies. Metaanalyses, systematic reviews, and references cited in published clinical practice guidelines from the past 10 years were also reviewed.
Initially, 196 articles were identified; of these, the most pertinent 116
articles were selected for inclusion. Clinical trials, large observational studies, and more recently published articles received priority in the selection process (eFigure in the Supplement). Eleven additional articles relevant to the topic but not selected are included
in the supplemental materials (eTable in the Supplement).

Diagnosing CDI
Laboratory testing alone cannot distinguish between asymptomatic colonization and clinical symptoms of infection. The diagnosis
of CDI requires both of the following: presence of diarrhea (defined as ⱖ3 unformed stools in 24 hours) or radiographic evidence
of ileus or toxic megacolon; and a positive stool test result for toxigenic C difficile or its toxins, or colonoscopic or histopathologic findings demonstrating pseudomembranous colitis (Box).15-17 The definitive gold standard for CDI is detection of toxigenic C difficile in
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Review Clinical Review & Education

stool along with colonic histopathology showing pseudomembranes in a patient with clinical symptoms.18 Many laboratories will
only test diarrheal stool for C difficile.15,16,19-21
In one study, 56% of patients who responded to treatment asymptomatically shed C difficile spores for as many as 6 weeks.22,23
Thus a test of cure is not recommended.15 Studies have documented chronic shedding and an increased prevalence of asymptomatic colonization in health care facilities, consistent with the hypothesis that long-term asymptomatic colonization occurs following
CDI.24,25 Recurrent symptoms can occur in association with a transient functional bowel disorder in as many as 35% of patients during the first 2 weeks following resolution of CDI. However, only approximately 4% of patients have symptoms more than 3 months
after CDI due to a postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome.26 The
2010 Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines advise against treating asymptomatic carriage with C difficile15; thus,
it is important to distinguish between symptoms due to recurrent
CDI and transient functional bowel disorder or persistent irritable
bowel syndrome. However, there are no validated approaches to distinguish between these conditions.

C difficile Testing
Organism Detection
The gold standard for detecting toxigenic C difficile in stool is toxigenic culture (Table 1).19 Stool specimens are cultured anaerobically on special media27 for 24 to 48 hours. After colony selection
and confirmation of taxonomy (usually with an antigen-detection
strategy with latex agglutination, enzyme immunoassay [EIA], or realtime polymerase chain reaction [PCR]),27,28 isolates are incubated
for 48 hours followed by testing using a cell cytotoxicity assay (CCA)
(Table 1). The independent performance of this method is unclear
because most studies compare other diagnostic modalities with toxigenic culture or CCA,19 and there are differences in choice of media
and sample pretreatment that can affect performance.
Although it is a reference standard, toxigenic culture is time intensive and requires specialized equipment and trained personnel.
Diagnostic delays have implications for treatment decisions and infection control.29,30 Rapid testing overcomes these limitations. One
method focuses on detecting a product of C difficile, glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), usually performed via EIA. Studies examining
the performance characteristics of GDH EIA show substantial variability (Table 2). Because GDH is present in both toxigenic and nontoxigenic strains of C difficile and data on asymptomatic colonization suggest as many as 46% of C difficile isolates are nontoxigenic,31
GDH testing must be paired with a test that detects toxin.
Nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT), including rapid testing PCR and loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), can detect the tcdA/tcdB genes (regulate toxin A/B production) or the tcdC
gene (a negative regulator of toxin A and B production) and identify
the presence of toxigenic C difficile in a single step (Table 1).19,21,32,33
NAAT testing shows sensitivity and specificity of greater than 0.90
range (Table 2). However, this higher sensitivity also identifies toxigenic C difficile in asymptomatic patients. This underscores the importance of only testing symptomatic patients, leading some experts to argue against NAAT-based testing alone.16,19,34
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Diagnosis and Treatment of C difficile in Adults

Figure 1. Steps in the Pathogenesis of Clostridium difficile Infection and Possible Treatment Outcomes

Healthy gut microbiota
Ingestion of toxigenic C difficile spores
and germination to vegetative cells
Disrupted gut microbiota
Decreased species
abundance
Decreased species
diversity

C difficile
spores

Vegetative
C difficile

SMALL INTESTINE

C difficile colonization in colon
Risk factors
Antibiotic usage
Older age
Recent hospitalization
Proton pump inhibitors
Chemotherapy
Chronic kidney disease
Feeding tube

INTESTINAL EPITHELIUM

Symptomatic C difficile
colonization in colon
Toxin production

C diffi
difficile
il colitis
li i
Disruption of epithelial integrity
Release of inflammatory mediators

Asymptomatic
colonization
LARGE
INTESTINE

Inflammatory changes
Pseudomembrane formation

Toxin
Tox
in B
PSEUDOMEMBRANE

Toxin A

Neutrophil
LARGE
INTESTINE

Treatment (see
ee Figure 3)

Resolution of clinical symptoms

Persistent disruption of gut microbiota

Restoration of healthy gut microbiota

Increased risk
of relapse
or reinfection

Toxin Detection
The gold standard for detecting toxins A and/or B is CCA,27 which is
performed directly on stool or as part of toxigenic culture. Filtrates
of stool suspensions or culture supernatants are inoculated into a
cell culture and assessed for cytopathic effect after 24 or 48 hours.27
This test identifies as little as 3 pg of toxin and is highly sensitive
(0.94-1.0) and specific (0.99), especially if combined with
antiserum.27,35 The main disadvantages are the time required for test
completion and complexity.
400

Sensitivity and specificity of EIA for toxin A and/or B are variable (Table 2). Repeat testing does not improve sensitivity. A recent systematic review found that 91% of positive EIA results occur after 1 test and the probability of a second or third test becoming
positive after 2 previous negative results was less than 2.5%.36

Multistep Algorithms for Diagnosis of CDI
Given the suboptimal sensitivity of some toxin EIA kits combined with
increased detection of asymptomatic colonization with single-step

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Diagnosis and Treatment of C difficile in Adults

algorithms (NAAT), many experts and some guidelines have advocated approaches that use multiple tests (multistep algorithms) for
rapid diagnosis.15,16,19,34 One example is shown in Figure 2, with one
center reporting a sensitivity of 0.91, specificity of 0.98, and negative predictive value of 0.99.37
We reviewed studies using rapid testing algorithms with at least
1 gold standard comparator (eTable in the Supplement). In general,
multistep algorithms using NAAT had excellent sensitivity (0.681.0) and specificity (0.92-1.0), but algorithms using only GDH or toxin
EIA testing performed worse with greater variability. A large multicenter study by Planche et al38 reported that a GDH/NAAT-based
algorithm yielded the highest sensitivity (0.91-0.98) and specificity (0.96-0.98) (eTable in the Supplement).

Treating CDI

Review Clinical Review & Education

Box. Key Messages Regarding Diagnosis and Treatment
of Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults
Diagnosis

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) requires presence of diarrhea
(ⱖ3 unformed stools in 24 hours) or radiographic evidence of ileus
or tixic megacolon; and a positive stool test result for tixigenic C difficile
or its toxins, or colonoscopic or histopathologic evidence of pseudomembranous colitis.
Laboratory testing cannot distinguish between colonization and
infection.
CDI testing should be performed only in symptomatic patients.
Diagnostic testing strategies for CDI vary. Multistep approaches using
polymerasechainreaction(PCR)forthetoxingene(s)orsingle-stepPCR
on liquid stool samples have the highest sensitivity and specificity.
Test of cure is not recommended after CDI treatment.

Since 2000, CDI treatment failures and recurrences have
increased.2-4 Treatment failures are likely related to a complex interplay of host factors, bacterial pathogenicity, and the ability to deliver therapeutic levels of drug to the colon. Strains with higher minimum inhibitory concentrations to metronidazole have been
described and may contribute to treatment failures.39 Guidelines recommend that CDI should be treated according to disease severity
and risk of recurrence or complications (Box).15,16

Treatment

CDI should be treated according to disease severity and risk of
recurrence or complications.
Vancomycin and metronidazole are first-line therapy.
Vancomycin is preferred for severe or complicated disease.
Recurrent CDI is more common in older patients and those with concomitant antibiotic use, presence of comorbidities, concomitant use
of proton pump inhibitors, and worse initial disease severity.
Oral metronidazole or vancomycin are recommended for the first
recurrence of mild to moderate CDI.

Markers of Disease Severity
Clinical manifestations of CDI ranges from mild diarrhea to lifethreatening illness. Prediction rules have been developed to predict
recurrences, complications, and mortality.40 Many of these studies
had small sample sizes, with significant heterogeneity.40 One prospective study of 746 patients with CDI proposed the following scoring
system to predict risk of fulminant CDI: age older than 70 years (2
points), white blood cell (WBC) count of at least 20 000 cells/mL or
2000/mL or less (1 point), cardiorespiratory failure (7 points), and diffuse abdominal tenderness (6 points). High-risk patients had a score
of 6 or greater.41 Another scoring system study used age, ongoing
treatment with systemic antibiotics, leukocyte count, albumin, and
serum creatinine to predict response to vancomycin or fidaxomicin.42
The 2010 Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America and
Infectious Diseases Society of America Clinical Practice Guidelines
categorize mild CDI as a WBC count of less than 15 × 109/L and serum creatinine of less than 1.5 times premorbid level; severe CDI as
a WBC count of at least 15 × 109/L or serum creatinine of at least 1.5
times premorbid level; and severe, complicated CDI as hypotension or shock, ileus, or megacolon.15 Guidelines from the European
Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases define severe CDI as an episode of CDI with a complicated disease course or
1 or more signs or symptoms of severe colitis, with significant systemic toxin effects and shock, resulting in intensive care unit (ICU)
admission, colectomy, or death. Predictive findings included a WBC
count of greater than 15 × 109/L, serum albumin of less than 3 g/dL
(to convert to g/L, miltiply by 10), and an increase in serum creatinine level of at least 1.5 times premorbid level.16 The term fulminant
issometimesusedtodescribesevere,complicatedCDI42-44 (Table3).

Asymptomatic Carriers
Asymptomatic carriage of C difficile affects 10% to 52% of defined
populations.25,45-49 Asymptomatic fecal shedding of C difficile may be
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Vancomycin is recommended for patients with 2 or more recurrences.
Fidaxomicin may be considered for recurrent CDI or where risk of
recurrence is high.
Fecal microbiota transplantation is associated with symptom resolution in recurrent CDI, but its role in primary and severe CDI is not
established.

transient; one study showed that vancomycin therapy may temporarily interrupt shedding but increased the risk of C difficile carriage followingtherapycompletion.50 Asymptomaticcolonizationdoesnotincrease
theriskofsymptomaticCDIandmayprotectagainstlaterdevelopment
ofsymptomaticdisease.31,47,51 Shimetal31 studied618noncolonizedpatients and 192 asymptomatic carriers with 2 or more weekly follow-up
rectal swabs and reported that 3.6% of the noncolonized patients and
only 1% of the asymptomatic carriers developed symptomatic CDI.

Withdrawing Precipitating Antibiotics
The human gut microbiota protects against pathogen overgrowth, including C difficile. Any antibiotic can disrupt microbiota, although penicillins,cephalosporins,andclindamycinareparticularlyassociatedwith
risk of CDI.52-54 A systematic review on antibiotic use and CDI risk reported odds ratios ranging from 2.12 to 42 for clindamycin and 3.84
to 26 for third-generation cephalosporins,53 while a more recent metaanalysis found an odds ratio of 3.2 for third-generation cephalosporins and 2.86 for clindamycin.52 Fluoroquinolones are associated
with increased risk of the BI/NAP1/027 strain.12
Historically, antibiotic withdrawal was sometimes a stand-alone
treatment.55 Olson et al56 evaluated 908 patients with CDI from 19821991 and found that 15% had symptom resolution without antibiotic
therapy. Whether antibiotic withdrawal remains effective for mild CDI
is unclear, although some evidence exists to support this approach in
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Diagnosis and Treatment of C difficile in Adults

combination with standard C difficile therapy.57 Failure to stop offending antibiotics is associated with CDI recurrence.58

Metronidazole vs Vancomycin
Metronidazole and vancomycin have been primary therapies for CDI
since the 1980s. Early studies suggested that oral metronidazole and
oral vancomycin had equivalent efficacy, with similar tolerability and
Table 1. Diagnostic Tests for Toxigenic Clostridium difficilea
Tests by Type and
Method
Target(s)
Gold standards
Toxigenic
culture

Toxigenic
C difficile

Cell
cytotoxicity
assay

Toxins
A or Bb

Rapid diagnostic
tests
EIA

GDH

EIA

Toxins
A or Bb

NAAT

RT-PCR

tcdB or
tcdC genes
tcdA or
tcdB genes

LAMP

Characteristics
Reference standard
Difficult to perform
Time consuming (24-48 h)
Reference standard
Highly sensitive for toxin compared with EIA
Difficult to perform
Time consuming (24-48 h)

GDH alone insufficient for diagnosis (must be
paired with a test for toxin)
Rapid
Variable sensitivity and specificity
Rapid
Variable sensitivity and specificity
Rapid but more expensive than EIA
Highly sensitive and specific for presence of
toxigenic C difficile
May increase detection of colonization and
not true CDI
tcdA-negative/tcdB-positive strains can
cause disease
tcdA-positive/tcdB-negative not well
described in human disease
Caution required in interpreting negative
results based on tcdA testing alone by LAMP

Abbreviations: CDI, Clostridium difficile infection; EIA, enzyme immunoassay;
GDH, glutamate dehydrogenase; LAMP, loop-mediated isothermal
amplification; NAAT, nucleic acid amplification testing; RT-PCR, real-time
polymerase chain reaction.
a

Refer to the text or Table 2 and eTable for sensitivity and specificity of the
diagnostic tests.

b

C difficile can produce toxin A and/or toxin B. Although toxins A and B both
play a role in clinical disease, it is not known if strains producing only toxin A
are associated with symptomatic infection in humans.

relapse rates.56,59,60 Newer data suggest higher treatment failure
rates when metronidazole is used in severe or complicated CDI.3,61-64
A large retrospective study found that oral metronidazole treatment failures increased (10%-26%) and the 60-day probability of
recurrence increased (21%-47%) before vs after emergence of
BI/NAP1/027.4 Other studies have not demonstrated increased metronidazole failures after BI/NAP1/027 emergence.65,66
Zar et al63 conducted a randomized trial evaluating response to
metronidazole vs vancomycin in 150 patients stratified by CDI severity. Among patients with mild CDI, cure rates for metronidazole
and vancomycin were not different (90% vs 98%, respectively).
However, among patients with severe CDI, cure rates were better
for vancomycin (97%) vs metronidazole (76%). A systematic review from 2001-2010 reported higher treatment failures with metronidazole than vancomycin (22.4% vs 14.2%; P = .002), while recurrence rates were similar (27.1% vs 24.0%; P = .26). Metronidazole
treatment failures were more frequent in North America than
Europe.3 A large clinical trial comparing tolevamer, a toxin-binding
polymer, with vancomycin and metronidazole found that while
tolevemer was inferior to both metronidazole and vancomycin, metronidazole was inferior to vancomycin (success rates of 44.2%,
72.7%, and 81.1%, respectively). These differences were more pronounced in severe CDI (66.3% for metronidazole,78.5% for
vancomycin).64
Factors associated with metronidazole failures include age older
than 60 years, fever, hypoalbuminemia, peripheral leukocytosis, ICU
stay, and abnormal abdominal computed tomography (CT) imaging
findings.61-63 Patients with hematologic malignancies and CDI respond more poorly to metronidazole and vancomycin (53.7% and
50%, respectively).67
Patients receiving metronidazole have a longer time to symptomatic improvement than patients receiving vancomycin.60,68 A
retrospective study of 102 patients after emergence of the BI/NAP1/
027 strain found that only 71% of patients responded to metronidazole within 6 days. The overall response rate was 91% and failures were associated with higher severity of illness.62
Oral vancomycin is typically well tolerated. However both oral
and rectal administration of vancomycin may rarely be systemically absorbed.69 Metronidazole is associated with gastrointestinal

Table 2. Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses Examining the Performance Characteristics of Rapid Diagnostic
Tests for Clostridium difficile Infection
No. of
Included
Studies Sensitivity

Source by Test
Organism

Abbreviations: EIA, enzyme
immunoassay; GDH, glutamate
dehydrogenase; NAAT, nucleic acid
amplification testing.

Specificity

GDH EIA
Crobach et al,19 2009
110

Shetty et al,

2011

11
13

Mean (range), 0.88 (0.6-0.97)a

Mean (range), 0.89 (0.75-0.97)a

a

Mean (range), 0.92 (0.8-1)

Mean (range), 0.93 (0.83-1)a

Mean (range), 0.91 (0.86-1)a

Mean (range), 0.96 (0.94-1)a

a

Comparisons were with toxigenic
culture plus cell cytotoxicity assay
or another mixed reference
standard.

b

Of the 25 studies by O’Horo et al,
comparisons were with toxigenic
culture for 14 studies, cell
cytotoxicity assay for 16 studies,
and both were used for 5 studies.

c

Comparisons were with toxigenic
culture.

d

Comparisons were with cell
cytotoxicity assay.

NAAT
Crobach et al,19 2009
Deshpande et al,111 2011
112

O’Horo et al,

2012

4
19
b

25

O’Horo et al,112 2012

Pooled (95% CI), 0.9 (0.88-0.91)a

Pooled (95% CI), 0.96 (0.96-0.97)a
c

c

Pooled (95% CI), 0.92 (0.91-0.94)

Pooled (95% CI), 0.94 (0.94-0.95)

Pooled (95% CI), 0.87 (0.84-0.9)d

Pooled (95% CI), 0.97 (0.97-0.98)d

Toxin
Toxin A/B EIA
19

Crobach et al,

2009

Planche et al,113 2008

402

a

a

60

Mean (range), 0.73 (0.32-0.99)

Mean (range), 0.98 (0.65-1)

18

Mean (range), 0.87 (0.69-0.99)a

Mean (range), 0.97 (0.92-1)a

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Diagnosis and Treatment of C difficile in Adults

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Figure 2. Sample Multistep Algorithm for Rapid Diagnosis of Clostridium difficile Infection
Overview of Diagnostic Steps

Detailed Diagnostic Steps

Perform 2 initial rapid diagnostic
stool tests in a symptomatic patient

1. Perform EIA for GDH in stool sample
2. Perform EIA for Toxin A and B in stool sample

Concordant results

Discordant results

GDH +/Toxin +a

Perform a third test
on discordant samples

Check result of the
third test

GDH +/Toxin -a

GDH -/Toxin +a

Perform PCR for tcdB Gene

tcdB Gene +

adverse effects, a disulfiram-like reaction when ingested with alcohol, and peripheral neuropathy with prolonged therapy.70

Abbreviations: EIA, enzyme
immunoassay; GDH, glutamate
dehydrogenase; PCR, polymerase
chain reaction.

tcdB Gene -

Testing consistent with
C difficile infection

Final result

GDH -/Toxin -a

a

Testing not consistent with
C difficile infection

Toxin-positive (+) indicates
presence of either Toxin A or Toxin B
when a combined test is performed,
as in this example. Toxin-negative
(−) indicates that neither Toxin A
nor B is present. Adapted under
Creative Commons License.116

Table 3. CDI Classification Based on Disease Severity

Treatment by Disease Severity

CDI Disease
Category
Mild to moderate

Clinical and Laboratory
Signs
Diarrhea without
systemic signs of
infection, white blood
cell count <15 000 cells
/mL, and serum
creatinine <1.5 times
baseline15

Severe

Systemic signs of
infection, and/or white
blood cell count
≥15 000 cells/mL,
or serum creatinine
≥1.5 times the
premorbid level15
Systemic signs of
infection including
hypotension, ileus,
or megacolon15

Table 3 lists definitions of CDI severity, definitions for recurrent disease, and factors associated with recurrence.15,16,20 Figure 3 provides a possible approach for CDI treatment according to disease severity. However, the approach in Figure 3 has not been validated.71-75

Treating Mild to Moderate CDI
For mild to moderate CDI, oral metronidazole remains the preferred
therapy, in part because of its low cost.15,16,63 The standard dose is
500 mg orally, 3 times daily for 10 to 14 days. For patients unable to
take oral medications, metronidazole can be administered intravenously at the same dose, although metronidazole is not recommendedasmonotherapywhenadministeredintravenously.15,16 Based
on a recent study64 that showed a lower clinical success rate for metronidazole vs vancomycin, it may be reasonable to consider vancomycin for mild to moderate CDI.

Severe,
complicated

Recurrent

Recurrence within 8
weeks of successfully
completing treatment
for CDI16,20

Treating Severe or Complicated CDI
Vancomycin is the preferred therapy for severe or complicated
CDI.15,16,63 Taking vancomycin 125 mg orally, 4 times daily for 10 to
14 days, is noninferior to higher doses in the absence of complicated infection.22 However, expert opinion often favors higher doses
in severe or complicated disease.15,16
Vancomycin may also be administered rectally in the setting of
ileus, as an adjunctive therapy, although evidence is limited to case
reports.15,76,77 Rectally administered vancomycin is not typically used
alone because rectally administered vancomycin may not reach the
entire affected area.78 Intravenous metronidazole achieves detectable levels throughout the colon79 and may be an adjunctive therapy
for ileus or severe/complicated CDI, typically with vancomycin when
administered orally, rectally, or by both methods. However, there are
no randomized trials supporting this practice.15,16 Treatment failures have occurred in patients with ileus administered intravenous
metronidazole monotherapy.56,77
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Associated Risk Factors
Antibiotic use, previous
hospitalization, longer
duration of hospitalization,
use of proton pump
inhibitors, receipt of
chemotherapy, chronic
kidney disease, and presence
of a feeding tube10-14
Advanced age, infection with
BI/NAP1/027 strain114,115

See above,a plus recent
surgery, history of
inflammatory bowel disease,
and intravenous
immunoglobulin treatment43
Patient age ≥65 y,
concomitant antibiotic use,
presence of significant
comorbidities, concomitant
use of proton pump
inhibitors, and increased
initial disease severity16

Abbreviation: CDI, Clostridium difficile infection.
a

Also includes associated risk factors for mild to moderate and severe CDI
disease categories.

Promptsurgicalevaluationshouldbeobtainedinpatientswithcomplicated CDI. Early intervention can reduce mortality.80,81 Subtotal or
total colectomy with end ileostomy is often performed when surgery
isrequired,althoughtherearenewercolon-preservingtechniques.80,81

Treating Recurrent CDI
Recurrent CDI is more common in older patients and in those with
concomitant antibiotic use, presence of comorbidities, concomitant use of proton pump inhibitors, and worse initial disease
severity.11,16 Inadequate antibody response after an episode of CDI
is associated with increased recurrence rates.82,83
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Diagnosis and Treatment of C difficile in Adults

Figure 3. Possible Approach for the Treatment of Clostridium difficile Infection
Evaluate patient with risk factors for CDI for the
presence of the following symptoms: diarrhea,
ileus, or colonic distension
No

Symptoms present?

No testing or treatment needed

Yes
Perform C difficile stool testing
and
Stop precipitating antibiotics if possible
and
Start empiric therapy (indicated below) if
high suspicion of CDI or patient critically ill
No

C difficile testing positive?

Stop therapy if initiated

Yes
Assess severity of disease and risk of recurrence (Table 3)
and continue or start therapy based on disease severitya

Mild to moderate CDI
Metronidazole, 500 mg by mouth, 3 times daily,
for 10-14 days
or
Vancomycin, 125 mg by mouth, 4 times daily,
for 10-14 days if intolerance, contraindication,
or lack of responseb to metronidazole
If significant risk of recurrence,
Vancomycin, 125 mg by mouth, 4 times daily,
for 10-14 days
or
Fidaxomicin, 200 mg by mouth, twice daily,
for 10 daysc

Severe CDI
Vancomycin, 125 mg by mouth, 4 times daily,
for 10-14 days

Severe, complicated CDI
Vancomycin, 125-500 mg by mouth,
4 times dailyd
and/or
Vancomycin, per rectum (500 mg in 500 mL
saline as enema), 4 times daily
and
Metronidazole, 500 mg intravenously every
8 hours
and
Consider urgent surgical consult

If significant risk of recurrence,
Vancomycin, 125 mg by mouth, 4 times daily,
for 10-14 days
or
Fidaxomicin, 200 mg by mouth, twice daily,
for 10 daysc

Stop therapy and evaluate for
clinical signs of recurrencee
No need for “test of cure”

Recurrence present?

No

Continue to monitor clinically
for signs of recurrence

Yes

Recurrence of uncomplicated CDI

First recurrence of uncomplicated CDI
Repeat initial therapy
or
Fidaxomicin, 200 mg by mouth,
twice daily, for 10 daysc

a

b

404

Recurrence of severe, complicated CDI

Two or more recurrences of
uncomplicated CDI
Vancomycin oral taper
(ie, 125 mg every 6 hrs X 1-2 wks,
then 125 mg every 8 hrs X 1 wk,
then 125 mg every 12 hrs X 1 wk,
then 125 mg every 24 hrs X 1 wk,
then 125 mg every 48 hrs X 1 wk,
then 125 mg every 72 hrs X 1 wk)
or
Fidaxomicin, 200 mg by mouth,
twice daily, for 10 daysc

Suggested approach for Clostridium difficile (CDI) treatment according to
disease severity based on current guidelines, recent reviews and
meta-analyses of fecal microbiota transplantation, and randomized controlled
trials of fidaxomicin. This approach is not validated. There are no data
supporting the use of fidaxomicin for complicated CDI.
Treatment response is defined by clinical improvement in diarrhea or other
signs of infection. Response may require 3 to 5 days after starting therapy, but

therapy escalation can be considered sooner based on disease severity.
c

Indicates that costs are substantially higher.

d

Duration of therapy depends on treatment response.

e

Consider postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome rather than recurrent CDI for
mild symptoms.

References15,16,71-73,75

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Expert consultation for fecal
microbiota transplantation

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Diagnosis and Treatment of C difficile in Adults

Guidelines recommend oral metronidazole or vancomycin for
the first recurrence of mild to moderate CDI.15,16 Vancomycin is recommended therapy for any subsequent recurrences. Pulsed or tapering courses are often used.84 Randomized trials are lacking but
case series and case reports support this practice.23,84,85 McFarland et al23 enrolled 163 patients with recurrent CDI with an overall
subsequent recurrence rate of 44.8%; tapering and pulsed courses
of vancomycin resulted in fewer recurrences (31%; P = .01 and 14.3%;
P = .02, respectively), although the number of patients was small
(29 and 7, respectively).
Fidaxomicin was approved for treating CDI in 2011. Randomized studies demonstrated similar cure rates between fidaxomicin
and oral vancomycin.74,86 In a double-blind randomized trial, Cornely
et al74 reported that 221 of 252 patients (87.7%) receiving fidaxomicin for CDI achieved clinical cure vs 223 of 257 (86.8%) receiving
vancomycin. These results achieved criteria for noninferiority between fidaxomicin and vancomycin. Louie et al86 reported clinical
cure rates with fidaxomicin that were noninferior to vancomycin
(88.2% vs 85.8%) in 629 patients, with fewer recurrences with
fidaxomicin (15.4% vs 25.3%; P = .005).
When antibiotics cannot be discontinued because of ongoing
infection, clinical cure rates for concomitant CDI are higher with
fidaxomicin than with vancomycin.58 Fidaxomicin may preserve the
human gut microbiota better than alternative treatments.75 Fidaxomicin is not considered first-line therapy for mild or uncomplicated
disease because of its higher costs.87 No data support use of fidaxomicin in complicated or fulminant disease.16 Fidaxomicin may be used
for recurrent CDI, for the treatment of an initial CDI episode, when
there is a high risk of recurrence or when administered immediately after a course of vancomycin for patients with multiple CDI
recurrences.16,84,88
Anecdotal evidence supports rifaximin as an adjunctive therapy
for recurrent CDI, usually after a course of standard therapy for
CDI.89,90 Monotherapy should be avoided given the propensity for
resistance.89 Nitazoxinide is not a first-line therapy for an initial episode of CDI but may be used as an adjunctive therapy for recurrent
CDI. However, data are limited.15

Review Clinical Review & Education

biota transplantation via enema, nasojejunal-tube or gastroscope,
or colonoscopy. Clinical resolution occurred in 92% of patients (89%
after a single treatment) without serious adverse effects.73 A recent review of 536 patients reported an 87% clinical response rate.72
A randomized trial of fecal microbiota transplantation demonstrated symptom resolution in 94% of patients who received vancomycin for 5 days followed by either 1 or 2 treatments with fecal
microbiota transplantation, vs 31% in patients who received vancomycin alone for 14 days and 23% for those receiving vancomycin
for 14 days plus bowel lavage. This study was stopped early after interim analyses demonstrated superiority of fecal microbiota transplantation. Among 18 patients in the other treatment groups who
received subsequent fecal microbiota transplantation, 83% had
symptom resolution.98
In 2013, a stool substitute preparation made from purified fecal cultures from a single healthy donor was used to treat 2 patients with recurrent CDI who had not responded to repeated courses
of antibiotics, and this approach resulted in symptom resolution.99
A 1989 study used a rectal administration of 10 facultatively aerobic and anaerobic bacteria to successfully treat 5 patients with CDI.100
A recent feasibility study used frozen fecal capsules, prepared from
prescreened unrelated donors, to treat 20 patients with recurrent
CDI, resulting in a 90% response rate after 1 or 2 treatment
courses.101 Prescreened, filtered, and frozen donor stool for fecal microbiota transplantation is also available.102 However, the US Food
and Drug Administration considers fecal microbiota transplantation investigational, requiring an Investigational New Drug application. There are also anecdotal reports supporting fecal microbiota
transplantation for treating refractory or complicated CDI in the setting of ileus or megacolon.103

Other Therapies for the Treatment of CDI
Other Antibiotics

Teicoplanin was demonstrated to be noninferior to vancomycin, but
teicoplanin is unavailable in the United States.59 Case reports suggest efficacy of tigecycline for severe or recurrent CDI104; however,
the role of tigecycline for CDI remains unclear. Phase 3 trials are ongoing for use of surotomycin and cadazolid.

Probiotics and Fecal Microbiota Transplantation
Recurrent CDI can occur as relapse of infection or as reinfection with
another strain. Preserving normal gut microbiota diversity may prevent or treat recurrences.91
Probiotics are live microorganisms that can restore normal gut
microbiota. The role of probiotics in CDI treatment is poorly defined, although evidence suggests probiotics may prevent initial episodes as well as recurrence.92-94 Probiotic-associated bacteremia
and fungemia have been described, primarily in immunocompromised or critically ill patients.95 However, probiotics are generally
well tolerated without major adverse effects.96 A recent case series suggested that daily administration of kefir, a probiotic made
from fermented milk, with staggered, tapered doses of either vancomycin or metronidazole was beneficial for recurrent CDI.97
Fecal microbiota transplantation restores gut microbiota diversity via the instillation of donor stool into the gastrointestinal tract
of a patient with CDI. This procedure has had good clinical response without reports of adverse events for refractory or recurrent CDI.71-73 The first systematic review was published in 2011 and
included 317 patients with recurrent CDI treated with fecal microjama.com

Toxin Binders

Randomized trial data show that nonabsorbable anionic polymers,
including colestipol and cholestyramine, are not effective for CDI.
Tolevamer is an anionic polymer that binds C difficile toxins A and
B. However recent data show that tolevamer is inferior to vancomycin and metronidazole for CDI.64 Polymers can bind other agents
such as vancomycin and should not be administered concomitantly with standard therapy.15
Immunotherapy

Serum antibody response to toxin A may protect against recurrent
symptomatic CDI.32,45 A C difficile vaccine is in development for both
primary and recurrent CDI.105,106
Pooled immunoglobulin neutralizes C difficile toxins in vitro but
there are limited data supporting intravenous immunoglobulin for recurrent CDI,107 although its role in severe CDI remains unclear. In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 2 neutralizing, human monoclonal antibodies against C difficile toxins A (CDA1) and B
(CDB1), combined with standard therapy, resulted in a lower recur(Reprinted) JAMA January 27, 2015 Volume 313, Number 4

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405

Clinical Review & Education Review

Diagnosis and Treatment of C difficile in Adults

rent infection rate (7% vs 25%).108 Phase 3 trials are evaluating MK3415 (human monoclonal antibody to C difficile toxin A), MK-6072 (human monoclonal antibody to C difficile toxin B), and MK-3415A (human
monoclonal antibodies to C difficile toxins A and B) to prevent recurrent CDI in patients receiving other recommended therapies.109

Discussion
Manifestations of C difficile vary from asymptomatic colonization to
fulminant disease. Laboratory testing does not distinguish between asymptomatic colonization vs CDI; therefore, testing should
be limited to individuals who are symptomatic.15 Many testing strategies exist for CDI diagnosis. Some experts and guidelines recommend multistep algorithms.15,16,19,34
Whether and how to treat C difficile should be based on disease severity and relapse risk. Oral vancomycin is recommended for
severe, complicated, or recurrent CDI, while oral metronidazole is

Conclusions
C difficile remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality.
Treatment strategies should be based on disease severity and risk
of recurrence. Fecal microbiota transplantation is associated with
symptom resolution in recurrent CDI, and its role may be expanded
in the future.

ARTICLE INFORMATION

REFERENCES

Author Contributions: Dr Malani had full access to
all of the data in the study and takes responsibility
for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the
data analysis.
Study concept and design: Bagdasarian, Rao, Malani.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data:
Bagdasarian, Rao, Malani.
Drafting of the manuscript: Bagdasarian, Rao, Malani.
Critical revision of the manuscript for important
intellectual content: Bagdasarian, Rao, Malani.
Administrative, technical, or material support:
Bagdasarian, Rao.
Study supervision: Malani.

1. Bartlett JG, Chang TW, Gurwith M, Gorbach SL,
Onderdonk AB. Antibiotic-associated
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Conflict of Interest Disclosures: All authors have
completed and submitted the ICMJE Form for
Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest and
none were reported.
Funding/Support: This work was supported in part
by National Institutes of Health grant
1U19AI090871–01 (Drs Rao and Malani), the Claude
D. Pepper Older Americans Independence Center
grant AG-024824 (Dr Rao), and the Michigan
Institute for Clinical and Health Research grant
2UL1TR000433 (Dr Rao).
Role of the Sponsors: The National Institutes of
Health, the Claude D. Pepper Older Americans
Independence Center, and the Michigan Institute
for Clinical and Health Research had no role in the
design and conduct of the study; collection,
management, analysis, and interpretation of the
data; preparation, review, or approval of the
manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript
for publication.
Disclaimer: Dr Malani, JAMA Associate Editor, was
not involved in the editorial review of or decision to
publish this article.
Additional Contributions: We thank Whitney
Townsend, MLIS (University of Michigan), for
assistance with our literature search. Ms Townsend
was not compensated for her specific contributions
beyond her usual salary.
Submissions:We encourage authors to submit
papers for consideration as a Review. Please
contact Mary McGrae McDermott, MD, at
[email protected].
406

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