Haiti

Haiti

y

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Acknowledgements
There are several people without whom the creation of this year's edition of the CountryWatch Country Reviews could not have been accomplished. Robert Kelly, the Founder and Chairman of CountryWatch envisioned the original idea of CountryWatch Country Reviews as a concise and meaningful source of country-specific information, containing fundamental demographic, socio-cultural, political, economic, investment and environmental information, in a consistent format. Special thanks must be conveyed to Robert Baldwin, the Co-Chairman of CountryWatch, who championed the idea of intensified contributions by regional specialists in building meaningful content. Today, the CountryWatch Country Reviews simply would not exist without the research and writing done by the current Editorial Department at CountryWatch. The team is responsible for hundreds of thousands of pages of current information on the recognized countries of the world. This Herculean task could not have been accomplished without the unique talents of Mary Ann Azevedo, Julie Zhu, Ryan Jennings, Cristy Kelly, Ryan Holliway, Anne Marie Surnson and Michelle Hughes within the Editorial Department. These individuals faithfully expend long hours of work, incredible diligence and the highest degree of dedication in their efforts. For these reasons, they have my utmost gratitude and unflagging respect.A word of thanks must also be extended to colleagues in the academic world with whom specialized global knowledge has been shared and whose contributions to CountryWatch are enduring. Accordingly, I am indebted to Stanton Doyle, the former co-Editor of CountryWatch, Richard Marcus, the Director of the International Studies Program at California State University and former Africa Editor for CountryWatch, Brigette Allen former Latin America Editor for CountryWatch, and Christina Surowiec, former Regional Editor for CountryWatch.Finally, without the extraordinary assistance of our Information Technology department, the CountryWatch Country Reviews could not be published. Cesar Rosa works responsively with the Editorial Department to ensure the annual production of the CountryWatch Country Reviews. John Torres ensures our technical capacity functions efficiently. As such, I am truly indebted to them for their efforts. Finally, my utmost gratitude is extended to my mentors in the disciplines of Anthropology, International Development and International Relations, who taught me about the tensions between states and nations in the contemporary world, the value of ethnographic research as the best lens to understanding the complexity of the human condition, and that policy is meaningless unless it positively impacts the quotidian lives of people across the planet. Denise Youngblood Coleman Ph. D.,

Contributors
Robert C. Kelly Founder and Chairman Denise Youngblood-Coleman Ph. D. Executive Vice President and Editor-in-Chief Mary Ann Azevedo M. A. Managing Editor Julie Zhu Economics Editor Ryan Jennings Economics Analysts Ryan Holliway Researcher and Writer Cristy Kelly Research Analyst Anne Marie Surnson News Wire Manager Michelle Hughes News Wire Editor Cesar Rosa Chief Information Officer John Torres Technical Network Manager

Executive Vice President and Editor in Chief

CountryWatch

COUNTRYWATCH REVIEW 2010 EDITION

Denise Youngblood Coleman Ph.D. Editor in Chief

CountryWatch, Inc. Houston, Texas

Table of Contents

Country Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Key Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Political Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Political Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Freedom Rankings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Human Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Government Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Government Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Principal Government Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Leader Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Foreign Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 National Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Defense Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Economic Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Economic Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Real GDP and GDP Per Capita. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Nominal GDP and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Government Spending and Taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Money, Prices and Interest Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Trade and the Exchange Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 The Balance of Payments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Review

Energy Consumption and Production QUADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 World Energy Price Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 CO2 Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Agriculture Consumption and Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 World Agriculture Pricing Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Metals Consumption and Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 World Metals Pricing Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Investment Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Foreign Investment Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Taxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Stock Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Partner Links. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Social Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 Human Development Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Status of Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Culture and Arts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Etiquette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Travel Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Diseases/Health Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Environmental Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Environmental Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Environmental Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Global Environmental Snapshot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

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Global Environmental Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 International Environmental Agreements and Associations. . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

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Chapter 1 Country Overview

Key Data

Country Overview

Country Overview
Key Data
Region: Population: Total Area: Total Land: Coastline: Climate: Caribbean 8,688,793 as of 2009 27,750 Sq. Km. 27,560 Sq. Km. 1,771 km

tropical; semiarid in the mountain regions
Average Daily Temperature:

Capital: January: July: Annual Rainfall: Languages:

Port-au-Prince 24.8C / 76.6 28.1C / 82.6 1292.2mm / 50.9

French (Official) Creole
Currency: National Holiday: January, 18 May is Flag Day Capital City: Boundaries: 1 gourde (G)= 100 centimes Independence Day is 1 January (1804), Ancestry/Heroes' Day is 2

Port-au-Prince

Dominican Republic: 275 km
Largest Cities:

City: Population: Year: City: Population: Year:

Port-au-Prince 774,167 2009 Carrefour 479,584 2009

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Haiti Review 2010

Country Overview

Key Data

City: Population: Year:
Ethnic Groups:

Delmas 372,549 2009

95%.......African descent 5%.......European and Mulatto
Religions:

80%.......Roman Catholic 16%.......Protestant Sects 3%.......Other 1%.......None
Flag:

Haiti Review 2010

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Key Data

Country Overview

Haiti
Country Map
ge
Île de la Tortue

20° N

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H a i t i
Port-de-Paix
1

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Haitian Departments 1. Nord-Ouest 2. Nord 3. Nord-Est 4. Artibonite 5. Centre 6. Ouest 7. Sud-Est 8. Sud 9. Grand' Anse

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2

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Île de la Gonâve

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Lago de Enriquillo

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7

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Les Anglais

9

Les Cayes
18° N
Île â Vache

Jacmel

Marigot

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Pedernales

0 0

60 km 40 mi

Caribbean

Sea

74° W
© MAGELLAN GeographixSMSanta Barbara, CA 1-800-929-4MAPS

72° W

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Key Data

Central America
Regional Map
Gulf of Mexico
90° 85°
George Town Chetumal

80°
Cayman Islands (U.K.)

Montego Bay

Mexico
Villahermosa Belize City
Ri

Jamaica

Central America
Isl

Kingston

Belmopan
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Tuxtla Gutiérrez

Flores

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ua

San Salvador

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ta

Puerto Barrios

San Pedro Sula Puerto Lempira

Honduras
Tegucigalpa
San Miguel Puerto Cabezas

Cayos Miskitos

Caribbean
Isla de Providencia (Colombia) Isla de San Andréas (Colombia)

El Salvador

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Islas del Maíz

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Panama Canal

Panamá
La Palma
Isla de San Jos Isla del Rey

Panama
Chitré

0 0

100

200 kilometers 100 200 nautical miles
Isla de Coiba

Turbo

Colombia

© MAGELLAN GeographixSMSanta Barbara, CA (800) 929-4627

Haiti Review 2010

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Key Data

Country Overview

5

Haiti Review 2010

Country Overview

Key Data

Chapter 2 Political Overview

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History

Political Overview

Political Overview
History

Comprising the western third of the island of Hispaniola (the Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two-thirds), Haiti is one of the most mountainous places in the Caribbean. The indigenous population, encountered by Christopher Columbus in 1492, consisted of Carib and Taino Indians. Not long after the Spanish constructed the first settlement in the Americas, a fort called La Navidad along Haiti's north coast, the Native American population experienced a catastrophic decline, as a combined result of the rigors of enslavement, to which the indigenous people were subjected en masse, and of exposure to European diseases to which they had no resistance. Some theorize that African slaves intermingled with natives of the island before the latter entirely died off. The two groups may have intermarried, or at any rate there might have been an opportunity for the Native Americans to transmit some of their cultural traditions t o the people arriving from Africa. Aside from this speculative survival of some prehistoric folkways, Hispaniola's original inhabitants have vanished without a trace. The Spaniards used the island as a launching point to explore the rest of the Western Hemisphere. Later, French buccaneers made the western third of the island a base from which they conducted smuggling and pirating activities. In 1697, under the Treaty of Ryswick, Spain ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France. As buccaneering was gradually suppressed, some French adventurers became planters. Saint-Domingue, as the French portion of the island was called, went on to become the richest colony in France's 18th century empire, often referred to as the "Pearl of the Antilles." Extensive sugarcane, coffee and cotton plantations-labored upon by African slaves-supplied rum, coffee and cotton to France under a commercial concession called the "exclusif." U nder this arrangement, the island's goods could legally be sold only to France, at a price the French regime set. The colonists, however, resisted the "exclusif" and clandestinely shipped some products to other buyers willing to pay a better price. Notable among such customers were merchants in the 13 British colonies that became the United States. By the late 1700s, Saint-Domingue was home to more than half a million African slaves. There were also small communities of escaped slaves (called maroons) living in the mountains and some free blacks in the towns who had either purchased their way out of slavery, been granted manumission, or gained freedom by default (for example after a planter became too old or poor to maintain a complement of slaves in the standard manner). A gradually increasing contingent of mulattos, the offspring of plantation owners and slave women, also settled among the free blacks. In all, the black population on Saint-Domin gue outnumbered the French by about 10 to one.

A confluence of often-conflicting historical and intellectual currents culminated in Haiti's independence as the second republic in the Western Hemisphere (after the U.S.) and the first modern-era nation founded by black people. On one hand, planters chafed under commercial regulations that enriched their rulers in Paris to the planters' economic disadvantage. On another, the ideals of the French Revolution gathered resonance, and the reverberations reached some literate elements of the slave population. Planters' allegiances were divided between the French monarchy and the French

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Revolution, but as agitation for emancipation rose, many leaned toward the monarchy as more apt to support the plantation system and slavery. Once the monarchy fell, the planter class wanted to sever all ties with revolutionary France. Poorer whites, called "petits blancs"-artisans, shopkeeper s, and the like-tended to be loyal to France's old regime, as they feared that Saint-Domingue's gentry would amass more exploitative economic power over their lives if the existing restraints on them from the Parisian metropole were abrogated. But the hope of the "petits blancs" that Paris would protect them and enhance their rights proved readily transferable to revolutionary France. Among the estimated 30,000 free people of color living on the island in 1789, support for freedom from France was widespread, not least among the minority of this group who, having become slave-owning planters themselves, had no wish to terminate the institution of slavery.

Although small-scale slave rebellions had been a fact of life on Haiti for many decades, the rhetoric of the French Revolution helped to spawn a major uprising on Aug. 21, 1791, generally regarded by historians as the opening date in Haiti's bloody battle for independence. Within days most of the northern littor al, site of the most prosperous plantations, had been torched, looted or otherwise devastated. Troops sent to Haiti by the General Assembly in Paris were unable to reverse the fact that the most economically developed region of Haiti had come under the control of rebelling slaves.

France's faltering grip on the island weakened further by early 1793, when war broke out between France and Britain. Fearing attack by Britain-and possibly Spain as well-a French commissioner, Leger Sonthonax, offered freedom to 15,000 armed slaves and their families if they would come over to his side and assist in fending off an expected invasion. When this action enraged the French citizens whose interests Sonthonax had ostensibly come to Haiti to protect, the commissioner perceived casting his lot entirely with the slave troops (and, more broadly, with the overwhelmingly dominant ethnic group on the island) as his best hope for self-preservation. In late August 1793, Son thonax unilaterally declared the entire slave population of Saint-Domingue emancipated.

A few weeks later, the British landed in far western Haiti, and over the next several months succeeded in capturing substantial territory, including Port-au-Prince. Moreover, the British Navy offshore prevented the French and black forces, allied for the time being, that were holed up near the northern coast from being resupplied. A triumphant English conquest did not ensue, however, because the English supply lines were also inadequate, and yellow fever decimated the British troops. This period marked the rise of a brilliant and ruthless black general, the former slave Toussaint L'Ouverture, one of the fathers of the Haitian state. He staged guerrilla raids against the British, pinning them along the coast. Soon, he turned against his French confederates, happenstance emancipators, and former colonial overlords. By October 1796 Toussaint was the de facto ruler of Haiti, and less than a year later there was no French presence on the island. The British vacated Haiti in 1798. Toussaint then prevailed in fierce power struggles with rival black generals, and extended his hegemony into the Spanish portion of the island, the present-day Dominican Republic.

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History

Political Overview

Only one European had the temerity to challenge Toussaint L'Ouverture-the new French emperor Napoleon. Saint-Domingue was the focal point of Napoleon's imperial ambitions in the Western Hemisphere; indeed, he hoped to regain control of the island and restore its pre-French Revolution status as a slavery-based plantation economy. Napoleon dispatched Gen. Charles Leclerc, commanding 12,000 troops, to Haiti. Landing in February 1802, Leclerc encountered strong resistance; he eventually occupied most of the coast, but not before the defenders had burned most buildings and other items of v alue to the ground. In June 1802, Leclerc secured Toussaint's capture by treachery after promising the enemy general a safe parley. Toussaint died a prisoner in France less than a year later.

In the short term, eliminating Toussaint might have gained the French leverage in their attempt to reconquer the island, but the outrage the sneak capture provoked among Haiti's black majority would soon rise up and strike at the French with deadly force. The former slaves, in the 11 years that had passed since the chaos of the initial rebellion, had developed substantial organizational capacities and acquired considerable military assets. They elected Jean-Jacques Dessalines as their new commander. General Leclerc died of yellow fever in November 1802, and was succeeded by the ancient warrior Jean Baptiste Rochambeau, a soldier since the 1740s. Rochambeau was still an able strategist and bold fighter, and the French forces, including 15,000 ad ditional troops who arrived in 1803, regained the offensive during months of combat rife with atrocities by both sides.

However, in May 1803 France became embroiled in war with Britain. Napoleon thus faced a host of new military challenges that diverted his attention from the Haitian conflict; moreover, London directly supported Dessalines with weapons and Royal Navy patrols along Haiti's coast. The upshot was that Rochambeau's territorial gains from earlier in the year were reversed, and in November 1803, the French completely evacuated the island for the second and final time. Haiti formally declared independence on Jan. 1, 1804.

Historians widely attribute Napoleon's decision to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States to his loss of Haiti. Without French Hispaniola, especially its lucrative sugar industry, the emperor looked on the task of administering the vast, undeveloped French holdings in the interior of North Ame rica as pointless. President Thomas Jefferson thus easily and at small expense obtained for his young nation a mammoth area of land-the majority of that portion of the contiguous United States lying west of the Mississippi River.

Meanwhile, on the island, independence did not bring peace, and the infrastructure was already largely ruined after years of fighting. Dessalines, with a ferocity that made Toussaint, the previous champion of the Haitian cause, look almost humane by comparison, massacred many of the remaining whites. He attempted to reinstitute a variant of the plantation system in which the black laborers, while not slaves, were essentially serfs.

Perhaps emulating Napoleon, Dessalines declared himself emperor. It was he who adopted the name Haiti for the country. The appellation is believed to derive from a Native American word meaning "high ground"; the Creole form of the name is "Ayiti." Dessalines follow ed up on Toussaint L'Ouver-

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ture's ambitions for the east of the island, today's Dominican Republic, and invaded the city of Santo Domingo. The brutality he practiced and countenanced there is an early source of the enmity that has subsequently smoldered between Haitians and Dominicans. The erstwhile Spanish domain on eastern Hispaniola remained under Haitian control until 1844, when a revolt established it as an independent republic. Dessalines himself only lived until 1806; he was killed while attempting to suppress rebels in southern Haiti.

Two separate regimes emerged in the north and south. In northern Haiti, Henri Christophe, a rival of Dessalines implicated in his assassination, took power and eventually styled himself emperor. He continued the effort to revive the plantation-based sugar economy, with a system of forced labor termed "fermage." Southern Haiti became a republic led by Alexandre Pétion, a leader of the revolt that Dessalines was fig hting at the time of his death. Pétion's regime was weak, and southern Haiti quickly devolved into a subsistence farming economy. While Henri Christophe's "empire," by dint of harsh discipline, succeeded in reestablishing commercial sugar production-output briefly topped out at about 75 percent of the level that had been standard under the French-the system unraveled quickly after his death in 1818. Henceforth, the north as well as the south of Haiti became almost entirely a peasant country, characterized by families eking out a meager existence from small plots in the hills.

Twin lacks of political stability and economic development continued to fetter Haiti. As Europe reorganized in the post-Napoleonic era, France was allowed to collect a 150 million franc indemnity from Haiti as settlement for losing the colony. Loans and interest payments to meet this obligation seriously exacerbated economic difficulties for Haiti, which would have been a very po or nation even if it did not have to shoulder this burden.

For the first several decades of Haiti's independent history, many slave-holding nations, including the United States, refused to establish diplomatic relations with a country that originated from a slave revolt. The first United States consular minister assigned to Haiti, in 1862, was the celebrated abolitionist Frederick Douglass. Even after formal recognition was granted, however, Haiti's isolation from the world community persisted. A small Haitian elite emerged, able to exploit its own people with impunity, while the participation of Haiti as a whole in the growing integration and industrialization of the world economy was extremely minimal.

In its modern history, Haiti has been ruled by unstable regimes and has suffered economically. To date, Haiti's adoption of a democratic political process and its integration into the world economic system are, at best, incomplete.

Note on History: In certain entries, open source content from the State Department Background Notes and Country Guides have been used. A full listing of sources is available in the Bibliography. © Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

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Political Conditions

Political Overview

Political Conditions

1843 to 1934 Haiti experienced 22 changes of government from 1843 until 1915, and military occupation by the United States from 1915 to 1934. In the years 1916-1924, U.S. forces similarly occupied the adjoining Dominican Republic. The United States intervention capped a period of tumult in Haiti-a series of assassinations and overthrows, frequent rioting, and episodes of virtual mob rule-that was extraordinary even against the background of a long-term pattern of political and economic disorder. Foreign, including the United States, business interests were notable among those pressing for external imposition of more stable conditions that would better enable them to conduct their operations. The United States was the de facto ruler of Haiti for 19 years, selecting the country's leaders and controlling its finances. Soon after the American troops arrived, a rebellion by guerr illas known as "cacos" broke out, which took slightly over a year to suppress. The United States upgraded public administration and significantly improved the physical infrastructure. Opportunities for foreigners to invest and own property in Haiti were expanded substantially. The United States also spearheaded creation of Haiti's National Guard, a body that eventually evolved into the Haitian Armed Forces. The country's mulatto elite, over time, developed increasing resentment of what they saw as high-handed, prejudicial treatment by the occupying American forces. The United States permitted the first elections held in Haiti since 1917 to take place in 1930, and the government that emerged successfully negotiated for a full withdrawal of United States military personnel by August 1934.

The 1930s Democracy, however, did not take strong root, and the national military rema ined a key player in Haitian politics. In the neighboring Dominican Republic, Gen. Rafael Trujillo became dictator in 1930. Although the two countries reached an agreement over their long-disputed border, and Trujillo paid a well-regarded visit to Port-au-Prince soon after he took power, historically less than amicable relations between the two countries soon took a turn for the worse. Trujillo and other leaders in the Dominican Republic, where much of the population is somewhat lighter-skinned and economic development (though modest) more advanced than in Haiti, cultivated a policy of "antihaitianismo," a thinly veiled racism playing to fears that Haitians posed unwanted competition for jobs and living space on the Spanish-speaking side of the island. This policy reached a brutal culmination in October 1937, when Trujillo orchestrated a massacre of Haitians living in the border region. How many were killed is unknown; estimates range from 5,000 to more than 30,000.

The 1940s to the 1980s Haiti was governed by a succession of unstable regimes in the 1940s and 1950s. In 1957, all semblance of democratization was abandoned when military-controlled elections installed Dr. Francois "Papa Doc" Duvalier as Haiti's president. Duvalier then declared himself president-for-life and formed a

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notorious paramilitary movement, "les tontons macoutes," to consolidate and sustain his absolute power. These forces in essence comprised active death squads adept at eliminating any threat or perceived threat to Duvalier's power. Tens of thousands of Haitians, including political dissidents, human rights workers, journalists and lawyers, were arrested, killed or forced into exile in the Duvalier period. Among those slain by the "tontons macoutes" were several hundred peasants, and even some young school children. After the death of "Papa Doc" in 1971, the same authoritarian regime contin ued under his son, Jean-Claude Duvalier, known as "Baby Doc." The Duvalier dictatorship, despite its panoply of repression, could not stem a gradually rising tide of social unrest. Jean-Claude Duvalier and his family finally agreed to accept exile to France in early 1986, and a six-member, military-dominated council led by Gen. Henri Namphy assumed control of Haiti's government, ostensibly on a provisional basis. A new, democratic constitution was approved, but violence erupted, largely sparked by the paramilitary squads and their supporters, and the planned general elections were aborted. In 1988, following military-controlled elections, Leslie Manigat was elected to the presidency, but five months later Namphy overthrew him in a military coup. Four months after that, Namphy was himself unseated in a coup led by Gen. Prosper Avril. Under Avril, widespread repression of political parties, unions, student groups and other democratically oriented organizations ensued. In early 1989, Avril declared a state of siege, but continued protests, both within Haiti and from the international community, induced Avril to relinquish office in 1990. A provisional government led by Supreme Court Justice Ertha Pasqualle Trouillot set elections for December of that year.

The 1990s This vote took place as scheduled, and international observers deemed it generally free and fair. JeanBertrand Aristide, a charismatic Roman Catholic priest known for his support of the poor, won 67 percent of the ballots cast and took office in February 1991. His administration lasted until September, when he was ousted by yet another military coup and forced to leave the country. Estimates are that over 1,000 Haitians were killed in the days following the September coup, and 3,000 more were killed in the following three years. From October 1991 to June 1992, Joseph Nerette a cted as president in an unconstitutional de facto regime, governing with a parliamentary majority and the armed forces. In June 1992, Nerette resigned and the parliament approved Marc Bazin as de facto prime minister, with no replacement named for president. Bazin sought to negotiate a solution with exiled President Aristide, and to end the economic embargo and diplomatic isolation of Haiti imposed after Aristide's ouster. In June 1993, Bazin resigned and the United Nations imposed an oil and arms embargo, bringing the Haitian military to the negotiating table. President Aristide and Gen. Raoul Cedras, head of the Haitian armed forces, signed the U.N.-brokered Governors Island Agreement on July 3, 1993, establishing a 10-step process for the restoration of constitutional government and the return of President Aristide by Oct. 30, 1993. The September 1991 coup that displaced Aristide led to a large-scale exodus of Haitian "boat people," who attempted t o reach the United States or other Caribbean shores in old and dilapidated or rickety homemade craft. The U.S. Coast Guard intercepted 41,342 Haitians at sea in 1991 and 1992, compared to about 24,600 altogether picked up in the previous 10 years. During the interval of Haiti's greatest political unrest in the early 1990s, the U.S. adopted a "safe haven" policy toward Haitian emigrants, housing many at its Guantanamo base in Cuba and ultimately allowing some 11,000 to become U.S. residents. However, in May 1992 U..S. President George Bush issued an executive order directing the

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Coast Guard to revert to its former policy of returning boat people to Haiti. The United States position has been that Haitian emigration is economically motivated and that those leaving the island have no claim to be considered for political asylum.

During the 1992 U.S. presidential campaign, Bill Clinton advocated reopening the United States to Haitian immigrants and refugees. But after his election h e continued the policy of interdiction at sea and forced return, a practice that has remained in place through the present time. Haitian-American groups and other immigrant advocacy organizations have criticized the policy as politically and racially discriminatory, contrasting Haitians' exclusion with the United States' more open access to Cubans fleeing Fidel Castro's communist regime. During the multi-stage implementation of the Governors Island Agreement, Robert Malval was sworn in as Haiti's prime minister on Aug. 30, 1993. However, the military derailed the process and the United Nations reinstated economic sanctions. Malval resigned on Dec. 15, 1993, but remained as acting prime minister for 11 more months. Haiti's political and human rights climate again deteriorated, as the military and the de facto government sanctioned repression, assassination, torture and rape in open defiance of the international community's condemnation. In May 19 94, the Haitian military designated Supreme Court Justice Emile Jonassaint as provisional president of another de facto regime. The United Nations (U.N.) and the United States reacted to this extra-constitutional move by tightening economic sanctions (U.N. Resolution 917). On July 31, 1994, the U.N. adopted Resolution 940 authorizing member states to use all necessary means to facilitate the departure of Haiti's military leadership, and to restore constitutional rule, including Aristide's presidency. At this point, Haiti had parallel governments-the illegitimate military-backed Jonassaint regime that controlled the government apparatus in Haiti, and the constitutional government, whose members were either in exile, like President Aristide, or blocked from carrying out their duties, like acting Prime Minister Malval. In the following weeks, the United States took the lead in forming a Multi-National Force, poised to carry out the U.N.'s mandate by military interventio n, if necessary. In September 1994, with U.S. troops deploying for an imminent landing in Haiti, President Bill Clinton dispatched a negotiating team led by the former U.S. president, Jimmy Carter, to meet with the de facto Haitian leadership in a final attempt to facilitate peaceful restoration of Haiti's legitimate government. The upshot was that the military regime backed down.

Cedras went into exile in Panama and other coup leaders and collaborators relocated to the Dominican Republic and the United States. The MNF deployed peacefully, quickly reaching a peak of over 20,000 troops. President Aristide returned on Oct. 15, 1994. In March 1995, the MNF was replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping mission, the size of which was gradually reduced as Haiti showed signs of stabilization and Haitians were trained to form a new ci vilian police. The old Haitian military, considered inextricably tied to its record of repression and human rights abuses, was formally abolished. After Aristide's return, Haiti successfully held elections for parliament and local government offices between June and October 1995. The process was flawed, though, in that the vote was delayed by seven months, and marred by serious administrative problems and scattered violence. President Aristide's Lavalas Party and its affiliates won by overwhelming margins in practically all the races. However, in the presidential election set for December 1995, Aristide was barred by the Haitian constitution from succeeding himself.

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Another prominent Lavalas figure, Rene Preval, garnered 88 percent of the vote with the remainder divided among 13 opponents. Preval, who had been Aristide's first prime minister in 1991, assumed Haiti's presidency in February 1996. A government under Prime Minister Rosny Smarth was established at that time. Territorial elections designed to decentralize political power were held in April 1997. The results demonstrated Haitians' dissatisfaction with the ongoing lack of palpable improvement in their economic conditions, and in their wake the central government lost whatever slight cohesion it might have had. Smarth's government resigned in June 1997, although his administration stayed in office on a caretaker basis for several months. The parliament was unable to agree on a successor government and ultimately disbanded, leaving Preval to govern without a legislature, pending the scheduled parliamentary elections of 2000. Although the presence of international peacekeeping and monitoring forces was being quite expeditiously reduced, prospects for Haiti's political stabilization and economic development continued to be questionable. Unsolved political killings still occurred sporadically, though the overall level of violence did not approach the levels seen in the Duvalier years, when the "tontons macoutes" held sway, or in the recurrent coup periods between the end of the Duvalier regi me and President Aristide's return in 1994.

Landscape in 2000 On the ground in Haiti, a climate of strife continued to prevail. Haiti's economic duress, ill-functioning civil and political infrastructure, and consequent susceptibility to corruption made the country a leading transshipment point for illegal narcotics, particularly Colombian cocaine headed for the United States (U.S.). Without doubt this issue will be a point of discussion in the continuing negotiations aimed at further normalizing Haiti's standing in the regional and international community, and restoring regular disbursements of financial aid. In mid-2000, Haiti had just 26 police officers assigned to counter-narcotics work. A low rate of drug trafficking arrests was accompanied by an even lower rate of prosecutions and convictions. High-profile murders that, in various cases, appear to have been politically motivated continued to occur. In mid-1999, two opposition politicians, Antoine Leroy and Mireille Durocher Bertin, were slain. In October 1999, a former army colonel, Jean Lamy, was killed. A week later, the director of the judicial police, Mario Andresol, who had been assigned to investigate Lamy's murder, was himself shot dead. The pattern of political violence, as well as a more general breakdown of law and order, persisted and even intensified in 2000. In April, two unidentified gunmen murdered Jean Dominique, a popular radio journalist and advocate for Haiti's poor. The next few weeks saw an opposition politician, Ducertain Armand, hacked to death in the town of Thomazeau, and Dr. Harry Bordes, a leader in Haitian public health initiatives, shot dead in Port-au-Prince. One of Bordes' assailants was then killed by an angry mob. A U.N. civilian worker who died in August was apparently caught in crossfire during an armed robbery.

2000 to 2002 The run-up to the 2000 elections was linked to some of the violence, including bombings that left several dead and dozens wounded, for which each side blamed the other. These two sides consisted, on one hand, of the Aristide-led Lavalas Movement, pressing to remain in power; and on the other hand,

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an array of political actors and organizations with poor cohesion aside from opposition to Lavalas and Aristide. The legislative election was delayed until midyear, and disruptive protests against the postponement became the norm in Port-au-Prince. On March 28, an opposition leader and his wife were shot to death at their home, while demonstrators threw stones at passing cars and erected barricades of burning tires throughout the urban center. Agitation to hold the vote was heightened by the fact that President Preval (an ally of Aristide), who had suspended parliament after the major factions became hopelessly deadlocked, was ruling the cou ntry by decree. The United Nations issued a call for Haiti to conduct its constitutionally mandated election promptly. Aristide, constitutionally barred from succeeding himself in 1996, had waited out one term while his political ally Rene Preval held the presidency. In Haiti's 2000 election, Aristide again won the chief executive's post. Although he has been, by a dominant margin, the country's most prominent and popular political leader, the 2000 elections were widely considered tainted, especially those at the parliamentary level. Leading democratic nations, particularly the United States, have taken a wait-and-see approach in regard to endorsing Haiti's commitment to orderly democratic processes. In the meantime, most large-scale flows of international financial support to Haiti are being held in abeyance, and political and social unrest continues to be a threat. The first round of parliamentary voting took place in May 2000. The Organization of A merican States stationed 200 observers around the country, and initially stated that the election process, despite scattered minor violence and irregularities, was satisfactorily democratic. However, the vote tabulation provoked a storm of controversy as opposition parties claimed that the Lavalas party falsified the results to ensure a fifty-plus percent majority in many districts.

Candidates receiving such an absolute majority win the seat being contested outright; otherwise, a runoff vote between the two top vote getters is held. At this point, nearly all the leading opposition figures declared a boycott of the next round of legislative voting, which was held in July. No officially authorized international monitors were on hand this time. When results were released showing a sweeping Lavalas win, giving the ruling party control of all but one of the 27 Senate seats and 89 percent of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies, the OAS and most Western democracies condemned the results as fraudulent. Major bilateral and multilateral financial donors cited the disputed legislative election as grounds for withholding planned aid disbursements to Haiti. In early November 2000, Haiti achieved an all-too-rare victory for the rule of law, when 12 former soldiers and paramilitary men were sentenced to life in prison for their role in the mass murder of slum dwellers in 1994. The court then planned to try higher-level officials, including the former military dictator Raoul Cedras and paramilitary leader Emmanuel Constant, in absentia for their role in the same action, identified as part of a plot to destabilize and snuff out opposition to military rule. Cedras was in exile in Panama, while Constant was living in the U.S. For its part, the U.S. acknowledged that Constant had a relationship with the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency during Haiti's years of military hegemony. This matter posed a challenge to bilateral relations th e U.S. refused to release documents detailing Constant's contacts and activities to the Haitian government. On Nov. 26, 2000, Jean-Bertrand Aristide won Haiti's presidential election, with more than 90 percent of the ballots cast in his favor. This vote was also boycotted by much of the opposition, and it was not

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observed in any official capacity, though a few non-governmental organizations sent small teams of monitors. Aristide was inaugurated in February 2001, and named Jean-Marie Cherestal prime minister. Forming a government, however, proved problematic. The 15-party opposition alliance-a motley collection ranging from former allies of Aristide to right-wing figures with ties to Haiti's dictatorial pastpromised to form a shadow government. Even some Lavalas legislators declined to take their seats in parliament, hoping to negotiate some form of official standing for a more inclusive representation of Haitian political alignments. One of Aristide's earliest official acts after he returned to the presidency was to travel to the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) conference in Bridgetown, Barbados in mid-February 2001. At this meeting, the Haitian president pledged to adopt governmental and electoral reforms that would demonstrate his country's commitment to democratization and thereby restore Haiti's good standing with international donors. US$500 million was pledged in multilateral financial assistance, however, disbursing agencies delayed releasing immediate assistance while Haitian governmental practices are scrutinized Meanwhile, even after several rounds of negotiations, the government of President Aristide and the opposition failed to reach an agreement on resolving the political stalemate in the country. The failure of talks not only led to a political crisis in the country but also affected the country's weak economy, especially as urgently needed foreign aid was tied to a resolution of the political tangle, as noted above. The country's opposition and government negotiated for several months, with the opposition's charges of voter manipulation being strengthened by the concurrence of foreign governments and international organisations of the region. The opposition, which coagulated into a coalition, Convergence Democratique, called for early elections to the national parliament in order to resolve the dispute. The opposition also demanded re-election to all the seats in exchange for a recognition of the Aristide government, while Aristide offered re-elections to seven seats of the parliament and a shortened term for the rest of the parliament. The round of talks, held in October 2001, began with lots of hope, but failed to provide a breakthrough. During the October 2001 talks, the two sides, however, did agree to hold legislative elections for the 83-member lower house and two thirds of the 27-member Senate or the Upper House in November 2002. The two sides disagreed on whether these elections should be preceded by reruns of the disputed seats from last year's voting, when Aristide's party took control of the legislature and most municipalities. Aristide's party refused to shorten the terms of the mayors, the aldermen and the local assembly members. Lavalas maintained that the incumbents ought to stay in office till the results of the new elections were official. The party called these terms 'nonnegotiable', but the opposition rejected these conditions outright, saying the elections of 2000 were an 'electoral coup d'etat'. Among the regional groupings trying to mediate an end to the political standoff were the Organisation of American States (OAS) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). Both parties' efforts were not successful. The two bodies had initially been encouraged by the suggestion that Aristide would indeed restructure Haiti's electoral council in order to accord proper representation to the opposition, the church, judiciary, business and human rights organizations. The government also agreed to guarantee the funding, independence and security of the electoral council. These measures, however, did not materialize. In March 2001, opposition leaders led over 1,000 former members of the dismantled army in a peaceful march in the capital. The former soldiers called for the reestablishment of the army and an end to what they called Aristide's dictatorship.

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In July 2001, 41 persons, most of them opposition sympathizers had been arrested following attacks on the police academy and police stations in the country which led to the death of five police officials and left 14 injured. The opposition vehemently denied any connection with the attack on the academy and said the government was using the incident for political objectives. Tensions mounted in November 2001 as the Haitian police raided the headqu arters of an opposition party and arrested five members on charges of possessing illegal weapons. The police also accused Convention of Democratic Unity party members of stashing weapons in its headquarters in the capital, Port-au-Prince. The opposition, however, accused the Aristide government of clamping down on political opponents through trumped up charges. The opposition said that the weapons had been planted in order to justify the arrests. The opposition denied it was plotting to overthrow Aristide and said the government was looking for excuses to detain opposition members. The arrests were significant as they were preceded by government accusations that the opposition parties in the country were plotting a coup d'etat, along with the former soldiers from the disbanded Haitian army. Meanwhile, jurisprudence in Haiti received another blow in November 2001 as a judge investigating the slaying of a prominent Haitian journalist threatened to aban don the case. The judge made the shocking announcement days after a mob killed a prisoner wanted in connection with the enquiry into the murder of 69-year-old Jean Dominique, who was shot by gunmen seven times, minutes before he was to give his morning newscast at his Radio Haiti Inter in April 2000. A guard was also killed in the shooting. Dominique was a politically influential journalist who had helped to set up a national farmers' union that was considered as a power base in Haiti. He was also believed to be considering running for forthcoming presidential elections. Although almost 100 persons have been questioned, investigations into the killing have been hampered by the alleged political influence of some of those sought for questioning. In mid-December 2001, a coup d'etat aimed at overthrowing President Jean-Bertrand Aristide was averted at Haiti's presidential palace. Reportedly, a cadre of unidentified gunmen took control of a wing of the palace where they exchanged gunfire with the security forces for more than six hours. They were defeated by police forces but at least two policemen were killed in the exchange of fire. This was the first such attempted coup d'etat against Aristide since he returned to office in February. President Aristide was at his residence in Tabarre, east of Port-Au-Prince, capital of Haiti, at the time of the attack. After the attempted coup d'etat was thwarted, in a national radio address, the Haitian government urged cooperation and the prevention of further political destabilization. Thousands of people followed the radio address by taking to the streets and rallying support for Aristide's presidency. Despite the show of support, however, it is fair to state that the political situation in Haiti became increasingly tense. Also, in the aftermath of the attempted coup d'etat, various arrests were made. The unidentified gunmen were said to include former members of the m ilitary, a former police chief and a former interior secretary under former Gen. Raoul Cedras, who ousted then-President Jean-Bertrand Aristide in a coup d'etat in 1991. Cedras eventually received political asylum in Panama, where he currently resides, as noted above.

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A month later, in January 2002, Haiti's President Jean-Bertrand Aristide accepted Prime Minister JeanMarie Cherestal's resignation at a special session of the Council of Ministers. The session was convened by Aristide in order to persuade Cherestal to resign as more intense accusations arose over his alleged acts of administrative corruption and incompetence. The position of Prime Minister was left unfilled until March when Senate leader, Yvon Neptune was appointed by Aristide as the country's new prime minister. The new Prime Minister, Yvon Neptune, soon promised that the negotiations would resume between Lavalas and the opposition umbrella entity, the Democratic Convergence, in regard to the investigations into the December 2001 attempted coup d'etat. It was Prime Minister Neptune's view that the resumption of negotiations would facilitate a return to democratization in Haiti. In his national address, Prime Minister Neptune's stated the following: "Investigations have to be carried out on some events that threaten the stability of the state, that threaten peace in the lives of Haitian people. After all these investigations are over and this attack on the National Palace, this attack on the life of President JeanBertrand Aristide is determined with exactitude, once this work is done, once these investigations are over, we are sure that with everybody's goodwill a date will be set so we can resume the negotiations. Let us say to continue the negotiations because as far as we are concerned we never stop any dialogue. On the contrary, we love dialogue because it is through dialogue that more light will be shed and it is through dialogue that we will understand one another better." In February 2002, the United States, under the direction of the Bush administration, refused to offer any aid relief to Haiti on the basis of its record on human rights and its erosion of democracy. Other Caribbean nations, while sharing the same concerns as the United States on these matters, expressed shock and dismay over the decision. Generally, they believed that withholding almost $500 million in relief aid would have a detrimental effect upon the impoverished people of the poorest nation in the Western Hemisphere. Meanwhile, leaders of Democratic Convergence demanded a change in the policies of the official Lavalas Party during a demonstration in the streets of the Haitian capital. Their major demands included the coordination of political activities, economic recovery programs, a new round of negotiations with international aid agencies, election reform, a new round of elections, increases in resources for the police force, an independent judicary, and the associated investigation of the murder of journalists. Hundreds of people, headed by opposition leaders, marched to demand these actions as well as a general climate of peace and a resolution to the state of national crisis. The demonstration, under police surveillance, proceeded without incident. In mid-2002, the issue of regional relations came to the foreground of Haitian politics when Hait was approved as a full member of the Caribbean Community (Caricom). The development was hailed as a hopeful sign for the country's future. Optimism was short-lived, however, as by November 2002, civil unrest was on a virulent upswing. Anti-government protests as well as counter-protests by Lavalas loyalists and Aristide supportes ensued. Prime Minister Neptune said, "The situation is very delicate and we fear civil war." The political instability would continue well into 2003 as violence and charges of corrupt ion were levied, the police were accused of human rights abuses, particularly in regard to political dissidents, and mass protests and violence flared on a regularized basis.

2003 to 2004

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In early 2003, the Haitian government accused foreign aid donors of provoking the unrest by refusing to disburse aid. Of course, as noted above, foreign aid had been restricted precisely as a result of the political scenario. In June 2003, the chief of police tendered his resingnation to President Aristide. In his letter of resignation, the ex-police chief said that he had no choice since the alternative would be to become corrupt and subservient. The previous police chief had not lasted long in the position either and had failed to ameliorate the state of the police force, which, as noted above, had been accused of brutality and repression. In this way, it was clear that Haiti's econ omic conditions and political stability had only devolved in the last several years. Although President Aristide said that he was committed to political reform, most critics said that such efforts were anemic, at best. Some modicum of optimism for Haiti was restored in July 2003 when the Inter-American Development Bank resumed its loan program in Haiti with a loan package of over $200 million. The money is to be used on education as well as infrastructure projects. The Haitian government hoped that the package would open the door to further international support. Although the loan might well have provided symbolic capital in these regards, the fact remained that Haiti's political situation continued to be chaotic, and as such, donor countries, most especially the United States, were wary of feeding money into an unstable regime. Indeed, in 2003, opposition members and foreign dignitaries were stoned by Lavalas supporters in a part icularly impoverished area of Port-au-Prince, while media reports stated that political unrest in in Cite Soleil was worsening by the day. By 2004, political unrest would give way to political crisis as street protests and clashes between the government supportes and opposition sympathizers became the norm. The situation was so dire that it appeared as if the country was headed toward another shift of power.

Shift of Power Jean-Bertrand Aristide attempted to hold on to power as the president of Haiti almost until the point at which he was climbing the stairs of the aircraft which would lead him into political exile. Following attempted negotiations with CARICOM officials to end the state of political crisis in Haiti in February 2004, subsequent negotiations involved senior United States officials. Only hours after appearing on Haitian television on Feb. 29, 2004, to declare that his resignation was "out of the question" and that he would remain in office until the end of his elected term in 2006, he was being escorted to the Haitian airport by United States Marines. Aristide said that he never resigned volutarily from office but, rather, he was compelled by United States forces to do so. After leaving Haiti, the aircraft carrying Aristide refueled on the Caribbean island of Antigua before arriving in the Central African Republic. There were conflicting reports about his request for exile in South Africa. United States officials in Washington D.C., said that South Africa refused Aristide's request for asylum, while the South African Foreign Minister in Pretoria said the request had not been made and it was not against the idea in principle. The Central American states of Panama and Costa Rica also offered asylum to Aristide.

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Haiti's Prime Minister under Aristide's presidency, Yvon Neptune, said in a news conference that President Aristide had left in order to avoid bloodshed and predicted "dangerous times" for the country. The interim leader was a Supreme Court Judge, Boniface Alexandre, whose position, according to the constitution, must be ratified by the Congress. The Haitian Congress, however, was disbanded earlier in the year. Meanwhile, the international community, led by the United States, installed a new prime minister in Haiti -- Gerard Latortue. Canadian troops were the first international troops on the ground in Haiti. A small contingent of about 100 United States Marines arrived in were then followed by French soldiers. Most international forces arrived to protect their country's interests and citizens in Haiti; however, their presence and activities were also to involve peacekeeping given the fact that a mission had been backed by the United Nations. At the time of arrival, the international troops were faced with lawlessness and turmoil, as evidenced by a nu mber of "revenge killings" as anti-government rebels confronted supporters of President Aristide and his Lavalas party. Over the weekend leading up to Aristide's resignation, about 100 deaths were recorded. To put things into perspective, the unrest over the course of several months had a fairly lengthy legacy that stemmed back to the disputed elections of 2000. The deteriorating economic situation and the lack of political dialogue with non-Lavalas members led to calls by opposition forces for Aristide to step down. The main political opposition, however, was not directly aligned with the armed rebels who led the violent uprising. The rebels were composed of various factions, such as former gang members, convicted criminals, and disgruntled ex-soldiers from the old Haitian army, which was disbanded in 1995 after Aristide was returned to power by United States forces. The group, which called itself the New Army, was led by Guy Philippe. Other rebel figures included Louis-Jodel Chamblin. Many of these rebel leaders, however, have been criticized for committing atrocities and so despite the claims of being "freedom fighters," there were questions about the credentials of the new leaders of Haiti. For his part, in mid-March 2004, Jean-Bertrand Aristide left the Central African Republic and traveled to the Caribbean island of Jamaica, only 120 miles (200 kilometers) from Haiti. Aristide's return to the Caribbean, for the purpose of reuniting with his family and seeking permanent exile, caused some consternation in Haiti. The new Haitian Prime Minister Gerard Latortue reportedly told Jamaican Prime Minister P.J. Patterson that allowing Aristide to visit Jamaica would be regarded as "an unfriendly act," destined to increase the chaos in Haiti. Conscious of the criticism of the ousted Haitian president's visit, Jamaica government officials said they allowed Aristide's visit to take place on the co ndition that he did not use his stay in Jamaica as an opportunity to start a campaign to be reinstated as Haiti's leader. In May, after some confusion, Aristide left Jamaica and went on to South Africa. There, he was to seek temporary asylum until permanent asylum could be arranged. Meanwhile, critics began to refer to the ousting of Aristide as a United States-led de facto coup. Indeed, this charge was repeatedly uttered by Aristide himself who says that he was forced to leave. The United States has denied these charges.

By mid-2004, United Nations peacekeepers arrived to take over security responsibilities from the United States-led force in Haiti in the post-Aristide period. The United Nations mandate in Haiti appeared to be quite vague and, for all intents and purposes, quite limited. United Nations peacekeep-

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ers were not expected to stay beyond six months and it was difficult to determine what could be accomplished in so short a period of time. (Note: Their mission, as intimated by various actions discussed below, was extended). Complicating matters were warnings by the United Nations, made in September 2004, regarding the challenges posed by violent militias, as well as the lack of control over the entire country. In September 2004, Haiti was in desperate shape following a terrible hurricane. Indeed, over 1,500 lives were lost in Hurricane Jeanne. Looting and fighting over scarce food supplies caused the situation to become even worse. As well, disease epidemics were a very real threat. Although the hurricane was not a political development in the strictest sense, the effects of such devastation will certainly be felt in a country plagued by political turmoil and economic strife.

By the close of 2004, the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti issued a statement saying it had carried out operations in Cite du Soleil, a stronghold of ousted leader, Jean-Bertrand Aristide. The United Nations said it was an area where armed groups had been active and its operations were intended to restore law and order to the neighborhood. In early 2005, gun battles between United Nations troops and local rebels have left several people dead in Haiti. Included in the death toll were two peacekeepers from Sri Lanka and Nepal respectively; they were killed in separate incidents. The rebels who helped to oust President Jean-Bertrand Aristide apparently turned against the interim government.

One key reason behind the instability was the agenda of decommissioned troops. These former soldiers, who have not been paid since the army was disbanded in 1995, played a key role in the ousting of the former Haitian government. With Aristide now exiled, they have been demanding compensation for their efforts from the interim government. For its part, the interim government has been trying to stabilize Haiti with the help of a United Nations mission made up of 7,400 peacekeepers.

Developments in 2005 and early 2006 By the start of May 2005, former Prime Minister Neptune was supposed to be sent to the Dominican Republic, in what was being called a kind of "forced exile." But the former head of government eschewed the efforts by the new government to have him expelled. He was reported to be in jail and in failing health, presumably brought on by his decision to go on a hunger strike to protest the ousting of the Aristide regime, which he deemed to have been unlawful. He had been jailed after Aristide's ousting due to allegations that he was involved in the killing of opposition supporters. He was never, however, convicted of any crimes associated with this claim By mid-2005, clashes between United Nations peacekeepers and residents in the dangerous area of Cite du Soleil were still ongoing. In one case, the situation reportedly turned particularly deadly and resulted in an outcry from the Haiti Action Committee. The committee referenced the activities of United Nations peacekeepers on July 6, 2005, as "a massacre" with foreign eyewitnesses saying there was a full blown military attack on the residents in the neighborhood. Estimates suggested that up to 50 people had been killed. In July 2005, a prominent Haitian journalist, Jacques Roche, was found dead. His handcuffed and mutilated body was found five days after his capture by kidnappers in a slum area of the capital city,

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Port-au-Prince. During his funeral, 1,000 protesters waving flags marched through the city to demand action against the rising tide of insecurity in the impoverished Caribbean country. Roche was just one of hundreds of individuals abducted in recent months as the country has dissolved into a state of civil chaos, despite the presence of United Nations peacekeepers.

Questions arose as to whether elections, scheduled for later in 2005, were even possible, given the security crisis on the ground. Nevertheless, movement toward the elections were ongoing in mid-2005. By September 2005, at least 40 candidates registered for Haiti's elections -- the first to take place since President Jean-Bertrand Aristide was ousted. The election was scheduled for Nov. 20, 2005, but that date passed with no elections taking place as scheduled. In late November 2005, it was announced that elections would be postponed until 2006. The announcement came a week after Interim Prime Minister Gerard Latortue said that the date for the elections had been set for Dec. 27, 2005. Aristide's Lavalas party, which has enjoyed widespread support in more impoverished areas, including the capital city, said that it would boycott the elections. The threat was spurred by the fact that it was barred from registering its chosen candidate, Gerard Jean-Juste -- a Roman Catholic priest who was jailed under spurious charges about his involvement in the killing of a prominent Haitian journalist. Some Lavalas supporters and sympathizers have said they might throw their support toward former Prime Minister Bazin, the leader of the Movement for Democracy in Haiti, which became part of the Union for Haiti coalition. Former President Rene Preval, a close ally of Aristide who had also served as his premier in 1991, was a key candidate running under the aegis of a group called "Front for Hope," made up predominantly of peasants. Also registering as a candidate was Dumarsais Simeus, a wealthy industrialist who has lived in the United States for decades. Other candidates in the running were socialist Serge Gilles, Jean Enold Buteau for the former communist party, and Guy Philippe -- the leader of the local anti-Aristide contingent which contributed to his ousting from office. Philippe was running as the representative for the National Reconstruction Front. The only female candidate has been Judie Roy from the Patriotic Grouping for a National Revival (Reparen).

Perhaps the most surprising of the candidates has been former Haitian leader Jean-Claude Duvalier, known as Baby Doc, on behalf of Haiti's National Unity Party. The party was attempting to end Duvalier's exile in France in anticipation of the election. Duvalier's father, Francois Duvalier, had been the mastermind behind Haiti's period of dictatorial rule after coming to power following a military coup d'etat in 1957. He was subsequently ousted from office in the 1980s.

In January 2006, electoral authorities in Haiti set the date for the first round of presidential and parliamentary elections to be held on Feb. 7, 2006. The second round of voting was scheduled for March 19, 2006. As noted above, the elections had been repeatedly postponed due to logistical and security complications. With the new dates set, Rosemond Pradel, the secretary general of Haiti's provisional electoral council, expressed confidence that organizational and security preparations would be completed on time. Thirty-five candidates were expected to stand for president while hundreds of candidates were set to contest the 129 seats in Congress in the first elections since the ousting of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide from power. The president of the United Nations Security Council, Augustine Mahiga of Tanzania, urged the Haitian authorities to make sure that the elections transpired in keeping with internationally-accepted democratic standards.

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Nevertheless, plans were marred to some degree, with the news of the apparent suicide of General Urano Teixeira Da Matta Bacellar -- the commander of United Nations peacekeeping forces in Haiti. His body was discovered in a hotel room in the capital city of Port-au-Prince on Jan. 7, 2005, with a bullet wound to the head. Officials surmised from the evidence on the scene that he had shot himself; however, there was little information available about the actual motive for his suicide. General Eduardo Aldunate Herman was named as the new commander of United Nations peacekeeping forces. Despite the presence of several thousands of peacekeepers in Haiti, both political and criminal violence has continued to plague the country.

In mid-February 2006, the United Security Council voted to renew the peacekeeping mandate for another six months

Editor's Note: Following the coup d'etat that resulted in the exile of former President Jean-Bertrand Aristide, there has been ongoing conflict between supporters of Aristide's Lavalas party, supporters of the interim administration, rebel groups now disenchanted with the new administration, and United Nations peacekeepers. Each of these factions has accused others of attacks, assaults and other acts of violence.

Elections in 2006

Following elections held on Feb. 7, 2006, it appeared former President Rene Preval -- an ally of ousted leader Jean-Bertrand Aristide who is viewed as something of a champion for the impoverished -- was set to gain victory with around 60 percent of the votes cast. Two days later, Preval's vote share dropped to less that 50 percent, spurring speculation about a second round or run-off election, and leading to speculation about possible irregularities. When the vast majority of the votes were counted, it appeared that Preval had 48.7 percent of the votes cast -- just under the requisite 50 percent threshold for outright victory. His two main rivals, Leslie Manigat and Charles Henri Baker garnered 11.8 percent and 7.9 percent respectively. The United States Department of State declared the election free from fraud. Some international observers however acknowledged claims of ballot mishandling and other irregularities, though not of the type likely to affect the outcome. Nevertheless, two members of Haiti's electoral council came forward saying the vote counting process had been questionable. One candidate, Baker, claimed some people had been allowed to vote twice because there was no adherence to voter lists. The allegations regarding voting irregularities intensified and on Feb. 14, 2006, Preval joined in the chorus of accusations of voter fraud, insisting he had won the election. By that time, tension had escalated across the country, leading to violent clashes, street protests and reports of some deaths. Preval's own supporters rallied to the National Palace in the capital city of Port-au-Prince declaring victory for their candidate and insisting they would disrupt peace if he was cheated out of a victory. Their insistence that Preval had been wronged appeared to have some degree of legitimacy when hundreds of smashed ballot boxes, vote tally sheets and other election-related materials were found in a garbage dump in the Haitian capital. Indeed, the local media broadcast some images showing the dam-

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aged ballot boxes as well as discarded ballots strewn about -- almost all marked for Preval. United Nations spokesperson David Wimhurst characterized the revelation as "extraordinary" - an apt description given that international observers had declared the election to be both free and fair just one week earlier. United Nations security forces were deployed to retrieve the ballot boxes and other electionrelated items while the interim government ordered a review of the election results. As well, discussions were underway to find a peaceful solution to what was quickly becoming an election crisis. Fearing violent reprisals in response to the apparent vote fraud that was carried out, election officials in consultation with the interim government and the Organization of American States (OAS) agreed to redistribute approximately 80,000 of the blank votes -- around 4 percent of the total -- among the candidates on a pro-rata basis. The additional vote share took Preval over the 50 percent threshold and allowed him to claim victory with a credit for 51.15 percent of the votes cast. In this way, Preval was declared winner of Haiti's presidential election a week after the actual election ensued. One of Preval's rivals, Leslie Manigat, said the winner had been imposed and violence would be rewarded. Nevertheless, crowds of Preval suppprters took to the streets of the capital city to celebrate Preval's election victory and his return to power. Preval was an agronomist who had been educated in Belgium. In the early 1970s, he had been part of a political movement that agitated against the notorious military leader, Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier. In the early 1990s, Preval served as prime minister in Aristide's first administration. He then served as president between 1996 and 2001. The recent decline in Haiti's political and economic situation occurred around the time that his tenure in the president's office ended. Chief among Preval's challenges as he assumed the role of president was the re-integration of opposition forces within the political fold. From around 2001, the opposition became increasingly estranged from those in power, eventually leading to boycotts as well as charges of disputed elections and accusations of illegitimate leadership. A repeat performance of this trend did not bode well for Haitian politics and anxieties loomed over the possibility of violence and chaos similar to that preceeding the ousting of Aristide from office in 2004.

In addition to dialogue and engagement with the political opposition, Preval was also expected to improve the country's security situation, which has been severely compromised in recent years. While unlikely to be helped by the fact that the local police has been poorly-trained and badly-equipped, the decision by the United Security Council in mid-February 2006 to renew the peacekeeping mandate for another six months was expected to provide some assistance in his efforts.

A third challenge involves acquiring support for his newly-elected government from the international community. To this end, Preval would be helped by the fact that the Caribbean regional bloc, CARICOM, announced it would re-admit Haiti into the fold. CARICOM had suspended Haiti's membership after the removal of Aristide -- the democratically-elected leader -- from office. The leadership of CARICOM regarded Haiti's return to democracy, evidenced by a democratic transition of power, with relief.

Voting in Haiti's second round of parliamentary elections commenced slowly in April 2006 -- a month later than they had been originally scheduled. The first round ensued in February 2006 but only two

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candidates won outright victories. As a result, a second round had to be held to elect the vast majority of representatives to both the upper and lower chambers of parliament. Once the results were finalized, parliament could be convened and a prime minister could be selected. Constitutionally, the party holding at least half of the seats in parliament chooses the head of government. The completion of this process would thus allow for the inauguration of Rene Preval as president. President-elect Preval welcomed that prospect saying, "Without support from parliament, there is not much a president can do."

New Leadership

In May 2006, Rene Preval was inaugurated as Haiti's first democratically-elected president since JeanBertrand Aristiude was ousted from office in 2004. The inauguration was attended by delegates from 40 countries. Perhaps as a nod to his earlier alliance with his predecessor, Preval has said that he sees no constitutionally-grounded reason why Aristide, in exile in South Africa, should not return to Haiti. Preval's position on Aristide's hypothetical return to Haiti has not been one of concurrence with the opposition.

With his ascent to power, Preval said that his priorities for the future would include poverty alleviation and security concerns in a country wracked by extreme economic hardship and lawlessness. Illustrating these very conditions on the same day of the swearing-in ceremony, a riot broke out at a prison on Haiti's capital city of Port-au-Prince. United Nations troops and police officers surrounded the prison in an attempt to bring order to the situation. It was another example of the ongoing state of instability and gang rule that has characterized Haiti in recent times, despite the presence of United Nations troops on the ground.

Later in May 2006, Haitian Prime Minister Jacques Edouard Alexis, who had been named as head of government by Presient Preval, unveiled his cabinet. Included in his government were members of several rival political parties as well as seven cabinet veterans of Preval's first presidency. Debate was expected on the new government. Rejection of the government would serve as a non-confidence vote and would force President Preval to choose a new prime minister.

Recent Developments

In other developments in Haiti, there was a rising clamor for the return of former President Aristide from exile in South African exile, as well as for the release of political prisoners. These two matters promised to factor highly on the political scene in the months to come.

Indeed, at a demonstration in the Haitian capital of Port-au-Prince in July 2006, thousands of people participated in a rally at the National Palace in which they called for the return of their former Presi-

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dent Jean-Bertrand Aristide. The date of the rally coincided with the 53rd birthday of the former Haitian leader. The demonstrators also called for the release of prisoners taken into custody during the regime of former Prime Minister Gerard Latortue, who took on the role of head of government after Aristide was driven from office. During the 2006 election campaign that brought Rene Preval -- an ally of Aristide -- to power, the new president said he would consider allowing the former leader to come home. Such a proposition was not well-regarded by the Western countries, which were reported to have been highly involved in Aristide's removal from office. The United States, for example, argued that Aristide's return would destabilize Haiti. However, many Haitians countered that claim by asserting that decisions must be made by the government of sovereign Haiti and not by outsiders.

Also in mid-2006, former Prime Minister Yvon Neptune was released from prison. As noted above, he had been jailed for alleged involvement with the killing of anti-Aristide factions, however, he was never convicted of any crimes. Having carried out a hunger strike to protest the ousting of Aristide and his own imprisonment, by the time of of his release, which was granted on humanitarian grounds, his health had strongly deteriorated. From jail, he was taken to the hospital for much-needed treatment.

In 2006 and well into 2007, attention tuned to the problem of violent gangs plaguing Haiti. With an eye on resolving this challenge, a constellation of schemes were considered -- some with an incentiveoriented approach, and others involving more hard-line measures. To this end, in September 2006, a program was implemented to disarm such gangs, while providing job training and grants for former gang members. The socio-economic program was backed the United Nations. Then, in early 2007, these efforts were augmented by a more aggressive scheme to root out gangs and other criminal elements. In the violent and crime-ridden shanty town of Cite Soleil, United Nations troops launched an offensive against armed gangs and militant groups.

But by mid-2007, the situation was unabated. Rampant gang violence was ongoing but exacerbated by the rise in extra-judicial violence -- largely the result of the corrupt justice system that commanded little or no public confidence. In fact, while some people have been detained without trial, others, such as gang leaders, have been released after paying bribes to judges. Public outrage over the miscarriage of justice led some to react by carrying out lynchings or mob attacks.

In the spring of 2008, Haiti was plagued by riots as crowds attempted to storm the presidential palace in the capital of Port-au-Prince in order to protest food prices. United Nations troops fired rubber bullets at the demonstrators in an attempt to quell the chaos. The unrest began in the southern city of Les Cayes and took a violent turn with the death of five people. But there was no end in sight as Haitians expressed their frustration with the rising cost of living and the continuing struggle for survival. Indeed, hunger was becoming such a prevalent state in Haiti that the phrase "grangou klowox" or "eating bleach" was becoming a commonplace colloquialism used to describe the constant pangs of hunger; it was intended to convey the burning feeling of empty stomachs.

On April 13, 2008, as food riots were intensifying, the Haitian Senate passed a non-confidence motion against Prime Minister Jacques Edouard Alexis, resulting in his removal from office. The vote of no confidence was supported by 16 of the 27 senators in an extraordinary parliamentary session. At issue

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was Alexis' handling of the public's outrage of the escalating price of food. Nominated as head of government in 2006, Alexis managed to survive a no confidence vote regarding his administration's stewardship of the economy in February 2008. Two months later, he was not so fortunate. In response to the political governments, Alexis did not elaborate on his political fate, saying little to journalists other than his removal from office was "unjust."

Prior to the parliamentary vote, President Rene Preval had said he would support whatever decision parliamentarians made. With the prime minister's office vacant, President Preval said his priority would be finding a new head of government. To that end, he said, "The game for me now is, I have to go find a new prime minister." In the interim, however, he said the government would address the immediate challenge of high food prices by decreasing the price of rice -- a food staple -- by close to 16 percent. In the interim, Preval said his government would lower the price of rice by almost 16 percent.

Meanwhile, the Organization of American States (OAS) urged regional powers to provide the small and impoverished Caribbean country with short-term assistance and poverty alleviation. The OAS issued a statement warning that "unless something is done urgently, the situation could deteriorate even further." To that end, CARICOM Chairman and Bahamian Prime Minister Hubert Ingraham said the regional body was in communication with Haitian President Preval. The head of the Caribbean bloc said that it was hoping to offer financial assistance, aimed at helping the suffering Haitian people. As well, United Nations spokeswoman, Michele Montas, noted that it would prioritize giving food provided by the World Food Program so that children, pregnant women and nursing mothers would be the first beneficiaries. In the United States, Congressional representatives called for both debt relief for Haiti and food aid for that country.

Several weeks later, President Rene Preval appointed economist Ericq Pierre to be the new prime minister. Pierre's appointment was to be ratified by Haiti's parliament. In mid-May 2008, the nomination of Eriq Pierre was rejected in the lower house, or Chamber of Deputies, in Haiti's parliament. The vote was 51-34 with nine abstentions. Earlier, Haiti's Senate had approved Pierre as the new head of government by a unanimous vote.

By the close of May 2008, the president issued a new selection for head of government. President Rene Preval chose one of his own stalwarts, Robert Manuel, to become the country's prime minister after lawmakers rejected his first choice. As before, Manuel's nomination would have to be ratified by Haitian lawmakers. That ratification also ended in failure.

In late June 2008, President Preval chose a new nominee, Michele Pierre-Louis, to become the country's prime minister. Yet to be seen was whether or not the third nominee would suffer the same fate as the previous two selections, both of whom were rejected by a parliamentary chamber in ratification votes. Michele Pierre-Louis passed the first hurdle by winning ratification overwhelmingly in the lower house of Chamber of Deputies in mid-July 2008. Yet to be seen was whether or not PierreLouis would be ratified by the Senate or suffer the same fate as the previous two nominees.

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At the close of July 2008, Michele Pierre-Louis, the female nominee for Haitian prime minister, was ratified by a vote in the Senate. The lower Chamber of Deputies had already approved her candidacy earlier in the month. The ratification of Michele Pierre-Louis as head of government by both chambers effectively ended the political deadlock gripping the country since the ousting of former Prime Minister Jacques-Edouard Alexis amidst food riots. Two previous nominees to succeed former Prime Minister Alexis -- economist Ericq Pierre and presidential adviser Robert Manuel -- were not successful in shoring up support in the Senate, as discussed above.

Partial senatorial elections in Haiti were set for April 19, 2009. The Lavalas Family -- the party of exiled leader Jean-Bertrand Aristide -- has called for a boycott and urged supporters to stay home. The result has been an election less characterized by competing parties and blocs, but rather one marked by the pro-vote front versus the pro-boycott enclave.

The election itself was marred by violence. Several polling stations were vandalized by demonstrators while one poll supervisors was shot. As well, the low voter turnout suggested that the call by Aristide for a boycott may have been successful.

Nevertheless, in the aftermath of the vote, the United Nations Peacekeeping Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) called on voters to calmly await the results of the Senate elections, which election officials said would not be available for another week. To that end, electoral workers tabulating the results reported by polling stations were being guarded at a computer center by armed United Nations peacekeepers.

In the aftermath of the senatorial elections, at least four Haitian legislators called for the annulment of results, charging that they had been marred by political manipulation and voter fraud. For its part, the Haitian Provisional Electoral Council (CEP) said it was investigating formal complaints from six administrative regions, and noted that most of the complaints had come from President Rene Preval's Lespwa movement. Meanwhile, the United Nations said the low voter turn-out had resulted in the fact that none of the candidates garnered sufficient votes to win a seat outright. Accordingly, the United Nations peacekeeping mission called on the electoral council to focus on the next round of voting. The mission also said that the police should learn from the logistical, technical and security problems that occurred in the elections and make changes ahead of the second round.

In late October 2009, the Haitian Senate removed Prime Minister Michele Pierre-Louis from office, on the basis of the claim that since coming to office, she had failed to improve the lives of citizens. For her part, Pierre-Louis dismissed claims that she was unable to effectively use the oil discount agreement with Venezuela to improve the country's infrastructure. With the United Nations peacekeeping mission calling for the swift naming of a replacement to outgoing Prime Minister Pierre-Louis, in order to avoid political and economic instability, President Rene Preval then named Planning and Cooperation Minister Jean Max Bellervie as the new prime minister. Bellerive would still have to be approved by both chambers of parliament -- the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. In the past, this approval process has been fraught with problems.

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-- October, 2009

SPECIAL REPORT: Earthquake in Haiti

Summary Total death toll in Haiti expected to be catastrophic; capital city destroyed and deployment of humanitarian aid challenged by logistical obstacles. U.S. President tells Haiti, "You will not be forsaken," and U.N. pledges help *See below for Editor's urgent call to action and commentary on poverty in Haiti * Background On Jan. 12, 2010, an earthquake measuring 7.0 on the Richter scale hit the Caribbean nation of Haiti. The earthquake was deemed the worst in that country in 200 years and reportedly destroyed the capital city of Port-au-Prince, which is home to two million people. Reports suggested that the city had been reduced to rubble, the infrastructure completely destroyed, leaving both survivors and dead bodies on the streets, and an unspecified number of people likely trapped in collapsed buildings. Poor building codes in a city that underwent hyper-development in the mid-2000s likely contributed to the fact that the infrastructure could not withstand the effects of an earthquake of such a magnitude. Despite the collapse of the national palace and parliament, President Renee Preval, his wife, and most of the members of government appeared to have survived. Given the utter devastation of the capital city, the death toll was nonetheless expected to be heavy. In the immediate hours after the earthquake struck, the Catholic Archbishop of Port-au-Prince, Joseph Serge Miot, was reported to have died. As well, the United Nations reported that the head of its mission, Hedi Annabi, was missing. French Foreign Minister Bernard Kouchner expressed his fear that Annabi -- a native of Tunisia -- may have died. Foreign Minister Kouchner's fear was later confirmed. It should be noted that the international peacekeeping community in Haiti was badly-hit by this tragedy. David Wimhurst, a United Nations spokesman in Haiti, said that 188 United Nations staffers remained missing at the site of the headquarters in Port-au-Prince. As well, he noted that at least 36 United Nations military and police personnel were confirmed dead. China, Brazil, Argentina and Jordan all confirmed that some of their peacekeepers in Haiti had died in the earthquake. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said the Haitian earthquake was likely to be the deadliest single event for the United Nations.

Among the Haitian citizenry, there were a number of estimates regarding the number of casualties. President Renee Preval said he believed thousands of people were dead, but other officials, such as Prime Minister Jean-Max Bellerive initially said the death toll could be as catastrophic as 100,000. In an interview with CNN, he went on to say: "I hope that is not true, because I hope the people had the

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time to get out." After a few days on the ground, the Red Cross estimated that the death toll from the cataclysmic earthquake may be around 50,000. But soon thereafter, those numbers were revised with news emerging that at least 70,000 people had been buried, thus suggesting an even more extensive death toll once those missing and confirmed dead were added to the list. By Jan. 18, 2010, United States General Ken Keen, who was directing the American military relief effort said it was a "disaster of epic proportions," and warned that death toll estimates of between 150,000 and 200,000 people were being considered. A week later, with the Haitian government confirming that 150,000 victims' bodies had been buried not including those still lost under the rubble, the estimates of the total death toll were rising to almost incomprehensible levels. Communications Minister Marie-Laurence Jocelyn Lassegue said, "Nobody knows how many bodies are buried in the rubble - 200,000? 300,000? Who knows the overall death toll?" The International Red Cross also estimated that upwards of three million people would be deleteriously affected in Haiti. In stark terms, in a country of nine million, this meant that Haiti will have endured a massive casualty list affecting a full third of its entire population. It was a catastrophe of proportions rarely endured by a single nation state. Rescue, recovery and the international response With the airport runway intact, aircrafts carrying much-needed supplies and personnel assistance expected to be able to land in Haiti . Such assistance would be vital in a country that has suffered from chronic political instability and wrenching poverty. While many missions and charitable organizations have functioned in Haiti for several years, many agencies -- such as Medecins Sans Frontieres -- saw their buildings destroyed in the earthquake and their ability to continue their work would be severely compromised. Survivors were gathering in large public spaces of Port-au-Prince, which were quickly turning into makeshift camps, due to general anxiety about going indoors in already-destabilized buildings while aftershocks were still taking place. They were some suggestions that there was a growing sense of frustration over the slow pace at which relief supplies were being delivered. There were reports of looting of shops, adding to security concerns. Matt Marek of the American Red Cross explained, "There is no other way to get provisions." Meanwhile, with no place to deposit dead bodies, corpses were piling up on the sides of streets. In some parts of the city, bulldozers were used to transport some corpses to isolated areas of the city. Despite high hopes for a rapid aid and assistance response, humanitarian efforts were stymied by logistical challenges. Few of the transportation arteries to and within Port au Prince have been cleared and have been able to accommodate aid convoys. Meanwhile, the country's airport had limited resources, few runways, and limited ramp space, to accommodate a steady arrival of aircraft carrying aid from overseas. This aircraft flow was further compromised by the fact that the airport was also running low on jet fuel, meaning that jets could not easily refuel and depart, thereby providing space for the arrival of further carriers. As stated by United States Air Force Col. Buck Elton, "There's only so much concrete" for parking planes. He continued, "It's a constant puzzle of trying to move aircraft in and out." The result was that a significant number of aircraft from across the world were forced to retreat to neighboring Dominican Republic. Meanwhile, time was running out for expert rescue teams to arrive on the scene to help survivors. The general consensus in such catastrophes has been that rescues are only feasible in the first 72 hours, with chances of survival severely decreasing after that timeframe has elapsed. There was also a dearth of mechanical equipment available to aid in this regard. Accordingly, regular Haitians digging through

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the rubble with their hands -- essentially acting as the "first responders" on the scene, and trying to rescue survivors trapped in collapsed buildings. But even individuals who were rescued under these extraordinarily challenging conditions were not necessarily guaranteed to live. With few medical facilities and almost no ability to deal with rescued victims who sustained critical injuries, many survivors actually plucked from the rubble were reported to have eventually died. The immediate needs on the ground, as of mid-January 2010, included food, water, medicine, medical ware, as well as bulldozers and heavy lifting equipment. Stefano Zannini, head of Medecins Sans Frontieres in Haiti, noted that he believed the most crucial requirements on the ground in Haiti were medical attention (including surgery), food, and safe drinking water. Illustrating the dire situation, doors were being used to transport people needing medical care instead of stretchers, while the wounded were being left untreated and at risk of preventable deaths due to infection. Moreover, there was an over-arching requirement for organizational leadership to take charge of the rescue and recovery operations in Haiti. As noted Kate Conradt, a spokeswoman for the Save the Children, said, "Donations are coming in to the airport here, but there is not yet a system to get it in." Indeed, given the massive extent of the damage to the physical infrastructure, there was a corresponding level of damage to governmental functions. In fact, the government was in no position to take on that organizational and leadership role, given the destruction of the Grand Palace and the parliament, along with other ministries and departments. Signaling the disabled government structure, White House spokesperson Robert Gibbs said that United States President Barack Obama had tried twice unsuccessfully to reach Haitian President Rene Preval. For his part, the Haitian leader was trying to operate from the airport.

International Assistance In something of a positive development, Edmond Mulet, a former United Nations peacekeeping chief in Haiti, arrived on Jan. 14, 2010, from New York to lead the relief effort. A United Nations disaster coordination team accompanied him. In a move that could potentially ease the aforementioned logistical logjam, the United States Department of State announced on Jan. 15, 2010, that it had signed a memorandum of understanding with Haiti to allow the United States to take over indefinite control of the air traffic and airport in Haiti. Reportedly, the agreement was signed by Haitian President Rene Preval. As well, a separate memorandum of understanding was signed that would allow American doctors to immediately practice medicine on the ground in Haiti, effectively bypassing the normal bureaucratic hurdles regulating the practice of medicine in Haiti. On that same day, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced that she, as well as the head of United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Rajiv Shah, would travel to Haiti to personally oversee her country's aid and assistance efforts there. Secretary Clinton was on the record stating: "The United States is offering our full assistance to Haiti and others in the region." To this end, a contingent from the United States' army's airborne division was being deployed to Haiti, along with the deployment of the hospital ship, USNS Comfort, as well as the USS Carl Vinson, carrying personnel and aid. Still, sensitive to perceptions that the United States might be overstepping its boundaries, Secretary Clinton's chief of staff, Cheryl Mills, said, "We have no intention of supplanting the leadership of Haiti." These announcements appeared to be consistent with an earlier pledge by United States President Barack Obama to contribute to one of the biggest relief efforts in recent American history. To that end,

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on Jan. 14, 2010, President Obama made this commitment: "To the people of Haiti, we say clearly and with conviction, you will not be forsaken, you will not be forgotten." He also promised concrete and sustained assistance saying, "Every element of our national capacity, our diplomacy, and development assistance, the power of our military and most importantly, the compassion of our country" would be used in the United States' humanitarian and aid efforts in Haiti. In total, the Obama administration said it would release $100 million immediately, however, outlays would increase in the future with an eye on long-term recovery. *(See Editor's Note below) But the United States has not been the only player on what has become a global humanitarian endeavor. Indeed, the international aid effort has coalesced countries from across the world. United States President Barack Obama and French President Nicolas Sarkozy have been working closely with Canada and Brazil -- whose aid workers had the most pronounced presence on the ground in Haiti immediately after the earthquake. Other countries contributing to the humanitarian assistance efforts have included the United Kingdom Russia, China, Venezuela, Australia, and Israel. Notably, bankrupt and geographically-distant Iceland was one of the first countries to deploy rescue teams to Haiti thousands of miles away. Also notable was the fact that Cuba, already in the field with 300 doctors, was among the few medical first responders available to treat victims in the first days of the crisis. Cuba also agreed to open its air space to the United States, for the purpose of expediting medical evacuations for earthquake victims from Haiti. Among international agencies, there was also a strong response to offer assistance. For example, the World Bank announced it was funding $100 million in emergency aid while the World Food Programme was accumulating 15,000 tons of food. As well, the Red Cross had launched a funding appeal that included easy means to contribute, such as via text messaging. United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon lauded the international community's overwhelming response to provide assistance to Haiti. Then on Jan. 22, 2010, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution expressing solidarity and support to the government and people of Haiti as well as to all member states that lost nationals in the tragic earthquake. The United Nations General Assembly, as well, paid special tribute to United Nations peacekeepers and other staff who lost their lives in the line of duty. The resolution additionally called on the international community to provide "speedy, sustainable and adequate" assistance for Haiti. The United Nations General Assembly also called on relevant bodies, financial institutions and development agencies to offer "continued effective humanitarian, technical and financial assistance." United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon emphasized the need to rebuild Haiti and "turn disaster into opportunity." He spoke of the international community's imperative to help the Haitian government and the Haitian people reconstitute their country.

Latest Developments Despite the large and globalized response, the overwhelming nature of the situation on the ground made the search and rescue efforts very difficult, and the assessment was expected to include mixed results. Jon Andrus, the deputy director of the Pan American Health Organization said, "Are we satisfied with the job we are doing? Definitely not. But progress is being made. Think of what we started with when the world came crashing down on Haiti. No roads, only rubble and dead bodies. No communication, only death and despair."

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With time, the logistical challenges outlined above were starting to be resolved and there was a marked improvement in the level of aid coordination. The pace at which medical aid and food were being delivered to those in need had accelerated. Survivors were being settled in "tent cities" and there were reports that they would be resettled in to-be-built villages on the outskirts of the ravaged capital city. Still, shortages were reported, damaged roads and ports were a fact of life, and doctors conveyed continuing fears about the threat of a disease with hundreds of thousands injured and/or homeless, at risk of tetanus, gangrene, measles, meningitis, tuberculosis, malaria and other infections, not to mention challenges of malnutrition and hygiene. The establishment of mobile hospitals would play a core role in minimizing the potential of a medical disaster arising from the natural disaster. Meanwhile, as the month of January 2010 entered its final week, the rescue operations in Haiti were winding down. Indeed, on Jan. 23, 2010, it was announced that the search and rescue phase of the earthquake relief efforts coming to a close. The United Nations' Organization for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs said, "The government has declared the search and rescue phase over." This announcement came just as two people were rescued from under the rubble. In one case, an elderly woman was freed from under her house by neighbors using their bare hands to rescue her. In the other case, Israeli rescuers were able to save a youth. While these encouraging cases constituted a reason to celebrate, the country was still being affected by strong and frightening aftershocks of the earthquake, effectively posing some degree of increased risk for humanitarian and rescue workers as well as the already-traumatized Haitians and other victims on the ground. On Jan. 26, 2010, representatives from several countries gathered in the Canadian city of Montreal to discuss possible pathways to help earthquake-ravaged Haiti. One idea, advanced by the Canadian government, was that a 10-year aid plan be directed at Haiti. While there were no definitive plans made in terms of global long-term action, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton proposed that a follow-up meeting take place in New York in March 2010 after further needs assessment had been completed.

As of February 2010, the humanitarian aid operation in earthquake-ravaged Haiti has continued to be slow and challenging. However, reports on the ground from the United Nations have indicated some improvement in transporting food to survivors. That being said, the united Nations emphasized that another core task was to provide shelter to about one million people who were now homeless. At the broader level, the objective was the reconstruction of Haiti. To that end, meetings commenced at the Situation Room of the World Bank in Washington D.C. among technocrats, scientists, disaster experts, development specialists and urban planners aimed at setting the path for Haiti's recovery.

In February 2010, a child trafficking case had unfolded in Haiti in which a number of American Baptist missionaries were accused of illegally trying to take children out of Haiti. The missionaries were detained and charged with child kidnapping and criminal association for attempting to cross the border into the Dominican Republic with a busload of 33 children. The ten missionaries denied the charges and argued that they were merely trying to help those orphaned by the earthquake. By midmonth, a Haitian judge ruled in favor of the release of the missionaries, however, the prosecutor noted that he would not immediately work towards their release from official custody.

Editor's Note on Governance and Poverty in Haiti:

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Haiti is one of the world's most impoverished countries and the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere. It is the only country from the Americas located in the bottom echelon of the United Nations' Human Development Index. Haiti's population lives on an average of $2 USD a day and 50 percent of the population is composed of children and youth -- the most vulnerable segment of society in a natural disaster. With a significant portion of the people --22 percent -- living in the Haitian capital city of Port-au-Prince, which was at the epicenter of the January 2010 earthquake, the effects on Haiti as a whole was expected to be staggering. As noted here, in a country of nine million, a full third of Haiti's entire population was expected to be deleteriously affected by the earthquake.

In the period before the 2010 earthquake, Haiti was already dealing with the massive destruction caused by four major hurricanes that struck the country in 2008. At the time, the United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, John Holmes, had characterized the cumulative effect of the four hurricanes of 2008 as the "worst disaster in the last 100 years" to plague Haiti.

It therefore bears repeating: The Haitian earthquake of 2010 has been a catastrophe of proportions rarely endured by a single nation state. The cataclysmic situation on the ground in Port-au-Prince augured manifold challenges in a country already wracked by a legacy of political instability and blinding poverty. As noted by United States President Barack Obama in his assessment of the situation in Haiti: "For a country and a people who are no strangers to hardship and suffering, this tragedy seems especially cruel and incomprehensible."

As the international community has mobilized to assist Haiti in its time of need, there have been widespread discussions of the country's level of poverty and the role of international aid in less developed countries. With regard to these issues, the question arises, "Why is Haiti so poor?" The answer to that question, as one might imagine, is a complicated one and lies, to some extent, in Haiti's historical legacy. Haiti -- once known as Saint-Domingue -- became a French colony in the late 17th century and gained the distinction of being one of the wealthiest French colonies in the New World. In fact, by the 18th century, Haiti's plantation economy was contributing to French wealth. Indeed, coffee and sugar -- two significant crops cultivated by African slave labor -- would yield enormous profits for France during that period. Haiti's shocking reversal of fortune is rooted in a conflagration of causes. After Haiti gained independence from France in 1804, following the mass revolt of slaves led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, it became the one of first independent black nations in the world. The country was eventually re-named "Ayiti" -- an indigenous Taino name meaning "land of mountains."

But peace had not easily come to independent Haiti, as a consequence of France's continued attempts to re-assert its power and re-impose slavery. Then, following independence, Haiti continued to suffer at the hands of successive oppressive leaders -- a trend that would continue for years to come. Notably, in the post-L'Ouverture years, under Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the stewardship of the Haitian economy and political arena was compromised due to his decisions to ban the country's European population from owning property, and to mandate that the African population work either in the army or on plantations in what became a system of pseudo-serfdom. Other leaders, such as Henri Christophe, reinforced a brutal but successful plantation system called "fermage" in the northern part of the country during his tenure, which disintegrated after his death. In the south under Alexandre Pétion, the

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Political Conditions

Political Overview

agro-economy devolved into subsistence farming. Years of ongoing battles and warfare also exacted a painful and destructive toll on the landscape and resources of Haiti. Clearly, Haiti's economic prospects were deteriorating as a result of these collective factors. Nevertheless, the likely death knell was the reparations settlement that Haiti was forced to pay France. The example of a black nation state being forged from a slave revolt was not a welcome precedent for the prevailing European colonial powers. Accordingly, Spain and the United States joined France in imposing an economic embargo onto Haiti, which ultimately forced that country in 1838 to pay an indemnity of 150 million francs to France -- an amount roughly equivalent to $21 billion today.

Meanwhile, Haiti's national bank was being plundered by British, French, American and German forces. The ostensible result was a country in a state of debt to its former colonial master for almost a century and a post-colonial economic disaster from which Haiti has never really ever recovered. Haiti's more recent political and economic history has been fraught with tyrannical and dictatorial regimes, such as those led by "Papa Doc" Duvalier and his successor, "Baby Doc" Duvalier. Both Duvaliers were tacitly supported by the United States for geopolitical and strategic reasons, given Haiti's closeness to communist Cuba. Under "Papa Doc," peasant lands were seized and given to members of his paramilitary force (re: death squads) called the Tonton Macoutes. "Baby Doc" oversaw a military regime that continued a pattern of exploitation and corruption, marked by the expropriation of the government's treasury into the hands of the governing elite, and to the detriment of economic development. This disturbing political and social terrain contributed to a mass exodus of the country's intelligentsia to neighboring Francophone islands, Francophone Canada, and urban centers in the United States. This "brain drain" served to ensure that Haiti may not have sufficient human capital (re: a dearth of technocrats) capable of solving the country's complex political and economic challenges. Today, Haiti is the recipient of international aid and is home to a number of humanitarian aid organizations, all charged with the goal of helping the Haitian people. To this end, there have been some critiques about the utility of long-term international aid to Haiti. Some voices concentrate on the failure of governance in fragile Haiti, usually with venal and corrupt leadership at the helm. They have contended that this dysfunctional system has resulted in the Haitian people receiving only limited benefits from the billions spent in international aid. Other voices, however, have argued that Haiti is constituently unable to chart a better path for its people. This sentiment was recently articulated by well-known New York Times' columnist, David Brooks, who suggested that countries like Haiti suffer from a progress-resistant culture, and that there is no real knowledge of how to transform aid funding into poverty alleviation in such places. A countervailing view, as noted by renowned economist, Hernando de Soto, is not that the less developed countries of the world suffer as a result of "a culture of poverty," but from a dearth of strong governance and a lack of corresponding institutions. Indeed, De Soto has noted that whereas developed countries of the West have established domestic and international institutions and apparatus -- from property rights to banking regulations -- intended to reinforce and reward certain economic activities, developing countries, such as Haiti, often lack predicable regulatory systems facilitating sustainable economic development. Do Soto draws upon empirical field research in Haiti itself to show how bureaucratic hindrances can inhibit settlement on government land for decades. Likewise, Terry Buss at the National Academy on Public Administration, who has also studied Haiti, has noted that the

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effective use of foreign aid must be predicated upon a strong system of institutions. Accordingly, the lack of such a structure is surely more of a contributing factor to the challenges of economic development, in stark contrast to dubious theories of "a culture of poverty." In the immediate aftermath of the horrific earthquake of 2010, Haiti is simply trying to survive. In the future, as attention turns to reconstruction, the very structure of the Haitian political economy will likely be a matter of debate. While the aforementioned argument is sure to resurface -- that international aid (pre-earthquake) has seen few results -- other key facts are expected to inform the impending discussion. Since 2004 when Jean-Bertrand Aristide (a democratically-elected leader-turned-despot) was ousted from office, Haiti was functioning under the aegis of a United Nations-mandated mission. In these recent years, the country has, in fact, seen some degree of progress. Peacekeepers have helped calm the fragile security situation, while a 2005 macroeconomic development program, forged with the help of the International Monetary Fund, has yielded modest results relative to the previous decades. As such, Haiti's long-term prospects will invariably involve participation by the international community, and success will potentially rest upon the international community's corresponding level of commitment to helping this beleaguered country. One step in that direction might be the decision to move forward on cancelling Haiti's debt. Since Haiti has already seen some modest gains in recent years, despite being subject to a particularly harsh debt servicing schedule, it may well be the perfect candidate for debt cancellation. In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund for possible cancellation of its external debt. As of January 2010, the imperative to act on that development may be of vital significance to Haiti's future.

Editor's Note on Helping Haiti: CountryWatch.com's Editorial Department extends it profound sympathy to all the victims of this tragedy. CountryWatch.com's Editorial Department encourages its readers to try to offer assistance to the victims of this devastating and tragic natural disaster facing Haiti. Some options: Unicef http://www.unicef.org/ http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/haiti_52423.html Medicins Sans Frontieres (Doctors Without Borders) http://www.msf.org/ Habitat for Humanity International https://www.habitat.org/cd/giving/donate.aspx?link=227 International Committee of the Red Cross

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Political Overview

http://www.icrc.org/ http://www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/haiti-news-130110 International Medical Corps http://www.imcworldwide.org/Page.aspx?pid=183 MercyCorps http://www.imcworldwide.org/Page.aspx?pid=183 Oxfam http://www.oxfam.org/ http://www.oxfam.org/en/pressroom/pressrelease/2010-01-13/large-earthquake-haiti World Food Programme http://www.wfp.org/stories/haiti-wfp-bring-food-devastating-quake Clinton Foundation http://www.clintonfoundation.org/haitiearthquake/ Yele Haiti http://www.yele.org/ American Red Cross http://www.redcross.org/portal/site/en/menuitem.94aae335470e233f6cf911df43181aa0/?vgnextoid=15c0c5a210826210VgnVCM10000089f0870aRCRD American Jewish World Service http://ajws.org/ Episcopal Relief and Development http://www.er-d.org/ You can also text donations simply using your mobile device (standard text fees apply in addition to donation amount)-Red Cross: Text HAITI to 90999 ($10 donation) Yéle Haiti: Text YELE to 501501 ($5 donation)

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Freedom Rankings

United Way: Text HAITI to 864833 ($5 donation) Intl Medical Corps: Text HAITI to 85944 ($10 donation) Americans trying to locate family members in Haiti can call the State Department at 888-407-4747.

-- Denise Youngblood Coleman Ph.D. Houston, Texas February, 2010

Supplementary sources: Haitian Action Committee; United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti; HaitiInfo.com; Encyclopedia Britannica ( www.britannica.com ); Bob Corbett, "Haitian History course" ( www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/index-b.html ); OnWar.com ( www.onwar.com/aced/data/uniform/ushaiti1918.htm ).

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Freedom Rankings

Freedom in the World

Editor's Note: This ranking by Freedom House quantifies political freedom and civil liberties into a single combined index on each sovereign country's level of freedom and liberty. The initials "PR" and "CL" stand for Political Rights and Civil Liberties, respectively. The number 1 represents the most free countries and the number 7 represents the least free. Several countries fall in the continuum in between. The freedom ratings reflect an overall judgment based on survey results.

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Freedom Rankings

Political Overview

Country Afghanistan Albania Algeria Andorra Angola Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bahamas Bahrain Bangladesh Barbados Belarus Belgium Belize Benin Bhutan Bolivia Bosnia-Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Brunei Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burma Burundi Cambodia

PR 5 3 6 1 6 2 2 5 1 1 6 1 5 5 1 7 1 1 2 6 3 4 2 2 6 1 5 7 4 6

CL 5 3 5 1 5 2 2 4 1 1 5 1 5 4 1 6 1 2 2 5 3 3 2 2 5 2 3 7 5 5

Freedom Rating Partly Free Partly Free Not Free Free Not Free Free Free Partly Free Free Free Not Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Free Not Free Free Free Free Not Free Partly Free Partly Free Free Free Not Free Free Partly Free Not Free Partly Free Not Free

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Freedom Rankings

Cameroon Canada Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Congo (Brazzaville) Congo (Kinshasa) Costa Rica Cote d’Ivoire Croatia Cuba Cyprus (G) Czech Republic Denmark Djibouti Dominica Dominican Republic East Timor Ecuador Egypt El Salvador Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Estonia Ethiopia Fiji Finland France

6 1 1 5 7 1 7 3 4 6 5 1 7 2 7 1 1 1 5 1 2 3 3 6 2 7 7 1 5 6 1 1

6 1 1 5 6 1 6 3 4 5 6 1 5 2 7 1 1 1 5 1 2 4 3 5 3 6 6 1 5 4 1 1

Not Free Free Free Partly Free Not Free Free Not Free Partly Free Partly Free Partly Free Not Free Free Not Free Free Not Free Free Free Free Partly Free Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Not Free Free Not Free Not Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Free Free

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Political Overview

Gabon The Gambia Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Grenada Guatemala Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hungary Iceland India Indonesia Iran Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kiribati Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Latvia

6 5 4 1 1 1 1 3 6 4 2 4 3 1 1 2 2 6 6 1 1 1 2 1 5 6 4 1 4 5 7 2

4 4 4 1 2 2 2 4 5 4 3 5 3 1 1 3 3 6 6 1 2 1 3 2 4 5 3 1 4 4 6 1

Partly Free Partly Free Partly Free Free Free Free Free Partly Free Not Free Partly Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Free Free Free Free Not Free Not Free Free Free Free Free Free Partly Free Not Free Partly Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Not Free Free

41

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Freedom Rankings

Lebanon Lesotho Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg (FYR of) Macedonia Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Maldives Mali Malta Marshall Islands Mauritania Mauritius Mexico Micronesia Moldova Monaco Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nauru Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria

5 2 3 7 1 1 1 3 4 4 4 6 2 1 1 4 1 2 1 3 2 2 5 3 2 1 5 1 1 3 3 4

4 3 4 7 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 5 3 1 1 4 2 3 1 4 1 2 4 3 2 1 4 1 1 3 4 4

Partly Free Free Partly Free Not Free Free Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Partly Free Partly Free Not Free Free Free Free Partly Free Free Free Free Partly Free Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Free Free Not Free Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Partly Free

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Political Overview

North Korea Norway Oman Pakistan Palau Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Qatar Romania Russia Rwanda Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and Grenadines Samoa San Marino Sao Tome and Principe Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia* Seychelles Sierra Leone Singapore Slovakia Slovenia Solomon Islands Somalia

7 1 6 6 1 1 3 3 2 4 1 1 6 2 6 6 1 1 2 2 1 2 7 2 3 3 3 5 1 1 4 7

7 1 5 5 1 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 5 2 5 5 1 1 1 2 1 2 6 3 2 3 3 4 1 1 3 7

Not Free Free Not Free Not Free Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Free Partly Free Free Free Not Free Free Not Free Not Free Free Free Free Free Free Free Not Free Free Free Partly Free Partly Free Partly Free Free Free Partly Free Not Free

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South Africa South Korea Spain Sri Lanka

2 1 1 4

2 2 1 4

Free Free Free Partly Free

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Political Overview

Sudan Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Syria Taiwan* Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Tuvalu Uganda Ukraine United Arab Emirates United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Vanuatu Venezuela Vietnam Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe

7 2 7 1 1 7 1 6 4 6 5 5 2 7 3 7 1 5 3 6 1 1 1 7 2 4 7 5 3 7

7 2 5 1 1 6 1 5 3 4 5 3 2 5 3 7 1 4 2 6 1 1 1 7 2 4 5 5 4 6

Not Free Free Not Free Free Free Not Free Free Not Free Partly Free Partly Free Not Free Partly Free Free Not Free Partly Free Not Free Free Partly Free Free Not Free Free Free Free Not Free Free Partly Free Not Free Partly Free Partly Free Not Free

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* Due to the separation of Montenegro from Serbia, Montenegro is now treated as a sovereign country. Although it is not listed above, according to Freedom House, Montenegro has a PL rating of 3 and a CL rating of, 3, thusly classifying one of the world's newest countries as "partly free." Along a similar vein, Kosovo, which also separated from the Yugoslav successor state of Serbia, is not listed above. No calculation is available for Kosovo at this time, however, a future Freedom House ranking may include the world's newest country in its tally. Taiwan has been listed above despite its contested status; while Taiwan claims sovereign status, China claims ultimate jurisdiction over Taiwan. Source: This data is derived from the latest edition of Freedom House’s Freedom in the World 2008 edition.

-- as of 2009

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Human Rights
Overview of Human Rights in Haiti

In 2004, a coup (believed to be backed by Western powers) resulted in the ousting of then-President Jean Bertrand Aristide. An interim government was established, and elections were later held in 2006 bringing Rene Preval to power. While Aristide's government was accused of abuses against supporters of the opposition, after his ousting from power, the interim government was made up of individuals with atrocious human rights records of their own. To date, Haiti remains an unstable and often dangerous place. A United Nations multinational peacekeeping force, which has been in Haiti since April 2004, is trying to curtail the violence and crime in Haiti. It has seen limited results, however, human rights abuses are still committed daily.

Under the aegis of a series of different governments, security forces have often acted with impunity. As a result, Haiti's human rights record is one of the poorest in the international arena.

Members of the Haitian National Police (HNP) are known to use excessive force in making arrests or controlling protests and demonstrations. Torture and disappearances, which are often politically motivated, are other abuses that the HNP is guilty of committing. The actions of the HNP are a major contributor to the overall insecurity of the nation.

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Gang violence is rampant and continues despite attempts to bring it under control. It is exacerbated by the rise in extra-judicial violence -- largely the result of the corrupt justice system that commanded little or no public confidence. In fact, while some people have been detained without trial, others, such as gang leaders, have been released after paying bribes to judges. Public outrage over the miscarriage of justice have led some to react by carrying out lynchings or mob attacks.

Prison conditions are also poor and many suffer from overcrowding and lack of sanitation.

While the media is considered free, many practice self-censorship due to fear of reprisal from the government.

Child abuse, trafficking of children, and forced child labor remain problems. Poverty and corruption do not help the situation. Many Haitians risk their lives trying to sail across rough seas to make it to the shores of the United States. Many of the boats are intercepted by the United States Coast Guard. Some of the boats are lost at sea. Those who make it to the United States, if caught, face mandatory detention and are sent back to Haiti.

Human Development Index (HDI) Rank:

146th out of 177 Human Poverty Index Rank:

70th out of 103 Gini Index:

N/A Life Expectancy at Birth (years):

51.6 years Unemployment Rate:

> 2/3rds of the labor force do not have formal jobs. Population living on $1 a day (%):

N/A Population living on $2 a day (%):

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Human Rights

N/A Population living beneath the Poverty Line (%):

80.0% Internally Displaced People:

N/A Total Crime Rate (%):

N/A Health Expenditure (% of GDP):

Public: 3.0% % of GDP Spent on Education:

1.5% Human Rights Conventions Party to:

• International Convention on the Prevention and Punishment and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide • International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination • International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights • Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women • Conventions on the Rights of the Child • Convention relating to the Status of Refugees • Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (Signed but not yet ratified) *Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite index that measures the level of well-being in 177 nations in the world. It uses factors such as poverty, literacy, life-expectancy, education, gross domestic product, and purchasing power parity to assess the average achievements in each nation. It has been used in the United Nation's Human Development Report since 1993. *Human Poverty Index Ranking is based on certain indicators used to calculate the Human Poverty Index. Probability at birth of not surviving to age 40, adult literacy rate, population without sustainable access to an improved water source, and population below income poverty line are the indicators assessed in this measure.

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Political Overview

*The Gini Index measures inequality based on the distribution of family income or consumption. A value of 0 represents perfect equality (income being distributed equally), and a value of 100 perfect inequality (income all going to one individual). *The calculation of the total crime rate is the % of the total population which has been effected by property crime, robbery, sexual assault, assault, or bribery (corruption) related occurrences.

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Government Functions

Independent since 1804, Haiti officially is a republic with an elected government. Much of its actual history has been characterized by periods of dictatorial rule, followed by provisional governments. In 1987, a constitution was adopted that provides for an elected bicameral parliament, an elected president who serves as head of state, and a prime minister, cabinet of ministers, and supreme court appointed by the president with the parliament's consent. The Haitian Constitution also provides for the election of mayors and administrative bodies responsible for local government. For purposes of local administration, the country is divided into ten geographic entities termed departments.

It should be noted that the 1987 constitution was suspended in 1988 with most articles reinstated in 1989. The constitutional government was ousted in a military coup in September1991, although in October 1991, the military government claimed to be observing the constitution. The country was returned to constitutional rule in October 1994. Today, the constitution remains technically in force but has not been observed since Aristide's departure in 2004.

Although the judiciary of Haiti includes a number of provisions and offices, the judicial system in Haiti is still weak and remains a high priority for international donors. International aid providers, such as USAID, have tended to focus on programs to improve the judicial system. Specific projects have included ameliorating the administration in prosecutors' offices and the courts; establishing a casetracking system; legal aid; and training for judges, court, and prosecutorial staff.

Steps have also been taken to end the culture of impunity that has dominated Haiti for decades, in which political crimes including murder often go unprosecuted. The Office of Inspector General of the Haitian National Police investigates complaints against police officers, and around 200 police have been dismissed. Training continues in an effort to build the fledgling National Police into a non-political, fully professional force committed to the rule of law.

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Government Structure

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Government Structure
Names: Conventional long form: Republic of Haiti Conventional short form: Haiti local long form: Republique d'Haiti/Repiblik d' Ayiti local short form: Haiti/Ayiti Type: Republic

Executive Branch: Chief of State: President Rene Preval (since 2006) Note: President Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE (since Feb. 7, 2001) was elected for a five-year term by universal suffrage. The president reportedly resigned from office in February 2004 following mass unrest. Aristide disputes the fact that he resigned from office voluntarily. An interim government took power until 2006 elections. Elections: Last held Feb. 7, 2006

Election Results: Rene PREVAL elected president

percent of vote -

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Political Overview

Rene PREVAL 51%

Head of Government:

Prime Minister Jean-Max BELLERIVE (since Nov.7, 2009) Legislative Branch: Bicameral "Assemblee Nationale" (National Assembly): Consists of the "Senat" (Senate) and the "Chambre des Deputes" (Chamber of Deputies) "Senat" (Senate) 30 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms; one-third elected every two years; in reestablishing the Senate, the candidate in each department receiving the most votes in the last election serves six years, the candidate with the second most votes serves four years, and the candidate with the third most votes serves two years Chamber of Deputies ("Chambre des Deputes"): 99 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms Elections: Last held April 2006; most recent partial Senate elections held in April 2009 Election results: Senate -

percent of vote by party NA

seats by party NA

Chamber of Deputies percent of vote by party NA

seats by party L'ESPWA 19, FUSION 15, ALYANS 10, OPL 8, FL 6, UNCRH 6, MPH 4, RDNP 4, LAAA 3,KONBA 3, FRN 1, MOCHRENHA 1, MRN 1, Tet-Ansanm 1, MIRN 1, JPDN 1, UNITE 1, PLH 1, 13 seats subject to run-off election

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Government Structure

Judicial Branch: Supreme Court; Court of Appeal ("Cour de Cassation")

Legal System: Based on Roman civil law system; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

Constitution: Approved March 1987; suspended June 1988 with most articles reinstated March 1989; constitutional government ousted in a military coup in September 1991, although in October 1991, military government claimed to be observing the constitution; returned to constitutional rule in October 1994; constitution, while technically in force between 2004-2006, was not enforced; returned to constitutional rule in May 2006

Administrative Divisions: 10 departments (departements, singular - departement); Artibonite, Centre, Grand 'Anse, Nippes, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Est

Political Parties and Leaders : Artibonite in Action or LAAA [Youri LATORTUE]; Assembly of Progressive National Democrats or RDNP [Leslie MANIGAT]; Convention for Democratic Unity or KID [Evans PAUL]; Cooperative Action to Build Haiti or KONBA [Evans LESCOUFALIR]; Democratic Alliance or ALYANS [Evans PAUL] (coalition composed of KID and PPRH); Effort and Solidarity to Create an Alternative for the People or ESKAMP [Joseph JASME]; For Us All or PONT [Jean-Marie CHERESTAL]; Front for Hope or L'ESPWA [Rene PREVAL] (alliance of ESKAMP, PLB, and grass-roots organizations GrandAnse Resistance Committee, the Central Plateau Peasants' Group, and Kombit Sudest); Haitian Christian Democratic Party or PDCH [Osner FEVRY and Marie-Denise CLAUDE]; Haitian Democratic and Reform Movement or MODEREH [Dany TOUSSAINT and Pierre Soncon PRINCE]; Heads Together or Tet-Ansanm [Dr. Gerard BLOT]; Independent Movement for National Reconciliation or MIRN [Luc FLEURINORD]; Justice for Peace and National Development or JPDN [Rigaud DUPLAN]; Fanmi Lavalas or FL [Rudy HERIVEAUX]; Liberal Party of Haiti or PLH [Gehy MICHEL]; Merging of Haitian Social Democratic Parties or FUSION or FPSDH [Serge GILLES] (coalition of Ayiti Capable, Haitian National Revolutionary Party, and National Congress of Democratic Movements); Mobilization for Haiti's Development or MPH [Samir MOURRA]; Mobilization for National Development or MDN [Hubert de RONCERAY]; Movement for National Reconstruction or MRN [Jean Henold BUTEAU]; Movement for the Installation of Democracy in Haiti or MIDH [Marc BAZIN]; National Christian Union for the Reconstruction of Haiti or UNCRH [Marie Claude GERMAIN]; National Front for the Reconstruction of Haiti or FRN [Guy PHILIPPE]; New Christian Movement for a New Haiti or MOCHRENA [Luc MESADIEU]; Open the Gate Party or PLB [Anes LUBIN]; Popular Party for the Renewal of Haiti or PPRH [Claude ROMAIN]; Struggling People's Organization or OPL [Edgard LEBLANC]; Union of Nationalist and Progressive Haitians or UNITE [Edouard FRANCISQUE] Suffrage:

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Principal Government Officials

Political Overview

18 years of age; universal

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Principal Government Officials

Government of Haiti Pres. Rene Garcia PREVAL Prime Min. Jean-Max BELLERIVE Min. of Agriculture, Natural Resources, & Rural Development Joanas GUE Min. of Commerce & Industry Jocelyne Colimon FETHIERE Min. of Culture & Communication Marie-Laurence JOCELYN LASSEGUE Min. of the Economy & Finance Ronald BAUDIN Min. of Environment Jean-Marie Claude GERMAIN Min. of Foreign Affairs & Worship Marie Michele REY Min. of Haitians Living Abroad Edwin PARAISON Min. of Interior & Territorial Collectivities Paul Antoine BIEN-AIME Min. of Justice & Public Security Paul DENIS Min. of National Education & Professional Training Joel Desrosiers JEAN-PIERRE Min. of Planning & External Cooperation Jean-Max BELLERIVE Min. of Public Health & Population Alex LARSEN Min. of Public Works, Transport, & Communications Jacques GABRIEL Min. of Social Affairs & Labor Yves CRISTALLIN

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Leader Biography

Min. of Tourism Patrick DELATOUR Min. of Women's Affairs & Rights Marjorie MICHEL Min. of Youth, Sports, & Civic Action Evans LESCOUFLAIR Min.-Del. to the Prime Min. in Charge of Relations With Parliament Joseph JASMIN Governor, Bank of the Republic of Haiti Charles CASTEL Ambassador to the US Raymond JOSEPH Permanent Representative to the UN, New York Leo MERORES

-- as of 2009 © Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

Leader Biography
President of Haiti

Rene Preval was declared winner of Haiti's presidential election a week after the actual election ensued in February 2006.

Preval was an agronomist who had been educated in Belgium. In the early 1970s, he had been part of a political movement that agitated against the notorious military leader, Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier. In the early 1990s, Preval served as prime minister in Aristide's first administration. He then served as president between 1996 and 2001. The recent decline in Haiti's political and economic situation occurred around the time that his tenure in the president's office ended.

Chief among Preval's challenges as he assumed the role of president was the re-integration of opposition forces within the political fold. From around 2001, the opposition became increasingly estranged from those in power, eventually leading to boycotts as well as charges of disputed elections and accusations of illegitimate leadership. A repeat performance of this trend did not bode well for Haitian politics and anxieties loomed over the possibility of violence and chaos similar to that preceeding the ousting of Aristide from office in 2004.

In addition to dialogue and engagement with the political opposition, Preval was also expected to improve the country's security situation, which has been severely compromised in recent years. While

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Foreign Relations

Political Overview

unlikely to be helped by the fact that the local police has been poorly-trained and badly-equipped, the decision by the United Security Council in mid-February 2006 to renew the peacekeeping mandate for another six months was expected to provide some assistance in his efforts.

A third challenge involves acquiring support for his newly-elected government from the international community. To this end, Preval would be helped by the fact that the Caribbean regional bloc, CARICOM, announced it would re-admit Haiti into the fold. CARICOM had suspended Haiti's membership after the removal of President Aristide -- the democratically-elected leader -- from office. The leadership of CARICOM regarded Haiti's return to democracy, evidenced by a democratic transition of power, with relief.

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Foreign Relations

General Relations Haiti is one of the original members of both the United Nations and several of its specialized and related agencies, and of the Organization of American States. It maintains diplomatic relations with 37 countries.

Haiti is a member of the African, Caribbean and Pacific group of countries, and as such is developing a special relationship with the European Union to further investment, trade, and other development activity. Haiti has signed a number of international environmental accords, and welcomes the participation of international environmental organization in efforts to restore and protect its environment. Cultural exchange is another area in which Haiti expects to play an increasing international role.

United Nations and Haiti

The international community rallied to Haiti's defense during the three years of illegal military rule from 1991 to 1994. In the end, a total of 31 countries participated in the United States-led MultiNational Force (MNF), which, acting under United Nations auspices, intervened in September 1994 to help restore the legitimate government and create a secure and stable environment in Haiti.

At its peak, the MNF had over 23,000 troops and more than 1,000 international police monitors. After six months, the troop level was gradually reduced as the United Nations Mission in Haiti, consisting of some 6,000 U.N. peacekeeping troops sent by total of 38 countries, replaced the MNF and integrated 900 civilian police into positions of authority. This force, too, was gradually scaled back. It was

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Foreign Relations

replaced, first, by a transition mission, and subsequently, by a small civilian-monitoring contingent. The latter was terminated just prior to President Aristide's inauguration in February 2001. The international presence in the country diminished quickly after the arrival of the Multinational Force in 1994. By 1997, the international military contingent on duty in Haiti had been scaled back to a nominal size, and the last peacekeeping troops deployed under United Nations (U.N.) military auspices departed in 2000, replaced by a small U.N.-sponsored staff of civilian monitors. This group left on Feb. 6, 2001, the day before the re-inauguration of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. In mid-2004, following the overthrow of President Aristide, U.N. peacekeepers arrived to take over security responsibilities from the United States-led force in Haiti since the ousting of Aristide. The United Nations mandate in Haiti appeared to be quite vague and, for all intents and purposes, quite limited. United Nations peacekeepers were not expected to stay beyond six months and it was difficult to determine what could be accomplished in so short a period of time. (Note: Their mission -- as intimated by various actions discussed in the "Political Conditions" section of this review -- was extended beyond that short timeframe.)

External Assistance Although United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan called for the establishment of a new mission in Haiti in late 1999 to help secure the country's democratization and development, funding constraints and multiple peacekeeping commitments elsewhere around the world at present preclude implementation of Annan's expressed wish. The United Nations considered alternate funding arrangements that might enable reinstatement of a democratic development-monitoring program in Haiti. The greatest concern is to assure the successful institution of a civilian-based judicial and police system that respects human rights and possesses appropriate technical competence. Haiti's overriding present challenge is to foster democracy and alleviate poverty. It seeks to demonstrate its capacity to be a stable democratic nation that respects human rights and the rule of law, so that international financial donors and investors will deem Haiti both deserving of assistance and the site of potentially remunerative business opportunities.

In order to spur Haiti's economic recovery, international development banks and donor agencies pledged to provide over $2 billion in assistance by 1999, but much of this amount was not disbursed pending a determination that Haiti's current regime is fully committed to democratic political processes. A loan package by the Inter-American Development bank in 2003 was hoped to open the door to the resumption of international aid. Historically, the major bilateral donors have been the United States, Canada, France, Germany, and Japan. Haiti is substantially dependent on international aid, including food assistance. In 2004, more than $1 billion in donor funds were pledged.

Regional Relations

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Political Overview

Haiti is active in the Organization of American States and the Caribbean Community, seeking to enhance its economic development through regional integration and trade. Haiti became a full member of the Caricom (Caribbean Community trading bloc) in 2002.

Haiti has pledged to cooperate with other nations in the region, including the United States, on matters of concern including narcotics interdiction.

Haiti shares the island of Hispaniola with the Dominican Republic. The two countries have an uneasy relationship, dating back to early 19th century invasions of the present-day Dominican Republic by Haitian forces, as well as a 1937 massacre of Haitians in the border region instigated by the Dominican dictator, Rafael Trujillo. In two incidents during the year 2000, Dominican soldiers shot Haitians who were trying to cross the border illegally. Moreover, some former military and paramilitary figures with a role in human rights abuses when Haiti was under dictatorial rule have found refuge in the Dominican Republic. Yet, notwithstanding persistent tensions between the two nations, they are also economically interdependent. Haitians form a sort of gray market labor pool for tasks, especially the sugar harvest, shunned by most Dominicans.

The earnings Haitian migrant workers receive in the Dominican Republic, minimal as they are, provide a significant flow of hard currency into Haiti's struggling economy. According to many estimates, around 500,000 Haitians, mostly lacking legally documented status, currently reside full-time in the Dominican Republic. Officials from the two nations, which at the beginning of the 21st century both have new administrations attempting to establish more effective democratic rule, have shown indications of being ready to engage in more active and constructive dialogue. Outstanding issues awaiting resolution are the status of Haitians currently in the neighboring country, and a reformed system to regulate the practice of seasonal employment of Haitians in the Dominican Republic. Following the ousting of President Aristide in 2004 and the installation of new leadership, discussions ensued amongst Caribbean leaders as to whether or not links with Haiti should be renewed following the overthrow of President Aristide. While several leaders, including Prime Minister Patrick Manning of Trinidad and Tobago, said that Haiti should be "properly integrated" again, other leaders at a regional Caricom summit, such as the leadership of Jamaica, took a different view. Jamaican Prime Minister P.J. Patterson warned that he would take note of any decision made by Caricom.

Other Significant Relations

Haiti's relations with the United States (U.S.) are complicated by, among other things, the U.S. policy of intercepting and returning Haitian emigrants at sea. Economic hardship in Haiti essentially assures that a large influx of migrants will take to nearby waters and seek new lives in the United States or in other Caribbean nations. The forced return of these persons has stressed relations with the U.S. and other countries, and -- given their difficulties in finding a suitable livelihood in Haiti -- such actions may heighten Haiti's difficulty in achieving economic and political stability.

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National Security

Recent U.S. policy toward Haiti -- primarily ordained by former U.S. President Bill Clinton in the early 1990s -- was designed to foster democracy, help alleviate poverty in the Western Hemisphere's poorest country, and promote respect for human rights. The United States has taken a leading role in organizing international efforts at the United Nations, within the Organization of American States, and with the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) as well as various individual countries to achieve these objectives.

Former Haitian President Preval joined former U.S. President Clinton and 14 other Caribbean leaders in May 1997 in Bridgetown, Barbados, for the first-ever U.S.-regional summit. The meeting strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counter-narcotics, finance and development, and trade.

Although the Bush administration, which succeeded the Clinton administration, eschews the kind of engagement in Haitian affairs that has ensued in the last several years, President Bush stated that he was interested in building hemispheric ties. Presumably, hemispheric relations include Haiti.

The U.S. decision to withhold aid to Haiti, made in February 2002 under the Bush administration, however, was viewed as detrimental to the impoverished people of Haiti. Although the decision was made in the face of Haiti's recent erosion of democracy and human rights abuses, most international observers found the U.S. course of action to be highly disturbing as it will directly affect the most needy contingent of Haitians.

Neighboring Caribbean countries, particularly those belonging to the Caribbean free market associations, Caricom, have expressed shock and dismay at this decision. They believe that it will exacerbate the Haitian refugee situation (noted above), which ultimately affects not only Caribbean countries but the U.S. as well, which receives boatloads of Haitian refugees with regularity.

Following the ousting of President Aristide in 2004, critics began to refer to the ousting of Aristide as a United States-led de facto coup. Indeed, this charge was repeatedly uttered by Aristide himself who says he was forced to leave. The United States has denied these charges.

Note: After being ousted from office, Aristide stayed in Jamaica for a short period before going on to South Africa. There, he was to seek temporary asylum until permanent asylum could be arranged. © Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

National Security
External Threats

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National Security

Political Overview

The greatest threats to Haiti's security are internal rather than foreign born. Illegal immigration from Haiti to the Dominican Republic has somewhat strained relations between the two countries, however. Also, Haiti contests the U.S. occupation of Navassa Island. Crime Crime is rampant throughout Haiti. According to the United States (U.S.) State Department, the country has "no 'safe areas'," and "reports of death threats, murders, drug-related shootouts, kidnappings, armed-robberies, break-ins, or carjackings occur almost daily" there. Haiti serves as a significant interim destination for South American cocaine bound for the United States and Europe. In fact, approximately eight percent of all the cocaine that enters the U.S. transits Haiti. Widespread corruption, political instability, and an ineffective law enforcement apparatus have all served to exacerbate criminal activity in Haiti. Money-laundering is also a substantial problem in Haiti.

Well into 2007, Haiti has been plagued by the problem of violent gangs. With an eye on resolving this challenge, a constellation of schemes were considered -- some with an incentive-oriented approach, and others involving more hard-line measures. But the situation continues unabated. Rampant gang violence has been ongoing, and in fact, exacerbated by the rise in extra-judicial violence -- largely the result of the corrupt justice system that commanded little or no public confidence. In fact, while some people have been detained without trial, others, such as gang leaders, have been released after paying bribes to judges. Public outrage over the miscarriage of justice led some to react by carrying out lynchings or mob attacks.

Insurgencies Since Haiti received its independence from France in 1801, political instability has been the norm rather than the exception. From 1957 until 1986, the two generations of the Duvalier family managed to retain control of Haiti's government. The ruthless Jean-Claude, also known as "Baby Doc," assumed the presidency upon the death of his father, Francois, in 1971. In the aftermath of his forced departure, coups, corruption, and infighting have thwarted the emergence of democracy in Haiti. A U.S.-led multinational force intervened to restore order there in 1994. The international presence was gradually scaled back and ultimately took on a solely advisory role. The political situation in Haiti gradually spiraled out of control again. Roman Catholic priest turned politician Jean-Bertrand Aristide, who had been democratically-elected president of Haiti in 1990 and served an interrupted first term from 19911995, resigned three years into his second term in February 2004. After resigning, Aristide fled to the Central African Republic and from exile, he insisted tha he had been forced out of office by U.S.-led forces. Meanwhile, a second U.S-led multinational coalition subsequently entered Haiti to help restore order there at the request of Haiti's interim government. Despite the multinational force's presence, the political situation in Haiti remained highly volatile. Complicating matters has been the fact that the members of the interim government have been linked to ruthless and violent cadres responsible for the deaths of civilians in the early 1990s.

Terrorism No transnational terrorist organizations have specifically threatened to strike targets in Haiti or Haitian interests abroad. The country does have a longstanding history of widespread political violence, however. Haiti is party to five of the twelve international conventions and protocols pertaining to terrorism.

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Defense Forces

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Defense Forces
Military Data Military Branches:

The regular Haitian Armed Forces (FAdH) - Army, Navy, and Air Force - have been demobilized but still exist on paper until or unless they are constitutionally abolished Eligible age to enter service:

18 Mandatory Service Terms:

N/A Manpower in general population-fit for military service:

males age 18-49: 948,320

females age 18-49: 931,972

Manpower reaching eligible age annually:

Males age 18-49: 98,554

females age 18-49: 97,960

Current Capabilities:

Active: No active armed forces

Reserve: N/A Military Expenditures (in US $):

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Defense Forces

Political Overview

$26 million Percent of GDP:

0.9%

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Defense Forces

Chapter 3 Economic Overview

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Economic Overview

Economic Overview

Economic Overview
Economic Overview
Overview

Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the world and remains the least-developed country in the Western Hemisphere. About 80 percent of the population lives below the poverty line, and natural disasters frequently sweep the country. About 70 percent of the population depends on the agricultural sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming. Subsistence crops include cassava, rice, sugarcane, yams and corn. In recent years, export of apparel has been boosted through the U.S. economic engagement with Haiti, with the apparel sector accounting for two-thirds of Haitian exports. For nearly two decades, internal conflicts and political instability have devastated Haiti's economy and inflicted severe hardship on its population. But since 2004, Haiti has made remarkable progress in stabilizing the economy, thanks to the improvement of its political situation and the pursuit of prudent macroeconomic policies supported by the international community. Based on its strong macroeconomic track record, Haiti was approved for an IMF-supported PRGF (Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility) program and the HIPC (Heavily Indebted Poor Countries) decision point in November 2006. Following three years of continued improvement of performance, however, Haiti's macroeconomic outcomes weakened in 2008 as a result of a series of devastating shocks. Riots over rising food and fuel prices led to months of political stalemate, and the country was hit by four hurricanes or tropical storms that caused extensive food shortages and damages to infrastructure. The impact of the global financial crisis has added another shock to the Haitian economy, as the slowdown in the U.S. and Canada is affecting Haiti through lower export demand and fewer remittances. Going forward, policy priorities should be on safeguarding macroeconomic stability while maintaining the focus on continued economic and social progress.

Economic Performance A number of factors played into the deterioration of Haiti's economic situation from 2001 to 2004, including political instability, a weak private sector, low investment, and shrinking official foreign aid. As a result, the economy contracted in 2001 and 2002, recording a negative GDP growth of 1 percent and 0.5 percent, respectively. The government took significant corrective action in early 2003 to stabilize the economy. As such, economic growth recovered moderately with GDP growing 0.4 percent in 2003. But political upheaval in early 2004 and the disastrous floods in May and September led to a sharp decline of economic activity, resulting in a negative GDP growth of 3.5 percent in 2004. Since mid-2004, important progress has been made toward stabilizing the economy, with policies implemented helping restart economic growth. As a result, real GDP registered a growth of 1.8 percent in 2005 and 2.3 percent in 2006, and accelerated to 3.4 percent in 2007, underpinned by macroeconomic stability and international economic assistance. In 2008, however, GDP growth slowed to 1.3 percent because of political stalemate, natural disasters, and the impact of the global slowdown on Haiti's economy. Inflation had averaged 27 percent during 2003 and 2004. Fiscal adjustment, which facilitated a strong reduction in base money growth, combined with exchange rate appreciation, contributed to a substantial decline of inflation to 16.8 percent in 2005 and 14.2 percent in 2006. After falling to 9 percent in 2007, however, inflation increased to around 14.5 percent in 2008 owing to rising world food and fuel prices. The fiscal position improved substantially in 2007, and the overall fiscal balance (excluding grants and externally-financed projects) turned from a deficit of 0.5 percent of GDP in 2006 to a surplus of 0.3 percent of GDP. In 2008, however, a fiscal deficit of 2 percent of GDP

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Economic Overview

was estimated, reflecting revenue losses largely owing to the temporary suspension of fuel price adjustments in response to rising commodity prices.

Updated in 2009

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Real GDP and GDP Per Capita

Economic Overview

Real GDP and GDP Per Capita
Haiti Real GDP and GDP Per Capita 2005 Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (G$ billions) Real GDP Growth Rate (%) Private Consumption Spending (G$ billions) Government (G and S) Expenditures (G$ billions) Gross Private Investment (G$ billions) Exports of Goods and Services NIPA (G$ billions) Imports of Goods and Services NIPA (G$ billions) 168.034 0.3000 162.292 20.941 46.072 24.222 64.552 2006 171.730 2.200 199.347 21.582 57.861 28.660 85.413 2007 177.226 3.200 167.121 26.330 57.861 47.498 71.996 2008 182.897 3.200 140.104 32.123 57.861 78.718 60.687 2009 184.599 0.9000 238.785 33.446 73.924 53.087 100.573

Nominal GDP and Components
Haiti Nominal GDP and Components 2005 Nominal GDP in National CurrencyBillions (G$ billions) Nominal GDP Growth Rate (%) Population (Millions) Population Growth Rate (%) Nominal GDP Per Capita (G$) Nominal GDP Per Capita Growth Rate (%) 168.034 19.600 8.298 2.300 20,249.54 16.900 2006 200.456 19.200 8.497 2.400 23,589.88 16.400 2007 228.147 13.800 8.638 1.600 26,411.49 11.900 2008 259.663 13.800 8.781 1.600 29,570.60 11.900 2009 281.688 8.400 8.962 2.000 31,430.91 6.200

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Government Spending and Taxation

Government Spending and Taxation
Haiti Government Spending and Taxation 2005 Government (G and S) Expenditures (G$ billions) Government Expenditure Growth Rate (%) Net (of transfers) National Tax Rate (%) Fiscal Deficit (-) Surplus (+) (G$ billions) Fiscal Deficit/Surplus as percent of GDP (%) 20.941 22.000 11.900 0.8530 0.5000 2006 21.582 3.000 13.500 -5.5040 -2.7000 2007 26.330 22.000 18.400 -15.6890 -6.8000 2008 32.123 22.000 29.500 -44.7170 -17.2000 2009 33.446 4.100 16.400 -12.9610 -4.6000

Money, Prices and Interest Rates
Haiti Money, Prices and Interest Rates 2005 Money Supply (M2) (G$ billions) Money Supply Growth Rate (M2) (%) Inflation Rate (from GDP Price Deflator) (%) Interest Rate (%) Unemployment Rate (%) 71.004 17.700 19.200 8.200 n/a 2006 75.257 5.900 16.700 8.200 n/a 2007 85.653 13.800 10.200 8.000 n/a 2008 97.485 13.800 10.200 8.000 n/a 2009 115.347 18.300 7.400 8.900 n/a

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Trade and the Exchange Rate

Economic Overview

Trade and the Exchange Rate
Haiti Trade and the Exchange Rate 2005 Exchange Rate US Dollars (G$/$) Foreign Balance-Goods and Services NIPA ($US Millions) 40.449 -40.3300 2006 40.409 -56.7530 2007 36.861 -24.4980 2008 39.108 18.030 2009 41.666 -47.4850

The Balance of Payments
Haiti The Balance of Payments 2005 Current Account ($US Billions) Capital and Financial Account ($US Billions) Overall Balance ($US Billions) Official Foreign Currency Reserves ($US Billions) Current Account (% of GDP) (%) 0.0520 0.0460 0.0170 0.1320 1.200 2006 0.1090 0.4000 0.1200 0.2530 2.200 2007 -0.0260 0.4000 0.1980 0.4520 -0.4000 2008 -0.0260 0.4000 0.0890 0.5410 -0.3000 2009 -0.2370 0.1090 -0.1270 0.4130 -3.5000

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Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units

Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units
Haiti Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units 2005 Petroleum Consumption (TBPD) Petroleum Production (TBPD) Petroleum Net Exports (-Imports) (Quads) Natural Gas Consumption (bcf) Natural Gas Production (bcf) Natural Gas Net Exports (-Imports) (Quads) Coal Consumption (mm st) Coal Production (mm st) Coal Net Exports (-Imports) (Quads) Nuclear Production/Consumption (bil kWh) Hydroelectric Production/Consumption (bil kWh) Renewables Production/Consumption (bil kWh) 11.979 0.0000 -0.0254 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.2620 0.0000 2006 12.200 0.0000 -0.0258 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.2680 0.0000 2007 12.400 0.0000 -0.0262 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.2740 0.0000 2008 12.000 0.0000 -0.0254 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.2800 0.0000 2009 12.283 0.0000 -0.0264 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.2860 0.0000

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Energy Consumption and Production QUADS

Economic Overview

Energy Consumption and Production QUADS
Haiti Energy Consumption and Production QUADS 2005 Petroleum Consumption (Quads) Petroleum Production (Quads) Petroleum Net Exports (-Imports) (Quads) Natural Gas Consumption (Quads) Natural Gas Production (Quads) Natural Gas Net Exports (-Imports) (Quads) Coal Consumptio (Quads) Coal Production (Quads) Coal Net Exports (-Imports) (Quads) Nuclear Production/Consumption (Quads) Hydroelectric Production/Consumption (Quads) Renewables Production/Consumption (Quads) Total Production/Consumption (Quads) 0.0240 0.0000 -0.0254 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0020 0.0000 0.0020 2006 0.0240 0.0000 -0.0258 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0020 0.0000 0.0020 2007 0.0250 0.0000 -0.0262 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0020 0.0000 0.0020 2008 0.0240 0.0000 -0.0254 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0020 0.0000 0.0020 2009 0.0240 0.0000 -0.0264 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0020 0.0000 0.0020

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World Energy Price Summary

World Energy Price Summary
Global World Energy Price Summary 2005 Petroleum Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/barrel WTI Spot) Natural Gas Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/mmbtu Henry Hub Spot) Coal Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/ST Central Appalachian Spot) Petroleum Pricing Summary (Real 2003 base)* ($/barrel WTI Spot) ($/ barrel WTI Spot) Natural Gas Pricing Summary (Real 2003 base)* ($/mmbtu Henry Hub Spot) ($/mmbtu Henry Hub Spot) Coal Pricing Summary (Real 2003 base)* ($/ST Central Appalachian Spot) ($/ST Central Appalachian Spot) 41.487 5.849 64.330 41.487 2006 56.590 8.785 70.144 54.836 2007 66.021 6.764 62.983 62.284 2008 77.200 9.120 51.119 71.283 2009 61.092 3.850 54.233 55.884

5.849

8.513

6.381

8.421

3.521

64.330

67.969

59.418

47.201

49.609

CO2 Emissions
Haiti CO2 Emissions 2005 Petroleum Based (mm mt) Natural Gas Based (mm mt) Coal Based (mm mt) Total Carbon Production (mm mt) 0.4790 0.0000 0.0000 0.4790 2006 0.4880 0.0000 0.0000 0.4880 2007 0.4960 0.0000 0.0000 0.4960 2008 0.4800 0.0000 0.0000 0.4800 2009 0.4920 0.0000 0.0000 0.4920

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Agriculture Consumption and Production

Economic Overview

Agriculture Consumption and Production
Haiti Agriculture Consumption and Production 2005 Corn Total Consumption (Thousand MT) Corn Production (Thousand MT) Corn Net Exports (Thousand MT) Soybeans Total Consumption (Thousand MT) Soybeans Production (Thousand MT) Soybeans Net Exports (Thousand MT) Rice Total Consumption (Thousand MT) Rice Production (Thousand MT) Rice Net Exports (Thousand MT) Coffee Total Consumption (Thousand MT) Coffee Production (Thousand MT) Coffee Net Exports (Thousand MT) Cocoa Beans Total Consumption (Thousand MT) Cocoa Beans Production (Thousand MT) Cocoa Beans Net Exports (Thousand MT) Sugar Total Consumption (Thousand MT) Sugar Production (Thousand MT) Sugar Net Exports (Thousand MT) Wheat Total Consumption (Thousand MT) Wheat Production (Thousand MT) Wheat Net Exports (Thousand MT) 215.747 215.000 -0.7470 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 150.000 150.000 0.0000 19.810 21.300 1.490 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 839.000 839.000 0.0000 199.655 0.0000 -199.6550 2006 200.958 195.000 -5.9580 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 98.000 98.000 0.0000 19.701 21.120 1.419 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1,000.00 1,000.00 0.0000 219.723 0.0000 -219.7230 2007 193.193 190.000 -3.1930 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 100.000 100.000 0.0000 20.754 22.000 1.246 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1,000.00 1,000.00 0.0000 245.000 0.0000 -245.0000 2008 185.728 185.128 -0.5990 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 102.040 102.040 0.0000 21.863 22.916 1.053 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1,000.00 1,000.00 0.0000 273.184 0.0000 -273.1840 2009 194.965 162.685 -32.2790 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 106.368 92.543 -13.8250 21.675 21.317 -0.3570 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 970.934 938.422 -32.5110 298.980 0.0000 -298.9800

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World Agriculture Pricing Summary

World Agriculture Pricing Summary
Global World Agriculture Pricing Summary 2005 Corn Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Soybeans Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Rice Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Coffee Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Cocoa Beans Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Sugar Pricing Summary (Nominal)* (c/lb) Wheat Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) 98.405 223.133 287.811 114.300 1,544.66 21.068 152.438 2006 121.588 217.453 303.515 114.000 1,590.62 22.119 191.721 2007 163.258 317.319 332.393 123.300 1,958.11 20.763 255.206 2008 223.247 453.314 700.199 138.300 2,572.80 21.323 325.940 2009 162.007 380.122 584.908 141.040 2,884.72 25.075 228.397

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Metals Consumption and Production

Economic Overview

Metals Consumption and Production
Haiti Metals Consumption and Production 2005 Copper Consumption (MT) Copper Production (MT) Copper Net Exports (MT) Aluminum Consumption (MT) Aluminum Production (MT) Aluminum Exports (MT) Zinc Consumption (MT) Zinc Production (MT) Zinc Exports (MT) Lead Consumption (MT) Lead Production (MT) Lead Exports (MT) Tin Consumption (MT) Tin Production (MT) Tin Exports (MT) Nickel Consumption (MT) Nickel Production (MT) Nickel Exports (MT) Gold Production (MT) Silver Pricing Summary (Real)* ($/ oz) 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 6.690 2006 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 7.112 2007 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 10.566 2008 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 13.850 2009 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 13.500

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World Metals Pricing Summary

World Metals Pricing Summary
Global World Metals Pricing Summary 2005 Copper Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Aluminum Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Zinc Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Tin Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/ MT) Lead Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Nickel Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/MT) Gold Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/oz) Silver Pricing Summary (Nominal)* ($/oz) 3,683.64 1,897.65 1,381.55 7,370.38 975.650 14,732.72 444.990 6.690 2006 6,730.60 2,566.79 3,272.62 8,762.66 1,287.49 24,286.81 604.340 7.340 2007 7,126.35 2,639.27 3,250.30 14,535.54 2,594.96 37,181.01 696.430 11.200 2008 6,951.52 2,571.37 1,870.06 18,498.62 2,084.76 21,027.22 872.560 15.000 2009 5,279.38 1,637.61 1,671.08 13,564.74 1,714.65 13,925.11 977.791 14.758

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World Metals Pricing Summary

Economic Overview

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World Metals Pricing Summary

Chapter 4 Investment Overview

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Foreign Investment Climate

Investment Overview

Investment Overview
Foreign Investment Climate
Background

Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere with 80% of the population living under the poverty line and 54% in abject poverty. Two-thirds of all Haitians depend on the agricultural sector, mainly small-scale subsistence farming, and remain vulnerable to damage from frequent natural disasters, exacerbated by the country's widespread deforestation. While the economy has recovered in recent years, registering positive growth since 2005, four tropical storms in 2008 severely damaged the transportation infrastructure and agricultural sector. US economic engagement under the Haitian Hemispheric Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement (HOPE) Act, passed in December 2006, has boosted apparel exports and investment by providing tariff-free access to the US. HOPE II, passed in October 2008, has further improved the export environment for the apparel sector by extending preferences to 2018; the apparel sector accounts for two-thirds of Haitian exports and nearly onetenth of GDP. Remittances are the primary source of foreign exchange, equaling nearly a quarter of GDP and more than twice the earnings from exports. Haiti suffers from high inflation, a lack of investment because of insecurity and limited infrastructure, and a severe trade deficit. In 2005, Haiti paid its arrears to the World Bank, paving the way for reengagement with the Bank. Haiti is expected to receive debt forgiveness for about $525 million of its debt through the Highly-Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) initiative by mid-2009. The government relies on formal international economic assistance for fiscal sustainability.

Foreign Investment Assessment Openness to Foreign Investment Haiti's openness to foreign investment is codified in its laws. Haiti has no economic or industrial strategies with discriminatory effects on foreign investors. Import and export policies are non-discriminatory with regard to nationality.

The GOH has made several commitments to the world trade organization in the financial services sector. These include:

• allowing foreign participation in deposit taking, lending, guarantees and commitments; in financial leasing; in underwriting services, including participation in the issuance and placement of securities; • and in advising and auxiliary services for each of the above services.

The tax code includes a withholding tax provision that discriminates against foreign investors. Foreign companies are subject to an additional levy of 30 percent on profits as a final tax on deemed distributions to foreign shareholders, whereas local firms are subject to only a 15 percent withholding tax on distributions. The government has committed itself to removing that provision, although this requires further administrative action.

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Foreign Investment Climate

The Haitian banking system is open to the entry and operation of foreign banks. At present, there are two foreign banks operating in Haiti: Citibank and Scotiabank.

Haiti offers several customs, tariff and other advantages under the industrial investment code. Specific benefits are a function of the firm's location and the market for which it produces. Before its mandate lapsed in 1998, the Presidential Commission on Economic Growth and Modernization prepared a new investment code for GOH consideration. This has not been enacted.

Investments related to electricity, water and telecommunications, which are state-controlled activities, require government concession and approval. Prospecting, exploration and exploitation of mineral and energy resources require concessions and permits from the office of mining and energy, as natural resources in general are considered to be the property of the state. Transparency of Regulatory System Haitian law is deficient in a number of areas, including:

• operation of the judicial system; • organization and operation of the executive branch; • publication of laws, regulations and official notices; • establishment of companies; • land tenure and real property law and procedures; • bank and credit operations; • insurance and pension regulation; • accounting standards; • civil status documentation; • customs law and administration; • international trade and investment promotion; • foreign investment regime; • and regulation of market concentration and competition.

Although these deficiencies hinder business activities, they are not specifically aimed at foreign firms and appear to have an equally negative effect on foreign and local companies.

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Investment Overview

Tax, labor, and health and safety laws and policies are theoretically universally applicable, but are not universally applied or observed, and seldom enforced. Many in the private sector provide services (such as health care) for their workers that are not provided by dysfunctional state agencies.

Bureaucratic procedures are not uniform and frequently involve excessive red tape. Labor Force Total: 3.6 million estimated By occupation: agriculture 66%, industry 9%, services 25% Agriculture and Industry Agriculture products: coffee, mangoes, sugarcane, rice, corn, sorghum, wood Industries: sugar refining, flour milling, textiles, cement, light assembly industries based on imported parts Import Commodities and Partners Commodities: food, manufactured goods, machinery and transport equipment, fuels, raw materials Partners: US 54.8%, Dominican Republic 6%, Colombia 2.9% Export Commodities and Partners Commodities: manufactures, coffee, oils, cocoa, mangoes Partners: US 83.6%, Dominican Republic 6.4%, Canada 3.6% Telephone System Telephones- main lines in use: 130,000 Telephones- mobile cellular: 140,000 General Assessment: domestic facilities barely adequate; international facilities slightly better

Domestic: coaxial cable and microwave radio relay trunk service

International: country code - 509; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) Internet Internet Hosts: N/A Internet users: 80,000 Roads, Airports, Ports and Harbors Highways: 4,160 km Ports and harbors: Cap-Haitien, Gonaives, Jacmel, Jeremie, Les Cayes, Miragoane, Port-au-Prince, Port-de-Paix, Saint-Marc Airports: 13; w/paved runways: 4 Legal System and Considerations Haiti's legal system is based on Roman civil law system. The country accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction. Dispute Settlement Allegations persist that corrupt GOH officials have used their offices to obtain a favorable resolution or for personal profit. The GOH recognizes the structural weaknesses of its judicial and police systems and, with help from the international community and the USG, is working to establish a credible, effective judiciary and police force. With the cooperation of the Haitian private sector, the GOH has expressed its commitment to comprehensive reform of its commercial, investment and financial codes.

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Taxation

The protection and guarantees that Haitian law extends to investors are severely compromised by weak enforcement mechanisms, a poor judicial system and an antiquated legal system. Business litigants are often frustrated in their efforts to obtain relief. In addition, commercial litigation entails certain risks. Bonds to release assets frozen incident to litigation are unavailable, and judges sometimes inflict their biases against commercial litigants through the application of "public order" policy concepts. The embassy has received reports from litigants that endemic corruption allows parties to disputes to purchase favorable outcomes.

Working through the Haitian courts is a lengthy process and cases often go on for year, and for this reason many disputes are settled out of court. USG and GOH efforts currently focus on improving Haiti's legal system by training of judges and other judicial personnel. Government contacts report that all of these pieces of legislation will have to begin the entire legislative process all over again once the parliament is reconstituted. Corruption Perception Ranking See full list, as reported by Transparency International, from the least to most corrupt countries, Haiti is typically ranked asthe most corrupt nation in the world (according to this index). Cultural Considerations Haitians consider the handshake the customary form of greeting. In business and social meetings one should take care to not exclude anyone from the greeting. Also worth noting is that Haitian hospitality means generosity. One should never refuse a gift even if the giver is in a poor economic state. A refusal of a gift may be regarded as insulting, and it may convey some degree of arrogance. For more information see: United States' State Department Commercial Guide © Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

Taxation

Corporate tax

Corporate income tax is applied at a rate of 30 percent on taxable income.

Capital gains There is a 10 percent capital gains tax that applies in cases of property sales.

Health insurance

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Stock Market

Investment Overview

Health insurance contributions are applied at rates of three percent on gross salaries.

Social security

Social security contributions are applied at rates of six percent on gross salaries.

Indirect tax

A value added tax (VAT) of 10 percent is applied to most transactions. © Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

Stock Market

There is no stock market in Haiti at this time.

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Partner Links
CountryWatch Selected International Links

International Partner Links - to international business and country sites Regional Partners - by major world geographic regions Country Partners

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Partner Links

- providing information on individual countries International Trade and Investment - for statistics, policies, regulations Business Magazines - to search archives and companies International News - from leading international business media Company and Country Reference - for background and historical development

International Partner Links

InternationalAffairs.com - Oxford Analytical InternationalAffairs.com

International BizTech network - Brint.com International Business & Technology: World Level: @Brint.com

Internet Resources for International Business - Columbia University Watson Library Business and Economics Internet Resources

International Business and Economics on the Web - Longwood College International Business Business and Economics Information

Foreign Economic Statistics on Web - University of Michigan Statistical Resources on the Web/Foreign Economics

International Business Sources on the WWW - Michigan State University International Business Resources on the WWW

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Partner Links

Investment Overview

Virtual International and Business Sources - University of North Carolina New Vibes

International Trade and Business Links - University of British Columbia Center for International Business Studies

WebEc International Economic Data - University of Helsinki WebEc - Economic Data

Regional Partners

Asia-Pacific Far Eastern Economic Review Issues and Archives Far Eastern Economic Review

AsiaWeek Issues and archives - Time and CNN.com AsiaWeek.com | Archives | 2000

Asia Source Business & Economics - Asia Society AsiaSource: BusinessandEconomics - A Resource of the Asia Society

Economics and Statistics - Asia Development Bank Economics and Statistics - ADB.org

Individual Economy Reports - APEC APEC - Member Economies

Asian Country Information

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Partner Links

Asia/Pacific UN Statistics

Europe Economy and Finance - Eurostat Eurostat: Economy and Finance

Financial and Economic Statistics - European Central Bank ECB - European Central Bank

European Business Directory - EuroPages Europages: The European Business Directory

Central and Eastern Europe Business and Economic Resources - Gonzaga University CEESource

Business, Markets, Stocks, Currencies - Central and Eastern Europe Online Central Europe Online Investor Insight - Central Europe - Investor Insight

Latin America Latin America Network Information Center LANIC

Business News Americas Daily Business News from Latin America

Latin America Newsletters Political and Economic Information

Latin Focus - On Line Source to Economy

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Investment Overview

LatinFocus

Political Database of the Americas A Political Database Covering the Americas

Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLAC) Statistics Statistics

Inter-American Development Bank (IADB) Research and Statistics Inter-American Development Bank: Research and Statistics

Latin World Country Information Latin America on the Net: Regions

Zona Latina Media and Marketing Zona Latina: The Latina America Media Site

Organization of America States (OAS) Information, News, Reports Organization of American States

Africa African Business and Economy African Business Information Services

All Africa On Line Business allAfrican.com: Business

African Business Network - International Finance Corporation The African Business Network

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Partner Links

Lex Africa Business Guides Lex Africa: A Network of Laws Firms in Africa

Africa Business Website - MBendi Africa's Leading Business Website

News Africa On Line Business, News, and Culture

Africa Economic Analysis Headlines and Articles

Africa South of Sahara Business & Economy Africa South of the Sahara - Business & Economy

Middle East Arabia On Line and Business Directory Arabia.com

Arab Net Country Information ArabNet

Arab World On Line Country and Business Information Country Information

Middle East Economic Survey of Oil, Banking, Finance, Politics The Middle East Economic Survey

Euro Mediterranean Investment Guides

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Partner Links

Investment Overview

Euromed Internet Forum on the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership

Doing Business in Arab Mid East Countries - Ali Middle Eastern Laws

Country Partners

Infonation - UN data comparisons by Country WebEC - Economics Data

Regions and Countries - World Bank The World Bank Group Countries and Regions

Business and Technology - BizTech - Brint.com International BusinessandTechnology: Country Level: @Brint.com

Area and Ethnic Studies Country Information - Galileo Internet Resources Country Information

Destination Guides - Expedia.com Travel Information for the World Guide

PricewaterhouseCoopers Doing Business Guides Publications: PricewaterhouseCoopers: Global

Quick Tax Guides to 82 Countries - Deloitte Touche Deloitte Touche Tax

Doing Business in 141 Countries - Tax, Investment, Corporate Structure, Accounting - Ernst & Young

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Partner Links

ErnstandYoung's Doing Business In

Political, Economic, Business Reports - Economist Intelligence Unit EIU

Business Information on the Net - University of Strathclyde Business Information Sources on the Internet: Country Information

International Data Base - US Census Bureau International Data Base (IDB)

International Trade and Investment

Trade Statistics - US Office of Trade and Economic Analysis The Office of Trade and Economic Analysis

Web Resources for International Trade - Federation International Trade Associations FITA | International Trade Web Resources

International Trade Statistics - International Trade Center Infobases, Products, and Services

Global Statistics - United Nations, Agencies, Autonomous Organizations United Nations and International Statistics Programmes

OECD Statistics Industry Sectors, Economic, and Other

International Corporate Information

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Partner Links

Investment Overview

Business Magazines

Business Week Issues and Archives The New York Times: BusinessWeek.com

Forbes Issues and Archives Forbes Magazine Archives

Fortune Issues and Archives FORTUNE.com

The Economist Issues and Archives The Economist

International News

Financial Times - FT.com Home

New York Times International The New York Times: International

Wall Street Journal Wall Street Journal Interactive Edition

Business News from Reuters Reuters | Breaking News from Around the Globe

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Partner Links

BBC OnLine World News BBC Online WorldNews

World Business Review - BBC BBC World Service

CNN.com World News CNN.com - World News

Company and Country Reference

Companies and Industries - Hoovers On Line Hoover's Online - CompaniesandIndustries

Companies - Annual Reports Library The Annual Report Library

Countries - Brittanica.com Brittanica.com

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Investment Overview

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Chapter 5 Social Overview

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People

Social Overview

Social Overview
People

Cultural Demography Haiti is one of the world's most densely populated countries. The population of about 8.5 million is youthful. According to an estimate by the Pan American Health Organization, about 15 percent of Haitians are children under five years of age, and another 25 percent are between age six and 14. The working-age population, 15 to 64 years old, represented 56 percent of Haitians, while the 65-and-over age group comprised a mere four percent. Ethnically, about 95 percent of the Haitians are of African descent; the rest of the population is mostly of mixed African-European ancestry, along with a tiny fraction who are of European stock. In recent years, a small community of Arab immigrants has also developed in Haiti. Haitians of mixed AfricanEuropean ancestry have generally formed the country's elite. French is one of two official languages, but it is spoken by only about 10 percent of the people. All Haitians speak Creole, the country's other official language. Creole, French-based in origin, is one of the New World's hybrid linguistic formulations. English is increasingly spoken by the young and by business people. Culturally, Haiti blends African and French influences.

The state religion is Roman Catholicism, and most of the people profess it. However, a great many of them simultaneously practice voodoo, rooted in African spiritual beliefs. As in many cultures-examples come to mind in both Africa and Latin America, such as Cubans who practice both Catholicism and Santeria-religious syncretism is commonplace, so that Haitians tend to see no conflict in the same individual maintaining voodoo practices while adhering to a Christian faith. Particularly in recent years, Protestant missionaries active throughout the country have converted a small but growing percentage of Haitians to the denominations they represent.

Health and Welfare

Unfortunately, Haiti holds the dubious title of poorest nation in the Western hemisphere with a poverty rate of over 80 percent. Bearing out the inadequacy of Haiti's health and welfare conditions, and of its economic and environmental infrastructure, the country has a high infant mortality rate, approximately 63.83 deaths per 1,000 live births, and low life expectancy, variously estimated from 55 to 58 years of age. Haiti's educational status, like its health indicators, reflects the dire struggle with poverty that most of its people face. Although school attendance is compulsory for six elementary years, the actual enrollment rate for children between age six and age 11 is only about 73 percent. Of this group of enrollees, only about 63 percent typically complete primary scho ol. Further, only 20 percent of all children will even begin secondary education. Public education is free but not widely available, and private and parochial schools provide perhaps 75 percent of all educational programs offered. Simply put, although Haitians place a high value on education, many families cannot afford the school fees they

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Human Development Index

need to pay in order to educate their children. As a result, Haiti's adult literacy rate is 52.9 percent, according to recent estimates; the United Nations Development Programme also recently estimated it at 47.8 percent. Traditionally, the preponderance of Haitians were subsistence or very small-scale market farmers. Haiti is the most steeply and consistently mountainous area in the Caribbean. The highest point in the Caribbean is actually in the neighboring Dominican Republic, with which Haiti shares the island of Hispaniola, but the Dominican Republic also has extensive areas of relatively level, easily cultivable land, which Haiti lacks. Haiti's precipitous terrain, and the widespread need to cut trees for fuelwood, resulted in severe stress on the land and destructive erosion as long ago as the turn of the 20th century. Since then, this pattern of environmental degradation has only intensified. Although Haitians are still largely rural dwellers (70 percent of the people live in rural areas), the precarious viability of agriculture has induced a trend of urban migration. Those who settle in the capital, Port-au-Prince, and the handful of other cities find limited opportunity-at best, menial work for paltry wages, and an unemployment rate of 70 to 80 percent. Most urban residents survive by occasional odd jobs or by hawking snacks or other tiny items. Because of these bleak living conditions, many Haitians have immigrated to other parts of the world, particularly to the United States and secondarily Canada, as well as to other parts of the Caribbean. This large-scale exodus has created what Haitians refer to as the "Tenth Department," being the official designation for the country's nine geographic jurisdictions. The expression refers to the fact that literally one out of every six Haitians lives abroad.

Human Development One notable quality-of-life indicator that reflects on Haiti is the Human Development Index (HDI), compiled annually since 1990 by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The HDI is a composite of several indicators, which measure a country's achievements in three main areas of human development: longevity, knowledge and education, as well as economic standard of living. In a ranking of 177 countries, the HDI places Haiti in the medium human development category, at 146th place.

Note: Although the concept of human development is complicated and cannot be properly captured by values and indices, the HDI, which is calculated and updated annually, offers a wide-ra nging assessment of human development in certain countries, not based solely upon traditional economic and financial indicators.

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Human Development Index

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Human Development Index

Social Overview

Human Development Index (Ranked Numerically)

The Human Development Index (HDI) is used to measure quality of life in countries across the world. The HDI has been compiled since 1990 by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) on a regular basis. The HDI is a composite of several indicators, which measure a country's achievements in three main arenas of human development: longevity, education, and economic standard of living. Although the concept of human development is complicated and cannot be properly captured by values and indices, the HDI offers a wide-ranging assessment of human development in certain countries, not based solely upon traditional economic and financial indicators. For more information about the methodology used to calculate the HDI, please see the "Source Materials" in the appendices of this review.

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Country High Human Development Iceland Norway Australia Canada Ireland Sweden Switzerland Japan Netherlands France Finland United States Spain Denmark Austria United Kingdom Belgium Luxembourg New Zealand Italy Hong Kong, China (SAR) Germany Israel Greece Singapore Korea, South Slovenia Cyprus Portugal

Rank

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

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Brunei Barbados Czech Republic Kuwait Malta Qatar Hungary Poland Argentina United Arab Emirates Chile Bahrain Slovakia Lithuania Estonia Latvia Uruguay Croatia Costa Rica Bahamas Seychelles Cuba Mexico Bulgaria St. Kitts and Nevis Tonga Libya Antigua and Barbuda Oman Trinidad and Tobago Romania Saudi Arabia

30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61

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Panama Malaysia Medium Human Development Belarus Mauritius Bosnia-Herzegovina Russia Albania FYR Macedonia Brazil Dominica St. Lucia Kazakhstan Venezuela Colombia Ukraine Samoa Thailand Dominican Republic Belize China Grenada Armenia Turkey Suriname Jordan Peru Lebanon Ecuador Philippines Tunisia Fiji

62 63

64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92

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St. Vincent and the Grenadines Iran Paraguay Georgia Guyana Azerbaijan Sri Lanka Maldives Jamaica Cape Verde El Salvador Algeria Vietnam Palestinian Territories Indonesia Syria Turkmenistan Nicaragua Moldova Egypt Uzbekistan Mongolia Honduras Kyrgyzstan Bolivia Guatemala Gabon Vanuatu South Africa Tajikistan Sao Tome and Principe Botswana

93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124

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Namibia Morocco Equatorial Guinea India Solomon Islands Laos Cambodia Burma Bhutan Comoros Ghana Pakistan Mauritania Lesotho Congo (RC) Bangladesh Swaziland Nepal Madagascar Cameroon Papua New Guinea Haiti Low Human Development Sudan

125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146

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Social Overview

Kenya Djibouti East Timor Zimbabwe Togo Yemen Uganda Gambia Senegal Eritrea Nigeria Tanzania Guinea Rwanda Angola Benin Malawi Zambia Cote d'Ivoire Burundi Congo (DRC) Ethiopia Chad Central African Republic Mozambique Mali Niger Guinea-Bissau Burkina Faso Sierra Leone

148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177

Source:

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Status of Women

This material is derived from the Human Development Report issued by the United Nations.

Updated: 2009

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Status of Women
Overview Chronic unrest and persistent violence in Haiti continually undermines women's ability to attain political and economic security and rights in the social strata. Haitian women have the highest mortality rate in the western hemisphere as well as the highest prevalence of HIV/AIDS. More women than men are infected with HIV/AIDS, in part due to rape and sexual assault. A January 2000 report estimated that 90 percent of Haitian women experience some form of genderbased violence in their lifetime. Haitian women do not receive equal protections under the law and are thus vulnerable to either being ignored or re-victimized if they do report crimes. There are currently no state run shelters for female victims of violence in the nation. In 2004, the nation was hit by a series of tropical storms, depressions and hurricanes. These incidences had extremely devastating effects on an already damaged or non-existent infrastructure. Many Haitians in the worst affected areas have been reduced to fighting for basic staples such as food, water, clothing and shelter. In Haitian society, women are the least likely to be armed and thus the least likely to be able to attain their basic needs. Gender Related Development Index (GDI) Rank:

Not Ranked Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) Rank:

Not Ranked Female Population:

4.3 million Female Life Expectancy at birth:

58 years Total Fertility Rate:

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Social Overview

4.7 Maternal Mortality Ratio (2000):

680 Total Number of Women Living with HIV/AIDS:

50,000-150,000 Ever Married Women, Ages 15-19 (%):

19% Mean Age at Time of Marriage:

22 Contraceptive Use Among Married Women, Any Method (%):

28% Female Adult Literacy Rate:

50% Combined Female Gross enrollment ratio for Primary, Secondary and Tertiary schools:

N/A Female-Headed Households (%):

43% Economically Active Females (%):

55.6% Female Contributing Family Workers (%):

N/A Female Estimated Earned Income:

$1,250 Seats in Parliament held by women (%):

Lower or Single House:

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Culture and Arts

3.6%

Upper House or Senate: 25.9% Year Women Received the Right to Vote:

1950 Year Women Received the Right to Stand for Election:

1957 *The Gender Development Index (GDI) is a composite index which measures the average achievement in a country. While very similar to the Human Development Index in its use of the same variables, the GDI adjusts the average achievement of each country in terms of life expectancy, enrollment in schools, income, and literacy in accordance to the disparities between males and females. *The Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) is a composite index measuring gender inequality in three of the basic dimensions of empowerment; economic participation and decision-making, political participation and decision-making, and power over economic resources. *Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is defined as the average number of babies born to women during their reproductive years. A TFR of 2.1 is considered the replacement rate; once a TFR of a population reaches 2.1 the population will remain stable assuming no immigration or emigration takes place. When the TFR is greater than 2.1 a population will increase and when it is less than 2.1 a population will eventually decrease, although due to the age structure of a population it will take years before a low TFR is translated into lower population. *Maternal Mortality Rate is the number of deaths to women per 100,000 live births that resulted from conditions related to pregnancy and or delivery related complications. *Economically Active Females are the share of the female population, ages 15 and above, whom supply, or are able to supply, labor for the production of goods and services. *Female Contributing Family Workers are those females who work without pay in an economic enterprise operated by a relative living in the same household. *Estimated Earned Income is measured according to Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) in US dollars.

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Culture and Arts

Useful links for students of culture: Foreign Language Phrases for Travelers http://www.gorin.com/phrase/

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Social Overview

http://www.dictionaries.travlang.com/otherdicts.html http://www.linguanaut.com/ National Anthems http://www.national-anthems.net/

www.geocities.com/olusegunyayi Holidays Around the World http://www.oanda.com/cgi/world_holiday.pl?hdnAction=search_countries

www.earthcalendar.net/index.php International Recipes http://www.masterstech-home.com/The_Kitchen/Recipes/Recipe_Indices/InternationalRecipesIndex.html http://recipes.wuzzle.org/ http://members.tripod.com/~GabyandAndy/Internation_Recipes.html © Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

Etiquette

Cultural Dos and Taboos

1. The handshake is the customary form of greeting. In business and social meetings make sure you don't exclude anyone from the greeting. Family members and close friends may kiss each other on both cheeks or hug.

2. Dress depends on the situation. Business dress should be smart and fashionable. Certain restaurants and social activities will require formal dress.

3. Table manner reflect a French influence. When dining, the wrists remain above the table.

4. Social events will often begin later in the evening.

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Travel Information

5. Good topics of conversation are culture, Haitian history, sports, family and international politics. One may wish to avoid conversing on local politics and economics until a good rapport is established between acquaintances.

6. It is fine to bring gifts if invited to someone's home for dinner.

7. Haitian hospitality means generosity. One should never refuse a gift even if the giver is in a poor economic state. A refusal of a gift may be regarded as insulting, and it may convey some degree of arrogance.

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Travel Information

International Travel Guide

Checklist for Travelers

1. Take out travel insurance to cover hospital treatment or medical evacuation. Overseas medical costs are expensive to most international travelers, where one's domestic, nationalized or even private health insurance plans will not provide coverage outside one's home country. Learn about "reciprocal insurance plans" that some international health care companies might offer. 2. Make sure that one's travel insurance is appropriate. If one intends to indulge in adventurous activities, such as parasailing, one should be sure that one is fully insured in such cases. Many traditional insurance policies do not provide coverage in cases of extreme circumstances. 3. Take time to learn about one's destination country and culture. Read and learn about the place one is traveling. Also check political, economic and socio-cultural developments at the destination by reading country-specific travel reports and fact sheets noted below. 4. Get the necessary visas for the country (or countries) one intends to visit - but be aware that a visa does not guarantee entry. A number of useful sites regarding visa and other entry requirements are noted below.

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5. Keep in regular contact with friends and relatives back at home by phone or email, and be sure to leave a travel itinerary. 6. Protect one's personal information by making copies of one's passport details, insurance policy, travelers checks and credit card numbers. Taking copies of such documents with you, while leaving another collection copies with someone at home is also good practice for travelers. Taking copies of one's passport photograph is also recommended. 7. Stay healthy by taking all possible precautions against illness. Also, be sure to take extra supplies of prescription drugs along for the trip, while also taking time to pack general pharmaceutical supplies, such as aspirin and other such painkillers, bandages, stomach ailment medication, anti-inflammatory medication and anti-bacterial medication. 8. Do not carry illicit drugs. Understand that the punishment for possession or use of illegal drugs in some countries may be capital punishment. Make sure your prescription drugs are legal in the countries you plan to visit. 9. Know the laws of one's destination country and culture; be sure to understand the repercussions of breaking those laws and regulations. Often the transparency and freedoms of the juridical system at home is not consistent with that of one's destination country. Become aware of these complexities and subtleties before you travel. 10. For longer stays in a country, or where the security situation is volatile, one should register one's self and traveling companions at the local embassy or consulate of one's country of citizenship. 11. Women should take care to be prepared both culturally and practically for traveling in a different country and culture. One should be sure to take sufficient supplies of personal feminine products and prescription drugs. One should also learn about local cultural standards for women, including norms of dressing. Be aware that it is simply inappropriate and unsafe for women to travel alone in some countries, and take the necessary precautions to avoid risk-filled situations. 12. If one is traveling with small children, one should pack extra supplies, make arrangements with the travel carrier for proper seating that would adequately accommodate children, infants or toddlers. Note also that whether one is male of female, traveling with children means that one's hands are thus not free to carry luggage and bags. Be especially aware that this makes one vulnerable to pickpockets, thieves and other sorts of crime. 13. Make proper arrangements for accommodations, well in advance of one's arrival at a destination. Some countries have limited accommodation, while others may have culturally distinctive facilities. Learning about these practicalities before one travels will greatly aid the enjoyment of one's trip. 14. Travel with different forms of currency and money (cash, traveler's checks and credit cards) in anticipation that venues may not accept one or another form of money. Also, ensuring that one's financial resources are not contained in one location, or by one person (if one is traveling with others) can be a useful measure, in the event that one loses a wallet or purse. 15. Find out about transportation in the destination country. In some places, it might be advisable to hire a local driver or taxi guide for safety reasons, while in other countries, enjoying one's travel experience may well be enhanced by renting a vehicle and seeing the local sights and culture independently. Costs may also be prohibitive for either of these choices, so again, prior planning is suggested.

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Tips for Travelers

• Check with your embassy, consulate, or appropriate government institution related to travel before traveling.

• Take out travel insurance (valid for US) including air ambulance service.

• Take precautions against malaria, dengue fever (repellents and anti-malarial drugs) as well as gastrointestinal upsets.

• Leave copies of passports and valuable documents (including credit cards) with contact in your home country. Keep photocopies with you, but separate from the originals.

• Haiti has a high rate of violent crime; be on your guard and do not carry valuables or wear jewelry.

• Restrict travel to daytime; avoid certain routes (consulting hotel staff/car rental operators/hosts).

• Be aware that local emergency services are inadequate.

• Bring sufficient supplies of medicines if needed (e.g. diabetics/heart disease).

• Carry US dollar Travelers checks, one or two credit cards but only small amounts of cash.

• Enter next of kin details into the back of your passport.

• Don't carry illegal drugs; penalties can be severe.

Note: This information is directly quoted from the United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office.

Sources: United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office

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Business Culture: Information for Business Travelers

Haitians are open to working with foreign investors and are particularly well disposed towards North American businessmen. Most businessmen and women speak English fluently. Appointments with Haitian businessmen should be made in advance. Invitations to restaurants are appreciated and business is usually discussed in restaurants as much as in offices.

Sources: United States Department of State Commercial Guides

For more information on etiquette in Haiti see our Cultural Etiquette page.

Online Resources Regarding Entry Requirements and Visas

Foreign Entry Requirements for Americans from the United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1765.html

Visa Services for Non-Americans from the United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/visa/visa_1750.html

Visa Bulletins from the United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/visa/frvi/bulletin/bulletin_1360.html

Visa Waivers from the United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/visa/temp/without/without_1990.html - new

Passport and Visa Information from the Government of the United Kingdom http://www.bia.homeoffice.gov.uk/

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Visa Information from the Government of Australia http://www.dfat.gov.au/visas/index.html

Passport Information from the Government of Australia https://www.passports.gov.au/Web/index.aspx

Passport Information from the Government of Canada http://www.voyage.gc.ca/preparation_information/passport_passeport-eng.asp

Visa Information from the Government of Canada http://www.voyage.gc.ca/preparation_information/visas-eng.asp

Online Visa Processing by Immigration Experts by VisaPro http://www.visapro.com

Sources: United States Department of State, United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Government of Australia: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, Government of Canada Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade

Useful Online Resources for Travelers

Country-Specific Travel Information from United States http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1765.html

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Travel Advice by Country from Government of United Kingdom http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/

General Travel Advice from Government of Australia http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/General

Travel Bulletins from the Government of Australia http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/TravelBulletins/

Travel Tips from Government of Australia http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/tips/index.html

Travel Checklist by Government of Canada http://www.voyage.gc.ca/preparation_information/checklist_sommaire-eng.asp

Travel Checklist from Government of United Kingdom http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/staying-safe/checklist

Your trip abroad from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/brochures/brochures_1225.html

A safe trip abroad from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/safety/safety_1747.html

Tips for expatriates abroad from United States Department of State

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http://travel.state.gov/travel/living/residing/residing_1235.html

Tips for students from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/living/studying/studying_1238.html http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/brochures/brochures_1219.html

Medical information for travelers from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/health/health_1185.html

US Customs Travel information http://www.customs.gov/xp/cgov/travel/

Sources: United States Department of State; United States Customs Department, United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Government of Australia; Government of Canada: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade

Other Practical Online Resources for Travelers

Foreign Language Phrases for Travelers http://www.travlang.com/languages/ http://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/index.htm

World Weather Forecasts http://www.intellicast.com/ http://www.wunderground.com/

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http://www.worldweather.org/

Worldwide Time Zones, Map, World Clock http://www.timeanddate.com/ http://www.worldtimezone.com/

International Airport Codes http://www.world-airport-codes.com/

International Dialing Codes http://www.kropla.com/dialcode.htm http://www.countrycallingcodes.com/

International Phone Guide http://www.kropla.com/phones.htm

International Mobile Phone Guide http://www.kropla.com/mobilephones.htm

International Internet Café Search Engine http://cybercaptive.com/

Global Internet Roaming http://www.kropla.com/roaming.htm

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World Electric Power Guide http://www.kropla.com/electric.htm http://www.kropla.com/electric2.htm

World Television Standards and Codes http://www.kropla.com/tv.htm International Currency Exchange Rates http://www.xe.com/ucc/

Banking and Financial Institutions Across the World http://www.123world.com/banks/index.html

International Credit Card or Automated Teller Machine (ATM) Locator http://visa.via.infonow.net/locator/global/ http://www.mastercard.com/us/personal/en/cardholderservices/atmlocations/index.html

International Chambers of Commerce http://www.123world.com/chambers/index.html

World Tourism Websites http://123world.com/tourism/

Diplomatic and Consular Information

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United States Diplomatic Posts Around the World http://www.usembassy.gov/

United Kingdom Diplomatic Posts Around the World http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/embassies-and-posts/find-an-embassy-overseas/

Australia's Diplomatic Posts Around the World http://www.dfat.gov.au/missions/ http://www.dfat.gov.au/embassies.html

Canada's Embassies and High Commissions http://www.international.gc.ca/ciw-cdm/embassies-ambassades.aspx

Resources for Finding Embassies and other Diplomatic Posts Across the World http://www.escapeartist.com/embassy1/embassy1.htm

Safety and Security

Travel Warnings by Country from Government of Australia http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/

Travel Warnings and Alerts from United States Department of State http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/tw/tw_1764.html http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/pa/pa_1766.html

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Travel Information

Travel Reports and Warnings by Government of Canada http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/menu-eng.asp http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/updates_mise-a-jour-eng.asp

Travel Warnings from Government of United Kingdom http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/ http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-by-country/?action=noTravelAll#noTravelAll Sources: United Kingdom Foreign and Commonwealth Office, the United States Department of State, the Government of Canada: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, Government of Australia: Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade

Other Safety and Security Online Resources for Travelers

United States Department of State Information on Terrorism http://www.state.gov/s/ct/

Government of the United Kingdom Resource on the Risk of Terrorism http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1044011304926

Government of Canada Terrorism Guide http://www.international.gc.ca/crime/terrorism-terrorisme.aspx?lang=eng

Information on Terrorism by Government of Australia http://www.dfat.gov.au/icat/index.html

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FAA Resource on Aviation Safety http://www.faasafety.gov/

In-Flight Safety Information for Air Travel (by British Airways crew trainer, Anna Warman) http://www.warman.demon.co.uk/anna/inflight.html

Hot Spots: Travel Safety and Risk Information http://www.airsecurity.com/hotspots/HotSpots.asp

Information on Human Rights http://www.state.gov/g/drl/hr/

Sources: The United States Department of State, the United States Customs Department, the Government of Canada, the Government of United Kingdom, the Government of Australia, the Federal Aviation Authority, Anna Warman's In-flight Website, Hot Spots Travel and Risk Information

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Diseases/Health Data

Health Information for Travelers to Haiti

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Diseases/Health Data

The preventive measures you need to take while traveling in the Caribbean depend on the areas you visit and the length of time you stay. You should observe the precautions listed in this document in most areas of this region.

Travelers' diarrhea, the number one illness in travelers, can be caused by viruses, bacteria, or parasites, which can contaminate food or water. Infections may cause diarrhea and vomiting (E. coli, Salmonella, cholera, and parasites), fever (typhoid fever and toxoplasmosis), or liver damage (hepatitis). Make sure your food and drinking water are safe. (See below.)

Malaria is a preventable infection that can be fatal if left untreated. Prevent infection by taking prescription antimalarial drugs and protecting yourself against mosquito bites (see below). Risk for malaria is high all year in all areas of Haiti and in rural areas of the Dominican Republic, especially areas bordering Haiti. You are not at risk if you travel only to other Caribbean islands. Travelers to Haiti and rural Dominican Republic should take chloroquine to prevent malaria. For more information about detailed locations, see Malaria in the Caribbean ( http://www.cdc.gov/travel/regionalmalaria/caribean.htm).

A certificate of yellow fever vaccination may be required for entry into certain areas of these countries if you are arriving from a tropical South American or sub-Saharan African country. For detailed information, see Comprehensive Yellow Fever Vaccination Requirements ( http://www.cdc.gov/travel/yelfever.htm).

Dengue, filariasis, and leishmaniasis are diseases carried by insects that also occur in this region. Protecting yourself against insect bites (see below) will help to prevent these diseases.

Schistosomiasis, a parasitic infection, is found in fresh water in parts of Antigua, the Dominican Republic, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Montserrat, Puerto Rico, and St. Lucia. Do not swim in fresh water (except in well-chlorinated swimming pools) in these countries. (For more information, please see the Swimming Precautions on the Making Travel Safe page at URL http://www.cdc.gov/travel/safety.htm.)

CDC Recommends the Following Vaccines (as Appropriate for Age):

See your doctor at least 4-6 weeks before your trip to allow time for shots to take effect. • Hepatitis A or immune globulin (IG) should be considered if travel to areas of questionable sanitation is anticipated. • Hepatitis B, if you might be exposed to blood (for example, health-care workers) or travelers who have sexual contact with the local population, stay longer than 6 months in Haiti or the Dominican Republic, or might be exposed through medical treatment.

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• Rabies, if you might be exposed to wild or domestic animals through your work or recreation. • Typhoid, particularly if you are visiting developing countries in this region. • Yellow fever, for travelers going outside urban areas in Trinidad and Tobago. • As needed, booster doses for tetanus-diphtheria and measles. Hepatitis B vaccine is now recommended for all infants and for children ages 11-12 years who did not receive the series as infants.

All travelers should take the following precautions, no matter the destination:

• Wash hands often with soap and water. • Because motor vehicle crashes are a leading cause of injury among travelers, walk and drive defensively. Avoid travel at night if possible and always use seat belts. • Always use latex condoms to reduce the risk of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. • Don't eat or drink dairy products unless you know they have been pasteurized. • Don't share needles with anyone. • Eat only thoroughly cooked food or fruits and vegetables you have peeled yourself. Remember: boil it, cook it, peel it, or forget it. • Never eat undercooked ground beef and poultry, raw eggs, and unpasteurized dairy products. Raw shellfish is particularly dangerous to persons who have liver disease or compromised immune systems.

Travelers visiting undeveloped areas should take the following precautions:

To Stay Healthy, Do:

• Drink only bottled or boiled water, or carbonated (bubbly) drinks in cans or bottles. Avoid tap water, fountain drinks, and ice cubes. If this is not possible, make water safer by BOTH filtering through an "absolute 1-micron or less" filter AND adding iodine tablets to the filtered water. "Absolute 1-micron filters" are found in camping/outdoor supply stores. • If you visit an area where there is risk for malaria, take your malaria prevention medication before, during, and after travel, as directed. (See your doctor for a prescription.) • Protect yourself from insects by remaining in well-screened areas, using repellents (applied sparingly at >4-hour intervals) and permethrin-impregnated mosquito nets, and wearing long-sleeved shirts and long pants from dusk through dawn. • To prevent fungal and parasitic infections, keep feet clean and dry, and do not go barefoot.

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To Avoid Getting Sick:

• Don't eat food purchased from street vendors. • Don't drink beverages with ice. • Don't handle animals (especially monkeys, dogs, and cats), to avoid bites and serious diseases (including rabies and plague). (For more information, please see the Animal-Associated Hazards on the Making Travel Safe page.) • Don't swim in fresh water. Salt water is usually safer. (For more information, please see the Swimming Precautions on the Making Travel Safe page.)

What You Need To Bring with You:

• Long-sleeved shirt and long pants to wear whenever possible to prevent illnesses carried by insects (e.g., malaria, dengue, and leishmaniasis). • Insect repellent containing DEET (diethylmethyltoluamide), in 30%-35% strength for adults and 6%10% for children. If you are not staying in air-conditioned or well-screened housing, you should purchase a bed net impregnated with the insecticide permethrin. (Bed nets can be purchased in camping or military supply stores.) • Over-the-counter antidiarrheal medicine to take if you have diarrhea. • Iodine tablets and portable water filters to purify water if bottled water is not available. See above for more detailed information about water filters. • Sunblock, sunglasses, hat. • Prescription medications: make sure you have enough to last during your trip, as well as a copy of the prescription(s).

After You Return Home:

If you have visited an area where there is risk for malaria, continue taking your malaria medication weekly for 4 weeks after you leave the area.

If you become ill-even as long as a year after your return-tell your doctor where you have traveled.

For More Information:

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Ask your doctor or check the CDC web sites for information about how to protect yourself against diseases that occur in the Caribbean, such as:

For information about diseases-

Carried by Insects Dengue, Malaria

Carried in Food or Water Escherichia coli, diarrhea, Hepatitis A, Schistosomiasis, Typhoid Fever

Person-to-Person Contact Hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS

For more information about these and other diseases, please check the Diseases ( http://www.cdc.gov/travel/diseases.htm) section and the Health Topics A-Z ( http://www.cdc.gov/health/diseases.htm).

Note:

Haiti is located in the Caribbean health region.

Sources:

The Center for Disease Control Destinations Website: http://www.cdc.gov/travel/destinat.htm

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Chapter 6 Environmental Overview

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Environmental Overview
Environmental Issues
General Overview: Haiti is one of the most densely populated countries, as well as one of the poorest nation states, in the Western Hemisphere. Its environmental challenges are directly attributable to its population pressures, in conjunction with its level of economic destitution, which places desperate demands on lands, forests and other resources for agriculture and fuel.

Environmental challenges have so adversely affected the landscape that little remains of Haiti 's once luxuriant forest cover, since most of it has been cut down for fuel or to facilitate farming. The degree to which unremitting deforestation has taken place, in order to make way for these aforementioned activities has led to destructive soil erosion and even desertification. With soil erosion and desertification far advanced, Haiti is, therefore, an ecological disaster.

Current Issues: -extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and use as fuel) -devastating soil erosion -inadequate supplies of potable water -widespread water-born diseases -decimated fisheries

Total Greenhouse Gas Emissions (Mtc):

2.0

Country Rank (GHG output):

136th

Natural Hazards:

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Environmental Policy

-severe storms -hurricanes

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Environmental Policy
Regulation and Jurisdiction: The regulation and protection of the environment in Haiti is under the jurisdiction of the following: Ministry of the Environment Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural Development Major Non-Governmental Organizations: Pan American Development Foundation's Agro-forestry Extension Project International Environmental Accords: Party to: Biodiversity Climate Change Desertification Law of the Sea Marine Dumping Marine Life Conservation Ozone Layer Protection Signed but not ratified: Hazardous Wastes Nuclear Test Ban Kyoto Protocol Status (year ratified): 2005

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Global Environmental Snapshot
Introduction

The countries of the world face many environmental challenges in common. Nevertheless, the nature and intensity of problem vary from region to region, as do various countries' respective capacities, in terms of affluence and infrastructure, to remediate threats to environmental quality.

Consciousness of perils affecting the global environment came to the fore in the last third or so of the 20th century has continued to intensify well into the new millennium. According to the United Nations Environment Programme, considerable environmental progress has been made at the level of institutional developments, international cooperation accords, and public participation. Approximately twodozen international environmental protection accords with global implications have been promulgated since the late 1970s under auspices of the United Nations and other international organizations, together with many additional regional agreements. Attempts to address and rectify environmental problems take the form of legal frameworks, economic instruments, environmentally sound technologies and cleaner production processes as well as conservation efforts. Environmental impact assessments have increasingly been applied across the globe.

Environmental degradation affects the quality, or aesthetics, of human life, but it also displays potential to undermine conditions necessary for the sustainability of human life. Attitudes toward the importance of environmental protection measures reflect ambivalence derived from this bifurcation. On one hand, steps such as cleaning up pollution, dedicating parkland, and suchlike, are seen as embellishments undertaken by wealthy societies already assured they can successfully perform those functions deemed, ostensibly, more essential-for instance, public health and education, employment and economic development. On the other hand, in poorer countries, activities causing environmental damagefor instance the land degradation effects of unregulated logging, slash-and-burn agriculture, overgrazing, and mining-can seem justified insofar as such activities provide incomes and livelihoods.

Rapid rates of resource depletion are associated with poverty and high population growth, themselves correlated, whereas consumption per capita is much higher in the most developed countries, despite these nations' recent progress in energy efficiency and conservation. It is impossible to sequester the global environmental challenge from related economic, social and political challenges.

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Global Environmental Snapshot

First-tier industrialized countries have recently achieved measurable decreases in environmental pollution and the rate of resource depletion, a success not matched in middle income and developing countries. It is believed that the discrepancy is due to the fact that industrialized countries have more developed infrastructures to accommodate changes in environmental policy, to apply environmental technologies, and to invest in public education. The advanced industrialized countries incur relatively lower costs in alleviating environmental problems, in comparison to developing countries, since in the former even extensive environmental programs represent a rather minuscule percentage of total expenditures. Conversely, budget constraints, lagged provision of basic services to the population, and other factors such as debt service and militarization may preclude institution of minimal environmental protection measures in the poorest countries.

A synopsis for the current situation facing each region of the world follows:

Regional Synopsis: Africa

The African continent, the world's second-largest landmass, encompasses many of the world's least developed countries. By global standards, urbanization is comparatively low but rising at a rapid rate. More heavily industrialized areas at the northern and southern ends of the continent experience the major share of industrial pollution. In other regions the most serious environmental problems typically stem from inefficient subsistence farming methods and other forms of land degradation, which have affected an increasingly extensive area under pressure of a widely impoverished, fast-growing population. Africa's distribution of natural resources is very uneven. It is the continent at greatest risk of desertification, especially in the Sahel region at the edge of the Sahara but also in other dry-range areas. Yet at the same time, Africa also harbors some of the earth's richest and most diverse biological zones.

Key Points:

Up to half a billion hectares of African land are moderately to severely degraded, an occurrence reflecting short-fallow shifting cultivation and overgrazing as well as a climatic pattern of recurrent droughts.

Soil degradation is severe along the expanse directly south of the Sahara, from the west to the east coasts. Parts of southern Africa, central-eastern Africa, and the neighboring island of Madagascar suffer from serious soil degradation as well.

Africa contains about 17 percent of the world's forest cover, concentrated in the tropical belt of the continent. Many of the forests, however, are severely depleted, with an estimated 70 percent showing some degree of degradation.

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Population growth has resulted in continuing loss of arable land, as inefficient subsistence farming techniques affect increasingly extensive areas. Efforts to implement settled, sustainable agriculture have met with some recent success, but much further progress in this direction is needed. Especially in previously uninhabited forestlands, concern over deforestation is intensifying.

By contrast, the African savanna remains the richest grassland in the world, supporting a substantial concentration of animal and plant life. Wildlife parks are sub-Saharan Africa's greatest tourist attraction, and with proper management-giving local people a stake in conservation and controlling the pace of development-could greatly enhance African economies.

Significant numbers of mammal species in parts of northern, southern and eastern Africa are currently threatened, while the biological diversity in Mauritania and Madagascar is even further compromised with over 20 percent of the mammal species in these two countries currently under threat.

With marine catch trends increasing from 500,000 metric tons in the 1950s to over 3,000,000 metric tons by 2000, there was increasing concern about the reduction in fisheries and marine life, should this trend continue unabated.

Water resource vulnerability is a major concern in northeastern Africa, and a moderate concern across the rest of the continent. An exception is central Africa, which has plentiful water supplies.

Many Africans lack adequate access to resources, not just (if at all) because the resources are unevenly distributed geographically, but also through institutional failures such as faulty land tenure systems or political upheaval. The quality of Africa's natural resources, despite their spotty distribution, is in fact extraordinarily rich. The infrastructure needed to protect and benefit from this natural legacy, however, is largely lacking.

Regional Synopsis: Asia and the Pacific

Asia-earth's largest landmass-and the many large and nearly innumerable small islands lying off its Pacific shore display extraordinarily contrasting landscapes, levels of development, and degrees of environmental stress. In the classification used here, the world's smallest continent, Australia, is also included in the Asia-Pacific region.

The Asia-Pacific region is home to 9 of the world's 14 largest urban areas, and as energy use for utilities, industry and transport increases in developing economies, urban centers are subject to worsening air quality. Intense population density in places such as Bangladesh or Hong Kong is the quintessential image many people have of Asia, yet vast desert areas such as the Gobi and the world's highest mountain range, the Himalayas, span the continent as well. Forested areas in Southeast Asia and the islands of Indonesia and the Philippines were historically prized for their tropical hardwood, but in many

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places this resource is now severely depleted. Low-lying small island states are extremely vulnerable to the effects of global warming, both rising sea levels and an anticipated increase in cyclones.

Key Points:

Asian timber reserves are forecast to be depleted in the next 40 years. Loss of natural forest is irreversible in some areas, but plantation programs to restore tree cover may ameliorate a portion of the resulting land degradation.

Increased usage of fossil fuels in China and other parts of southern Asia is projected to result in a marked increase in emissions, especially in regard to carbon dioxide. The increased usage of energy has led to a marked upsurge in air pollution across the region.

Acidification is an emerging problem regionally, with sulfur dioxide emissions expected to triple by 2010 if the current growth rate is sustained. China, Thailand, India, and Korea seem to be suffering from particularly high rates of acid deposition. By contrast, Asia's most highly developed economy, Japan, has effected substantial improvements in its environmental indicators.

Water pollution in the Pacific is an urgent concern since up to 70 percent of the water discharged into the region's waters receives no treatment. Additionally, the disposal of solid wastes, in like manner, poses a major threat in a region with many areas of high population density.

The Asia-Pacific region is the largest expanse of the world's land that is adversely affected by soil degradation.

The region around Australia reportedly suffers the largest degree of ozone depletion.

The microstates of the Pacific suffer land loss due to global warming, and the consequent rise in the levels of ocean waters. A high-emissions scenario and anthropogenic climate impact at the upper end of the currently predicted range would probably force complete evacuation of the lowest-elevation islands sometime in this century.

The species-rich reefs surrounding Southeast Asia are highly vulnerable to the deleterious effects of coastal development, land-based pollution, over-fishing and exploitative fishing methods, as well as marine pollution from oil spills and other activities.

With marine catch trends increasing from 5,000,000 metric tons in the 1950s to over 20,000,000 metric tons by 2000, there was increasing concern about the reduction in fisheries and marine life, should this trend continue unabated.

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Significant numbers of mammal species in parts of China and south-east Asia are currently threatened, while the biological diversity in India, Japan, Australia, the Philippines, Indonesia and parts of Malaysia is even further compromised with over 20 percent of the mammal species in these countries currently under threat.

Water resource vulnerability is a serious concern in areas surrounding the Indian subcontinent.

Regional Synopsis: Central Asia

The Central Asian republics, formerly in the Soviet Union, experience a range of environmental problems as the result of poorly executed agricultural, industrial, and nuclear programs during the Soviet era. Relatively low population densities are the norm, especially since upon the breakup of the U.S.S.R. many ethnic Russians migrated back to European Russia. In this largely semi-arid region, drought, water shortages, and soil salinization pose major challenges.

Key Points:

The use of agricultural pesticides, such as DDT and other chemicals, has contributed to the contamination of soil and groundwater throughout the region.

Land and soil degradation, and in particular, increased salinization, is mostly attributable to faulty irrigation practices.

Significant desertification is also a problem in the region.

Air pollution is prevalent, mostly due to use of low octane automobile fuel.

Industrial pollution of the Caspian Sea and the Aral Sea, as a result of industrial effluents as well as mining and metal production, presents a challenge to the countries bordering these bodies of water.

One of the most severe environmental problems in the region is attributable to the several billion tons of hazardous materials stored in landfills across Central Asia.

Uzbekistan's particular problem involves the contraction of the Aral Sea, which has decreased in size by a third, as a consequence of river diversions and poor irrigation practices. The effect has been the near-total biological destruction of that body of water.

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Kazakhstan, as a consequence of being the heartland of the former Soviet Union's nuclear program, has incurred a high of cancerous malignancies, biogenetic abnormalities and radioactive contamination.

While part of the Soviet Union, the republics in the region experienced very high levels of greenhouse gas emissions, as a consequence of rapid industrialization using cheap but dirty energy sources, especially coal.

By contrast, however, there have recently been substantial reductions in the level of greenhouse gas emissions, especially those attributable to coal burning, with further decreases anticipated over the next decade. These changes are partially due to the use of cleaner energy technologies, such as natural gas, augmented by governmental commitment to improving environmental standards.

Regional Synopsis: Europe

Western Europe underwent dramatic transformation of its landscape, virtually eliminating large-scale natural areas, during an era of rapid industrialization, which intensified upon its recovery from World War II. In Eastern Europe and European Russia, intensive land development has been less prevalent, so that some native forests and other natural areas remain. Air and water pollution from use of dirty fuels and industrial effluents, however, are more serious environmental problems in Eastern than in Western Europe, though recent trends show improvement in many indicators. Acid rain has inflicted heavy environmental damage across much of Europe, particularly on forests. Europe and North America are the only regions in which water usage for industry exceeds that for agriculture, although in Mediterranean nations agriculture is the largest water consumer.

Key Points:

Europe contributes 36 percent of the world's chlorofluorocarbon emissions, 30 percent of carbon dioxide emissions, and 25 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions.

Sulfur and nitrogen oxide emissions are the cause of 30 to 50 percent of Central and Eastern Europe's deforestation.

Acid rain has been an environmental concern for decades and continues to be a challenge in parts of Western Europe.

Overexploitation of up to 60 percent of Europe's groundwater presents a problem in industrial and urban areas.

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With marine catch trends increasing from 5,000,000 metric tons in the 1950s to over 20,000,000 metric tons by 2000, there was increasing concern about the reduction in fisheries and marine life, should this trend continue unabated.

Significant numbers of mammal species in parts of western Europe, Eastern Europe and Russia are currently threatened, while the biological diversity on the Iberian Peninsula is even further compromised with over 40 percent of the mammal species in this region currently under threat. As a result, there has been a 10 percent increase in protected areas of Europe.

A major environmental issue for Europe involves the depletion of various already endangered or threatened species, and most significantly, the decline of fish stocks. Some estimates suggest that up to 50 percent of the continent's fish species may be considered endangered species. Coastal fisheries have been over-harvested, resulting in catch limits or moratoriums on many commercially important fish species.

Fortunately, in the last few years, these policies have started to yield measurable results with decreasing trends in marine fish catch.

Recently, most European countries have adopted cleaner production technologies, and alternative methods of waste disposal, including recycling.

The countries of Eastern Europe have made air quality a major environmental priority. This is exemplified by the Russian Federation's addition to the 1995 "Berlin Mandate" (transnational legislation based on resolutions of the Rio Earth Summit) compelling nations to promote "carbon sinks" to absorb greenhouse gases.

On a relative basis, when compared with the degree of industrial emissions emitted by many Eastern European countries until the late 1980s, there has been some marked increase in air quality in the region, as obsolete plants are closed and a transition to cleaner fuels and more efficient energy use takes place.

Regional Synopsis: The Middle and Near East Quite possibly, the Middle East will exemplify the adage that, as the 20th century was a century fixated on oil, the 21st century will be devoted to critical decisions about water. Many (though far from all) nations in the Middle East rank among those countries with the largest oil and gas reserves, but water resources are relatively scarce throughout this predominantly dry region. Effects of global warming may cause moderately high elevation areas that now typically receive winter "snowpack" to experience mainly rain instead, which would further constrain dry-season water availability. The antiquities and

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religious shrines of the region render it a great magnet for tourism, which entails considerable economic growth potential but also intensifies stresses on the environment.

Key Points:

Water resource vulnerability is a serious concern across the entire region. The increased usage of, and further demand for water, has exacerbated long-standing water scarcity in the region. For instance, river diversions and industrial salt works have caused the Dead Sea to shrink by one-third from its original surface area, with further declines expected.

The oil industry in the region contributes to water pollution in the Persian Gulf, as a result of oil spills, which have averaged 1.2 million barrels of oil spilt per year (some sources suggest that this figure is understated). The consequences are severe because even after oil spills have been cleaned up, environmental damage to the food webs and ecosystems of marine life will persist for a prolonged period.

The region's coastal zone is considered one of the most fragile and endangered ecosystems of the world. Land reclamation, shoreline construction, discharge of industrial effluents, and tourism (such as diving in the Red Sea) contribute to widespread coastal damage.

Significant numbers of mammal species in parts of the Middle East are currently threatened.

Since the 1980s, 11 percent of the region's natural forest has been depleted.

Regional Synopsis: Latin America and the Caribbean

The Latin American and Caribbean region is characterized by exceedingly diverse landforms that have generally seen high rates of population growth and economic development in recent decades. The percentage of inhabitants residing in urban areas is quite high at 73.4 percent; the region includes the megacities of Mexico City, Sao Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro. The region also includes the world's secondhighest mountain range, the Andes; significant expanses of desert and grassland; the coral reefs of the Caribbean Sea; and the world's largest contiguous tropical forest in the Amazon basin. Threats to the latter from subsistence and commercial farming, mineral exploitation and timbering are well publicized. Nevertheless, of eight countries worldwide that still retain at least 70 percent of their original forest cover, six are in Latin America. The region accounts for nearly half (48.3 percent) of the world's greenhouse gas emissions derived from land clearing, but as yet a comparatively minuscule share (4.3 percent) of such gases from industrial sources.

Key Points:

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Although Latin America is one of the most biologically diverse regions of the world, this biodiversity is highly threatened, as exemplified by the projected extinction of up to 100,000 species in the next few decades. Much of this loss will be concentrated in the Amazon area, although the western coastline of South America will also suffer significant depletion of biological diversity. The inventory of rainforest species with potentially useful commercial or medical applications is incomplete, but presumed to include significant numbers of such species that may become extinct before they are discovered and identified.

Up to 50 percent of the region's grazing land has lost its soil fertility as a result of soil erosion, salinization, alkalinization and overgrazing.

The Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Pacific Ocean have all been contaminated by agricultural wastes, which are discharged into streams that flow into these major waters. Water pollution derived from phosphorous, nitrates and pesticides adversely affects fish stocks, contributes to oxygen depletion and fosters overgrowth of aquatic vegetation. Marine life will continue to be severely compromised as a result of these conditions.

Due to industrial development in the region, many beaches of eastern Latin America and the Caribbean suffer from tar deposits.

Most cities in the region lack adequate sewage treatment facilities, and rapid migration of the rural poor into the cities is widening the gap between current infrastructure capacity and the much greater level needed to provide satisfactory basic services.

The rainforest region of the Amazon Basin suffers from dangerously high levels of deforestation, which may be a significant contributory factor to global warming or "the greenhouse effect." In the late 1990s and into the new millennium, the rate of deforestation was around 20 million acres of rainforest being destroyed annually.

Deforestation on the steep rainforest slopes of Caribbean islands contributes to soil erosion and landslides, both of which then result in heavy sedimentation of nearby river systems. When these sedimented rivers drain into the sea and coral reefs, they poison the coral tissues, which are vital to the maintenance of the reef ecosystem. The result is marine degradation and nutrient depletion. Jamaica's coral reefs have never quite recovered from the effects of marine degradation.

The Southern Cone of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay) suffers the effects of greatly increased ultraviolet-B radiation, as a consequence of more intense ozone depletion in the southern hemisphere.

Water resource vulnerability is an increasingly major concern in the northwestern portion of South America.

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Regional Synopsis: North America

North American nations, in particular the United States and Canada, rank among the world's most highly developed industrial economies-a fact which has generated significant pollution problems, but also financial resources and skills that have enabled many problems to be corrected. Although efforts to promote energy efficiency, recycling, and suchlike have helped ease strains on the environment in a part of the world where per capita consumption levels are high, sprawling land development patterns and recent preferences many households have demonstrated for larger vehicles have offset these advances.

Meanwhile, a large portion of North America's original forest cover has been lost, though in many cases replaced by productive second-growth woodland. In recent years, attitudes toward best use of the region's remaining natural or scenic areas seem to be shifting toward recreation and preservation and away from resource extraction. With increasing attention on the energy scarcity in the United States, however, there is speculation that this shift may be short-lived. Indeed, the energy shortage on the west coast of the United States and associated calls for energy exploration, indicate a possible retrenchment toward resource extraction. At the same time, however, it has also served to highlight the need for energy conservation as well as alternative energy sources.

Despite generally successful anti-pollution efforts, various parts of the region continue to suffer significant air, water and land degradation from industrial, vehicular, and agricultural emissions and runoff. Mexico, as a middle-income country, displays environmental problems characteristic of a developing economy, including forest depletion, pollution from inefficient industrial processes and dirty fuels, and lack of sufficient waste-treatment infrastructure.

Key Points:

Because of significantly greater motor vehicle usage in the United States (U.S.) than in the rest of the world, the U.S. contribution of urban air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, especially carbon dioxide, is disproportionately high in relation to its population.

Acid rain is an enduring issue of contention in the northeastern part of the United States, on the border with Canada.

Mexico's urban areas suffer extreme air pollution from carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and other toxic air pollutants. Emissions controls on vehicles are in their infancy, compared to analogous regulations in the U.S.

The cities of Mexico, including those on the U.S. border, also discharge large quantities of untreated or poorly treated sewage, though officials are currently planning infrastructure upgrades.

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Deforestation is noteworthy in various regions of the U.S., especially along the northwest coastline. Old growth forests have been largely removed, but in the northeastern and upper midwestern sections of the United States, evidence suggests that the current extent of tree cover probably surpasses the figure for the beginning of the 20th century.

Extreme weather conditions in the last few years have resulted in a high level of soil erosion along the north coast of California; in addition, the coastline itself has shifted substantially due to soil erosion and concomitant landslides.

Agricultural pollution-including nitrate contamination of well water, nutrient runoff to waterways, and pesticide exposure-is significant in various areas. Noteworthy among affected places are California's Central Valley, extensive stretches of the Midwest, and land in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.

Inland waterways, especially around the Great Lakes, have substantially improved their water quality, due to concentrated efforts at reducing water pollution by governmental, commercial and community representatives. Strict curbs on industrial effluents and near-universal implementation of sewage treatment are the chief factors responsible for this improvement.

A major environmental issue for Canada and the United States involves the depletion of various already endangered or threatened species, and most significantly, the decline of fish stocks. Coastal fisheries have been over-harvested, resulting in catch limits or moratoriums on many commercially important fish species. In the last few years, these policies have started to yield measurable results with decreasing trends in marine fish catch.

Due to the decay of neighboring ecosystems in Central America and the Caribbean, the sea surrounding Florida has become increasingly sedimented, contributing to marine degradation, nutrient depletion of the ecosystem, depletion of fish stocks, and diseases to coral species in particular.

Polar Regions

Key Points:

The significant rise in sea level, amounting 10 to 25 centimeters in the last 100 years, is due to the melting of the Arctic ice sheets, and is attributed to global warming.

The Antarctic suffers from a significant ozone hole, first detected in 1976. By 1985, a British scientific team reported a 40 percent decrease in usual regeneration rates of the ozone. Because a sustained increase in the amount of ultraviolet-B radiation would have adverse consequences upon all planetary

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life, recent environmental measures have been put into effect, aimed at reversing ozone depletion. These measures are projected to garner significant results by 2050.

Due to air and ocean currents, the Arctic is a sink for toxic releases originally discharged thousands of miles away. Arctic wildlife and Canada's Inuit population have higher bodily levels of contaminants such as PCB and dioxin than those found in people and animals in much of the rest of the world.

© Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

Global Environmental Concepts
1. Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases The Greenhouse Effect: In the early 19th century, the French physicist, Jean Fourier, contended that the earth's atmosphere functions in much the same way as the glass of a greenhouse, thus describing what is now understood as the "greenhouse effect." Put simply, the "greenhouse effect" confines some of the sun's energy to the earth, preserving some of the planet's warmth, rather than allowing it to flow back into space. In so doing, all kinds of life forms can flourish on earth. Thus, the "greenhouse effect" is necessary to sustain and preserve life forms and ecosystems on earth. In the late 19th century, a Swedish chemist, Svante Arrhenius, noticed that human activities, such as the burning of coal and other fossil fuels for heat, and the removal of forested lands for urban development, led to higher concentrations of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide and methane, in the atmosphere. This increase in the levels of greenhouse gases was believed to advance the "greenhouse effect" exponentially, and might be related to the trend in global warming. In the wake of the Industrial Revolution, after industrial development took place on a large scale and the total human population burgeoned simultaneously with industrialization, the resulting increase in greenhouse gas emissions could, many scientists believe, be significant enough to have some bearing on climate. Indeed, many studies in recent years support the idea that there is a linkage between human activities and global warming, although there is less consensus on the extent to which this linkage may be relevant to environmental concerns. That said, some scientists have argued that temperature fluctuations have existed throughout the evolution of the planet. Indeed, Dr. S. Fred Singer, the president of the Science and Environment Policy Project has noted that 3,000-year-old geological records of ocean sediment reveal changes in the surface temperature of the ocean. Hence, it is possible that climate variability is merely a normal fact of the planet's evolution. Yet even skeptics as to anthropogenic factors concur that any substantial changes in global temperatures would likely have an effect upon the earth's ecosystems, as well as the life forms that inhabit them. The Relationship Between Global Warming and Greenhouse Gases: A large number of climatologists believe that the increase in atmospheric concentrations of "greenhouse gas emissions," mostly a consequence of human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, are contributing to global warming. The cause notwithstanding, the planet has reportedly warmed 0.3°C to

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0.6°C over the last century. Indeed, each year during the 1990s was one of the very warmest in the 20th century, with the mean surface temperature for 1999 being the fifth warmest on record since 1880. In early 2000, a panel of atmospheric scientists for the National Research Council concluded in a report that global warming was, indeed, a reality. While the panel, headed by Chairman John Wallace, a professor of atmospheric sciences at the University of Washington, stated that it remained unclear whether human activities have contributed to the earth's increasing temperatures, it was apparent that global warming exists. In 2001, following a request for further study by the incoming Bush administration in the United States, the National Academy of Sciences again confirmed that global warming had been in existence for the last 20 years. The study also projected an increase in temperature between 2.5 degrees and 10.4 degrees Fahrenheit by the year 2100. Furthermore, the study found the leading cause of global warming to be emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels, and it noted that greenhouse gas accumulations in the earth's atmosphere was a result of human activities. Within the scientific community, the controversy regarding has centered on the difference between surface air and upper air temperatures. Information collected since 1979 suggests that while the earth's surface temperature has increased by about a degree in the past century, the atmospheric temperature five miles above the earth's surface has indicated very little increase. Nevertheless, the panel stated that this discrepancy in temperature between surface and upper air does not invalidate the conclusion that global warming is taking place. Further, the panel noted that natural events, such as volcanic eruptions, can decrease the temperature in the upper atmosphere. The major consequences of global warming potentially include the melting of the polar ice caps, which, in turn, contribute to the rise in sea levels. Many islands across the globe have already experienced a measurable loss of land as a result. Because global warming may increase the rate of evaporation, increased precipitation, in the form of stronger and more frequent storm systems, is another potential outcome. Other consequences of global warming may include the introduction and proliferation of new infectious diseases, loss of arable land (referred to as "desertification"), destructive changes to existing ecosystems, loss of biodiversity and the isolation of species, and concomitant adverse changes in the quality of human life. International Policy Development in Regard to Global Warming: Regardless of what the precise nature of the relationship between greenhouse gas emissions and global warming may be, it seems that there is some degree of a connection between the phenomena. Any substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and global warming trends will likely involve systematic changes in industrial operations, the use of advanced energy sources and technologies, as well as global cooperation in implementing and regulating these transformations. In this regard, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) stipulated the following objectives: 1. To stabilize "greenhouse gas" concentrations within the atmosphere, in such a manner that would preclude hazardous anthropogenic intervention into the existing biosphere and ecosystems of the world. This stabilization process would facilitate the natural adaptation of ecosystems to changes in climate. 2. To ensure and enable sustainable development and food production on a global scale.

Special Entry: The Kyoto Protocol The UNFCCC was adopted at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, and entered into force in 1994. Over 175 parties were official participants.

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Meanwhile, however, many of the larger, more industrialized nations failed to reach the emissions' reduction targets, and many UNFCCC members agreed that the voluntary approach to reducing emissions had not been successful. As such, UNFCCC members reached a consensus that legally binding limits were necessitated, and agreed to discuss such a legal paradigm at a meeting in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. At that meeting, the UNFCCC forged the Kyoto Protocol. This concord is the first legally binding international agreement that places limits on emissions from industrialized countries. The major greenhouse gas emissions addressed in the Kyoto Protocol include carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and methane. The provisions of the Kyoto Protocol stipulate that economically advanced nations must reduce their combined emissions of greenhouse gases, by approximately five percent from their 1990 levels, before the 2008-2010 deadline. Countries with the highest carbon dioxide emissions, such as the United States (U.S.), many of the European Union (EU) countries, and Japan, are to reduce emissions by a scale of 6 to 8 percent. All economically advanced nations must show "demonstrable progress" by 2005. In contrast, no binding limits or timetable have been set on developing countries. Presumably, this distinction is due to the fact that most developing countries -- with the obvious exceptions of India and China -- simply do not emit as many greenhouse gases as do more industrially advanced countries. Meanwhile, these countries are entrenched in the process of economic development. Regardless of the aforementioned reasoning, there has been strong opposition against the asymmetrical treatment assigned to emissions limits among developed and developing countries. Although this distinction might be regarded as unfair in principle, associations such as the Alliance of Small Island States have been vocal in expressing how global warming -- a result of greenhouse gas emissions - has contributed to the rise in sea level, and thus deleteriously affected their very existence as island nation states. For this reason, some parties have suggested that economically advanced nations, upon returning to their 1990 levels, should be required to further reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by a deadline of 2005. In response, interested parties have observed that even if such reductions were undertaken by economically advanced nations, they would not be enough to completely control global warming. Indeed, a reduction in the rate of fossil fuel usage by developing nations would also be necessary to have substantial ameliorative effect on global warming. Indeed, a reduction in the rate of fossil fuel usage by developing nations would also be necessary to have substantial ameliorative effect on global warming. As such, the Protocol established a "Clean Development Mechanism" which permits developed countries to invest in projects aimed at reducing emissions within developing countries in return for credit for the reductions. Ostensibly, the objective of this mechanism is to curtail emissions in developing countries without unduly penalizing them for their economic development. Under this model, the countries with more potential emissions credits could sell them to other signatories of the Kyoto Protocol, whose emissions are forecast to significantly rise in the next few years. Should this trading of emissions credits take place, it is estimated that the Kyoto Protocol's emissions targets could still be met. In 1999, the International Energy Outlook projected that Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union and Newly Independent States, as well as parts of Asia, are all expected to show a marked decrease in their level of energy-related carbon emissions in 2010. Nations with the highest emissions, specifically, the U.S., the EU and Japan, are anticipated to reduce their emissions by up to 8 percent by 2012. By 2000, however, the emissions targets were not on schedule for achievement. Indeed, the U.S. Department of Energy estimates forecast that by 2010, there will be a 34 percent increase in carbon emissions from the 1990 levels, in the absence of major shifts in policy, economic growth, energy prices, and con-

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sumer trends. Despite this assessment in the U.S., international support for the Kyoto Protocol remained strong, especially among European countries and island states, who view the pact as one step in the direction away from reliance on fossil fuels and other sources of greenhouse gases. In 2001, U.S. President, George W. Bush, rejected his country's participation in the Kyoto Protocol, saying that the costs imposed on the global economic system, and especially, on the US, overshadowed the benefits of the Protocol. He also cited the unfair burden on developed nations to reduce emissions, as another primary reasons for withdrawal from the international pact, as well as insufficient evidence regarding the science of global warming. Faced with impassioned international disapproval for his position, the U.S. president stated that his administration remained interested in dealing with the matter of global warming, but would endorse alternative measures to combat the problem, such as voluntary initiatives limiting emissions. Critics of Bush's position, however, have noted that it was the failure of voluntary initiatives to reduce emissions following the Rio Summit that led to the establishment of the Kyoto Protocol in the first place. In the wake of the Bush administration's decision, many participant countries resigned themselves to the reality that the goals of the Kyoto Protocol might not be achieved without U.S. involvement. Nevertheless, in Bonn, Germany, in July 2001, the remaining participant countries struck a political compromise on some of the key issues and sticking points, and planned to move forward with the Protocol, irrespective of the absence of the U.S. The key compromise points included the provision for countries to offset their targets with carbon sinks (these are areas of forest and farmland which can absorb carbon through the process of photosynthesis). Another compromise point within the broader Bonn Agreement was the reduction of emissions cuts of six gases from over 5 percent to a more achievable 2 percent. A third key change was the provision of funding for less wealthy countries to adopt more progressive technologies. In late October and early November 2001, the UNFCC's 7th Conference of the Parties met in Marrakesh, Morocco, to finalize the measures needed to make the Kyoto Protocol operational. Although the UNFCC projected that ratification of the Protocol would make it legally binding within a year, many critics noted that the process had fallen short of implementing significant changes in policy that would be necessary to actually stop or even slow climate change. They also maintained that the absence of U.S. participation effectively rendered the Protocol into being a political exercise without any substance, either in terms of transnational policy or in terms of environmental concerns. The adoption of the compromises ensconced within the Bonn Agreement had been intended to make the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol more palatable to the U.S. In this regard, it failed to achieve its objective as the Bush administration continued to eschew participation in the international accord. Still, however, the Bonn Agreement did manage to render a number of other positive outcomes. Specifically, in 2002, key countries, such as Russia, Japan and Canada agreed to ratify the protocol, bringing the number of signatories to 178. The decision by key countries to ratify the protocol was regarded as "the kiss of life" by observers. By 2005, on the eve of a climate change conference in London , British Prime Minister Tony Blair was hoping to deal with the problems of climate change beyond the provisions set forth in the Kyoto Protocol. Acknowledging that the Kyoto Protocol could not work in its current form, Blair wanted to open the discussion for a new climate change plan. Blair said that although most of the world had signed on to Kyoto , the protocol could not meet any of its practical goals of cutting greenhouse gas emissions without the participation of the

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United States , the world's largest polluter. He also noted that any new agreement would have to include India and China -- significant producers of greenhouse gas emissions, but exempt from Kyoto because they have been classified as developing countries. Still, he said that progress on dealing with climate change had been stymied by "a reluctance to face up to reality and the practical action needed to tackle problem." Blair also touted the "huge opportunities" in technology and pointed toward the possibilities offered by wind, solar and nuclear power, along with fuel cell technology, eco-friendly biofuels, and carbon capture and storage which could generate low carbon power. Blair also asserted that his government was committed to achieving its domestic goal of reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 20 percent by 2010. In the United States , President George W. Bush has said that global warming remained a debatable issue and despite conclusions reached by his own Environmental Protection Agency, he has not agreed with the conclusion that global warming and climate change are linked with human activities. Bush has also refused to ratify Kyoto on the basis of its economic costs. Australia , an ally of the United States , has taken a similarly dim view of the Kyoto Protocol. Ahead of the November 2005 climate change meeting in Canada in which new goals for the protocol were to be discussed, Australia 's Environment Minister, Ian Campbell, said that negotiating new greenhouse gas emission levels for the Kyoto Protocol would be a waste of time. Campbell said, "There is a consensus that the caps, targets and timetables approach is flawed. If we spend the next five years arguing about that, we'll be fiddling and negotiating while Rome burns." Campbell , like the Bush administration, has also advocated a system of voluntary action in which industry takes up new technologies rather than as a result of compelling the reduction of emissions. But the Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF) has called on its government to ratify the Kyoto Protocol, to establish a system of emissions trading, and to set binding limits on emissions. Interestingly, although it did not sign on to Kyoto , Australia was expected to meet its emissions target by 2012 (an 8 percent increase in 1990 levels in keeping with the country's reliance on coal). But this success has nothing to do with new technologies and is due to state-based regulations on land clearing. Note: The Kyoto Protocol calls for developed nations to cut greenhouse emissions by 5.2 percent of 1990 levels by 2012.

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Special Entry: Climate Change Summit in Copenhagen (2009) --

In December 2009, the United Nations Climate Change Summit opened in the Danish capital of Copenhagen. The summit was scheduled to last from Dec. 7-18, 2009. Delegates from more than 190 countries were in attendance, and approximately 100 world leaders, including British Prime Minister Gordon Brown and United States President Barack Obama, were expected to participate. At issue was the matter of new reductions targets on greenhouse gas emissions by 2020.

Despite earlier fears that little concurrence would come from the conference, effectively pushing significant actions forward to a 2010 conference in Mexico City, negotiators were now reporting that the talks were productive and several key countries, such as South Africa, had pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The two main issues that could still lead to cleavages were questions of agreement between the industrialized countries and the developing countries of the world, as well as the overall effectiveness of proposals in seriously addressing the perils of climate change.

On Dec. 9, 2009, four countries -- the United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico and Norway -- presented a document outlining ideas for raising and managing billions of dollars, which would be intended to help vulnerable countries dealing with the perils of climate change. Described as a "green fund," the concept could potentially help small island states at risk because of the rise in sea level. Bangladesh identified itself as a potential recipient of an assistance fund, noting that as a country plagued by devastating floods, it was particularly hard-hit by climate change. The "green fund" would fall under the rubric of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, for which developed countries have been committed to quantifying their emission reduction targets, and also to providing financial and technical support to developing countries.

The United Kingdom, Australia, Mexico and Norway also called for the creation of a new legal treaty that would replace the Kyoto Protocol. This new treaty, which could go into force in 2012, would focus largely on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2020. But Australia went even further in saying that the successor treaty to the Kyoto Protocol, should be one with provisions covering all countries. Such a move would be a departure from the structure of the Kyoto Protocol, which contained emissions targets for industrialized countries due to the prevailing view that developed countries had a particular historic responsibility to be accountable for climate change. More recently, it has become apparent that substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions demanded by scientists would only come to pass with the participation also of significant developing nation states, such as China and India. Indeed, one of the most pressing critiques of the Kyoto Protocol was that it was a "paper tiger" that failed to address the impact of the actions of emerging economies like China and India, with its focus on the developed economies.

Now, in 2009, China -- as the world's biggest greenhouse gas emitter -- was responding this dubious distinction by vocalizing its criticism of the current scenario and foregrounding its new commitments. Ahead of the Copenhagen summit, China had announced it would reduce the intensity of its carbon emissions per unit of its GDP in 2020 by 40 to 45 percent against 2005 levels. With that new commitment at hand, China was now accusing the United States and the European Union of shirking their

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own responsibilities by setting weak targets for greenhouse gas emissions cuts. Senior Chinese negotiator, Su Wei, characterized the goals of the world's second largest greenhouse gas emitter -- the United States -- as "not notable," and the European Union's target as "not enough." Su Wei also took issue with Japan for setting implausible preconditions.

On Dec. 11, 2009, China demanded that developed and wealthy countries in Copenhagen should help deliver a real agreement on climate change by delivering on their promises to reduce carbon emissions and provide financial support for developing countries to adapt to global warming. In so doing, China's Vice Foreign Minister He Yafei said his country was hoping that a "balanced outcome" would emerge from the discussions at the summit. Echoing the position of the Australian government, He Yafei spoke of a draft agreement as follows: "The final document we're going to adopt needs to be taking into account the needs and aspirations of all countries, particularly the most vulnerable ones."

China's Vice Foreign Minister emphasized the fact that climate change was "a matter of survival" for developing countries, and accordingly, such countries need wealthier and more developed countries to accentuate not only their pledges of emissions reduction targets, but also their financial commitments under the aforementioned United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. To that end, scientists and leaders of small island states in the Indian Ocean, the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea, have highlighted the existential threat posed by global warming and the concomitant rise in sea level.

China aside, attention was also on India -- another major player in the developing world and a country with an industrializing economy that was impacting the environment. At issue was the Indian government's decision to set a carbon intensity target, which would slow emissions growth by up to 25 percent by the 2020 deadline. This strong position was resisted by some elements in India, who argued that their country should not be taking such a strong position when developed wealthy countries were yet to show accountability for their previous commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The matter grew so heated that the members of the opposition stormed out of the parliament in protest as Indian Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh defended the policy. But the political pressure at home in India was leaving the Indian delegation in Copenhagen in a state of chaos as well. In fact, India's top environmental negotiator refused to travel to Copenhagen in protest of the government's newlyannounced stance.

China and India were joined by Brazil and South Africa in the crafting of a draft document calling for a new global climate treaty to be completed by June 2010. Of concern has been the realization that there was insufficient time to find concurrence on a full legal treaty, which would leave countries only with a politically-binding text by the time the summit at Copenhagen closed. But Guyana's leader, President Bharrat Jagdeo, warned that the summit in Denmark would be classified as a failure unless a binding document was agreed upon instead of just political consensus. He urged his cohorts to act with purpose saying, "Never before have science, economics, geo-strategic self-interest and politics intersected in such a way on an issue that impacts everyone on the planet."

Likewise, Tuvalu demanded that legally binding agreements emerge from Copenhagen. Its proposal was supported by many of the vulnerable countries, from small island states and sub-Saharan Africa, all of whom warned of the catastrophic impact of climate change on their citizens. Tuvalu also called

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for more aggressive action, such as an amendment to the 1992 agreement, which would focus on sharp greenhouse gas emissions and the accepted rise in temperatures, due to the impact the rise in seas. The delegation from Kiribati joined the call by drawing attention to the fact that one village had to be abandoned due to waist-high water, and more such effects were likely to follow. Kiribati's Foreign Secretary, Tessie Lambourne, warned that the people of Kiribati could well be faced with no homeland in the future saying, "Nobody in this room would want to leave their homeland." But despite such impassioned pleas and irrespective of warnings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that the rise in sea level from melting polar ice caps would deleteriously affect lowlying atolls such as such as Tuvalu and Kiribati in the Pacific, and the Maldives in the Indian Ocean, the oil-giant Saudi Arabia was able to block this move.

Meanwhile, within the developed countries, yet another power struggle was brewing. The European Union warned that it would only agree to raise its target of 20 percent greenhouse gas emissions reductions to 30 percent if the United States demonstrated that it would do more to reduce its own emissions. It was unknown if such pressure would yield results. United States President Barack Obama offered a "provisional" 2020 target of 17 percent reductions, noting that he could not offer greater concessions at Copenhagen due to resistance within the United States Congress, which was already trying to pass a highly controversial "cap and trade" emissions legislation. However, should that emissions trading bill fail in the Senate, the United States Environment Protection Agency's declaration that greenhouse gases pose a danger to human health and the environment was expected to facilitate further regulations and limits on power plants and factories at the national level. These moves could potentially strengthen the Obama administration's offering at Copenhagen. As well, President Obama also signaled that he would be willing to consider the inclusion of international forestry credits.

Such moves indicated a willingness by the Obama administration to play a more constructive role on the international environmental scene than its predecessor, the Bush administration. Indeed, ahead of his arrival at the Copenhagen summit, President Barack Obama's top environmental advisors promised to work on a substantial climate change agreement. To that end, United States Environmental Protection Agency Administrator Lisa Jackson said at a press conference, "We are seeking robust engagement with all of our partners around the world." But would this pro-engagement assertion yield actual results?

By Dec. 12, 2009, details related to a draft document prepared by Michael Zammit Cutajar, the head of the Ad-hoc Working Group on Long-Term Cooperative Action, were released at the Copenhagen climate conference. Included in the document were calls for countries to make major reductions in carbon emissions over the course of the next decade. According to the Washington Post, industrialized countries were called on to make cuts of between 25 percent and 40 percent below 1990 levels -reductions that were far more draconian than the United States was likely to accept. As discussed above, President Obama had offered a provisional reduction target of 17 percent. The wide gap between the released draft and the United States' actual stated position suggested there was much more negotiating in the offing if a binding agreement could be forged, despite the Obama administration's claims that it was seeking greater engagement on this issue.

In other developments, the aforementioned call for financial support of developing countries to deal with the perils of climate change was partly answered by the European Union on Dec. 11, 2009. The

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European bloc pledged an amount of 2.4 billion euros (US$3.5 billion) annually from 2010 to 2012. Environment Minister Andreas Carlgren of Sweden -- the country that holds the rotating presidency of the European Union at the time of the summit -- put his weight behind the notion of a "legally binding deal." Meanwhile, Yvo de Boer, a top United Nations climate change official, focused less on the essence of the agreement and more on tangible action and effects saying, "Copenhagen will only be a success if it delivers significant and immediate action that begins the day the conference ends."

The division between developed and developing countries in Copenhagen reached new heights on Dec. 14, 2009, when some of the poor and less developed countries launched a boycott at the summit. The move, which was spurred by African countries but backed by China and India, appeared to be geared toward redirecting attention and primary responsibility to the wealthier and more industrialized countries. The impasse was resolved after the wealthier and more industrialized countries offered assurances that they did not intend on shirking from their commitments to reducing greenhouse gases. As a result, the participating countries ceased the boycott.

Outside the actual summit, thousands of protestors had gathered to demand crucial global warming, leading to clashes between police and demonstrators elsewhere in the Danish capital city. There were reports of scattered violence across Copenhagen and more than 1,000 people were arrested.

Editor's Note

In the background of these developments was the growing global consciousness related to global warming and climate change. Indeed, as the Copenhagen summit was ongoing, it was clear there was enormous concurrence on the significance of the stakes with an editorial on the matter of climate change being published in 56 newspapers in 45 countries. That editorial warned that without global action, climate change would "ravage our planet." Meanwhile, a global survey taken by Globescan showed that concern over global warming had exponentially increased from 1998 -- when only 20 percent of respondents believed it to be a serious problem -- to 64 percent in 2009. Such survey data, however, was generated ahead of the accusations by climate change skeptics that some climate scientists may have overstated the case for global warming, based on emails derived in an illicit manner from a British University. 2. Air Pollution Long before global warming reared its head as a significant issue, those concerned about the environment and public health noted the deleterious effects of human-initiated combustion upon the atmosphere. Killer smogs from coal burning triggered acute health emergencies in London and other places. At a lower level of intensity motor vehicle, power plant, and industrial emissions impaired long-range visibility and probably had some chronic adverse consequences on the respiratory systems of persons breathing such air. In time, scientists began associating the sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released from coal burning with significant acid deposition in the atmosphere, eventually falling as "acid rain." This phenomenon has severely degraded forestlands, especially in Europe and a few parts of the United States. It has also impaired some aquatic ecosystems and eaten away the surface of some human artifacts, such as marble monuments. Scrubber technology and conversion to cleaner fuels have enabled the level of industrial

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production to remain at least constant while significantly reducing acid deposition. Technologies aimed at cleaning the air and curtailing acid rain, soot, and smog may, nonetheless, boomerang as the perils of global warming become increasingly serious. In brief, these particulates act as sort of a sun shade -- comparable to the effect of volcanic eruptions on the upper atmosphere whereby periods of active volcanism correlate with temporarily cooler weather conditions. Thus, while the carbon dioxide releases that are an inevitable byproduct of combustion continue, by scrubbing the atmosphere of pollutants, an industrial society opens itself to greater insolation (penetration of the sun's rays and consequent heating), and consequently, it is likely to experience a correspondingly greater rise in ambient temperatures. The health benefits of removing the sources of acid rain and smog are indisputable, and no one would recommend a return to previous conditions. Nevertheless, the problematic climatic effects of continually increasing emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases pose a major global environmental challenge, not as yet addressed adequately.

3. Ozone Depletion The stratospheric ozone layer functions to prevent ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth. Normally, stratospheric ozone is systematically disintegrated and regenerated through natural photochemical processes. The stratospheric ozone layer, however, has been depleted unnaturally as a result of anthropogenic (man-made) chemicals, most especially chlorine and bromide compounds such as chloroflorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and various industrial chemicals in the form of solvents, refrigerants, foaming agents, aerosol propellants, fire retardants, and fumigants. Ozone depletion is of concern because it permits a greater degree of ultraviolet-B radiation to reach the earth, which then increases the incidences of cancerous malignancies, cataracts, and human immune deficiencies. In addition, even in small doses, ozone depletion affects the ecosystem by disturbing food chains, agriculture, fisheries and other forms of biological diversity. Transnational policies enacted to respond to the dangers of ozone depletion include the 1985 Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. The Montreal Protocol was subsequently amended in London in 1990, Copenhagen in 1992 and Vienna in 1995. By 1996, 155 countries had ratified the Montreal Protocol, which sets out a time schedule for the reduction (and eventual elimination) of ozone depleting substances (OPS), and bans exports and imports of ODS from and to non-participant countries. In general, the Protocol stipulates that developed countries must eliminate halon consumption by 1994 and CFC consumption by 1996, while developing countries must eliminate these substances by 2010. Consumption of methyl bromide, which is used as a fumigant, was to be frozen at the 1995 in developed countries, and fully eliminated in 2010, while developing countries are to freeze consumption by 2002, based on average 1995-1998 consumption levels. Methyl chloroform is to be phased out by 2005. Under the Montreal Protocol, most ODS will be completely eliminated from use by 2010.

4. Land Degradation In recent decades, land degradation in more arid regions of the world has become a serious concern. The problem, manifest as both "desertification" and "devegetation," is caused primarily by climate variability and human activities, such as "deforestation," excessive cultivation, overgrazing, and other forms of land resource exploitation. It is also exacerbated by inadequate irrigation practices. Although

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the effects of droughts on drylands have been temporary in the past, today, the productivity and sustainability of these lands have been severely compromised for the long term. Indeed, in every region of the world, land degradation has become an acute issue. Desertification and Devegetation: "Desertification" is a process of land degradation causing the soil to deteriorate, thus losing its nutrients and fertility, and eventually resulting in the loss of vegetation, known as "devegetation." As aforementioned, "desertification" and "devegetation" are caused by human activities, yet human beings are also the greatest casualties. Because these forms of land degradation affect the ability of the soil to produce crops, they concomitantly contribute to poverty. As population increases and demographic concentrations shift, the extent of land subject to stresses by those seeking to wrest subsistence from it has inexorably risen. In response, the United Nations has formed the Convention to Combat Desertification-aimed at implementing programs to address the underlying causes of desertification, as well as measures to prevent and minimize its effects. Of particular significance is the formulation of policies on transboundary resources, such as areas around lakes and rivers. At a broader level, the Convention has established a Conference of Parties (COP), which includes all ratifying governments, for directing and advancing international action. To ensure more efficacious use of funding, the Convention intends to reconfigure international aid to utilize a consultative and coordinated approach in the disbursement and expenditure of donor funds. In this way, local communities that are affected by desertification will be active participants in the solution-generation process. In-depth community education projects are envisioned as part of this new international aid program, and private donor financing is encouraged. Meanwhile, as new technologies are developed to deal with the problem of desertification, they need to be distributed for application across the world. Hence, the Convention calls for international cooperation in scientific research in this regard. Desertification is a problem of sustainable development. It is directly connected to human challenges such as poverty, social and economic well-being and environmental protection as well. Broader environmental issues, such as climate change, biological diversity, and freshwater supplies, are indirectly related, so any effort to resolve this environmental challenge must entail coordinated research efforts and joint action. Deforestation: Deforestation is not a recent phenomenon. For centuries, human beings have cut down trees to clear space for land cultivation, or in order to use the wood for fuel. Over the last 200 years, and most especially after World War II, deforestation increased because the logging industry became a globally profitable endeavor, and so the clearing of forested areas was accelerated for the purposes of industrial development. In the long term, this intensified level of deforestation is considered problematic because the forest is unable to regenerate itself quickly. The deforestation that has occurred in tropical rainforests is seen as an especially serious concern, due to the perceived adverse effects of this process upon the entire global ecosystem. The most immediate consequence of deforestation is soil degradation. Soil, which is necessary for the growth of vegetation, can be a fragile and vital property. Organically, an extensive evolution process must take place before soil can produce vegetation, yet at the same time, the effects of natural ele-

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ments, such as wind and rain, can easily and quickly degrade this resource. This phenomenon is known as soil erosion. In addition, natural elements like wind and rain reduce the amount of fertile soil on the ground, making soil scarcity a genuine problem. When fertile topsoil that already exists is removed from the landscape in the process of deforestation, soil scarcity is further exacerbated. Equally significant is the fact that once land has been cleared so that the topsoil can be cultivated for crop production, not only are the nutrient reserves in the soil depleted, thus producing crops of inferior quality, but the soil structure itself becomes stressed and deteriorates further. Another direct result of deforestation is flooding. When forests are cleared, removing the cover of vegetation, and rainfall occurs, the flow of water increases across the surface of land. When extensive water runoff takes place, the frequency and intensity of flooding increases. Other adverse effects of deforestation include the loss of wildlife and biodiversity within the ecosystem that supports such life forms. At a broader level, tropical rainforests play a vital role in maintaining the global environmental system. Specifically, destruction of tropical rainforests affects the carbon dioxide cycle. When forests are destroyed by burning (or rotting), carbon dioxide is released into the air, thus contributing to an intensified "greenhouse effect." The increase in greenhouse gas emissions like carbon dioxide is a major contributor to global warming, according to many environmental scientists. Indeed, trees themselves absorb carbon dioxide in the process of photosynthesis, so their loss also reduces the absorption of greenhouse gases. Tropical rainforest destruction also adversely affects the nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is a key nutrient for both plants and animals. Plants derive nitrogen from soil, while animals obtain it via nitrogen-enriched vegetation. This element is essential for the formation of amino acids, and thereby for proteins and biochemicals that all living things need for metabolism and growth. In the nitrogen cycle, vegetation acquires these essential proteins and biochemicals, and then cyclically returns them to the atmosphere and global ecosystem. Accordingly, when tropical rainforest ecosystems are compromised, not only is vegetation removed; the atmosphere is also affected and climates are altered. At a more immediate level, the biodiversity within tropical rainforests, including wildlife and insect species and a wealth of plant varieties, is depleted. Loss of rare plants is of particular concern because certain species as yet unknown and unused could likely yield many practical benefits, for instance as medicines. As a result of the many challenges associated with deforestation, many environmental groups and agencies have argued for government policies on the sustainable development of forests by governments across the globe. While many countries have instituted national policies and programs aimed at reducing deforestation, and substantial research has been advanced in regard to sustainable and regenerative forestry development, there has been very little progress on an international level. Generally speaking, most tropical rainforests are located in developing and less developed countries, where economic growth is often dependent upon the exploitation of tropical rainforests. Timber resources as well as wildlife hunting tend to be particularly lucrative arenas. In places such as the Amazon, where deforestation takes place for the construction of energy plants aimed at industrialization and economic development, there is an exacerbated effect on the environment. After forests are cleared in order to construct such projects, massive flooding usually ensues. The remaining trees then rot and decay in the wake of the flooding. As the trees deteriorate, their biochemical makeup becomes more acidic, producing poisonous substances such as hydrogen sulphide and methane gases. Acidified water subsequently corrodes the mechanical equipment and operations of the plants, which are already clogged by rotting wood after the floodwaters rise.

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Deforestation generally arises from an economically plausible short-term motivation, but nonetheless poses a serious global concern because the effects go beyond national boundaries. The United Nations has established the World Commission on Forest and Sustainable Development. This body's task is to determine the optimal means of dealing with the issue of deforestation, without unduly affecting normal economic development, while emphasizing the global significance of protecting tropical forest ecosystems.

5. Water Resources For all terrestrial fauna, including humans, water is the most immediate necessity to sustain life. As the population has increased and altered an ever-greater portion of the landscape from its natural condition, demand on water resources has intensified, especially with the development of industrialization and large-scale irrigation. The supply of freshwater is inherently limited, and moreover distributed unevenly across the earth's landmasses. Moreover, not just demand for freshwater but activities certain to degrade it are becoming more pervasive. By contrast, the oceans form a sort of "last wilderness," still little explored and in large part not seriously affected by human activity. However, coastal environments - the biologically richest part of the marine ecosystem-are experiencing major depletion due to human encroachment and over-exploitation. Freshwater: In various regions, for instance the Colorado River in the western United States, current withdrawals of river water for irrigation, domestic, and industrial use consume the entire streamflow so that almost no water flows into the sea at the river's mouth. Yet development is ongoing in many such places, implying continually rising demand for water. In some areas reliant on groundwater, aquifers are being depleted at a markedly faster rate than they are being replenished. An example is the San Joaquin Valley in California, where decades of high water withdrawals for agriculture have caused land subsidence of ten meters or more in some spots. Naturally, the uncertainty of future water supplies is particularly acute in arid and semi-arid regions. Speculation that the phenomenon of global warming will alter geographic and seasonal rainfall patterns adds further uncertainty. Water conservation measures have great potential to alleviate supply shortages. Some city water systems are so old and beset with leaking pipes that they lose as much water as they meter. Broad-scale irrigation could be replaced by drip-type irrigation, actually enhancing the sustainability of agriculture. In many areas where heavy irrigation has been used for decades, the result is deposition of salts and other chemicals in the soil such that the land becomes unproductive for farming and must be abandoned. Farming is a major source of water pollution. Whereas restrictions on industrial effluents and other "point sources" are relatively easy to implement, comparable measures to reform hydraulic practices at farms and other "nonpoint sources" pose a significantly knottier challenge. Farm-caused water pollution takes the following main forms: - Nitrate pollution found in wells in intensive farming areas as a consequence of heavy fertilizer use is a threat to human health. The most serious danger is to infants, who by ingesting high-nitrate water can contract methemoglobinemia, sometimes called "blue baby syndrome," a potentially fatal condition.

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- Fertilizer runoff into rivers and lakes imparts unwanted nutrients that cause algae growth and eventual loss of oxygen in the body of water, degrading its ability to support fish and other desirable aquatic life. - Toxic agricultural chemicals - insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides - are detectable in some aquifers and waterways. In general, it is much easier to get a pollutant into water than to retrieve it out. Gasoline additives, dry cleaning chemicals, other industrial toxins, and in a few areas radionucleides have all been found in water sources intended for human use. The complexity and long time scale of subterranean hydrological movements essentially assures that pollutants already deposited in aquifers will continue to turn up for decades to come. Sophisticated water treatment processes are available, albeit expensive, to reclaim degraded water and render it fit for human consumption. Yet source protection is unquestionably a more desirable alternative. In much of the developing world, and even some low-income rural enclaves of the developed world, the population lacks ready access to safe water. Surface water and shallow groundwater supplies are susceptible to contamination from untreated wastewater and failing septic tanks, as well as chemical hazards. The occurrence of waterborne disease is almost certainly greatly underreported. Marine Resources: Coastal areas have always been desirable places for human habitation, and population pressure on them continues to increase. Many types of water degradation that affect lakes and rivers also affect coastal zones: industrial effluents, untreated or partially treated sewage, nutrient load from agriculture figure prominently in both cases. Prospects for more extreme storms as a result of global warming, as well as the pervasiveness of poorly planned development in many coastal areas, forebode that catastrophic hurricanes and landslides may increase in frequency in the future. Ongoing rise in sea levels will force remedial measures and in some cases abandonment of currently valuable coastal property. Fisheries over much of the globe have been overharvested, and immediate conservation measures are required to preserve stocks of many species. Many governments subsidized factory-scale fishing fleets in the 1970s and 1980s, and the resultant catch increase evidently surpassed a sustainable level. It is uncertain how much of the current decline in fish stocks stems from overharvesting and how much from environmental pollution. The deep ocean remains relatively unaffected by human activity, but continental shelves near coastlines are frequently seriously polluted, and these close-to-shore areas are the major biological nurseries for food fish and the smaller organisms they feed on.

6. Environmental Toxins Toxic chemical pollution exploded on the public consciousness with disclosure of spectacularly polluted industrial areas such as Love Canal near Buffalo, New York. There is no question that pollutants such as organophosphates or radionucleides can be highly deleterious to health, but evidence to date suggests that seriously affected areas are a localized rather than universal problem. While some explore the possibilities for a lifestyle that fully eschews use of modern industrial chemicals, the most prevalent remediative approach is to focus on more judicious use. The most efficient chemical plants are now able to contain nearly all toxic byproducts of their production processes within the premises, minimizing the release of such substances into the environment. Techniques such

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as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) dictate limited rather than broadcast use of pesticides: application only when needed using the safest available chemical, supplemented as much as possible with nontoxic controls. While heightened public awareness and growing technical sophistication suggest a hopeful outlook on limiting the damage from manmade environmental toxins, one must grant that previous incidents of their misuse and mishandling have already caused environmental damage that will have to be dealt with for many years to come. In the case of the most hazardous radioactive substances, the time scale for successful remediation actually extends beyond that of the recorded history of civilization. Moreover, in this era of high population density and rapid economic growth, quotidian activities such as the transport of chemicals will occasionally, seemingly inevitably result in accidents with adverse environmental consequences.

7. "Islandization" and Biodiversity With increased awareness regarding the adverse effects of unregulated hunting and habitat depletion upon wildlife species and other aspects of biodiversity, large-scale efforts across the globe have been initiated to reduce and even reverse this trend. In every region of the world, many species of wildlife and areas of biodiversity have been saved from extinction. Nationally, many countries have adopted policies aimed at preservation and conservation of species, and one of the most tangible measures has been the proliferation of protected habitats. Such habitats exist in the form of wildlife reserves, marine life reserves, and other such areas where biodiversity can be protected from external encroachment and exploitation. Despite these advances in wildlife and biodiversity protection, further and perhaps more intractable challenges linger. Designated reserves, while intended to prevent further species decline, exist as closed territories, fragmented from other such enclaves and disconnected from the larger ecosystem. This environmental scenario is referred to as "islandization." Habitat reserves often serve as oversized zoos or game farms, with landscapes and wildlife that have effectively been "tamed" to suit. Meanwhile, the larger surrounding ecosystem continues to be seriously degraded and transformed, while within the islandized habitat, species that are the focus of conservation efforts may not have sufficient range and may not be able to maintain healthy genetic variability. As a consequence, many conservationists and preservationists have demanded that substantially larger portions of land be withheld as habitat reserves, and a network of biological corridors to connect continental reserves be established. While such efforts to combat islandization have considerable support in the United States, how precisely such a program would be instituted, especially across national boundaries, remains a matter of debate. International conservationists and preservationists say without a network of reserves a massive loss of biodiversity will result. The concept of islandization illustrates why conservation and preservation of wildlife and biodiversity must consider and adopt new, broader strategies. In the past, conservation and preservation efforts have been aimed at specific species, such as the spotted owl and grizzly bear in North America, the Bengal tiger in Southeast Asia, the panda in China, elephants in Africa. Instead, the new approach is to simultaneously protect many and varied species that inhabit the same ecosystem. This method, referred to as "bio-regional conservation," may more efficaciously generate longer-term and more farreaching results precisely because it is aimed at preserving entire ecosystems, and all the living things within.

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More About Biodiversity Issues: This section is directly taken from the United Nations Environmental Program: "Biodiversity Assessment" The Global Biodiversity Assessment, completed by 1500 scientists under the auspices of United Nations Environmental Program in 1995, updated what is known (or unknown) about global biological diversity at the ecosystem, species and genetic levels. The assessment was uncertain of the total number of species on Earth within an order of magnitude. Of its working figure of 13 million species, only 13 percent are scientifically described. Ecological community diversity is also poorly known, as is its relationship to biological diversity, and genetic diversity has been studied for only a small number of species. The effects of human activities on biodiversity have increased so greatly that the rate of species extinctions is rising to hundreds or thousands of times the background level. These losses are driven by increasing demands on species and their habitats, and by the failure of current market systems to value biodiversity adequately. The Assessment calls for urgent action to reverse these trends. There has been a new recognition of the importance of protecting marine and aquatic biodiversity. The first quantitative estimates of species losses due to growing coral reef destruction predict that almost 200,000 species, or one in five presently contributing to coral reef biodiversity, could die out in the next 40 years if human pressures on reefs continue to increase. Since Rio, many countries have improved their understanding of the status and importance of their biodiversity, particularly through biodiversity country studies such as those prepared under the auspices of UNEP/GEF. The United Kingdom identified 1250 species needing monitoring, of which 400 require action plans to ensure their survival. Protective measures for biodiversity, such as legislation to protect species, can prove effective. In the USA, almost 40 percent of the plants and animals protected under the Endangered Species Act are now stable or improving as a direct result of recovery efforts. Some African countries have joined efforts to protect threatened species through the 1994 Lusaka Agreement, and more highly migratory species are being protected by specialized cooperative agreements among range states under the Bonn Agreement. There is an emerging realization that a major part of conservation of biological diversity must take place outside of protected areas and involve local communities. The extensive agricultural areas occupied by small farmers contain much biodiversity that is important for sustainable food production. Indigenous agricultural practices have been and continue to be important elements in the maintenance of biodiversity, but these are being displaced and lost. There is a new focus on the interrelationship between agrodiversity conservation and sustainable use and development practices in smallholder agriculture, with emphasis on use of farmers' knowledge and skills as a source of information for sustainable farming. Perhaps even more important than the loss of biodiversity is the transformation of global biogeochemical cycles, the reduction in the total world biomass, and the decrease in the biological productivity of the planet. While quantitative measurements are not available, the eventual economic and social consequences may be so significant that the issue requires further attention.

Specific sources used for this section:

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Bendall, Roger. 1996. "Biodiversity: the follow up to Rio". The Globe 30:4-5, April 1996. Global Environmental Change: Human and Policy Implications. 1995. Special issue on "People, Land Management and Environmental Change", Vol. 3, No. 4, September 1995. Golubev, Genady N. (Moscow University) In litt. 29 June 1996. Heywood, V.H. (ed.). 1995. Global Biodiversity Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Heywood, V.H. 1996. "The Global Biodiversity Assessment". The Globe, 30:2-4, April 1996. Reaka-Kudla, Marjorie. 1996. Paper presented at American Association for Advancement of Science, February 1996. Quoted in Pain, Stephanie. "Treasures lost in reef madness". New Scientist, 17 February 1996. Uitto, Juha I., and Akiko Ono (eds). 1996. Population, Land Management and Environmental Change. The United Nations University, Tokyo. USFWS. 1994. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service report to Congress, cited in news release 21 July 1994.

Online resources used generally in the Environmental Overview:

Environmental Protection Agency Global Warming Site. URL: http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming

Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations: Forestry. URL: http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/sofo/en/

Global Warming Information Page. URL: http://globalwarming.org

United Nations Environmental Program. URL: http://www.unep.org/GEO/GEO_Products/Assessment_Reports/

United Nations Global Environmental Outlook. URL: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/media/

Note on Edition Dates:

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The edition dates for textual resources are noted above because they were used to formulate the original content. We also have used online resources (cited above) to update coverage as needed. Information Resources For more information about environmental concepts, CountryWatch recommends the following resources: The United Nations Environmental Program Network (with country profiles) < http://www.unep.net/> The United Nations Environment Program on Climate Change < http://climatechange.unep.net/> The United Nations Environmental Program on Waters and Oceans < http://www.unep.ch/earthw/Pdepwat.htm> The United Nations Environmental Program on Forestry: "Forests in Flux" < http://www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/flux/homepage.htm> FAO "State of the World's Forests" < http://www.fao.org/forestry/FO/SOFO/SOFO99/sofo99-e.stm> World Resources Institute < http://www.wri.org/> Harvard University Center for Health and the Global Environment < http://www.med.harvard.edu/chge/the-review.html> The University of Wisconsin Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment < http://sage.aos.wisc.edu/>

© Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

International Environmental Agreements and Associations
1. Major International Environmental Accords:

General Environmental Concerns

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Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context, Espoo, 1991.

Accords Regarding Atmosphere

Annex 16, vol. II (Environmental Protection: Aircraft Engine Emissions) to the 1044 Chicago Convention on International Civil Aviation, Montreal, 1981

Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), Geneva, 1079

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), New York, 1002

Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 1985 including the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Depleted the Ozone Layer, Montreal, 1987

Accords Regarding Hazardous Substances

Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movements and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa, Bamako, 1991

Convention on Civil Liability for Damage Caused during Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road, Rail and Inland Navigation Vessels (CRTD), Geneva, 1989

Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Basel Convention), Basel, 1989

Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents, Helsinki, 1992

Convention to Ban the Importation into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous and Radioactive Wastes and to Control the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within the South Pacific Region (Waigani Convention), Waigani, 1995

European Agreement Concerning the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR), Geneva 1957

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FAO International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, Rome, 1985

2. Major International Marine Accords:

Global Conventions

Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention 1972), London, 1972

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by Protocol of 1978 relation thereto (MARPOL 73/78), London, 1973 and 1978

International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1969 (1969 CLC), Brussels, 1969, 1976, and 1984

International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage 1971 (1971 Fund Convention), Brussels, 1971

Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in Connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea (HNS), London 1996

International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response, and Co-operation (OPRC), London, 1990

International Convention Relation to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (Intervention Convention), Brussels, 1969

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), Montego Bay, 1982

Regional Conventions

Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft (Oslo Convention), Oslo, 1972

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Environmental Overview

International Environmental Agreements and Associa-

Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-based Sources (Paris Convention), Paris, 1974

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention), Paris, 1992

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (1974 Helsinki Convention), Helsinki 1974

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area (1992 Helsinki Convention), Helsinki 1992

Conventions within the UNEP Regional Seas Programme

Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, Bucharest, 1992

Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena de Indias, 1983

Convention for the Protection, Management, and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region, Nairobi, 1985

Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, Kuwait, 1978

Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment and Coastal Region of the Mediterranean Sea (Barcelona Convention), Barcelona, 1976

Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment, Jeddah, 1982

Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, Noumea, 1986

Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacific, Lima, 1981

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International Environmental Agreements and Associations

Environmental Overview

Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, Abidjan, 1981

3. Major Conventions Regarding Living Resources:

Marine Living Resources

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), Canberra, 1980

International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT), Rio de Janeiro, 1966

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW), Washington, 1946

Nature Conservation and Terrestrial Living Resources

Antarctic Treaty, Washington, D.C., 1959

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), Paris, 1972

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Nairobi, 1992

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS), Bonn, 1979

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Washington, D.C., 1973

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), Ramsar, 1971

Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), Paris 1994

FAO International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources, Rome, 1983

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Environmental Overview

International Environmental Agreements and Associa-

International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994 (ITTA, 1994), Geneva, 1994

Freshwater Resources

Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, Helsinki, 1992

4. Major Conventions Regarding Nuclear Safety:

Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency (Assistance Convention), Vienna, 1986

Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Notification Convention), Vienna, 1986

Convention on Nuclear Safety, Vienna, 1994

Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, Vienna, 1963

5. Major Intergovernmental Organizations

Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)

European Union (EU): Environment

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

Global Environment Facility (GEF)

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)

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International Environmental Agreements and Associations

Environmental Overview

International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)

International Labour Organization (ILO)

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds (IOPC Funds)

Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Environment Policy Committee (EPOC)

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF)

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)

United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)

World Bank

World Food Programme (WFP)

World Health Organization (WHO)

World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

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Environmental Overview

International Environmental Agreements and Associa-

World Trade Organization (WTO)

6. Major Non-Governmental Organizations

Atmosphere Action Network East Asia (AANEA)

Climate Action Network (CAN)

Consumers International (CI)

Earth Council

Earthwatch Institute

Environmental Liaison Centre International (ELCI)

European Environmental Bureau (EEB)

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)

Friends of the Earth International (FoEI)

Greenpeace International

International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)

International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU)

International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF)

International Solar Energy Society (ISES)

IUCN-The World Conservation Union

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International Environmental Agreements and Associations

Environmental Overview

Pesticide Action Network (PAN)

Sierra Club

Society for International Development (SID)

Third World Network (TWN)

Water Environment Federation (WEF)

Women's Environment and Development Organization (WEDO)

World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)

World Federalist Movement (WFM)

World Resources Institute (WRI)

World Wide Fund For Nature (WWF)

7. Other Networking Instruments

Arab Network for Environment and Development (RAED)

Global Legislators for a Balanced Environment (GLOBE)

Regional Environmental Center for Central and Eastern Europe (REC)

United Nations Non-Governmental Liaison Service (UN-NGLS)

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Environmental Overview

International Environmental Agreements and Associa-

© Copyright 2010 CountryWatch, Inc. All Rights Reserved. For permission to cite CountryWatch, please email [email protected]. For the full CountryWatch offering, please visit www.countrywatch.com.

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International Environmental Agreements and Associations

Environmental Overview

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Environmental Overview

International Environmental Agreements and Associa-

Appendices

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Bibliography

Appendices

Appendices
Bibliography
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sources: Key Data

Altapedia. URL: http://www.atlapedia.com/online/country_index.htm

Ethnologue. URL: http://www.ethnologue.com

Infoplease: URL: http://www.infoplease.com

The Statesman's Year-Book 2006. Barry Turner, ed. London: St. Martin's Press.

United States Department of State, Background Notes. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/index.htm

United States Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook. Washington, D.C.: Printing and Photography Group. URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html

World Climate Data Online. URL: http://www.worldclimate.com

World Gazateer Population Statistics. URL: http://www.gazetteer.de/home.htm

Sources: Political Overview

BBC International News. URL: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/

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Bibliography

(Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

Britannica Book of the Year. 1998-present. David Calhoun, ed. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Britannica Online URL : http://www.eb.com

Britannica Year in Review. URL: http://www.britannica.com/browse/year

Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments. URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/chiefs/index.html

Christian Science Monitor. URL: http://www.csmonitor.com/ (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

CNN International News. URL: http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/ (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

Current Leaders of Nations. 1997. Jennifer Mossman, ed. Detroit: Gale Research

The Economist Magazine. (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

The Economist Country Briefings. URL: http://www.economist.com/countries/

Eldis Country Profiles. URL: http://www.eldis.org/country/index.htm

Elections Around the World. URL: http://www.electionworld.org/

Election Resources. URL: http://electionresources.org/

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Bibliography

Appendices

Europa World Yearbook 1999. Vols. I & II. 1999. London: Europa Publications Ltd.

Europe World Online. URL: http://www.europaworld.com/pub/

Foreign Government Resources. URL: http://www.lib.umich.edu/govdocs/foreign.html

Human Rights Watch. URL: http://www.hrw.org

IFES Election Guide. URL: http://www.electionguide.org

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. URL: http://www.idea.int/

International Who's Who 1997-1998, 61st Edition. 1997. London: Europa Publications Ltd.

Leadership Views, Chiefs of State Online. URL : http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/chiefs/index.html

Library of Congress Country Studies. URL: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html

New Encyclopedia Britannica. 1998. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.

New York Times. URL: http://www.nytimes.com (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

Patterns of Global Terrorism. n.d. United States Department of State. Washington D.C.: United States Department of State Publications.

Political Handbook of the World. n.d. Arthur S. Banks, Thomas C. Muller, ed. Binghamton, New York: CSA Publications.

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Appendices

Bibliography

Political Reference Almanac Online. URL: http://www.polisci.com/almanac/nations.htm

Rulers. URL: http://rulers.org/

The Guardian Online. URL: http://www.guardian.co.uk/ (Various editions and dates as cited in particular reviews)

The Statesman's Year-Book 2006. Barry Turner, ed. London: St. Martin's Press.

United Nations Development Programme. URL: http://hdr.undp.org

United Nations Refugee Agency. URL: http://www.unhcr.org

United States Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook.Washington, D.C.: Printing and Photography Group. URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html

United States Department of State, World Military Expenditures and Arms Transfers (WMEAT) URL : http://www.state.gov/www/global/arms/bureau_ac/reports_ac.html

United States Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. URL: http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2002/18245.htm

United States Department of State, Background Notes. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/index.html

Virtual Library: International Relations Resources. URL: http://www.etown.edu/vl/countgen.html

World Bank: Governance Indicators. URL: http://info.worldbank.org/governance

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Bibliography

Appendices

Note on Edition Dates:

The earlier edition dates are noted above because they were used to formulate the original country reviews and serve as the baseline for some of the information covered. Later editions have been used in some cases, and are cited as such, while other more recent online resources (cited above) contain recent and ever-updated data sets used for research.

Sources: Economic Overview

BP Statistica Review of World Energy. URL: http://www.bp.com/genericsection.do?categoryId=92&contentId=7005893

BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 1998. 1998. Page 1.C. London: The British Petroleum Company.

International Monetary Fund, Direction of Trade Statistics Yearbook. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund Publication Services.

International Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics. 1998 to present. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund Publication Services.

International Monetary Fund, International Financial Statistics Yearbook. 1999 to present. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund Publication Services.

International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook, May 1999. 1999. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund Publication Services.

International Labour Office, World Employment Report, 1998-99. 1998. Geneva: International Labour Office.

United Nations Statistical Division Online. URL: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/default.htm

United Nations Statistics Division, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics (MBS On Line), November 1999 Edition. 1999. New York: United Nations.

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Bibliography

United Nations, Statistical Yearbook, 43rd Issue. 1999. New York: United Nations.

United Nations, Food & Agricultural Organization, FAOSTAT Database. URL : http://apps.fao.org/

United States Department of Energy, Country Analysis Briefs. URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/contents.html

United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics Database

United States Geological Service, Mineral Information

United States Department of State, Country Commercial Guides. Washington, D.C. United States of America. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/index.html

The World Bank, Global Development Finance, Country Tables. 1999 to present. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.

The World Bank Group, World Development Indicators. 1999 to present. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.

Yearbook of Tourism Statistics, World Tourism Organization. 1998 to present. Madrid: The World Tourism Organization.

Note on Edition Dates:

The earlier edition dates are noted above because they were used to formulate the original country reviews and serve as the baseline for some of the information covered. Later editions have been used in some cases, and are cited as such, while other more recent online resources (cited above) contain recent and ever-updated data sets used for research.

Methodology Notes for Economic Data:

Estimates by CountryWatch.com of real GDP in most countries are made by converting estimates by the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the purchasing power parity value of GDP for a reference year for each country to a 1990 base through the use of the US GDP deflator. CIA reference year esti-

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Bibliography

Appendices

mates of real GDP for most countries are given in the CIA World Factbook for a recent range of years. The time series estimates for this range is generated for non-reference year values by utilizing the real GDP growth rates given by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in the World Economic Outlook.

Exceptions to this method were used for:

Bosnia-Herzegovina Nauru Cuba Palau Holy See San Marino Korea, North Serbia & Montenegro Liberia Somalia Liechtenstein Tonga Monaco Tuvalu In these cases, other data and/or estimates by CountryWatch.com were utilized.

Investment Overview

Corruption and Transparency Index. URL: http://www.transparency.org/documents/cpi/2001/cpi2001.html#cpi < http://www.transparency.org/documents/

Deloitte Tax Guides. URL: http://www.deloittetaxguides.com

Trade Policy Reviews by the World Trade Organization . URL: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tpr_e/tp_rep_e.htm#bycountry

United States Department of Energy, Country Analysis Briefs. URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/contents.html

United States Department of State, Background Notes. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/index.html

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Bibliography

United States Department of State, Country Commercial Guides. 1996-2006. Washington, D.C. United States of America. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/index.html

World Bank: Doing Business. URL: http://www.doingbusiness.org

World Bank: Governance Indicators. URL: http://info.worldbank.org/governance

Social Overview

Borden, G.A., Conaway, W.A., Morrison, T. 1994. Kiss, Bow, or Shake Hands: How to do Business in Sixty Countries.Holbrook, Massachusetts, 1994.

Center for Disease Control. URL: http://www.cdc.gov

Eldis Country Profiles. URL: http://www.eldis.org/country/index.htm

Ethnologue. URL: http://www.ethnologue.com/

Government of Australia Department of Foreign Affiars and Trade. URL: http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo

Government of Canada Foreign Affairs and International Trade. URL: http://www.voyage.gc.ca/consular_home-e.htm

Library of Congress Country Studies. URL: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html

Lonely Planet. URL: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/worldguide/

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Bibliography

Appendices

Steve Kropla's Online Help For World Travelers. URL: http://www.kropla.com/

United Kingdom Ministry of Foreign and Commonwealth Office. URL: http://www.fco.gov.uk/

United Nations Human Development Report. URL: http://www.undp.org/hdro

UNICEF Statistical Database Online. URL: http://www.unicef.org/statis/atoz.html

United States Central Intelligence Agency, World Factbook. 2001. Washington, D.C.: Printing and Photography Group. URL: http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html

United States Department of State, Background Notes. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/background_notes/index.html

United States Department of State, Commercial and Business Affairs: Travel Tips. URL: http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/cba_travel.html

United States Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs. URL: http://travel.state.gov/

World Health Organization. URL: http://www.who.int/home-page/

Note on Edition Dates:

The earlier edition dates are noted above because they were used to formulate the original country reviews and serve as the baseline for some of the information covered. Later editions have been used in some cases, and are cited as such, while other more recent online resources (cited above) contain recent and ever-updated data sets used for research.

Methodology Notes for the HDI:

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Bibliography

Since 1990, the United Nations Development Programme, in concert with organizations across the globe, has produced the Human Development Index (or HDI). According to the UNDP, the index measures average achievement in basic human development in one simple composite index, and produces from this index a ranking of countries. The HDI is a composite of three basic components of human development: longevity, knowledge and standard of living. Longevity is measured by life expectancy. Knowledge is measured by combination of adult literacy and mean years of schooling. Standard of living is measured by purchasing power, based on real GDP per capita (in constant US$) adjusted for differences in international living costs (or, purchasing power parity, PPP). While the index uses these social indicators to measure national performance with regard to human welfare and development, not all countries provide the same level of information for each component needed to compute the index; therefore, as in any composite indicator, the final index is predicated on projections, predictions and weighting schemes. The index is a static measure, and thus, an incomplete measure of human welfare. In fact, the UNDP says itself the concept of human development focuses on the ends rather than the means of development and progress, examining in this manner, the average condition of all people in a given country.

Specifically, the index is calculated by determining the maximum and minimum for each of the three components (as listed above) and then measuring where each country stands in relation to these scalesexpressed as a value between 0 and 1. For example, the minimum adult literary rate is zero percent, the maximum is 100 percent, and the reading skills component of knowledge in the HDI for a country where the literacy rate is 75 percent would be 0.75. The scores of all indicators are then averaged into the overall index.

For a more extensive examination of human development, as well as the ranking tables for each participating country, please visit: http://www.undp.org

Note on History sections

In some CountryWatch Country Reviews, open source content from the State Department Background Notes and Country Guides have been used.

Environmental Overview

Environmental Profiles: A Global Guide to Projects and People. 1993. Linda Sobel Katz, Sarah Orrick, and Robert Honig. New York: Garland Publishing.

The Environment Encyclopedia and Directory, 2nd Edition. 1998. London: Europa.

Environmental Protection Agency Global Warming Site. URL: http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming

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Bibliography

Appendices

Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations: Forestry. URL: http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/sofo/en/

Global Warming Information Page. URL: http://globalwarming.org

Introduction to Global Environmental Issues, 2nd Edition. 1997. Kevin Pickering and Lewis Owen. London: Routledge.

Trends: Compendium of Data on Global Change. URL: http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/em_cont.htm

United Nations Environmental Program. URL: http://www.unep.org/GEO/GEO_Products/Assessment_Reports/

United Nations Global Environmental Outlook. URL: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/media/

United States Department of Energy, Country Analysis Briefs. URL: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/contents.html

World Climate Data Online. URL: http://www.worldclimate.com

World Directory of Country Environmental Studies. 1996. The World Resource Institute.

World Factbook. US Central Intelligence Agency. Washington, D.C.: Printing and Photography Group.

1998-1999 World Resources Guide to the Global Environment by the World Resources Institute. May, 1998.

1998/1999 Yearbook of International Cooperation on Environment and Development. 1998. London: Earthscan Publications.

Note on Edition Dates:

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Appendices

Bibliography

The earlier edition dates are noted above because they were used to formulate the original country reviews and serve as the baseline for some of the information covered. Later editions have been used in some cases, and are cited as such, while other more recent online resources (cited above) contain recent and ever-updated data sets used for research.

Other Sources:

General information has also been used in the compilation of this review, with the courtesy of governmental agencies from this country.

News Services:

Business in Asia. Asia Pulse Pte Ltd., Sydney, Australia.

CANA Daily Bulletin. Caribbean Media Agency Ltd., St. Michael, Barbados.

Central and Eastern Africa Report, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Integrated Regional Information Network for Central and Eastern Africa.

Daily News, Panafrican News Agency. Dakar, Senegal.

Electronic News in English, EFE News Services (U.S.), Inc. Washington, D.C.

The Financial Times. URL: http://www.financialtimes.com

Interfax Daily Financial Report, Interfax-America, Inc. Denver, Colorado, USA.

Interfax Daily Business Report, Interfax-America, Inc. Denver, Colorado, USA.

Interfax Daily News Bulletin, Interfax-America, Inc. Denver, Colorado, USA.

Internet News Service, Xinhua News Agency (U.S.) Inc. Woodside, New York.

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Bibliography

Appendices

The New York Times (daily print version).

PACNEWS, Pacific Islands Broadcasting Association. Suva, Fiji.

Southern Africa Report, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Integrated Regional Information Network for Southern Africa.

U.S. and World News, United Press International. Washington, D.C. 1998-1999

West Africa Report, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Integrated Regional Information Network for West Africa. 1998-1999

World News Connection, National Technical Information Service. Springfield, Virginia, USA. 19981999

Note: Some or all these news services have been used to research various sections of this Country Review.

USING COUNTRYWATCH.COM AS AN ELECTRONIC SOURCE:

MLA STYLE OF CITATION

Commentary

For items in a "Works Cited" list, CountryWatch.com suggests that users follow recommended patterns forindentation given in theMLA Handbook, 4th edition.

Individual Works

Basic form, using an Internet protocol:

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Author/editor. Title of Print Version of Work. Edition statement (if given). Publication information (Place of publication: publisher, date), if given. Title of Electronic Work. Medium. Available Protocol (if applicable):Site/Path/File. Access date.

Examples:

Youngblood-Coleman, Denise, editor. Country Review: France. 2003. Houston, Texas: CountryWatch Publications, 2003. Country Review:France. Online. Available URL: http://www.countrywatch.com/cw_country.asp?vCOUNTRY=61 October, 12, 2003. Note: This is the citation format used when the print version is not used in the reference.

Parts of Works

Basic form, using an Internet protocol:

Author/editor. "Part title." Title of Print Version of Work. Edition statement (if given). Publication information (Place of publication: publisher, date), if given. Title of Electronic Work. Medium. AvailableProtocol (if applicable): Site/Path/File. Access date.

Examples:

Youngblood-Coleman, Denise, editor. "People." CountryWatch.com: France. 2003. Houston, Texas: CountryWatch Publications, 2003.CountryWatch.com: France. Online. Available URL : http://www.countrywatch.com/cw_topic.asp?vCOUNTRY=61&SECTION=SOCIAL&TOPIC=CLPEO&TYPE=TEXT. October 12, 2003. Note: This is the citation format used when the print version is not used in the reference.

For further source citation information, please email:[email protected] or [email protected].

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