Health Policy Analysis-Pakistan

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Health Policy Analysis: The Case of Pakistan

ISBN-10: 90-5291-099-5 ISBN-13: 978-90-5291-099-4 © Copyright Muhammad Mushtaq Khan, Maastricht 2006 Printed in the Netherlands by Datawyse Maastricht

RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT GRONINGEN

Health Policy Analysis: The Case of Pakistan
PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van het doctoraat in de Medische Wetenschappen aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen op gezag van de Rector Magnificus, dr. F. Zwarts, in het openbaar te verdedigen op maandag 18 december 2006 om 13.15 uur door
MUHAMMAD MUSHTAQ KHAN

Promotores Copromotor

Prof. Dr. W.J.A van den Heuvel Prof. Dr. J.W. Groothoff Dr. J.P. van Dijk

Beoordelingscommissie

Prof. Dr. D. Post Prof. Dr. E. de Leeuw Prof. Dr. H. Phillipsen

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 General Introduction ................................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2 A General Overview of Pakistan............................................................................................. 23 Chapter 3 Description and Content Analysis of the National Health Policy of Pakistan ....................... 33 Chapter 4 Behavioral and Environmental Health Problems in Pakistan ................................................. 53 Chapter 5 The Impact of Political Context upon Health Policy Process in Pakistan .............................. 69 Chapter 6 The Impact of Economic and Socio-cultural Context upon Health Policy Outcome in Pakistan................................................................................................................ 83 Chapter 7 Health Policy Process and Health Outcome: The Case of Pakistan........................................ 95 Chapter 8 Conclusions, Discussion and Recommendations .................................................................. 109 Summary ............................................................................................................................... 123 Samenvatting ......................................................................................................................... 127 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... 131 About the Author................................................................................................................... 133

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1
General Introduction

Chapter 1 General Introduction

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Academic literature on health policy analysis has increased considerably in the nineties. The importance of health policy analysis is widely acknowledged and viewed as an instrument to act more effectively to combat health problems and improve life conditions (Ham, 1992; Sabatier 1998, Sutton 1999, Walt & Gilson, 1994; Wuyts, 1992). Health policy analysis helps in understanding how policy makers set objectives, make decisions on health priorities and take actions (Barker, 1996). It also explains how policy context (political, economic and socio-cultural) influences the health policy process and its outcomes (Brewer & Leon, 1999; Sachs, 2001). Furthermore, health policy analysis can help in understanding important stages of the health policy process such as agenda building and policy formulating, planning, monitoring and evaluation and which factors as well as actors affect the process. In many developing countries, various international health programs including Health For All (HFA) and Primary Health Care (PHC) did not achieve their targets during the last three decades (WHO, 1998a; 1998b; 1998c; 1998d). International agencies tried to improve health conditions by integrating international health programs and strategies with national health policies but did not succeed due to various factors related to health policy content, context and process (de Leeuw, 2000; McKee et al., 2000; Walt & Gilson, 1994). More recently WHO has emphasized the importance of economic development, i.e. reduction of poverty, as the basis of health promotion and – vice versa – the economic benefits of investment in effective health policy (Sachs, 2001). However, it is not easy to prove the effectiveness of health policy on a general level (Nolte & McKee, 2003). The intention of this study is not to demonstrate direct links between health policy and health policy implementation on health outcomes. The aim is to demonstrate how various factors and processes in the Pakistani society and political system influence the health policy process. There are various approaches to health policy analysis. Among these approaches, policy analysis experts have frequently used rationalistic and behavioral ‘models’. This introductory chapter will explain why health policy analysis is important and which model is used to analyze health policy in Pakistan. Next, research questions will be formulated, concentrating on health policy analysis in Pakistan during the last decade. To execute this analysis we have used various data sources and methods, which will be explained at the end of this chapter, followed by an overview of the chapters. But first we explain why Pakistan was chosen as a case to analyze health policy in developing countries.

The case of Pakistan
In Pakistan, health care is based on the biomedical model as developed in the Western world in the last century and on traditional (folk) medicine as in many developing countries. The delivery of health care is based on the Beveridge model, inherited from the British. During the last decades, various governments in Pakistan have formulated explicit health policies for a specific period with objectives and planned actions (Pakistan, 1990; 1997; 2001). This makes it possible in theory to analyze what priorities were set in health care policy, to describe what actions were taken to prevent disease, and to analyze whether health promotion was designed in accordance with modern health paradigms.

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION Another phenomenon, which makes the situation in Pakistan relatively unique, is its strong economic growth during the last years. Generally, in developing countries, one of the largest problems in executing health policy objectives is the lack of resources and the dependency of sponsors (Sachs, 2001). In Pakistan, this situation is relatively favorable. At the same time, it should be noted that political, environmental and cultural factors also play a major role in the health policy process in Pakistan. In this study, we intend to describe what the content of the health policy has been during the last decade, how this policy was executed, and which factors and actors played a major role in executing this policy.

The Importance of Health Policy Analysis
Modern health paradigms assert that all public policies should take into account the health rights and interests of the public by making healthy choices easier and unhealthy choices more difficult (de Leeuw, 2000; Lucas, 1997; Milio, 1988a; 1988b). In this regard, health policy helps to set the parameters for the mode and character of industrial and agricultural production, corporate management, and individual behavior and to influence the environment in the direction of modern health paradigms (de Leeuw, 2000; McKee et al., 2000; Milio, 1988a). Modern health paradigms denote new ecological perspectives of disease prevention and health promotion in policy making by paying attention to all important determinants of health such as human biology, lifestyles, environment (physical, political, economic and socio-cultural) and health care organization. Generally, national health policies in developing countries suffer from various weaknesses and do not offer appropriate solutions to many health problems in accordance with the comprehensive principles of modern health paradigms (Goldsmith, 1988; Ham, 1992; Heidenheimer, et al., 1990; McKee et al., 2000). These health policies in developing countries tend to address infectious diseases (malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhea, etc.) by following the biomedical model of health, whereas behavioral and environmental health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, (road traffic) accidents and drug addiction are not addressed comprehensively in accordance with the principles of new public health and health promotion (WHO, 1998b; 1998c; 2004). Health policy analysis describes the contextual factors, including political, economic, socio-cultural and demographic aspects, which affect the health policy process and its health outcomes directly and indirectly (Collins et al., 1999; Gonzalez, 1997; Walt & Gilson, 1994; Wismar & Busse, 2002). Health policy analysis contributes to understand how policy makers set priorities in health care and plan actions in order to address increasing health problems. It analyzes important stages of the health policy process - including agenda building and policy formulation, planning, monitoring and evaluation - to determine which factors and actors affect the process. This knowledge can help in finding effective ways of policy formulation, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Health policy analysis can also help in understanding the role of actors and interest groups involved in the health policy process.

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CHAPTER 1

Approaches in Health Policy Analysis
Policy analysis means different things to people. For some, policy analysis mainly concerns policy content, while others argue it is more concerned with policy context and process. Traditionally, there are two approaches to policy analysis: the "rationalist" and the "behaviorist” approach. Within these two approaches again the variety is large and accents may differ. We describe some main approaches. The rationalist or idealistic approach or ‘linear model’ tends to focus more on the content of the policy and is more value oriented - since it analyses how policy-making should be undertaken (Ranney, 1968; Sutton 1999; Van Herten & Gunning-Schepers, 2000a; 2000b; Walt & Gilson, 1994). Policy making is seen as a problem solving process, where decisions are made on sequential phases, i.e. problem definition, alternative approaches to solve the problem, choosing the best approach and implementing it (Sutton, 1999). Rationalists believe that the focus upon content analysis adds significantly to the breadth, significance, and reliability of the discipline’s special body of knowledge (Barker, 1996; Kickbusch, 1996; Van Herten & Gunning-Schepers, 2000a; 2000b). Accordingly, clear goals can be formulated, based on the analysis of health needs, health hazards and their determinants. This approach enables analysts to evaluate past and present policies more objectively and offers a prescriptive and ideal model of how policy-making ought to be undertaken. It offers a way of improving the effectiveness of policy-making by explicitly identifying values and goals before making policy choices and selecting the best policy options based on comprehensive information about the costs and consequences of each (Ranney, 1968; Sutton 1999, Walt, 1994; Walt & Gilson, 1994). The rationalist approach is also linked to various scientific and technical tools, such as Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT), Management by Objectives (MBO) and Program Planning and Budgeting (PPB). Unlike rationalism, the behaviorism approach (also called incrementalism) argues that it is essential to pay more attention to the process and the context within which policies are formed and implemented (Sutton, 1999; Walt, 1994; Walt & Gilson, 1994). According to this approach analysis of policy process helps in understanding why many health problems are not solved, why policies are not implemented effectively and why health policies do not achieve their targets (Brewer & Leon, 1983; Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier, 1993; Sabatier, 1993; 1998; 1999; Walt & Gilson, 1994). It is among others a ‘political process’, which outcomes are ‘evolutionary’ and not rational or ‘logical’ (Juma & Clarke 1995). So, for behaviorists the understanding of contextual factors, including political, socio-cultural and economic ones, are critical in any policy analysis (Collins et al., 1999; Navarro, 2000; Saltman, 1997). Understanding such factors should lead to the best choice of strategies for implementation in a specific community. Within the behaviorism various processes or factors may be seen as crucial in understanding the outcome and various theories are developed. Sabatier (1998, 1999), Jenkins-Smith (1990) and Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier (1993, 1994) demonstrate the usefulness of the advocacy coalition framework (ACF) for understanding the factors, which influence the policy process at least in western policy making. The ACF has generated considerable interest because it emerged out of: (a) a search for an alternative to the stages heuristic (Jones, 1987) that was then dominating policy studies, (b) a desire to synthesize the best features of the ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up approaches to policy implementation (Sabatier, 1986), and (c) a commitment to incorporate technical information into a more prominent role in theories on policy proc-

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION esses (Sabatier, 1998). The goal of the ACF was to provide a coherent understanding of the major factors and processes affecting the overall policy process. In the mid eighties Sabatier, interested in the role of technical information, and Jenkins-Smith, who had quite independently developed a similar conception of the role of scientific information in public policy, revised the framework of the ACF several times together with other scholars (JenkinsSmith,1990; Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier 1994; Sabatier & Jenkins-Smith 1993, 1998; Sabatier, 1998). According to Kingdon (1984, 1995) the policy process moves through a number of distinct phases but not in an orderly way. Interaction between policy makers and executive officers is an important aspect (Juma & Clarke 1995, Mukanda 1992, Panday 1989). According to de Leeuw (2000) the policy process is complex because policy making is increasingly a matter of (exchange of) information and communication. The opportunities and abilities of participants in a policy network to communicate and to exchange information, expertise and other resources, determine whether policy is made and what is its content (Laumann & Knokke, 1987). Other policy scientists take an even more extreme view by characterizing the policy process as complex, disordered and coincidental and hardly open to analysis (Hoogwood & Gunn, 1984, Kingdon 1984, 1995). Kingdon (1984, 1995) has studied policy making at federal level in the USA and has developed the ‘Theory of Stream’. This theory considers three streams of agenda building, i.e. a problem stream, a political stream and a policy stream, where each stream has its own typical process rather independent from each other. In the problem stream the process is characterized by problem recognition. Various factors focus the attention on a problem or issue of concern and its importance. In the political stream the process is determined by fluctuations in politics through the influence by people, political parties and ideologies of politicians that can either include or exclude certain issues from the agenda. In the policy stream the process includes the presentation of ideas and the development of alternatives. Proposals are selected on the basis of criteria like feasibility, harmonization with dominant norms and susceptibility of politicians. Within this wide variety of (sub) theories and models the choice has to be determined by the research questions and by the circumstances the research has to be executed (availability of data, existing institutions, established procedures etc.). There is also some debate about ‘models’ and ‘theories’, which usability again might be related with infrastructure and circumstances of the place/context of the investigation. Some believe that a model is a representation of a specific situation whereas a theory provides a “denser” and more logically coherent set of relationships (Ostrom 1994; Sabatier, 1999; Stinchcomb, 1968). A theory considers a connection and/or pattern between a set of variables and usually specifies how relationships may vary depending upon the values of critical variables (Ostrom 1994; Sabatier, 1987; 1999; Stinchcomb, 1968). For example, the work of Sabatier (1993), (1998) and (1999) presented how theories can be used in analyzing policy process in developed countries. In developing countries, the policy process is different, for example the relationship and interaction between policy makers and executive officers influences the implementation process considerably and may change the goals and outcomes (Juma & Clarke 1995; Mukandala, 1992; Panday, 1989). In developed countries the role of well organized interest groups and stakeholders is more pronounced. We believe that in analyzing health policies in Pakistan and other developing countries many theories and models (like of Kingdon and Sabatier) are not appropriate because political, economic and socio-cultural context in which policy process takes place in the developed world is different than developing countries. In developed countries interest groups are better 11

CHAPTER 1 organized, various processes like in problem stream and policy stream are less connected with each other and mechanism to ‘defend’ the interests are based on formalized procedures and democratic embedded. In case of developing countries in analyzing health policies problem stream and policy stream are strongly connected, procedures are not established and interest groups are absent and/or not organized. Even more important may be to pay attention upon the policy content in developing countries because health policy content indicates what outcomes may be expected for the health status of the population, where health status are bad. It makes clear which priorities are set, which policy tools and programs are believed to achieve the policy’s goals and objectives (Barker, 1996; Kickbusch, 1996; Odiorne et al., 1980; Ranney, 1968; Van Herten & Gunning-Schepers, 2000a). The later is part of the rational approach. In analyzing health policies developing countries need a comprehensive approach but not a detailed set of connected concepts (theory) because their problems have to be solved within a more unfavorable policy context, within a often centralized system and with lack of procedures and resources (Janovsky, 1996; Walt, 1994; Walt & Gilson, 1994). We believe that the model of Walt & Gilson (1994) can be a helpful tool to analyze health policies in Pakistan because the model has been specifically designed for analyzing health policies in developing countries.

The model of Walt and Gilson
Walt & Gilson (1994) considered the work of many scientists in developing their analytical model. For example, in reviewing the work of Perkins & Roemer (1991), Mackintosh (1992) and Toye (1993), they highlight the role of the state in influencing markets. They also review the work of Migdal (1988) and Hinebusch (1993), which suggests paying more attention to social context and to considering a balance of power between state and society. Similarly, Hyden (1983) and Liddle (1992) argue that socio-cultural factors are an important part of the health policy context. Many others (Collins et al., 1999; de Leeuw, 1993; Wismar & Busse, 2002) also believe that the health policy context also includes the political system, the power structure, the role of government and its institutions, socio-cultural and economic environments, demographic characteristics, the health status of the population, and the role of community. The model of Walt & Gilson (1994) does not reject nor fully support either of the traditional approaches (rationalism and behavioralism). It juxtaposes both the approaches and incorporates their views by arguing the importance of policy content, context, and process. Furthermore, this model argues to include the role of actors (or interest groups) in analyzing policies (see Figure 1). Next we will explain the main concepts used in the preferred model to analyze health policy in Pakistan.

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Figure 1: Model for Health Policy Analysis (Walt, G., & Gilson, L., 1994)

Actor Analysis
In every (public) policy, actors play various roles in all the stages of policy process, such as agenda building, policy formulation, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Some refer to actors as policy elites and decision makers (Nakajima, 1997a; Walt & Gilson, 1994) while others prefer to call them stakeholders (de Leeuw, 1999; Siddiqi et al, 2004). Sabatier (1998) has developed a framework in which the role of individual actors and interest groups play a central role. This framework applies to situations where ‘some degree of coordinated dissent from the policies of the dominant coalition’ (Sabatier 1998, p. 121) is possible. In analyzing the role of actors, some scientists tend to limit their focus of attention only to the actors within government hierarchies (Mackintosh, 1992; Toye, 1993). Others argue that actors outside the government should also be included because many actors outside the governmental hierarchies directly and indirectly influence health policy process (Abbasi, 1999a; 1999b; Bhutta, 2001 ; Bhutta et al., 2003; Green et al., 2001; Siddiqi et al, 2004). Walt & Gilson (1994) include the role of actors in health policy analysis and consider the work of many scientists highlighting the role of actors in different regions of the world. They reviewed the work of Lindenberg (1989), who highlights how the governments of Panama, Costa Rica and Guatemala managed support in their favor by narrating the positive side of structural adjustment policies (SAPs) and in overcoming opposition to the SAPs in the mid1980s. Koehn (1983) believes that civil servants play an important role in policy making in Nigeria due to their greater expertise and continuity. Gulhati (1990) and Whitehead (1990) included political leaders, tribal and religious leaders, civil servants and foreign donors in analyzing the role of actors in Africa. They concluded that - besides the political leaders and civil servants - tribal leaders, religious leaders and donors significantly influence the policy process in Africa. Bery (1990), Brown (1989), Mukandala (1992), and Panday (1989) suggest that relationships between various actors should also be considered in analyzing the role of

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CHAPTER 1 actors. In summing up the various papers, Walt & Gilson (1994) argue for analyzing the role of actors as “Individuals” and as members of “Groups” within and outside the government. International agencies and donors such as the World Bank, IMF, WHO and many others also influence overall policy environment, health policy and health in various ways. They constitute an important part of the actor analysis (Curtis & Taket, 1996; Janovsky, 1996). Donors contribute resources for health in developing countries and put extensive pressure upon those countries to implement changes (Cliff, 1993; Cohen et al., 1985; Justice, 1987). For example, WHO’s Health For All (HFA) strategies provided the policy basis for the main social target of governments and a better understanding of appropriate policy mechanisms for effective implementation (Curtis & Taket, 1996). The World Bank has taken on an important global role in health policy process by its efforts in alleviating poverty, improving nutrition and providing external funding for the health sector in developing countries (Abbasi, 1999a; 1999b; Green, 1995; Walt, 1994).

Content Analysis
Policy content refers to a particular policy goal or set of goals and the particular actions planned to achieve those goals (Raney, 1968). Focusing on content helps policy makers in identifying, comparing, and evaluating competing policy proposals as well as in building agenda, making policy decisions, and fixing health goals (Abel-Smith, 1994; Altenstetter & Bjorkman, 1981; Barker, 1996; Baum, 1982). Content analysis also helps in finding solutions for health problems by considering not only health care services but also other determinants of health, which can be influenced, particularly environment and lifestyle. Furthermore, it improves the understanding of policy outcomes and provides information for policy makers regarding the technical skill, reliability and effectiveness of various means and the interrelations between different goals (Kickbusch, 1996; Odiorne et al., 1980; Van Herten & GunningSchepers, 2000a). Modern health paradigms require that attention be paid to health policy content in promoting health systematically and effectively. For example, in 1978 the WHO initiated its Health For All (HFA) strategy by recommending that new policy directions and specific health targets to be added to the policy content (Odiorne et al., 1980; WHO, 1998a). It helps in setting a systematic relationship between the content of the policy and the responsibilities of government and stakeholders (Van Herten & Gunning-Schepers, 2000b). However, whether the content of health policy does contribute to better health outcomes is a much more complicated question and not easy to answer (Nolte & McKee, 2003).

Context Analysis
Health policy does not take place in a political vacuum but is embedded within a political, administrative, economic, socio-cultural, and demographic context. Contextual factors are considered critical elements influencing the policy process and the overall health of a population directly and indirectly (Frenk, 1995; Gonzalez, 1997; Saltman, 1977; WHO, 1998c; Zwi & Ugalde 1989). For example, many developing countries suffered high mortality and morbidity as a consequence of violent political conflicts, civil wars and repeated changes of government (Horton, 1999; Lanjouw et al., 1999; Navarro, 2000; Zwi et al., 1996). The economic

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION context significantly influences the health policy process and health outcomes (Green et al, 2001; Hjortsberg & Mwikisa, 2002; Sachs, 2001; Siddiqi, et al., 2004). A well-functioning health care system and successful health policy implementation need a regular flow of resources. If a country is very poor, its resources for health care will inevitably be very restricted. The economical context also influences health in other ways. For instance, developing countries often suffer from serious nutrition problems, which are a direct consequence of poverty and strongly influence the health status of the population (Sachs, 2001). Socio-cultural factors such as the status of women, religious and cultural values, literacy level and corruption pervade the health policy environment and influence behavior (de Leeuw, 1999; Hasan, 1999; Johansson et al., 2001; Klijn, 1992; Sachs, 2001). There are obvious relationships and clear links (positive or negative) between health and culture because lifestyles are significantly influenced by cultural values. Culture also influences the attitude of people in playing their role in the collective efforts of society to prevent disease and promote health (Hasan, 1999; Maxwell, 1981; Mooney, 1994). A low status of women and illiteracy has been identified as contributing factors to high mortality and morbidity in developing countries (UNDP, 2005; WHO, 2004; Word Bank, 2004). Several organizations, including the World Bank, the IMF, and Transparency International, have highlighted corruption and its impacts upon the policy process in developing countries (Transparency International 2004; Zemenides et al., 1999). The problem of corruption in the health sector makes health policies ineffective and contributes to mortality and morbidity in developing countries (UNDCP, 2003; Waxman, 2003).

Process Analysis
Through health policy process, a government, society, institutions and/or professionals set their activities and allocate their resources. Generally, the policy process is divided into different stages or phases such as agenda building, planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and feedback (Barker, 1996; Falcone, 1980; Jenkins-Smith & Sabtier, 1993; Sabatier, 1993; 1998; 1999; Walt, 1994). Policy processes in the developing countries are often characterized by many weaknesses and failures (Falcone, 1980). Policy elites in developing countries often build the health agenda and formulate health policies without recognizing important health problems (Bhutta, 2001; Green et al., 2001; WHO, 1998d). Consequently, many health problems do not effectively get on the policy agenda (Kingdon, 1984; Lee et al., 1998; Milio, 1988a; 1988b). In some countries, policymakers even seem to deny the existence of serious health problems or the multiple factors determining them (Bracht, 1999; Hogwood & Gunn, 1984). In developing countries, health planning repeatedly leads to health plans that appear to be implemented not at all or only partly. Planning documents often offer health objectives without providing enough details on how objectives will be realized (Ali, 2000; Green et al., 1997; Siddiqi et al, 2004). Health planning is often not flexible, participative or integrated with other decision-making processes (Bjorkman, 1986; Green et al., 1997). The links between planning and implementation are weak (Al-Jalaly, 1991; Green et al., 1997). Many health policies in developing countries are not implemented properly due to power conflicts, lack of political support, lack of resources and lack of reliable data (de Leeuw, 2000; Lee et al., 1998; Leger, 2001; Van Herten & Gunning-Schepers, 2000a; Walt & Gilson,

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CHAPTER 1 1994; WHO, 1998b). The monitoring and evaluation of health policies and programs in developing countries is subject to various problems. Modern methods and techniques - such as rapid assessment, mini-surveys, cluster surveys, lot quality assurance sampling, focus groups, and Delphi panel - are not used regularly in monitoring and evaluating health policies (Cibulskis & Inzard, 1996; Hogwood & Gunn, 1984; Janovsky, 1996).

Research Questions
Using the model of Walt & Gilson (1994), a health policy analysis is carried out for Pakistan. This analysis intends to describe what the content of the health policy has been during the last decade in Pakistan, which contextual factors played a major role in executing this policy, and how this policy process was executed. This results in the following research questions. 1. What is the content of the National Health Policy (2001) of Pakistan? More in particular, this question will focus on: a) which health problems are addressed; b) whether major changes in priority occur; c) whether the content is in accordance with the principles of modern health paradigms including the HFA strategy. 2. How do contextual factors (political, economic and socio-cultural) influence the health policy process and health outcomes in Pakistan? 3. How is the health policy process (i.e. agenda building, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation) executed in Pakistan and how does this affect health outcome?

Methodology
To answer these research questions, various data sources and methods were used. Many authors, including Burnard & Hannigan (2000) and Crabtree & Miller (1992), propose using both qualitative and quantitative methods in obtaining research information. Of course, the choice of method needs to be based upon the aims of the study and the research questions. In policy-oriented research, a combination of methods may be applied in exploring a phenomenon from different perspectives (Paley, 2000). The strength of such a research method is its ability to deal with a broad variety of evidence, documents, data and observations. However, there are concerns related to objectivity and generalizability (Seaman, 1998; Yin, 1989) Given the aims, scope and research questions of this policy analysis, quantitative and qualitative research methods were used to gain insight into the health policy content, context and process in Pakistan. Quantitative data were derived from health statistics, nationally and internationally. The content analysis is based mainly on secondary data in the form of previous studies on health policy analysis, official reports of health ministries and departments in Pakistan, international agencies, and reports of seminars and conferences on health policy. We used qualitative research methods to obtain insight into health policy priority setting, context (political, economic, socio-cultural, and demographic) and policy process (agenda building, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation). Our research methods included observations, recordings and open interviews. Characteristics of this type of research are nonmanipulation of variables and simply focusing on studying a phenomenon as it occurs in reality (Crabtree & Miller, 1992).

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION The review of the literature included a review of modern health paradigms, international health programs and strategies including Primary Health Care (PHC) and Health for All (HFA). The literature review helped in identifying ways to combat disease and improve health by considering all the major determinants such as lifestyles, and the physical, socio-cultural, political, economic and demographic environment. Scientific literature was collected from different sources including ministries, departments, offices, libraries, academic and research institutes in Pakistan, the Netherlands and Switzerland. Regarding the method of open-ended interviews one hundred and fifty-two actors involved in health policy process at international, national, provincial and district (local) level were personally interviewed. These interviewees included elected representatives (including current and former health ministers), policy makers, civil servants, field officers, representatives of the NGOs, representatives of the professional associations and representatives of international health organizations as shown in the table 1.
Table 1. Actors involved in Health Policy Process at various levels in Pakistan Actors International Level Federal Provincial District

Representatives of International agencies Elected representatives Civil servants Field officers/administrators Representatives of Professional associations Representatives of the NGOs Total

4 NA NA NA NA NA 4

6 4 8 NA 4 4 26

4 8 12 12 7 5 48

NA 15 10 22 12 15 74

These interviewees were visited in their offices, homes and public places during 2000 and 2005. In these years, Pakistan was visited regularly, and every year a few months were spent conducting field research. The interviewed international actors include: the officials of WHO, the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, UNICEF, and UNDP. In the analysis, the interviews of the international representatives living outside Pakistan are mostly not used, since these interviews were held to get an overall picture in international health policy and were less focused on specific situations in Pakistan. The interviewed representatives of professional organization and the NGOs include: Pakistan Medical Association (PMA), Pakistan Medical and Dental Council (PMDC), All Pakistan Para Medical Association, Public Health Association of Pakistan, Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, APWA, Sungi Foundation and Women Organizations.

Overview of the Study
The study is composed of eight chapters. Chapter 2 provides some basic information on Pakistan, covering physical and human geography, economy, national resources, political, administrative and social conditions, education,

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CHAPTER 1 cultural life, history, the health system and, finally a brief overview of health policy. This overview helps to understand overall health conditions and the health policy environment. Chapters 3 and 4 provide answers to the first research question on the content of the health policy. Chapter 3 presents a brief overview of the National Health Policy (2001) of Pakistan by highlighting the various goals and targets of the policy. It particularly focuses on the extent to which NHP 2001 has followed important principles of HFA strategy. The relevance of this policy document is analyzed from the perspective of HFA. Chapter 4 describes the occurrence of health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, and drug addiction in Pakistan. It also highlights contributing factors such as socio-cultural, environmental and infra-structural factors Chapters 5 and 6 provide an answer to the second research question, the context. Chapter 5 deals with political structure and political context in which health policy is embedded in Pakistan. It describes the political system - with its frequent changes of government, strong centralization and weak institutions. It also explains how the political context influences health policy process. Chapter 6 describes the economic and socio-cultural policy context in Pakistan. It presents the economic growth of Pakistan, the share of the health sector in national budgets, the status of women in society, the literacy level and corruption level. It also presents the impact of the economic and socio-cultural context on the health process and health outcome. Chapter 7 provides an answer to the third research question, the health policy process. It presents an analysis of the important stages of the health policy process in Pakistan - such as agenda building and policymaking, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation and identifies various problems existing in these stages of the process. The main problems, which affect the health policy process, are described, and suggestions are offered to improve the health policy process. The final chapter presents an integrated overview of the answers to all the research questions, the main conclusions of this research study, and an analysis of the strong and weak points of the study. It ends with recommendations for health policy in Pakistan.

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GENERAL INTRODUCTION

References
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Mackintosh, M. (1992), Questioning the State. In Wuyts, M., Mackintosh, M. and Hewitt, T. (eds.). Development Policy and Public Action. Open University Press. Milton Keynes. Maxwell, R. (1981). Health and Wealth: An International Study of Health Care Spending. Lexington. Lexington Books. McKee, M., Zwi, A., Koupilova, I., Sethti, D., & Leon, D. (2000). Health Policy-making in Central and Eastern Europe: Lessons from the Inaction on Injuries? Health Policy and Planning. 15(3):262-269. Migdal, J. (1988). Strong Societies and Weak States: State-Society Relations and State Capabilities in the Third World. Princeton. Princeton University Press. Milio, N. (1988a). Making Healthy Public Policy; Developing the Science of Learning the Art: an Ecological Framework for Policy Studies. Health Promotion International. 2(3):263-274. Milio, N. (1988b). Making Policy - A Mosaic of Australian Community Health Policy Development. Canberra. Department of Community Services and Health. Mooney, G. (1994). Key Issues in Health Economics. London. Prentice Hall. Mukandala, R.S. (1992). Bureaucracy and Agricultural Policy: The Experience in Tanzania. In Asmerson, H.K., Hoppe, R., & Jain, R.B. (Eds.). Bureaucracy and Development Policies in the Third World. Amsterdam. VU University Press. Nakajima, H. (1997). Let’s Work Together to Control Infectious Diseases. World Health. 50th Year. (1):3. Navarro, V. (2000). Assessment of the World Health Report. Lancet. 356:1598-1601. Nolte, E. & McKee, M. (2003). Measuring the health of nations: analysis of mortality amenable health care. British Medical Journal 327:1129-1135 Odiorne, G., Weihrich, H., & Mendelson, J. (1980). Executive Skills: A Management by Objectives Approach. Dubuqu. Brown. Ostrom, E., Gardner, R., & Walker, J. (1994). Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources. Ann Arbor. University of Michigan Press. Paley, J. (2000). Paradigms and presuppositions: the difference between qualitative and quantitative research. Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice. 14(2):143-155. Pakistan (1990). National Health Policy 1990. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (1997). National Health Policy. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (2001). National Health Policy 2001 The Way Forward: Agenda for Health Sector Reform. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Panday, D.R. (1989). Administrative Development in a Semi Dependency: The Experience of Nepal. Public Administration and Development. 9:315-29. Perkins, D., & Roemer, M. (1991). Reforming Economic Systems in Developing Countries. Boston. Harvard University Press. Ranney, A. (1968). Political Science and Public Policy. Chicago. Markham Publishing Company. Sabatier, P.A. (1986). Top-down and bottom-up models of policy implementation: a critical analysis and suggested synthesis. Journal of Public Policy. 6:21-48. Sabatier, P.A. (1987). Knowledge, policy-oriented learning and policy change. Knowledge. 8 (6):649-692. Sabatier, P.A. (1988). An advocacy coalition framework of policy change and the role of policy oriented learning therein. Policy Science. 21:129-168. Sabatier, P.A. (1993). Policy Change over a Decade or More. In Sabatier, P.A., & Jenkins-Smith, H.C. (eds). Policy Change and Learning. Boulder. Westview Press. 13-39. Sabatier, P.A. (1998). The advocacy coalition framework: revisions and relevance for Europe. Journal of European Public Policy. 5(1):98-130. Sabatier, P.A. (1999). Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder etc. Westview Press. Sabatier, P.A., & Jenkins-Smith, H.C. (1988). Symposium on Policy change and learning. Policy Science. 21:123-278. Sabatier, P.A., & Jenkins-Smith, H. (1993). Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach. Boulder. Westview Press. Sachs, J.D. (2001). Macroeconomics and Health: Investing in Health for Economic Development, WHO, Geneva. Saltman, R.B. (1997). The Context for Health Reform in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany, and United States. Health Policy. 41 Supp.:9-26. Seaman, C. (1998). Research Methods: Principles, Practice and theory for Nursing. Buckingham: Open University Press. Siddiqi, S., Haq, I.U., Ghaffar, A., Akhtar, T., & Mahaini R. (2004). Pakistan’s maternal and child health policy: analysis, lessons and the way forward. Health Policy. 69(1):117-130. Stinchcombe, A. (1968). Constructing Social Theories. Chicago. University of Chicago Press.

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OVERVIEW OF PAKISTAN

2
A General Overview of Pakistan

Chapter 2 Overview of Pakistan

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CHAPTER 2

Introduction
Pakistan (the Islamic Republic of Pakistan; Urdu: Islam-i Jamhuriya-e Pakistan) is a country in South Asia with an area of 796,095 square kilometers and a population of 152.53 million. It is bordered on the west by Iran, on the north by Afghanistan, on the northeast by China, on the east and southeast by India, and on the south by the Arabian Sea. The capital is Islamabad. Pakistan was created at the time of the partition of British India on August 14, 1947, in order to create a separate homeland for Indian Muslims under the leadership of Quaid-e-Azam (Urdu word for great leader) Muhammad Ali Jinah. Since 1947, the predominantly Muslim (80%) Jammu and Kashmir region, along the western Himalayas, has been disputed between Pakistan and India (Mahmood, 2000). India controls two-thirds of Kashmir and Pakistan the rest. The two countries have gone to war over the territory three times: in 1948-49, 1965, and 1971. The tension with India has led to a constant increase in defense expenditures at the cost of development and welfare budgets (Banuri, et al., 1997a; 1997b; Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Mahmood, 2000).

Physical and Human Geography
The Land Pakistan is situated in the northwestern part of the southern Asian subcontinent at the western end of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, which is bounded to the north by the mountain wall of the Great Himalayan mountain ranges and their offshoots. It can be divided into six natural regions - the northern mountains, the submontane plateau, the Indus Plain, the Baluchistan Plateau, the western bordering mountains, and the desert area (Memon, 1997). Climate As Pakistan is located on a great landmass north of the tropic of Cancer (between latitude 24º and 37º N), it has a continental climate characterized by extreme variations of temperature, both seasonally and daily. Very high altitudes and snow-covered northern mountains make the climate very cold, particularly in northern areas. The Baluchistan Plateau also experiences cold temperatures. Along the coastal strip, the climate is influenced by sea breezes. In the rest of the country, temperatures are normally very high in summer; in the plains, the mean temperature for June is 40º C, and the highest temperatures may exceed 51º C (Pakistan, 2003). In the summer, hot winds called "loo" blow across the plains during the day. The dry and hot weather is broken occasionally by dust storms and thunderstorms that temporarily lower the temperature. Evenings are cool; the diurnal variation in temperature may be as much as 11º to 17º C. Settlement Patterns The traditional regions of Pakistan, shaped by ecological factors and historical evolution, are reflected in the administrative division of the country into four provinces: Punjab, Sind, North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan.

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OVERVIEW OF PAKISTAN

Rural Settlement Two-thirds of the rural population of Pakistan lives in nucleated villages or hamlets (i.e., in compact groups of dwellings). The concept of a village often tends to be equivalent to an area of land that, together with a village and its satellite hamlets, forms a unit. It is difficult to speak of an average size of a village, for patterns of habitation are complex. Rural areas commonly lack basic facilities such as water, sanitation, electricity, education, and health services. There are great disparities between rural and urban areas and between rich and poor in rural areas (Pakistan, 2004a, Pakistan, 2005a). The rich rural landlords own most of the rural resources, have an elite status, and exercise excessive powers that are mostly unchecked by the legal system. These landlords dominate not only rural areas but also the overall political system in the country (Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Mahomood, 2000, Shaikh, 2000).

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CHAPTER 2 Urban Settlement Islamabad is the capital of the country. The other principal cities are Karachi (capital city of Sind province), Lahore (capital city of Punjab province), Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Peshawar (capital city of NWFP province), and Quetta (capital city of Baluchistan province). The urban population of Pakistan represents about one-third of the total population (Pakistan, 2004a). Rapid and unplanned urban expansion has resulted in deterioration of living conditions, degradation of physical environment and excessive pressures upon the existing urban facilities (Khan & Bhutta, 2001; Luby et al., 2004; Pakistan, 2005b; Siddiqi, et al., 2004). Water supply and sewerage systems are inadequate, of poor quality, and mostly unhygienic (Pakistan, 2004a; Pakistan, 2005c) Unplanned industrialization has destroyed natural resources. In many places, industry has polluted soil, water and air (ADB, 2005; Illiyas et al., 1997; Pakistan, 2005c). The unplanned and unchecked system of traffic results in air and noise pollution.

Population Characteristics
Pakistan’s population grew at an average of 3 % per annum from 1951 until the mid 1980s. Population growth slowed to an average of 2.6 % per annum from 1985-86 until 1999-2000 (Pakistan, 2005a). Since 2001-02, the population has grown at an average rate of 2 % per annum. In 2004-2005, total population was estimated at 152.53 million, making the country the seventh most populous country in the world (Pakistan, 2005a). The total fertility rate decreased from around 5.4 in the early 1990s to its present value of 4.6 (Pakistan, 2005a; 2005c). The population is denser in the industrialized and agriculturally fertile regions than in the uncultivated areas.

Ethnic Composition
The population is a complex mixture of indigenous people. Many racial types have been introduced by successive waves of migrations from the northwest as well as by internal migrations across the subcontinent of India. Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Pathans, and Mughals came from the northwest and spread across the Indo-Gangetic Plain, while the Arabs conquered Sind. All left their mark on the population and the culture of the land (Memon, 1997). In 1947, when Pakistan and India became independent, there was a massive migration of millions of Muslim refugees to Pakistan from different parts of India. At the same time there was also a massive migration of Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan to India (Mahmood, 2000). Immigrants from both the sides suffered from multiple problems. Migrating refugees were attacked, killed, looted, raped and tortured by the local people on both sides. It was the worst communal violence and crime that India and Pakistan ever experienced, and it led to a huge loss of life, health and resources. It also led to hostilities between both sides, made two neighboring countries into enemies, and ultimately destroyed peace in the region (Mahmood, 2000; Memon, 1997, Shaikh, 2000).

Linguistic Composition
Pakistan is in general linguistically heterogeneous, and no single language can be said to be common to the whole population. Each of its principal languages has a strong regional focus.

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OVERVIEW OF PAKISTAN Every province has its own language: Punjabi is spoken in Punjab, Sindhi in Sind, Pushto in NWFP, and Balochi in Baluchistan. Urdu is the national language although it is not indigenous to Pakistan. It is the native language only of immigrants from India who are mostly settled in Karachi and Hyderabad (Mahmood, 2000; Memon, 1997). However, Urdu is used as a common language for communication in every part of the country. Urdu is very similar to Hindi, the official language of India. Although the two languages have a common base, in its literary form Urdu emphasizes words of Persian and Arabic origin, whereas Hindi emphasizes words of Sanskrit origin. Urdu is written in a modified version of the Persian and Arabic script (written from right to left), whereas Hindi is written as Devangari script from left to right. Urdu has strong associations with Muslim nationalism (Mahmood, 2000; Memon, 1997).

Religions
Almost the entire population in Pakistan is Muslim. The number of Hindus in Pakistan was greatly reduced as a consequence of their migration to India in 1947. Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians constitute only a tiny percentage (0.7%, 0.5% and 1.5% respectively) of the population (Mahmood, 2000; Memon, 1997).

Economy and Education
Pakistan's economy has gathered momentum during the last five years, particularly in the fiscal year 2004-05. Pakistan’s real GDP growth of 8.4 % in 2004-05 positioned the country as the fastest growing economy after China (Pakistan, 2005a). There are also reasonable amounts of mineral, biological, water, hydroelectric and other power resources available in the country. A disturbing feature of the economy is a persistent dichotomy between a respectable rate of economic growth and only a marginal improvement in social indicators. In intercountry comparison, Pakistan is economically better off than many other countries in Asia (Pakistan, 2005a). Although the profile of educational achievement has been improving, it is still low. The literacy rate is 54 %. However, male literacy rate is estimated at 64 % and female at 36 % (CIA, 2005; Pakistan, 2005a). According to UNESCO (2005), the adult (15 and above) literacy rate in Pakistan is 53.4 % for males and 28.5 % for females, which contrasts considerably with most other countries in the South Asian region. About 34 % of the literate population has received education at less than the secondary level, 4 % at the higher secondary level and 3 % at university degree level and above (Pakistan, 2005a). The total number of students in Pakistan’s higher educational system is approximately 475,000. The enrolment rate for the age group of 17-23 years is 2.6 % compared to 10 % in India and 68 % in South Korea (Pakistan, 2005a).

Culture and Arts
Pakistan’s cultural heritage dates back more than 5,000 years to the age of the Indus civilization. But the emphasis on Islamic ideology has led to a strong identification with Islamic culture. Family organization is strongly patriarchal and most people live in large extended

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CHAPTER 2 families. A woman’s status in society is low, and her role is restricted to performing domestic chores and fulfilling the role of a dutiful wife and mother. Pakistan offers a world of beauty, archaeology and history. There are many Hindu Tiraths, dating as far back as 3,000 B.C. Buddhist religion and culture as well as the Indus Valley Civilization flourished here 5000 years ago (Chaturachinda, et al., 2004; Pakistan, 2002). The ruins of Taxila, Moenjodaro and Harappa tell the tale of a highly artistic and cultured people. Mughal monuments are also strewn all over the country. Pakistani craftsmen are also well known for producing highquality products in clay, stone, fabrics, carpets, wood, metal, jewelry and leather. The country has been the cradle of a civilization that dates back more than five millennia. Over the centuries, successive waves of migrations from the northwest as well as internal migrations across the subcontinent brought Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Arabs, and Mughals to the region. From their earliest arrival, Muslims built cities, forts, palaces, mosques, madrassas (religious schools), tombs and mausoleums (Chaturachinda, et al., 2004; Pakistan, 2002).

Political and Administrative Context
The emergence of a democratic society in the country has often been disrupted by the repeated change in governments. Governor-generals, presidents and chiefs of the army have repeatedly dissolved elected governments and parliaments. No elected civilian government has ever transferred power to another civilian government; all have been replaced through non-electoral instruments and imposition of military rule. On average, military regimes have tended to last for a decade, while civilian regimes lasted three years or less (Newberg, 1997; Noman, 1997; Shaikh, 2000). The military abolished the national assemblies in 1958, 1969, 1977, and 1999 (Shaikh, 2000). The Governor General also abolished the national assembly in 1953. Furthermore, Presidents dissolved national assemblies in 1988, 1990, 1993, and 1996. As a result, the political system is weak and unstable (Khan & Van den Heuvel, 2005a; Mahmood, 2000). Pakistan’s four provinces are divided into divisions, districts and tehsils (sub-districts), which are run by a hierarchy of administrators, such as the Divisional Commissioner, the District Coordination Officer (DCO), and Assistant Commissioners. The key level is that of the district, where the DCO shares a few powers with the elected district “Nazim” (means head in Urdu language). This centralized administrative system was imposed during the former British colonial system (Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Newberg, 1997; Noman, 1997). It works as a top-down model of delegation of powers from the central government to the governmental functionaries at the district and local level. People and their representatives hardly play a role in this centralized system. Every new government either dissolves the local councils or simply does not regularly organize new elections. It makes the people powerless, blocks their participation, and makes the system of accountability ineffective (Husain & Hussain, 1993; Newberg, 1997; Noman, 1997; Shaikh, 2000).

The Health System
Pakistan inherited a highly centralized health care system from the former British colonial power. The government is responsible for providing free national health care services to all citizens, including hospital care free of charge, and such services exist in almost all cities and towns (Pakistan, 2005a). Complete and reliable statistical data on governmental expenditures

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OVERVIEW OF PAKISTAN on health do not exist. A major difficulty in determining the size of public and private health expenditures is how to determine the boundaries of health care and which expenditures to include (CIA, 2005; Pakistan, 1994). Human health resources include physicians, nurses, pharmacists, dentists, environmentalists, social scientists, public health professionals, and other persons promoting health. Due to its colonial past, health policies in Pakistan are influenced by the British health reports. In October 1943, the then British Government of India appointed a "Health Survey and Development Committee" (the Bhore Committee). The committee published its report on March 1, 1946, with its contents markedly resembling the 1942 Beveridge Report in the UK that led to the creation of the National Health Service and other institutions of the British welfare state (Bjorkman, 1986; Khan & Van den Heuvel, 2005a). The main principles underlying the Bhore Committee proposals for future health services development included the idea that no individual should lack adequate medical care because of an inability to pay. Health consultants were to be provided with the laboratory and institutional facilities necessary for proper diagnosis and treatment of all sick people. The Bhore Committee also placed a strong emphasis upon prevention. It recommended that medical and preventive health care services be provided as close as possible to the people. After independence, the fledging Government of Pakistan adopted most of the proposals of the Bhore Committee, including provision of free medical treatment to all sick people and an emphasis upon disease prevention. In the following years, a series of commissions and expert panels examined the health sector development process in Pakistan. A Medical Reforms Commission, appointed on November 24, 1959, issued several reports from January to April of 1960 (Bjorkman, 1986; Khan & Van den Heuvel, 2005b; Pakistan, 1994). These reports recommended the take-over of municipal hospitals and envisaged the district as the apex of a pyramid of health services radiating down through sub-districts to dispensaries. The Rural Health Centers (RHC) scheme was introduced in 1961 in order to provide basic health facilities and a graded system of medical care across rural Pakistan. Several years later, on June 24, 1969, a new Health Study Group was appointed, which published its report in March 1970 (Khan & Van den Heuvel, 2005b; Pakistan, 1994b). This report recommended the development of autonomous hospital authorities, a stronger emphasis upon preventive care, the reorganization of paramedical services, and the integration of several vertical programs into health care. In March 1972, the government announced the "People’s Health Scheme" with an emphasis on prevention and development of facilities in rural areas. The Planning Commission formulated a set of national guidelines to reflect the priorities of this scheme in October 1973. These guidelines were further influenced by the government and the World Health Organization in order to streamline health planning. Finally, in 1978, Pakistan formally adopted the strategy of the World Health Organization’s "Health For All (HFA) by the Year 2000" (Ali, 2000; Pakistan, 1997). The government announced its first plan for a national health policy in January 1990 (Pakistan, 1997). The 1990 National Health Policy (NHP) stated that Pakistani people pay a heavy toll of life from diseases, many of which are easily preventable, and that improvements were needed in the area of clean water, sanitation and housing as well as birth control (Pakistan, 1990). The NHP 1990 intended to give a higher priority to the neglected health sector and upgrade the medical education and health care system. It stated that government would devote more attention to environmental protection, sanitation, clean water supplies and housing in order to 29

CHAPTER 2 prevent disease. The NHP 1990 intended to provide universal health coverage in accordance with the strategy HFA 2000. In line with the HFA initiative, the NHP policy document identified the following main objectives (Pakistan, 1990): • • • • • Health services should be effective, efficient, affordable and acceptable. Efforts to deal with health should include disease prevention, health promotion and curative services. There should be universal coverage for health services. Individuals and communities should participate in health activities that promote selfreliance and reduce dependence. Health activities should be integral to community and national development.

To attain its objective, particularly of making Primary Health Care (PHC) available to all, the NHP policy program aimed to control child and maternal mortality by increasing the coverage for immunization against major childhood diseases (measles, tetanus, whooping cough, diphtheria, and tuberculosis) through establishing public health services. It also aimed to combat anemia among women of childbearing age, provide adequate antenatal care and better maternity practices, and to ensure an adequate level of nutrition for children and women of childbearing age. Furthermore, health care professionals would be trained in the area of pregnancy, childbearing, and childcare. Drug packages for treatment of common diseases would also be provided in the rural areas (Pakistan, 1990). Outlays for health in the national budget would be increased, and additional sources of revenues would be identified to finance this policy. On an organizational level, the NHP 1990 planned to decentralize the health system and to provide Primary Health Care (PHC) services via basic health units (BHUs) and rural health centers (RHCs) in rural areas. In urban areas, PHC services would be improved by training more physicians and other PHC professionals (Pakistan, 1990). To reduce infant/child mortality and child diseases such as congenital infection, tetanus, measles, whooping cough, diphtheria and diarrhea, services would have to be improved in the areas of nutrition, immunization against childhood diseases, and maternal and child health care. In addition, public education and awareness programs would be launched in the area of maternal and child health and family planning. Family planning services would be provided through health outlets, and health programs would be integrated with family planning programs (Pakistan, 1990). The next National Health Policy (1997) stated that renewing and upgrading health policy in accordance with modern health paradigms was one of its basic objectives and that the previous health policy had not adequately covered all areas of PHC and the Health For All (HFA) strategy. It also aimed to make health service more responsive to current health needs in accordance with HFA. It identified many emerging health problems, including HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, (road traffic) accidents, violence and crime, mental health and tuberculosis. To combat these health problems, a greater focus would be needed on the prevention of disease and promotion of health in accordance with modern health paradigms (Pakistan, 1997). Policymakers made it clear that the government was committed to achieving the goal of health for all through better governance. Good governance was to be the cornerstone of health development. Human resource development needed to be rationalized, the private sector given greater responsibility, and local communities empowered (Pakistan, 1997). The health sector had to be regulated to make it more responsive to current and future challenges. Vulnerable and disadvantaged groups in society would be given priority. New laws would be legislated 30

OVERVIEW OF PAKISTAN and existing laws amended to implement the government’s commitment to various international conventions including: convention for the rights of children (CRC), convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (CEDAW), Health for All (HFA), etc. The ultimate aim of the new health policy was to improve the level of health across the entire population by providing universal health care coverage through an integrated PHC approach (Pakistan, 1997). In the area of PHC planning, the 1997 policy document aimed to increase training opportunities, improve health management, develop a health information system, integrate priority health programs, decentralize the health system and strengthen the PHC network. The policy intended to combat non-communicable and chronic diseases by focusing on lifestyle. It intended to launch mass media awareness campaigns focusing on a healthy lifestyle in order to control and prevent cardiovascular diseases, blindness, diabetes, cancer, burns, injuries, and drug abuse. It also called for providing special training to health professionals in the area of public health and health promotion. In the area of disease control and prevention, the 1997 policy document specified several priority health programs, including an expanded program of immunization (EPI), a family planning program, a maternal and child health program (MCH), a program for reproductive health, a malaria control program, a tuberculosis (TB) control program, a national AIDS control program, and a cancer control program (Pakistan, 1997). The government of Pakistan launched its third National Health Policy (NHP) in 2001 by acknowledging the need for a comprehensive health policy to address health problems and improve life conditions (Pakistan, 2001; 2004b). The 2001 NHP is the current health policy document for Pakistan. It aims to reform the health sector in order to prevent disease, promote health, and improve the overall health status of the population in line with the principles of HFA (Pakistan, 2001). A brief overview and analysis of its contents will be presented in Chapter Three and Chapter Four.

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CHAPTER 2

References
ADB (2005). Technical Assistance to the Islamic Republic of Pakistan for Developing Social Insurance Project. Manila. Asian Development Bank (ADB). Ali, S.Z. (2000). Health for All in Pakistan: Achievements, Strategies and Challenges. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal. 6(4):832-7. Banuri, T.J., Khan, S.R., & Mahmood, M. (1997). Just Development beyond Adjustment with a Human Face. Karachi. Oxford University Press. Chaturachinda, G., Krishnamurty, S., & Tabtiang, P.W. (2004). Dictionary of South and Southeast Asian Art. Bangkok. Thailand Silkworm Books. CIA (2005). The World Fact Book 2005. Washington, D.C. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of the United Stated of America. Hussain, M., & Hussain, A. (1993). Pakistan: Problems of Governance. New Delhi. Vanguard Books. Illiyas, M., Burney, M. I., & Taqi, L. (1997). Environmental Hazards. In Illiyas, M. (Ed.). Community Medicine and Public Health. Karachi. Time Traders. 234-257 Khan, A., & Bhutta, Z.A. (2001). Maternal Health and Malnutrition in Pakistan: a Situational Analysis. Karachi. Aga Khan University and Unicef. Aga Khan University Press. Khan, M.M., & Van den Heuvel, W. (2005a) The Impact of Political Context upon Health Policy Process in Pakistan. Public Health, Accepted pending revisions. Khan, M.M., & Van den Heuvel, W. (2005b). Description and Content Analysis of the National Health Policy of Pakistan. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, Accepted pending revisions. Luby SP, Agboatwalla M, Painter J, Altaf A, Billhimer WL, & Hoekstra RM. (2004). Effect of intensive hand washing promotion on childhood diarrhea in high-risk communities in Pakistan: a randomized controlled trial. Journal of American Medical Association. 291:2547-2554. Mahmood, S. (2000). Pakistan, Political Roots and Development 1947-1999. Karachi. Oxford Memon, A.N. (1997). Pakistan: Islamic Nation in Crisis. Lahore. Vanguard. Newberg, P.R. (1997). As if to Frame a Picture: Courts and Politics. In Rais, R.B. (Ed). State, Society, and Democratic Change in Pakistan. Karachi. Oxford University Press. 76-102. Noman, O. (1997). Economic and Social Progress in Asia. Karachi. Oxford University Press. Pakistan (1990). National Health Policy 1990. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (1994). Social Action Program, Report to the Pakistan Consortium 1994-95. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission Federal SAP Secretariat. Pakistan (1997). National Health Policy. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (2001). National Health Policy 2001 The Way Forward: Agenda for Health Sector Reform. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan. (2002). Pakistan. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Tourism. Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation. Pakistan. (2003). Federal Bureau of Statistics (2003). Statistics of Pakistan 2003. Islamabad. Federal Bureau of Statistics, Pakistan. Pakistan. (2004a). Economic Survey 2003-2004. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Pakistan. (2004b). Progress on Agenda for Health Sector Reforms. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan. (2005a). Economic Survey 2004-2005. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Pakistan. (2005b). Annual Plan 2005-06. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Planning and Development. Pakistan. (2005c). Pakistan Integrated Household Survey, 2004-2005. Islamabad. Pakistan Federal Bureau of Statistics. Shaikh F. (2000). Pakistan between Allah and Army. International Affairs. 76(2): 325-332. Siddiqi, S., Haq, I.U., Ghaffar, A., Akhtar, T., & Mahaini R. (2004). Pakistan’s maternal and child health policy: analysis, lessons and the way forward. Health Policy. 69(1): 117-130. UNESCO. (2005). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.

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CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA

3
Description and Content Analysis of the National Health Policy of Pakistan
Chapter 3 Content Analysis: HFA

Muahammad Mushatq Khan and Wim Van den Heuvel Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, accepted pending revisions

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CHAPTER 3

Abstract
Health conditions in Pakistan are poor and health indicators are unfavorable. Various governments have pursued health policies to combat disease and improve health conditions. Pakistan’s current policy document, the National Health Policy (2001), is aimed at reforming the health sector in accordance with Health for All (HFA). This paper presents the content analysis of the national health policy of Pakistan highlighting the various key areas. The relevance of this policy document is analyzed from the perspective of HFA. According to HFA equity, participation and collaboration are essential principles for health care reform. The article has used qualitative research methods to analyze the National Health Policy of Pakistan (NHP) 2001 and its key areas. Content analysis compares the NHP 2001 with HFA principles, and key persons are asked about their opinion on this issue. It is argued that in formulating health policy the policymakers have not applied important areas of HFA so far. The NHP 2001 still emphasizes upon curative care and institutional facilities for the delivery of health care services in accordance with the principles of biomedical model of health. It is concluded that the policy content limits the health development in Pakistan. The article suggests that the country needs to reformulate its national health by paying attention to the principles of HFA. Key words: Health Policy: content analysis, HFA, reform for health.

Introduction
Health conditions in Pakistan are poor, and health indicators are unfavorable. According to the World Development Report 2005, Pakistan experiences problems of higher child mortality (an infant mortality rate of 74 per 1000 and a mortality rate of 98 per 1000 among the underfives) and maternal deaths (16,500 annually) as compared to other neighboring countries of the South Asian region (World bank, 2005). For example, in Bangladesh infant mortality rate is 46 per 1000 and a mortality rate among the under-fives is 69 per 1000. In India, infant mortality rate is 63 per 1000 and a mortality rate among the under-fives is 87 per 1000. In Iran infant mortality rate is 30 per 1000 and a mortality rate among the under-fives is 41 per 1000 (World Bank, 2005). Moreover, Pakistan like many other developing countries suffer from the double burden of disease: while the traditional infectious diseases are still uncontrolled, new health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, crime and violence and drug addiction (including tobacco use) are increasing (Khan et al, 2005; Pakistan, 2001; Pakistan 2005). In order to address this double burden of disease, health authorities in Pakistan formulated a New National Health Policy in 2001 (Pakistan, 2001; Pakistan, 2004). The policymakers intend the renewed policy 2001 to be a comprehensive policy document that addresses current health problems in accordance with the principles of the Health For All (HFA) strategy introduced by the World Health Organization (WHO). The WHO initiated the concept of HFA as a goal for all its member states in 1977 (McDonald, 1992; Naidoo & Wills, 2000). The HFA concept advanced a vision to attain a level of health that would permit all people to lead socially and economically productive lives (WHO, 1997a). With the emergence of the HFA concept and other public health concepts like health promotion and environmental health the classical biomedical model of health came under increasing criticism. Scientists, governments and international organizations began to realize that the biomedical model of health did not provide solutions to the industrial, social and 34

CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA environmental causes of new health problems. So it was felt important to pay attention not only to healthcare services and biological determinants of health but also to the socio-cultural, economic and environmental determinants (Brener, 1979; de Leeuw, 1989; Doyal, 1979; WHO, 1997a; 1997 b; 1997c). This article analyses whether in 2005 Pakistan indeed has a comprehensive health policy based upon the principles of HFA which may address increasing health problems in the country. The article starts by describing Health For All (HFA) strategy and how its principles can be operationalized for policy implications. Next, a brief overview of the National Health Policy of Pakistan (2001) is presented to indicate what HFA principles are applied in the policy document. The focus of the content analysis is on identifying the extent to which the general approach and the key areas of the policy document fit with the principles of HFA. This is a mid-term analysis since the new health policy, formulated in 2001, states that the goals have to be reached in 2010. The findings are discussed and recommendations for a new health policy are made at the end.

Methods
To analyze the National Health Policy 2001 of Pakistan qualitative research methods have been used. These methods include document analysis and interviews of important actors/stakeholders involved in the health policy process in the country. Documents include: national and international reports on public health and health policy, official reports of health ministries and departments, health professional organizations and international agencies working in Pakistan. Additionally the content of the Report of the Medical Reforms Commission, 1959, the Rural Health Centers (RHC) Scheme 1961, People’s Health Scheme 1972, the National Health Policy 1990 and the National Health Policy 1997 were studied to describe the health policy development in Pakistan. In analyzing the content of the National Health Policy (NHP) 2001 particular attention has been paid to indicate: how far the policy makers in Pakistan have followed the principles of HFA strategy (equity, participation and collaboration) in formulating the said policy document. Besides the document analysis, open-ended interviews of one hundred and fifty-two actors involved in the health policy process at the district (local), provincial, federal and international level were conducted in Islamabad, Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta, Rawalpindi, Abbottabad and Geneva in 2004. The interviewees were asked about their opinions and experiences concerning the HFA strategy and its implication in the country. These interviewees included representatives of international organizations (WHO, The Word Bank and UNDP), elected representatives related to the Ministry of health and other health related ministries, policy makers, civil servants, heath professionals, health managers and representatives of health-related NGOs as well as associations including Pakistan Medical Association, Pakistan Medical and Dental Council and Public Health Association of Pakistan. The interviewees were visited in their offices, homes and public places. They were asked about their opinions and experiences concerning the HFA strategy and its implication in the country. Interviewees were assured anonymity of their whereabouts particularly to those who work within ministries and other governmental departments. The content of the interviewees were analyzed by categorizing their opinions and experiences about environment and lifestyle, equity, participation and collaboration in accordance with HFA (see Table 1). The key areas in the NHP 2001 are presented and analyzed in order to know how far the policy makers 35

CHAPTER 3 have considered the HFA and its principles and how they have assured its application in health agenda building and policy making. It is analyzed whether the content of NHP has properly considered HFA and policy interventions considered environment and lifestyles by assuring equity, participation and collaboration or has referred these principles indirectly.

Health for All Strategy
As a strategy to attain the goals of HFA, WHO launched Primary Health Care (PHC) at the Alma Ata Conference in 1978 (McDonald, 1992; Naidoo & Wills, 2000). In 1995, WHO initiated renewal of HFA. HFA in the 21st Century presents the values and principles to guide action and policy for health at global, regional, national and local levels (WHO, 1997a; 1997b; 1997c). The HFA strategy is aimed to unify the comprehensive health field covering important determinants of health such as human biology, environment, lifestyle and health care services in order to formulate clear health policies that can offer policy goals and interventions covering all the important determinants of health (WHO, 1997a; 1997b; 1997c). Underpinning the comprehensive HFA strategy is a new public health concept, of which three core principles focus upon all the determinants of health. These principles of new public health are equity, participation and collaboration (McDonald, 1992; Naidoo & Wills, 2000; WHO, 1997a; 1997 b; 1997c). Equity, or being fair and just, is not the same as equality, which is the state of being equal. Equity refers to material resources, power, status and environment enabling people to achieve goals and services (Conley, 2001; McDonald, 1992; Murdock, 2001; Starfield, 2001). There are arguments for advocating greater social and economic equity as means of promoting health because social, economic, regional and professional inequalities reflect health inequalities (Conley, 2001; Gwatkin, 2001). There is also evidence that all people living in societies with greater inequality experience poorer health compared to more egalitarian societies (Gwatkin, 2001; Hjortsberg & Mwikisa, 2002; Wilkinson, 1997). This provides a strong argument for advocating greater social and economic equity as a means of promoting health. Participation is the second important principle of HFA. It intends to involve people in the health policy process, recognizing their health needs and looking for solutions which citizens need. It makes health programs more effective. It has been effectively used in fighting against environmental degradation and combating problems of tobacco as well alcohol in many parts of the world (Campbell & Mzaidume, 2001; Minkler, 1999; Moukhyer, 2005). Furthermore, participation could address the issues of access and inclusion more effectively (Cockburn, 2002; Moukhyer, 2005). In addition to that, it makes the health programs more effective, accessible and sustainable (Ali, 2000; Howat et al., 2001). For example in Indian state of Kerala wider participation by local governments, NGOs, and community groups helped health authorities in implementing PHC programs (Varatharajan, et al., 2004). Collaboration or partnership as third principle means working together with others on shared projects. Collaboration is essential since many governmental sectors, agencies and people are involved in health-related issues (de Leeuw, 1989a; Naidoo & Wills, 2000; WHO, 1997b; 1997c). For example, governmental sectors such as education, environment, water and sanitation, housing, energy, industry and transport affect health directly or indirectly. A collaboration among all these sectors, actors and stakeholders outside the government, NGOs, communities and their representatives can induce more fundamental changes, with an enduring

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CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA character and a greater potential to prevent disease and promote health (de Leeuw, 2000; Naidoo & Wills, 2000; WHO, 1997b; 1997c). In Bangladesh collaboration with stakeholders, communities and NGOs has showed positive results in controlling tuberculosis (Zafar Ullah, et al., 2006). To put it otherwise, health policy and health care are not only the issues for health care professionals.

Policy Implications of HFA Strategy
In order to achieve the mission of HFA, the WHO argues that countries should either formulate new health policies or upgrade the existing policies in accordance with HFA (WHO, 1986; 1997c; 1998). The HFA strategy and its mission is not a merely academic exercise. The principles of HFA must be realized through the formulation and implementation of health policies (WHO, 1997a; 1997b). Many developed countries reformulated their health policies by following the mission of HFA (Amhof, 2002; Baum, 2003; Byrant, 2002; de Leeuw, 1989b). For example, the Swedish government tried to reform its health policy by considering all the important determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle in addressing health problems such as cardiovascular disease, mental illness, tumors, injuries and respiratory diseases (de Leeuw, 1989a; HS90, 1990). New South Wales reformed health policies by considering the impact of broader political, economic and social forces upon health of the people in controlling the problem of drug abuse and child abuse (de Leeuw, 1989a; Orange, 1988). New Zealand tried to promote health by ensuring wider participation and collaboration in policy making and implementation in order to reorient its health services, attain equity, and ensure accessibility of health services particularly in remote rural areas (Dyall, 1988). For developing countries implementation of the principles of the HFA in policy formulation may cause problems because many countries experience a ‘double’ burden of ‘traditional’ infectious diseases (like malaria, diarrhea, tuberculosis) and ‘modern’ health problems (like HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, drug abuse), and because resources are lacking and infrastructural conditions are poor. In developing countries assurance of equity and wider participation in health policies is more difficult because there are social, economic, gender, territorial, and professional inequalities. In such a wider context policy makers need to formulate health policies that can offer not only delivery of health services but can also enhance socio cultural and economic environment in order to empower people in enabling them to achieve desired goals and services in an equitable and sustainable way. Health policy should create supportive environments that enable all the people to combat health problems and attain/develop a healthy life. In such an environment, people are enabled to make choices in reducing health risks and developing healthy lifestyles irrespective of their gender, creed, color and income (Colney, 2001; de Leeuw, 1989; Gwatkin, 2001; WHO, 1998). Assuring equity through policy interventions can provide equal services for people with equal needs and working to reduce known inequalities in health (Cockburn & Trentham, 2002; Perez, Herranz, & Ford, 2001; Vernon & Sherwood, 2001). Health policy needs to develop a wider participation in the health policy process in order to create health-enhancing environment (physical, political, economic & socio-cultural), recognizing health needs of people and looking for solutions which citizens need (Campbell et al, 2001; Minkler, 1999; Moukhyer, 2005). Health policy interventions may help in decentralizing health system and in creating a space for wider participation from communities, groups, 37

CHAPTER 3 professionals and NGOs in creating health enhancing environment. Similarly, it is the health policy that can introduce institutional arrangements and structures through which people can participate in the health policy process. Furthermore participation in the health policy process can make health programs more effective, accessible and sustainable through wider participation (Ali, 2000; Howat et al., 2001). Besides equity and participation health policy makers need to realize collaboration in developing health policy and realizing policy goals. Health policies need to offer ways, methods and opportunities that can develop collaboration in order to bring many sectors, agencies and people together towards achieving the goal of good health in accordance with HFA (WHO, 1997b; 1997c). The role of health policy is also important in maintaining positive and smooth working relationships among various sectors and actors that collaborate together for the purpose of promoting health (Arnhof, 2002; Baum, 2003; Byrnat, 2002; WHO, 1986; Zafar Ullah, et al., 2006).

A Brief Overview of the National Health Policy (2001) of Pakistan
Various governments in Pakistan acknowledged the need for renewing health policy to combat health problems and improve life conditions. The present government also saw the necessity of such a renewal and declared the National Health Policy (NHP) 2001. The Federal Cabinet endorsed this policy document in 2001. According to the Foreword of the National Health Policy 2001“the new health policy provides an overall national vision for the Health Sector based on Health For All approach” (Pakistan, 2001). It considers health sector investments as a part of the government’s poverty alleviation plan. The NHP 2001 states that good governance is the basis for health sector reforms in achieving quality of healthcare. Priority has also been accorded to the primary and secondary level of the health sector (Pakistan, 2001) The NHP 2001 has adopted a focused approach by identifying ten key areas of action for the health sector, which have the potential to improve the delivery of healthcare services and the overall health status of the population of Pakistan as it is stated in the vision of the Health Policy. These ten key areas are shortly described. The first key area aims to reduce widespread prevalence of communicable diseases such as childhood diseases, TB, Malaria, Hepatitis-B and HIV/AIDS by implementing protective and promotive health programs. These planned programs include Extended Program of Immunization (EPI), a new national program against Tuberculosis based on the Directly Observed Treatment Short Course (DOTS) and a national malaria control program. In the second key area directed at inadequacies in the primary and secondary health care services, the policy document has identified inadequacies such as deficient state of equipment, deficiency of medical personnel at local level and absenteeism of the staff. There are also major shortcomings in emergency care, surgical services, and anesthesia and laboratory facilities in the hospitals. Furthermore, there is no referral system in operation at local level. In addressing these inadequacies the policy document intends to make family planning and primary healthcare services available to the under-served and un-served population through an integrated community-based approach. A minimum of 6 specialties (Medicine, Surgery, Pediatrics, Gynecology, ENT and Ophthalmology) will be made available at local level hospi38

CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA tals ( Tehsil/District level). The performance of basic health units and rural health centers will be specially reviewed and only those facilities will be upgraded which can actually serve the population. Adequately functioning facilities will be strengthened by filling staff positions and allocating financial resources based on performance/utilization. It is also intended to develop a model referral system in the country by 2005. The third key area that aims to remove professional and managerial deficiencies in District Health System the NHP 2001 has identified various deficiencies. These deficiencies include the ineffectiveness of the district health office in supervising health services, the lack of appropriate knowledge and skill among District Health Officers and the vacant positions of the doctors, specialist and other paramedics in district (and tehsil) hospitals. The NHP 2001 proposes to reduce these deficiencies by improving supervisory practices through decentralization and devolution, providing appropriate training to the District Health Officers and filling vacant positions by appointing doctors, specialists and other paramedics. Implementation of the fourth key area, directed to promoting greater gender equity in the health sector, includes the provision of safe motherhood facilities, women’s accessibility to the primary health services, and the provision of emergency obstetric care facilities in the hospitals. The NHP 2001 also intends to launch Women Health Projects in order to establish a referral system between the village level and district level hospitals and to increase number of Lady Health Visitors (LHWs), nurses and midwives by investing in training facilities for these professions. It is planned to increase the number of nurses from 23,000 in 2001 to 35,000 by 2005 and 55,000 by 2010. Furthermore, 100,000 family health workers will be trained by 2005. The fifth key area aims to bridge the basic nutrition gaps in the target population (i.e. children, women and vulnerable population groups). To realize these objectives the NHP 2001 proposes the provision of Vitamin-A supplementation to 30 million children every year and the provision of iodized salt by introducing flour and vegetable oil fortified by the addition of micro-nutrients. Nutrition Projects will also be launched to ensure a food fortification program and the provision of nutrition package, and to create mass awareness of health education. Nutrition Projects aim to reduce the number of low birth weight babies from 25% to 15% by 2010. The sixth key area aims to address the urban bias in the public health sector. Urban areas have a higher number of governmental hospitals, clinics, other health facilities and health professionals than rural areas. This key area has been proposed mandatory visits by medical students and their teachers to rural areas, compulsory rural service of new medical graduates and filling vacancies for doctors and other paramedics in the rural areas. The seventh key area particularly intends to improve the performance of the private sector because the quality of private care vary on regional basis (urban rural ) from facility to facility (clinic, hospital, laboratory) and private practitioners (physicians and traditional healers). The proposed actions in improving the private health sector include the introduction of drafts of laws and regulation in the private hospitals, clinics laboratories, private medical colleges as well Tibb/Homeopathic teaching institutions. The existing law on Tibb and Homeopathy will be amended to recognize degree and postgraduate level courses in Traditional Medicine.

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CHAPTER 3 Furthermore, each provincial government will develop an appropriate framework to encourage private-public cooperation in the health sector. Actions proposed for the eighth key area, designed to create mass awareness in public health matters, include the increase of funding for the ongoing health education campaign, the establishment of a Nutrition Cell in the Ministry of Health, training of family planning workers and Primary Health Care workers. It is also planned to organize orientation meetings and seminars for the elected councilors of the local councils in order to create awareness of public health. The ninth key area of the NHP 2001 envisages improving the performance of the drug sector and to ensure the availability, affordability and quality of drugs. In realizing these objectives, it has been planned to encourage drug manufacturers through maximum market competition, to manufacture imported drugs within the country, and to increase the investments in the pharmaceutical sector. The document also intends to strengthen the capacity of the Drug Control Organization in market surveillance and quality control. For the implementation of its tenth key area aimed at building the capacity of the Ministry of Health. A research unit is planned in order to ensure the capacity building of the ministry in analyzing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating national health policy. The Health Management Information System (HMIS) will be expanded to all the districts in the country. It is also planned to initiate Disease Early Warning System in collaboration with the World Health Organization in order to combat Cong-Crimean Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) and Leishmaniasis. The first National Health Policy that was declared in 1990, aimed to prevent disease and improve health conditions by paying attention to clean water, sanitation, housing and family planning (Pakistan, 1990). It also intended to increase governmental health expenditures up to 5% of the GNP and upgrade the medical education, health care system, environmental conditions and to provide universal health coverage in accordance with the HFA. Furthermore, the NHP 1990 offered several health programs including maternal and child care, immunization and nutrition (Pakistan, 1990). Formulation and declaration of the first national health policy was a positive governmental achievement in 1990. The NHP 1990 acknowledged that the low governmental expenditure upon health sector disturbs health policy process, causes delays in implementation of health projects and ultimately implementation failure of health policies. Indeed it was positive that government not only recognized the low governmental health expenditure a problem but also intended to increase its health expenditure up to 5% of the GNP. Also, it was positive that the government intended to stimulate health promotion and to create healthy environment. However in practice this was not realized since governmental health expenditures did not increase in the following years. In 1997 government replaced NHP 1990 and announced second National Health Policy (NHP)1997. The NHP1997 aimed to cover all areas of primary health care (PHC) and the HFA strategy (Pakistan, 1997). It also aimed to make health service more responsive to current health needs and to address health problems including HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, (road traffic) accidents, violence and crime, mental health and tuberculosis by following the principles and methods of disease prevention (Pakistan, 1997). The NHP offered several health programs including immunization, family planning, maternal and child health, reproductive health, malaria control, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and cancer control (Pakistan, 1997).

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CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA As compared to NHP 1990, the NHP 1997 considered health problems more comprehensively and intended to find their solutions not only in health care services but also in other determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle. The NHP 1997 also offered various intentions to prevent disease and promote health. However it neither intended to increase governmental health expenditures nor to decentralize the health system. The basic principles of the HFA such as equity, participation and collaboration were not assured in the NHP 1997. As mentioned, government declared its new health policy in 2001.

Content analysis of the National Health Policy 2001 of Pakistan
The analysis will comment on the general approach, followed by an analysis of the ten key areas. The analysis will start with looking for concordance with HFA principles and attention for infrastructural investments (environment and life style). Next the comments of the interviews will be presented. Of the 144 interviewees 105 (73%) gave their opinions and comments about the relevance of the NHP 2001 from the perspective of HFA strategy ( see Table 1). Generally, professionals (77%) expressed more frequently comments and concern comparing HFA principles with the actual policy plan than civil servants (70%), while politicians answered the least (67%). At district level 63% commented on HFA issues, at provincial level 86% and at federal level 77%. These differences might be related with familiarity with HFA principles on the one hand and with the ten key areas on the other hand.
Table 1: Interviewees (Actors) that expressed a concern about the relevance of the NHP 2001 from the perspective of HFA strategy Federal level PolitiManacians gers 4 8 2 6 1 3 1 6 1 3 2 3 2 3 Actors Provincial level Politici- Mana- Professians gers onals 8 24 12 6 20 12 4 3 12 5 4 12 2 3 6 5 4 12 5 3 12 Total District level Politi- Mana- Profescians gers sionals 15 32 27 10 19 18 4 10 16 6 16 18 3 8 12 10 8 16 10 8 16

International 6 6 5 5 5 6 5

Professionals 8 6 6 6 4 6 6

144 105 64 79 47 72 70

As mentioned earlier the NHP 2001 intends to base its reform on HFA strategy. Indeed, it was the argument to develop the said policy document. The view, that the NHP 2001 is seen as an investment in the poverty plan, indicates the intention for an integrated approach. Also it is stated that priority should be given to the primary health care sector. In its first key area the NHP 2001 aims to reduce the widespread prevalence of communicable diseases such as TB, malaria, hepatitis B and HIV/AIDS by increasing the coverage of immunization. Indeed, immunization is important in combating disease but there is also a need to pay attention to other determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle as expressed by the interviewees at all levels. Pakistan suffers from environmental degradation that results in various health hazards (Pakistan, 2001; Pakistan, 2004; Pakistan, 2005). Many studies and reports have shown that health hazards, such as the lack of access to safe drinking

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CHAPTER 3 water and sanitation, water pollution, urban and industrial pollution and intensive agriculture, are major causes of disease and poor health conditions (de Leeuw, 2000; Kickbusch & de Leeuw, 1999; WHO, 1997a; 1997b; 1998a). Hospital records in Pakistan show that about 80 percent of all diseases are either water-borne or air-borne. Water-borne diseases account for 60 percent of infant deaths and 40 percent of all deaths in Pakistan (Pakistan, 2001). Similarly, exhausts from vehicles are prime factors in the increase of asthma, chronic bronchitis and other diseases of the heart, lung and skin in the country (Illiyas et al, 1997). It is interesting to note that in the first key area ‘old’ and ‘new’ diseases are mentioned both. Unhealthy lifestyle is an important source of many health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and accidents in the country (Hanif, 1992; Illiyas et al, 1997; Khan & Hyder, 2001; Pakistan, 2005). Many studies and reports show that many persons infected with communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS transmit them to other persons through various ways including blood transfusion, the use of needles and syringes, and the use of inoculation equipment (Baqi et al., 1999; Haque et al., 2004; UNAIDS, 2004; UNDP, 2004; USAIDS, 2005). Life style is most frequently mentioned as relevant and as a concern for health policy by the interviewees. Most of the interviewees at all levels believe that an increasing trend in smoking particularly among teenagers is a major cause of cancer. There are no restriction upon tobacco advertisements, smoking in public buildings and selling tobacco to the teenagers as pointed out by the health professionals at provincial and district level. Many studies concluded that paying attention to lifestyles may control accidents because major causes of accidents in the country include: traffic rules are not followed, seat belts are not used, and safety measures in vehicles, homes, schools, and workplaces are not practiced (Ghaffar et al,1999; Razzak, 2005; Razzak & Luby, 1998; Qureshi et al, 2004). The above evidences show that there is a need to protect the environment and promote healthy lifestyles in preventing disease and promoting health in accordance with HFA strategy. And this recognized as a concern by most interviewees, i.e. 75% expressed their concern about the life style approach in the NHP 2001 and 69% about environmental issues. According to health professionals at the national, provincial and local level the NHP has neither planned specific projects in order to protect environment and to develop healthy lifestyle nor mention any need for a wider participation from health organizations, NGOs, professional groups, the media and the community in increasing the coverage of immunization. According to a representative of a professional organization “ Due to lack of community participation people particularly in rural areas are reluctant to trust nutrition and immunization programs and feel alienated from these governmental programs. Many mothers do not bring their children to rural health centers for immunization and some even refuse to get immunized their children during door to door immunization campaigns which are offered free of cost at the door step.” The second key area of NHP 2001 addresses the inadequacies in the primary and secondary level healthcare services by increasing emergency care, surgical services, anesthesia and laboratory facilities in hospitals. It also plans to provide the specialties such as medicine, surgery, pediatrics, gynecology, ENT and ophthalmology in the district hospitals. These are positive steps in improving secondary healthcare services. Also it is stated that primary health care and family planning should become available in so far underserved areas. Such plans support the equity principle and improve the infrastructure for public health and health services. In practice the NHP do not emphasize upon PHC rather it intends to focus upon the health care services in accordance with biomedical model of health as indicated by the representatives of international organizations and professional organizations during their inter42

CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA views. They believe that comprehensive disease prevention and health promotion programs considering all the determinants of health get little attention in the NHP 2001. Interviewees at all level stated that besides improving the quality of health care services it is important to pay attention to other determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyles as shown in the Table 1. According to a representatives of international organization delegated in Pakistan at federal level “ the NHP 1997 and NHP 2001 have stated that the new health policy intends to reform health sector by following the vision of HFA, however, their main focus was mostly upon the delivery of health care services by following the biomedicine and not disease prevention and health promotion in accordance with HFA.” The equity principle is not mentioned by most interviewees, especially not by managers at provincial level. This indicates that this principles has not really dealt with in the NHP 2001. According to a representative of a professionals organization “the deprived and disadvantaged people suffer from higher levels of ill health and premature death than affluent and advantaged groups but NHP 2001 does not reflect any concern with equity that is a basic principle of HFA.” Many studies state that Pakistan needs to reorient the health services according to PHC and health care should be based upon health needs of population (Baqi et al., 1998; Baqi et al., 1999; Haque et al., 2004; UNAIDS, 2004). According to a representative of an international organization delegated in Pakistan “policy makers in Pakistan should not rely to much upon the biomedical model of health because biomedicine operates with a narrow view on health, which often concerns in an increase in emergency care, surgical services, anesthesia and laboratory facilities in hospitals and clinics.” The third key area of the policy document intends to remove existing professional and managerial deficiencies by improving supervision, by providing appropriate training, and by filling vacant positions of doctors, specialists and other paramedics in the public sector hospitals. It is encouraging that policy makers show a concern regarding existing professional deficiencies and intend to remove it. Realization of such key area may improve the quality of health care and strengthen the infrastructure. However, all the planned measures aiming to increase the quantity and quality of physicians, specialists, paramedics and clinical services are the reflections of a better functioning of biomedical model, not the mission of HFA strategy as pointed out by the representatives of international organizations and health professionals at all levels during their interviews. According to a representative of a professional organization “the existing human resource for health is not balance because health authorities have been trying to increase the number of training opportunities for physicians, nurses and dentists but not for public health professionals.” Representatives of international organizations and health professionals believe that the HFA strategy demands appropriate training of the health professionals, which must be realized through creating awareness and imparting knowledge of new public health and health promotion. Pakistan experiences an imbalance among health care professionals and public health professionals (Khan et al., 2005; Siddiqi et al., 2004). There were 66,196 physicians in the country and population-physician ratio was 1873 in 1994 till June 2005 there were 113,206 physicians and population-physician ratio was 1359 persons per physician (Pakistan, 2005). The number of public health professionals having master degree in public health was 205 till June 2005 (Pakistan, 2005). According to representatives of international organizations and health professionals at national and provincial level the country lacks a human resource for health having enough knowledge and skill in accordance with the HFA but the NHP 2001 has not paid any attention to this issue. According to a representative of public health association “traditionally, physicians in Pakistan are trained to work in clinical settings and not the 43

CHAPTER 3 broader determinants of health lying outside the biomedical model of health. Consequently such physicians working at federal level (as policy makers) can not offer policy interventions that reflect the mission of HFA.” In addressing the existing health inequities in the country, the fourth key area of the policy intends to promote greater gender equity by increasing reproductive health care services in the public sector. The intention for gender equity is indeed important and in line with the equity principle of HFA. Also increasing reproductive health care services is important but not enough to address the problem of gender inequalities and violence against women rooted in the socio-cultural context in the Pakistani society (Khan et al., 2005; Siddiqi et al., 2004); WHO, 2004). Interviewees at all level expressed a similar view about the gender inequalities and violence against women. They also emphasize for a need to do more for health and wellbeing of women. However, regarding the equity principle representatives of the international organizations and health professions showed more concern than politicians and health managers (see Table 1). According to a representative of a NGO “the country has signed several international declarations for the protection of human rights and the constitution guarantees equal treatment for women. However, in practice, authorities have never shown any commitment to the constitution and ratified declarations. Male domination is culturally sanctioned and generally women suffer from a suppressive attitude, gender discrimination, domestic violence, inaccessibility to health services and various types of harassments.” The fifth key area of the policy aims to bridge the basic nutrition gaps in the target population (i.e. children, women and vulnerable population groups). Such actions indeed support equity and may improve the health status among vulnerable groups. It is planned to realize this goal by launching nutrition projects for the provision of iodized salt, food and nutritional supplements to schoolchildren, and to ensure the availability of the major food items. Most of the interviewees at all levels indeed believed that nutrition programs will not only help to address the problems of malnutrition but also the problem of inequities in the country. Through the nutrition programs citizens may be motivated to participate in health care programs. According to a health professional working at district level “generally, health programs such as nutrition, immunization and mother child health are neither decentralized nor offer any space for wider participation. Consequently, people can not find any place to participate and to play their role in these programs. Further people do not place their trust in these centralized programs”. It seems the execution of this key area is not in line with the participation principle. This was mentioned by health professionals and by health managers at local level. According to a professional working at district level “peoples participation in the immunization program is important to create awareness among people and it can lead to increase in the coverage of immunization.” In the proposed actions no connection is made to collaboration with other sectors (education, media.. etc) which might be seen as very important to realize the planned actions. A representative of a NGO added that “collaboration among health sector, media, education department and elected representatives can effectively combat the false myth attached to immunization and can help the rural people and their children in understanding the importance of immunization in preventing disease.” The sixth key area of the document intends to correct urban bias in the health sector but only by arranging regular visits by medical students and their teachers to rural areas and by sending new medical graduates to work in public sector hospitals in rural areas. Indeed, such measures may close the gap between urban and rural areas in health care accessibility and improve the health care infrastructure as is also intended by key areas 2 and 3. According to a representative of a professional organization “many positions of health professionals are lying vacant in 44

CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA rural health areas. On the other hand there is growing unemployment and geographical disparities among the trained health professionals. Indeed, regulatory measures can solve this problem by providing employing newly graduated health professionals and posting them in rural areas.” The sixth key area supposes that medical students, their teachers, and new medical graduates can solve the problem of the urban bias because these students and professionals are familiar with the health needs of the population in rural areas and can serve the rural population as well as improve health conditions. Health professionals at provincial and district level, representatives of NGOs and elected representatives at district level doubt this. According to an elected representative at districts level “many rural people believe that government sends newly graduated physicians in the rural health centers for the purpose of the training of new physicians and not to treat the people. So people doubt in their healing capabilities rather and doubt that they can add health problem rather than treating” According to a elected representative at district level “mostly the new graduates appointed in the rural health centers are male and women are reluctant to be treated by male doctors due to sociocultural norms.” During interviews health professionals at provincial and local level and field officers added that these steps are not enough to address the problem of urban bias in the country. These interviewees believe that new medical graduates and medical students do not have enough knowledge and skill in the area of disease prevention and health promotion in order to address health problems in accordance with the principles of new public health and HFA. Furthermore, in addressing urban bias focus upon public sector hospitals is not a proper solution because public sector provides health care services only to 20 percent of the population and rest of population depends upon the private sector. According to an elected representative at district level “mostly new graduates stay in the rural health centers till they are equipped with practical knowledge and working skills but when they are trained to serve rural communities they leave rural areas.” Studies also believe that public sectors provide health services to 20 percent of the rural population (Abbassi, 1999a; 1999b; Khan et al., 2005). Addressing urban bias also requires collaboration between several sectors (administrative, education, communication). In the NHP 2001 no attention is given to the need of collaboration. Interviewees particularly representatives of the international and professional organizations, health professionals at all levels and all the actors at district level express that collaboration is important not only for addressing the urban bias but also for the effective implementation of health programs such as nutrition, immunization, mother and child health and family planning. It is remarkable that managers/civil servants at federal and provincial level seldom mention the issue of collaboration. It can be due to their positions in the government and tendencies in supporting governmental policies at every cost. The seventh key area aims to introduce required regulation for quality assurance in private medical sector. Regulation can particularly control unqualified traditional healers and quacks providing low quality health care services in the rural areas. However, regulation in order to improve the quality of health care in public sector should also deal with the geographical imbalance of health services following the equity principle. Such a comprehensive approach is not mentioned in this key issue. Health professionals at all levels and field officers working at local level also commented here that participation and public awareness were important to improve quality in the private sector. According to a health professionals at district level “ there are rules and regulations, however, in practice, there is no governmental control on the manufacture, sale, distribution, efficacy and quality of drugs particularly in the private sector. Furthermore, practitioners in the private sector particularly quacks (traditional healers) hardly care for the standardized procedures, rules and regulations”. A representative of a 45

CHAPTER 3 professional organization added in his interview “traditional healers and unqualified practitioners prescribe allopathic medicines and advertise their practices by using the terms such as clinic, polyclinic, surgery center, and hospital. They also openly use the prestigious professional titles such as Dr., Professor, and Professor Dr. with their names in advertising their practices”. The eighth key area of the NHP 2001 underlines the importance of mass awareness in public health matters and intends to increase funding for the ongoing health education campaign, training family planning workers and Primary Health Care workers and seminars for the elected members of the local councils. These indeed are basic requirements for participation in health policy processes at all levels. Interviewees particularly representatives of the international organizations, health professionals at provincial and local level and field believed that these steps intended by the government are positive in creating awareness and stimulating participation but no plans are formulated to involve citizen. But they expressed their concerns about the realization of these plans. Among others they stated that government needs to decentralize health system in order to create a space for wider participation. According to a health professional working in an international organization “government needs to decentralize health system in order to create a space for wider because thinking of wider participation in a highly centralized health system seems a rhetoric not a reality”. According to interviewees, especially professionals at provincial and district level and international representatives, there is need to involve other health-related departments, organizations, professionals, media, and communities in the health education campaigns and this is lacking in the NHP 2001. An elected representative at district level stated“ In creating awareness government need to introduce public health related programs upon TV and should provide free TV sets to community centers and youth centers in the rural areas where people can watch healthy TV programs and films. It can create not only mass awareness but also help in providing a positive recreation to the youth that will certainly keep them away from unhealthy practices such as smoking, drug abuse, crime and violence.” As mentioned before, this point is not ‘recognized by managers at provincial and district level due to their positions and attitudes that mostly support the governmental view and actions. The ninth key area of the NHP 2001 intends to improve the performance of the drug sector and to ensure the availability, affordability and quality of drugs by initiating several policy interventions. Most of the interviewees at all levels believe the said key area will certainly help in improving the performance of the drug sector in the country. However, to ensure availability, accessibility and quality of drugs there is a need to develop wider participation and collaboration with other sectors, professionals, community and its representatives as expressed by the representatives of the international organizations, professional organizations and all the actors at provincial and district level. According to a representative of a professional organization “Centralization and lack of wider participation leads to corruption in the health sector. Consequently health services suffer from quality and people do not trust governmental health services”. Civil servants at federal level oppose wider participation because they believe that it may weaken the strength of the administrative and legal measures that are taken to improve the quality of drug. Furthermore, they believe that wider participation may increase the chances of corruption in the drug sector. The tenth key area of the policy states to build the capacity of the Ministry of Health by creating a research unit in the ministry, expanding the Health Management Information System (HMIS) in all the districts and initiating a Disease Early Warning System. These plans 46

CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA may be seen as important prerequisites for quality control and monitoring developments. They improve the health policy infrastructure. Most of the interviewees were aware of these plans and indeed judge these positively. However, health professionals at provincial and district level commented that the planned research unit has been envisaged for medical research and not the public health. They also believe that the planned expansion of the HMIS has been narrowly focused upon the information related to the incidence of infectious diseases and their clinical treatment based upon biomedicine and not the public health. A health professional working at provincial level disclosed, “ The research unit and HMIS do not provide reliable data and information regarding health problems such as HIV/AIDS, accidents, road traffic accidents and drug abuse in the country. Furthermore, disease early warning system in districts has still not been introduced”.

Discussion
Policy makers in Pakistan have stated that the new health policy, formulated in NHP 2001, provides an overall national vision for the Health Sector based on HFA approach. Indeed , within various key areas the principles of equity (like 2, 4, 5, 6), participation (like 1, 8) and collaboration (like 3, 7, 9) are directly formulated or indirectly present (or might be expected to be an underlying consideration). But most interviewees did not share such a view. Many of them believed that the NHP 2001 does not meet the principles of new public health and HFA. The need to develop a comprehensive health policy has been argued at various international conferences upon new public health and health promotion. For example, the Ottawa Charter (1986), passed at the first international conference upon health promotion, identifies five essential actions areas of health promotion: to build healthy public policy, to create supportive environments, to develop personal skills, to strengthen community action, and to reorient health services (WHO, 1986). These five action areas are mutually interdependent in preventing disease and promoting health in accordance with HFA mission. However, it is fundamentally a health policy that establishes the basic context that makes the other four possible (de Leeuw, 1989; WHO, 1986). As we have shown in the content analysis and through the interviews, this interdependency is absent in the NHP 2001. The NHP 2001 is a fragmented ten point action plan. In the NHP 2001 important determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle have not been explored enough in developing policy interventions. For example, the first key area of NHP 2001 intends to reduce widespread of communicable diseases but does not consider the importance of paying attention to environment and lifestyles in combating disease. Environmental degradation results in various health hazards but the policy neither offers any intervention to address the environmental degradation nor to protect the environment as observed by the interviewees. Similarly, unhealthy lifestyle that is a source of many health problems has been ignored by the policy document. The policymakers have neglected (or only paid scant attention to) the important principles of HFA such as equity, participation and collaboration. The second, fourth, fifth and sixth key areas of the policy intend to address the problems of inadequacies and inequalities seem to address equity, but its meaning is restricted. According to HFA, equity refers not only to the provision of material resources on equitable basis but also assuring enough power and status to the people (Conley, 2001; WHO, 1997a; 1997b; 1997c). Furthermore, HFA advocates for social and economic equity as means of promoting

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CHAPTER 3 health because social, economic, regional and professional inequalities reflect health inequalities (Conley, 2001; WHO, 1997a; 1997b). The NHP 2001 has considered a limited view of equity and has interpreted thorough the availability of health care services on the basis of biomedical model of health rather than HFA. The HFA strategy demands participation in order to make the health programs, strategies and services to meet the needs of the population, to be more effective and health as well as development policies more sustained. The NHP 2001 has not considered wider participation in its plans, as was stated by many interviewees. It is understandable that respondents at district level frequently give such comments, because they experience a large gap between the policy document intentions and daily practice. The policy has also not paid attention to the importance of decentralizing the existing health system in order to create a space for participation from health organizations, NGOs, professional groups, the media and the community. The NHP 2001 offered only limited participation in specific health programs as discussed earlier. NHP 2001 has not offered any intervention to develop collaboration in order to ensure effective linkages between ministries, other sectors, groups, organizations, actors, and communities to achieve the comprehensive goals of the HFA. This problem is strangely not recognized frequently at provincial level. An explanation may be that especially managers/civil servants at provincial level feel themselves at a higher hierarchical position and status that is only answerable to higher level and not necessarily so concerned with local level. In the absence of a collaborative system, the Ministry of Health can neither develop a partnership nor cooperate with other sectors and agencies in combating health problems and promoting health. In combating new health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, crime and violence, drug addiction (including tobacco use), suicide and mental health, the Ministry of Health needs to develop collaboration with other sectors. For example, the problem of HIV/AIDS can be addressed more affectively by involving the media, health-related ministries and departments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and communities. Collaboration can also address the problem of gender discrimination and violence against women. A majority of women in the country have no access to sanitation and other basic facilities (HRCP, 2004; Khan, et al, 2005b). There are repeated incidences of various forms of violence against women in the country such as domestic violence, stove burning, sexual harassment, rape, and child sexual abuse as stated by the interviewees. Denial of sexual and reproductive rights causes thousands of deaths, illness and disability every year in Pakistan (HRCP, 2004; Khan, et al, 2005b). It is important to collaborate with the other sectors such as education, law and justice and ministry of interior in addressing not only the problem of gender discrimination and violence against women but also to combat drug abuse, control use of tobacco and accidents. Disease prevention and health promotion according to HFA demands production of an effective human resource for health with an appropriate training of public health and health promotion. Although the NHP 2001 intends to improve the infrastructure concerning information (key area 10) and quality control (key areas 7 and 9) no investments are proposed to build partnerships by working across multidisciplinary boundaries and by involving stakeholders from health related sectors in order to improve health and life conditions. Pakistan lacks opportunities for public health training to upgrade the knowledge and skill of the human resource for health in accordance with HFA mission.

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CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA We conclude that the content of NHP 2001 does not mirror in many respects the comprehensive mission of HFA in order to assure quality, to prevent disease and to promote health. The NHP 2001 still tends to emphasize curative care and institutional facilities for the delivery of health care services. It is recommended that the health authorities in Pakistan reformulate the national health policy by paying attention not only to delivery of health care services but also other determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle by following the principles of HFA with clear targets, concrete plans and feasible implementation instruments. Such a comprehensive health policy considering all-important determinants of health in accordance with HFA needs to follow a multi-sectoral approach by ensuring wider participation and collaboration with all health related actors, sectors, NGOs and communities in preventing disease and promoting health. Collaboration between the Ministry of Health and the Ministries of Housing and Works in executing their tenders and assuring the availability of safe water and sanitation is particularly recommended for disease prevention and health promotion. It is also recommended to develop the collaboration between the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Local Government to build basic health units, rural health centers and handing them over to the Ministry of Health for their functioning within the specific time frame without any delay. The Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Interior Affairs together may address the causes of risky behaviors such as smoking, drug abuse, negligent driving, low quality of roads and faulty vehicles by collecting important data, analyzing factors and finding ways to control smoking, drug abuse and number of accidents. Such collaboration and a wider participation is important for the programs of disease prevention and health promotion. Participation from communities, their leaders and religious groups is particularly recommended to build awareness, develop healthy lifestyles and to protect environment in accordance with the principles of HFA.

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CHAPTER 3

References
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CONTENT ANALYSIS: HFA
Pakistan (2001). National Health Policy 2001, The Way Forward: Agenda for Health Sector Reform. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (1998). Report on Social Action Program for Pakistan Development Forum 1998-1999. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Planning Commission. Starfield, B. (2001). Improving Equity in Health: a Research Agenda. Health Services Planning, Administration Evaluation. 31(3):545-566. WHO (1986a). Ottawa Charter For Health Promotion, 1986. Geneva. World Health Organization. WHO (1986b). Health Promotion. Concepts and Principles in Action. A Policy Framework. Copenhagen. World Health Organization. WHO (2000). Fifth Global Conference for Health Promotion Health Promotion: Bridging The Equity Gap Mexico 5 - 9 June 2000. World Health Organization. WHO (1997). Fourth International Conference on Health Promotion (4ICHP) "New Partners for a New Era Leading Health Promotion into the 21st Century", Jakarta, Indonesia, 21-25 July. World Health Organization. WHO (1997). Health For All. HFA Policy. Geneva. World Health Organization. WHO (1997). Inter-sectoral Action for Health: A Cornerstone for Health-for-All in the Twenty-first Century. Report of the International Conference, 20-23 April, 1997 Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Geneva. World Health Organization. WHO (1998). Health for All Renewal: Building Sustainable Health Systems-From Policy to Action. Geneva. World Health Organization. World Bank (2005). World Bank Development Report 2005. Oxford. Oxford University Press.

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CONTENT ANALYSIS: HEALTH PROBLEMS

4
Behavioral and Environmental Health Problems in Pakistan

Chapter 4 Content Analysis: Health Problems

Muhammad Mushtaq Khan, Jitse P. van Dijk and Wim van den Heuvel Health Policy, submitted.

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CHAPTER 4

Abstract
This article describes increasing health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, and drug addiction in Pakistan. It highlights the incidence and contributing factors to these health problems. The analysis shows that socio-cultural, environmental and infrastructural factors are directly and indirectly responsible for the spread of these problems. The article particularly discusses how far the National Health Policy (NHP) 2001 of Pakistan has responded to these problems. It is concluded that in formulating NHP 2001, the policy makers have ignored the variety of complex, complicated and interwoven causes of the mentioned health problems and have ultimately failed to develop appropriate, effective and feasible policy interventions to prevent disease and promote health. The article suggests that Pakistan needs to upgrade its national health policy by introducing policy interventions that can address complex, complicated and interwoven causes of behavioral and environmental health problems by considering all important determinants of health in accordance with Health For All (HFA) strategy. Key words: Health Policy, health problems, policy interventions, HFA

Introduction
Compared to its neighboring countries, Pakistan’s major health indicator such as life expectancy is lower, and the related health indicators like infant mortality and mortality under-five are higher. Furthermore, health conditions are poor in Pakistan (Pakistan, 1995; 2000; 2005; World Bank, 2005). Infectious diseases (malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhea etc) are uncontrolled; furthermore behavioral health problems (HIV/AIDS, some cancer types, diabetes, and drug abuse) as well as environmental health problems such as accidents, are constantly increasing (Pakistan, 2004a). Pakistan’s government introduced its first National Health Policy in 1990 in order to solve health problems and improve health conditions (Pakistan, 1990). The government introduced the second National Health Policy in 1997. These policy documents stated that the purpose of formulating a new health policy is to reform the health system, combat health problems and to improve health conditions by paying more attention to prevention of disease and promotion of health in accordance with the principles of public health (Pakistan, 1990; 1997) The present government declared the third National Health Policy (NHP) in 2001. NHP 2001 has stated that the basic purpose of formulating a new health policy is to address health problems by following comprehensive strategies of disease prevention and health promotion in accordance with the World Health Organization’s Health For All (HFA) strategy. The HFA intends to attain a level of health that will permit all people to lead socially and economically productive lives. It also aims to enable people to protect their environment to attain a healthy lifestyle in order to prevent disease and promote health (WHO, 1997a). The HFA is a comprehensive concept that creates awareness in understanding that the biomedical model of health can not provide proper solutions to the industrial, social and environmental causes of new health problems. So, HFA argues that health policies need to pay attention not only upon health care services but also to the socio-cultural, economic and environmental determinants of health (Brener, 1997; Hancock, 1986; Lalonde, 1974; Naido & Wills, 2000).

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CONTENT ANALYSIS: HEALTH PROBLEMS According to HFA behavioral or lifestyle factors include the aggregation of decisions by individuals which affect their health and over which they have more or less control. Personal decisions and habits may deteriorate health and create self-imposed risks. Environmental factors include all those matters related to health which are external to the human body and over which the individuals have little or no control. Individuals cannot by themselves ensure that food, drugs, cosmetics, devices, water and noise pollution are controlled; that the spread of communicable diseases is prevented; that effective garbage and sewage disposal is carried out; and that social environment, including the rapid changes in it, do not have harmful effects on health (de Leeuw, 2000; Kickbusch & de Leeuw, 1999; WHO, 1997a; 1997b; 1998a). The infrastructural factors relate to health care system. It includes medical practice, nursing, hospitals, nursing homes, medical drugs, public and community health care services, ambulances, dental treatment and other health services such as optometry, chiropractic and pediatrics. This article aims to analyze how the NHP 2001 has addressed specific health problems in accordance with the comprehensive strategy of HFA. The article describes the prevalence of diseases and health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, and drug abuse in relation to determining factors of the mentioned health problems such as behavioral, environmental and infra-structural factors. From the selected diseases and health problems it is analyzed which behavioral, environmental and infrastructural factors play a role in the increase of these problems. The article discusses how the NHP 2001 theoretically has addressed these health problems.

Methods
To analyze the National Health Policy 2001 of Pakistan qualitative research methods have been used. These methods include document analysis and interviews of important actors/stakeholders involved in the health policy process in the country. Health data, describing HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, and drug addiction have been collected from policy documents, health reports and scientific literature from various sources including the Federal Ministry of Health, provincial health ministries, health departments and offices of the health related international agencies. The reviewed policy documents include: reports of the medical reform commissions and health study groups, Peoples Health Schemes 1972 and three national health policies. The governmental reports and documents include the evaluation reports of the Ministry of Health, annual plans, economic surveys manuals for health projects, and reports of the social action program prepared by the Planning and Development Division, Islamabad. International reports include Human Development Reports of the UNDP, World Health Reports of the World Health Organization, UNAIDS Reports, USAIDS Reports, UNDP Reports and UNDCP Reports. Behavioral, environmental determinants and infrastructural factors of the selected health problems have been derived from the national reports, from international health reports and scientific studies. However, reliable data showing exact figures of all the health problems are not always available. In the case of accidents underreporting and reporting errors are frequent in the country. Policy interventions addressing health problems have been derived from policy documents particularly from the National Health Policy (NHP) 2001 of Pakistan. These policy documents narrate how policy interventions intend to address behavioral, environmental and infra-structural health problems in the country.

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CHAPTER 4 Besides the document analysis, open-ended interviews of one hundred forty four actors involved in the health policy process at the district (local), provincial and federal level were conducted in Islamabad, Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta, Rawalpindi and Abbottabad during 2003-04. These interviewees included representatives of international organizations (WHO, The Word Bank and UNDP), elected representatives related to the Ministry of health and other health related ministries, policy makers, civil servants, heath professionals, health managers and representatives of health-related NGOs as well as associations including Pakistan Medical Association, Pakistan Medical and Dental Council and Public Health Association of Pakistan. The interviewees were visited in their offices, homes and public places. Interviewees were assured anonymity of their whereabouts particularly to those who work within ministries and other governmental departments. These interviewees were asked about their opinions and experiences concerning the behavioral and environmental health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents and drug and how the NHP 2001 has addressed these problems. The content of the interviewees were analyzed by categorizing their opinions and experiences about the said health problems. It is analyzed how the NHP 2001 has considered these health problems and how policy interventions intend to address behavioral, environmental and infra-structural health problems in the country

Health Problems
Health indicators such as life expectancy, infant mortality and mortality under-five show that health conditions in Pakistan are under the average as compared to other neighboring countries in the South Asian region as shown in the Table 1. Because of its long lasting history of war Afghanistan, having the worst health data, is left out of the table.
Table 1. Health Indicators in the South Asian Region 1995-2005 Country Life Expectancy Infant Mortality Rate per 1000 2005 62 63 69 64 74 66.4 1995 81 70 41 86 18 59.2 2000 60 69 35 83 15 52.44 2005 46 63 30 74 13 45.2 Mortality Rate Under-five per 1000 1995 122 122 56 137 21 91.6 2000 82 88 47 110 17.9 68.92 2005 69 87 41 98 15 62

1995 Bangladesh India Iran Pakistan Sri Lanka Average 57 62 67 62 72 64

2000 61 63 68 63 73.1 65.62

Source: CIA, 2005; Pakistan, 1995; Pakistan, 2000; Pakistan, 2005; World Bank, 2005.

Table 2. indicates that Pakistan has been improving its health indicators, however, the achievement record as compared to other neighboring countries in still low. For example, Bangladesh improved life expectancy from 57 to 62, lowered its infant mortality rate from 81 to 46 and mortality under five from 122 to 69 during 1995-2005. Whereas Pakistan during the same period improved life expectancy from 62 to 64, lowered its infant mortality rate from 86 to 76 and mortality under five from 137 to 98.

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HIV/AIDS
In Pakistan, HIV was first detected in 1987 (Baqi et al., 1999; Khanani et al., 1988) and since then the number of cases has been increasing (Hyder & Khan, 1998; National Institute of Health, 1998). Due to inadequate information management systems and unreliable data, it is very difficult to determine the exact picture of HIV/AIDS in the country as indicated by interviewees particularly representatives of international organizations and health professionals working at federal provincial and local level. According to governmental documents 2197 HIV cases and 246 AIDS cases were reported in 2003 (Pakistan, 2004b) and till September 2004 the total number of reported cases of HIV was 2612 and AIDS 350 (Pakistan, 2005). According to other sources there are about 80,000 HIV/AIDS infected persons in Pakistan (CHI, 2005; UNAIDS, 2004; USAID, 2005). During interviews representatives of international and professional organizations and health professionals working at provincial level added that the said figure of 80,000 for HIV/AIDS infected persons provided by UNAIDS and USAIDS could be considered more reliable than the governmental figures. The male/female ratio among known HIV/AIDS cases is 5 to 1. This figure may be different due to socio-cultural taboos according to which women are less likely to be tested (Hyder & Khan, 1998; Hyder et al., 1999; Kayani et al, 1994). The risk factors for HIV/AIDS in Pakistan include lack of awareness, illiteracy, unsafe sex, drug addiction, low level of condom use, unsafe blood transfusion, shared needles, exploitation of women and lack of access to health care systems (Baqi et al., 1998; Baqi et al., 1999; Haque et al., 2004; UNAIDS, 2004; UNDP, 2004; USAIDS, 2005). Interviewees particularly health professionals at all levels expressed a similar view regarding the risk factors of HIV/AIDS in the country. According to UNDP gender inequalities, restrictions on the mobility of women to obtain access to health and social services, restricted decision-making power, lack of skill and incapability to negotiate with their partners for safer sexual practices contribute to women’s HIV vulnerability (UNDP, 2004). There are no specific regions that can be identified with a high or low incidence of HIV/AIDS. However, the identified risk factors indicate that poor people living in the urban areas can be more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS.

Cancer
There are no population-based cancer registries except the Karachi Cancer Registry (KCR). Consequently, the true magnitude of cancer and its determinants in specific regions is therefore unknown (Malik, 2003), although a lot can be studied with one regional Registry. More than 328,000 cancer patients during the year 2003-04 and 340, 000 cancer patients during 2004-05 attended the medical centers and hospitals according to governmental documents (Pakistan, 2004b; 2005). The most frequent type of cancer is lung cancer, clearly having a behavioral origin. Colorectal cancer is the second common cancer in Pakistan like many other countries (Asghar, 2003). Common tumors are those of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, bone, skin, breast, cervix, ovary, and uterus (Bhurgri et al., 2000; Malik, 2003; Rashid et al, 2005). Interviewees particularly health professionals at all levels expressed a similar view regarding the types of cancer in the country. In women, breast cancer is the most common cancer throughout Pakistan with the agestandardized rate of 56.6 per 100,000 women per year. In men, lung cancer is the most common cancer (Asghar, 2003; Malik, 2003). Gall bladder cancer is the fifth most common cancer in the female population and contributing factors to it include gallstones, diet, infections

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CHAPTER 4 and a sedentary lifestyle in this group of patients (Asghar, 2003; Malik, 2003). The major factors responsible for cancer in Pakistan include behavioral factors such as the use of tobacco, pan (a local chewing product), and diet, and furthermore environmental factors, such as occupational exposure to diesel exhaust, and infectious agents (Bhurgri et al., 2000; Elahi et al, 2005; Jaffarey, 1997). Health professionals at all levels mentioned the similar risk factors of cancer. Facilities for treatment of cancer patients are available in a few larger cities in both public and private hospitals. There are 18 radiotherapy centers with 65 practicing radiation oncologists and 15 medical oncologists practicing in major cities. (Pakistan, 2005). The quality of these centers is extremely variable depending on the expertise of the physician and available equipment. State-of-the-art surgical oncology is practiced in only a few hospitals as indicated by the representatives of international and professionals organizations as well as health professionals at all levels during their interviews. As a result, the majority of patients undergo sub-optimal surgery (Asghar, 2003). Facilities for early diagnosis and institutional arrangements for mass education in combating cancer do not exist in the country (Elahi et al, 2005; Rashid et al, 2005). Furthermore, cancer treatment is so expensive that the majority of the patients cannot afford to pay for it as indicated by most of the interviews at all levels. Good quality hospital care is available to the affluent class, from the private sector (Asghar, 2003; Malik, 2003). For example, colonoscopy is being practiced in a few big cities of Pakistan and is not found in all parts of the country (Asghar, 2003). As a consequence, use of traditional medicine remains high among cancer patients in the country, although patients’ perceptions of the overall effectiveness of traditional medicines for treating cancer are low (Asghar, 2003; Malik, 2003; Philip et al, 2005).

Diabetes
According to Aga Khan University, Pakistan is amongst the 10 countries in the world that are most affected by diabetes; six of these countries are Asian. (AKU, 2005). Diabetes is constantly increasing and many patients are not aware of the problem like many other countries (Jawaid & Jaffery, 2003; Jawad, 2003). 12% of the inhabitants above 25 years of age is suffering from diabetes and another 10% has an impaired glucose tolerance (Jawad, 2003). The type of diabetes mellitus is mainly non-insulin dependent and is, as well as its complications, found more in elderly population and it is more common in females and in the poor parts of the population. (Jawaid & Jaffery, 2003). As behavioral factors, the unhealthy dietary habits, lack of physical exercise and obesity contribute to the high prevalence of diabetes. (Akhtar, 1999; Basit et al, 2002; Jawad, 2003; Khan et al, 1991). According to a study among the diabetes patients, as a consequence of the not-optimal blood glucose regulation, eye damage (retinopathy) affected 43% of the people, kidney disease (nephropathy) 20%, and nerve damage (neuropathy) 40% (Jawad, 2003). The prevalence of diabetes is increasing but supply of its care is not sufficient (Basit et al, 2002; Jawaid & Jaffery, 2003; Jawad, 2003). During interviews representatives of professionals organizations and NGOs as well as health professionals at all levels express the similar view regarding the types of diabetes, risk factors and age groups of patients.

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Accidents
Accidents, poisoning, violence, and occupational accidents form the eleventh most common cause of death in Pakistan (Pakistan, 2003). Deaths and injuries caused by accidents at home, in the workplace, industries, mines, warehouses, and traffic are increasing in the country (Ghaffar et al, 2004; Qureshi et al, 2004). There are problems of underreporting, absence of information management systems, and reporting errors that resulted not only into the absence of the number of accidents but also into the absence of reliable information about deaths, disabilities and injuries due to accidents (Ghaffar et al., 1999; Norton & Matlin, 2004; Razzak, 2005; Razzak & Luby, 1998). Accidents in the workplace are also common, but are likely to be reported only when compensation is expected (Ghaffar et al., 2004; Qureshi et al, 2004). Growing number of morbidity, mortality and disability due to accidents particularly among the youth portends a challenge for the national health system and a huge burden on the economy as well as on the society (Ghaffar et al., 2004; Norton & Matlin, 2004; Razzak, 2005). Interviewees particularly representatives of international and professionals organizations as well as health professionals at all levels expressed the similar concern about increasing number of accidents and its impact upon health system as well as economy. In case of Road Traffic Accidents (RTAs) data are collected from hospitals and police records. Such data are not reliable and lack basic information such as numbers of deaths, disabilities, location, date, time, type of vehicle, quality of road, health conditions of the drivers, and other aspects (Ghaffar et al., 1999; Razzak, 2005; Razzak & Luby, 1998). Interviewees particularly representatives of international and professionals organizations as well as health professionals at all levels expressed a similar view about the said problems of RTAs data. Police records only the severe injuries and deaths that occurred at the crash scene. People who die on their way to hospital, or a later stage, are not registered by the police (Razzak & Luby, 1998; Qureshi et al., 2004). Unpaved roads, poor quality of paved roads, lack of signposts, lane markings, zebra crossings, footpaths, health conditions of the drivers, faulty vehicles, neglect of safety and traffic rules, unhealthy behavior and lack of awareness are the common causes of accidents (Ghaffar et al.,1999; Razzak, 2005; Razzak & Luby, 1998; Qureshi et al., 2004).

Drug Abuse
It is estimated that approximately 20% of Pakistan’s population has been involved in drug abuse, possession of drugs and other drug related offences (UNDCP, 2002; UNDCP, 2003). Tranquillizers, heroin, alcohol, charas (hashish), bang (marijuana), opium and other pharmaceutical or illegal substances are the common drugs used by the addicts (Emmanuel et al., 2004; Shah et al., 2004; UNDCP, 2000; UNDCP, 2003). Tranquillizers, heroin, alcohol, and charas are the most prevalent drug abuse in the country (UNDCP, 2000; UNDCP, 2003). The governmental assessment shows that there are about 500,000 chronic heroin users including 60,000 drug injectors in the age group of 15-45. Among these drug users 40% heroin users fall in the age group of 25-34 (Pakistan, 2005). Many studies have indicated that use of high purity heroin and its related complications have caused several deaths among drug users (Agha et al., 2003; Mufti et al., 2004; Shah et al., 2004; UNDCP, 2002). The addiction to hashish, marijuana and opium, is also posing serious health problems (Agha et al., 2003; Emmanuel et al., 2004; Shah et al., 2004). The problem of drug abuse is also increasing among women.

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CHAPTER 4

A number of behavioral factors such as own lifestyle and lack of awareness, environmental factors such as unemployment, poverty, income disparities, and infra-structural factors such as lack of recreational opportunities and urbanization are known to be linked to drug abuse but as yet, little is known about the relationship of these factors to drug abuse problems in Pakistan (UNDCP, 2002; 2003). During interviews representatives of international and professionals organizations as well as health professionals at all levels expressed the similar view about the behavioral factors responsible for drug abuse. According to the said interviewees, no ongoing surveillance information is available to monitor trend over time of drug abuse in the country. For example, drug related overdoses or deaths are not recorded in the country nor is there a centralized register on the behavior of treatment attendees (UNDCP, 2000; 2002). Drug problem in Pakistan has a potential to increase rapidly and can seriously affect the population particularly the youth (UNDCP, 2002; 2003). Most of interviewees also expressed that the problem of drug abuse is increasing and affecting mostly the youth. The results of this section are summarized in Table 2 showing the behavioral, environmental and infrastructural factors of selected health problems in Pakistan.
Table 2. Health Problems their Prevalence and Causing Factors in Pakistan Health Problem HIV/AIDS Prevalence Behavioral Factors unsafe sex, drug abuse, shared needles tobacco, malnutrition unhealthy diet, obesity, lack of mobility, lack of physical exercise neglect of safety & traffic rules, unhealthy behavior youth, smoking, drug abuse Environmental (physical, socio-cultural and economic) Factors lack of awareness, illiteracy, socio-cultural norms, governmental attitude environmental hazards, lack of awareness, poverty lack of awareness, socio-cultural norms Infra-structural Factors

80,000

lack of health care services, unsafe blood transfusion

Cancer

340,000

Diabetes

Accidents

Drug Abuse

the 10th most affected country in the world reliable data is not available 20% of the population is involved

lack of diagnostic and treatment facilities, delayed treatment lack of facilities for checking glucose, lack of facilities for physical exercise faulty vehicles, low quality of roads, lack of traffic signs lack of recreational opportunities, urbanization, governmental attitude

lack of awareness, corruption, governmental attitude lack of awareness, unemployment, poverty, income disparities

Source: AKU, 2005; HRCP, 2004; Human Rights Watch, 2005; Pakistan, 2005; UNAIDS, 2004; USAID, 2005.

Discussion
Data indicate that the selected health problems are indeed growing problems and may pose a threat to the health of the population. As shown in the table 2., behavioral, environmental and infra-structural factors are directly and indirectly contributing to the prevalence of HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents and drug abuse. Since the determinants of the mentioned health problems are numerous, complex and interdependent it should not make sense to treat a wide range of health conditions in a reductionist way, attributing only one cause (be it for instance, 60

CONTENT ANALYSIS: HEALTH PROBLEMS a bacteria) to a health problem. Combating these problems needs a comprehensive strategy that can prevent disease and promote health by paying attention to all-important determinants of health (de Leeuw, 2000; Kickbusch & de Leeuw, 1999; WHO, 1997a; 1997b; 1998a). WHO argues that its member countries should either formulate new health policies or upgrade the existing policies in accordance with HFA in order to address health problems not only by considering health care services but also other determinants of health including behavior (lifestyle) and environment in accordance with HFA (Brener, 1979; WHO, 1997b; 1997c, 1998a). The present government of Pakistan acknowledged the need for a comprehensive health policy and declared third National Health Policy (NHP) 2001. The policy makers have stated that the basic purpose of formulating the NHP 2001 is to address new health problems by following the comprehensive principles of disease prevention and health promotion in accordance with HFA strategy (Pakistan, 2001). So, the NHP 2001 is expected to offer comprehensive strategies of disease prevention and health promotion in addressing health problems. The NHP offers several interventions in order to reduce widespread prevalence of communicable diseases, to address health care inadequacies, to remove professional deficiencies, to promote gender equity, to bridge nutrition gaps, to introduce regulation, to create awareness, to improve drug sector and to reform health monitoring (Pakistan, 2001). However, most of the policy interventions are focused upon increasing health care services in accordance with biomedical model of health rather than comprehensive principles of HFA. For example, in its first key area the NHP 2001 states to reduce the widespread prevalence of communicable diseases such as TB, malaria, hepatitis B and HIV/AIDS by increasing the coverage of immunization. Indeed, immunization is important in combating disease, however, in case of HIV/AIDS, cancer and diabetes immunization cannot control these health problems. The increasing number of HIV/AIDS and presence of its causing factors such as lack of awareness, illiteracy, unsafe sex, drug addiction, low level of condom use, unsafe blood transfusion, shared needles, exploitation of women and lack of access to health care systems (Baqi et al., 1998; Baqi et al., 1999; Haque et al., 2004; UNAIDS, 2004) manifest that HIV/AIDS is a serious threat in Pakistan. Despite this evidence, NHP 2001 does not offer appropriate strategies to combat the problem of HIV/AIDS. Policy interventions offered by the NHP neither address causing factors of HIV/AIDS nor intend to develop healthy lifestyles and improve infra-structural facilities in order to prevent HIV/AIDS as disclosed by interviews particularly representatives of international organizations and professional organizations and health professionals working at provincial level. NHP 2001 indeed considered cancer a serious health problem and offered various policy interventions. However, these interventions are mainly focused upon the treatment of cancer patients and treatment facilities are accessible only to the privileged as discussed earlier. Most of the interviewees also expressed a similar view about the expensive treatment and its accessibility only to rich people. The policy document lacks concrete measures of disease prevention and health promotion by addressing the behavioral and environmental factors of cancer such as tobacco use, malnutrition, lack of awareness, lack of education and training, delayed diagnosis and environmental hazards (Elahi et al., 2005; Malik, 2003; Rashid et al., 2005). It is positive that the government has introduced the Prohibition of Smoking Ordinance 2002,

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CHAPTER 4 however, in practice this ordinance is not enforced. This ordinance needs to be enforced particularly at public places as disclosed by most of the interviewees working at all levels. The increasing prevalence of diabetes is a serious problem because it may affect not only the people but also health system for which comprehensive planning focusing upon disease prevention and health promotion need to be initiated as disclosed by the interviewees particularly representatives of international organizations delegated in Pakistan, representatives of professional organizations and NGOs, and health professionals at all levels. In responding to the problem of accidents the NHP 2001 has also not offered any policy intervention that can address increasing number of injuries and deaths due to accidents at homes, workplace, industry and traffic as disclosed by the interviewees particularly representatives of international organizations delegated in Pakistan , representatives of professional organizations and NGOs. In spite of its constant rise the incidence of drug abuse has been ignored by the NHP 2001. Authorities admit that they do not have the capacity to properly deal with the problem of drug addicts (UNDCP, 2002; 2003). Most of the measures and actions taken against drug abuse are based upon the legal model that focuses upon increasing punishments to the drug traffickers and addicts as disclosed by the interviewees particularly representatives of international organizations delegated in Pakistan, representatives of professional organizations and NGOs, and health professionals at provincial level. Overall, drug addicts have little access to effective treatment. With a few exceptions the services provided by government-run drug treatment facilities are limited. Specialist training in the management of substance misuse problems is rare (UNDCP, 2000; 2002). There are very few private clinics offering comprehensive treatment packages including rehabilitation and social re-integration services. However, these facilities in the private sector are so expensive that they are beyond access for most of the addicts and their families (UNDCP, 2002). It may be concluded that behavioral factors and environmental factors contributing to health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents and drug abuse are indeed a priority health problem in Pakistan. However, the NHP 2001 has ignored the variety of complex, complicated and interwoven causes of these health problems and has ultimately failed to develop comprehensive, appropriate and effective policy interventions to prevent disease and promote health in accordance with HFA. According to a representatives of international organization delegated in Pakistan “ the NHP 2001 has stated that the new health policy intends to reform health sector by following the vision of HFA, however, its main focus is mostly upon the delivery of health care services by following the biomedicine and not disease prevention and health promotion in accordance with HFA.” It is evident that without a comprehensive and appropriate policy approach health problems will aggravate in the country. Pakistan needs to reformulate its national health policy by introducing policy interventions that can address complex, complicated and interwoven causes of behavioral and environmental health problems by considering not only the health services but also other important determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle in accordance with the principles of HFA as believed by the interviewees particularly representatives of international organizations delegated in Pakistan, representatives of professional organizations and NGOs, and health professionals at provincial level. During interviews 75% of the interviewees expressed their concern about the lifestyle and 69% about environment and recommended that these two 62

CONTENT ANALYSIS: HEALTH PROBLEMS important determinants of health need to considered by the policy makers in reformulating the national health policy. In addressing HIV/AIDS health authorities need to offer policy intervention that can assure a collaboration among health ministries, departments, academic institutes, religious leaders, local leaders, NGOs and community elders in addressing risk factors of HIV/AIDS and in developing healthy lifestyles as recommended by interviewees. Such a participation and collaboration can initiate HIV/AIDS awareness campaigns that can be socio-culturally desirable and technically feasible as believed by most of the interviewees. Interviewees also added that in collaboration with these individuals and groups awareness can be created particularly among youth and risk groups can be targeted effectively. Such a collaboration and participation can avoid unsafe sex, shared needles, drug abuse and unsafe blood transfusion as disclosed by the interviewees. According to representatives of professional organizations and health professionals at provincial and local level the country has a network of lady health workers, family planning workers, and community health workers that deliver health care services and family planning services. This network can be improved and upgraded in order to play a role in preventing HIV/AIDS as believed by interviewees. In controlling and preventing cancer health policy needs to offer policy interventions that can help in developing institutional arrangements at all levels in order to develop a wider participation and collaboration among health and other health related sectors, NGOs, community leaders, religious leaders, and communities in order to create mass awareness against health risks of using tobacco and to control smoking in public places particularly in public transport, workplaces, academic institutions and hospitals as disclosed by the interviewees particularly representatives of international organizations delegated in Pakistan , representatives of professional organizations and NGOs, and health professionals at local level. These interviewees believe that decentralization of health system, wider community participation and collaboration can help in developing healthy lifestyles, protecting environment and improving treatment as well as diagnosis facilities. According to a representative of a professional organization “generally, health programs such as nutrition, immunization and mother child health are neither decentralized nor offer any space for wider participation. Consequently, people can not find any place to participate and to play their role in these programs.” Wider participation and collaboration is important in creating mass awareness about diabetes, early diagnosis, assuring effective treatment and developing healthy lifestyle as recommended by the interviewees. Furthermore, policy makers need to introduce policy interventions that can assure availability and accessibility of facilities for physical sports, exercise and fitness to people particularly the youth. It is also important to assure the availability of sugar free food items in market as recommended by the interviewees. In most of the developed world, now nurses are playing an important role in the care of diabetics. A diabetic nurse can prove to be a common thread between various members of the diabetic care team. Introducing training opportunities to produce diabetic nurses can also be a useful policy intervention. A package of diabetic education can be added in the curriculum of the existing training institutes. Furthermore, short training programs for the nurses working in the hospitals can also be arranged within the hospitals. In controlling accidents health policy makers need to develop comprehensive policy measures that can offer mass awareness about safety measures and assure that safety measures at work, homes and roads are followed particularly by youth. There is also a need to develop a collabo63

CHAPTER 4 ration between health and other development sectors in improving safety conditions at work places, industries and roads as recommended by most of the interviewees. Interviewees also stated that it is important to improve quality of roads, ensuring signposts and lane markings upon roads, introducing footpaths and zebra crossings in order to prevent accidents. Involving law enforcement agencies is also important in inter-sectoral collaboration in order to ensure a regular control system that can keep an eye upon the health conditions of the industrial workers, working conditions at work, drivers, traffic and safety rules, use of seat belts, and healthy behavior of the drivers and pedestrians as believed by the interviewees. In controlling drug abuse health policy makers need to introduce policy measures that can increase the treatment facilities, improve the existing facilities for drug users and to develop health lifestyles in order to combat the drug abuse. It is also important to create mass awareness against drug abuse its health risks, causing factors, types, origin and supply and risk groups through wider participation particularly by media, religious leaders, teachers and community leaders as recommended by interviewees. Most of the interviewees at local level recommended in creating mass awareness health authorities need to introduce public health related programs upon TV and should provide free TV sets to community centers and youth centers in the rural areas where people can watch healthy TV programs and films. It can create not only mass awareness but also help in providing a positive recreation to the youth that will certainly keep them away from unhealthy practices such as smoking, drug abuse, crime and violence.

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References
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Kayani, N. Sheikh, A. & Khan, A. (1994). A View of HIV-1 Infection in Karachi. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association. 44:8-11. Khan, K.S., Rizvi, J.H., Qureshi, R.N., & Mazhar, R. (1991). Gestational Diabetes in Developing Country, Experience of Screening at the Aga Khan University Medical Centre, Karachi. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association. 41(2):31-33. Khanani, R.M., Hafeez, A., Rab, S.M., & Raheed, S. (1988). Human Immunodeficiency Virus-associated Disorders in Pakistan. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses. 4:149-154. Kickbusch, I. & De Leeuw, E. (1999). Global Public health: Revisiting Healthy Public Policy at the Global Level. Health Promotion International. 14(4):285-288. Lalonde, M. (1974). The Health Field Concept. A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians. Ottawa. TRIGraphic Printers. Malik, I.A. (2003). Clinico pathological features and management of gallbladder cancer in Pakistan. Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology.18 (8):950-953. Mufti, K.A., Said, S., Farooq, S., Haroon, A., Nazeer, A., Naeem, S.H.(2004). Five year follow up of 100 heroin addicts in Peshawar. Journal of Ayub Medical College Abbottabad. 16(3):5-9. Naidoo, J,. & Wills, J. (2000). Health Promotion: Foundations for Practice. London. Bailliere Tindall. National Institute of Health (1998). National AIDS Control Program. HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report of March 31. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan. Norton, R., & Matlin, S.A. (2004). The role of health research in the prevention and control of road traffic injuries in South Asia. Journal of College of Physicians & Surgeons Pakistan.14 (12):705-706 Pakistan (1990). National Health Policy 1990. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (1995). Economic Survey 1994-95. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Pakistan (1997). National Health Policy. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (2000). Economic Survey 1999-2000. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Pakistan (2001). National Health Policy 2001 The Way Forward: Agenda for Health Sector Reform. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan. (2003). Statistics of Pakistan 2003. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Federal Bureau of Statistics. Pakistan (2004a). Progress on Agenda for Health Sector Reforms. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (2004b). Economic Survey 2003-2004. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Pakistan (2005). Economic Survey 2004-2005. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Philip, T., Broom, A., Chatwin, J., Hafeez, M., & Ahmad, S. (2005). Patient Assessment of Effectiveness and Satisfaction With Traditional Medicine, Globalized Complementary and Alternative Medicines, and Allopathic Medicines for Cancer in Pakistan. Integrative Cancer Therapies. 4(3):242-248. Qureshi, A.F., Bose, A., & Anjum, Q. (2004). Road Traffic Injuries: A New Agenda for Child Health. Journal of College of Physicians & Surgeons Pakistan. 14 (12):719-721 Rashid, A.K.M.M, Al Mamun A, Ahasan H.A.M., & Rasul, C.H (2005). Leukemia Mimicking Juvenile Rheumatoid Arthritis. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences. 21(1)85-87. Razzak, J.A., & Luby, S.P. (1998). Estimating deaths and injuries due to road traffic accidents in Karachi, Pakistan, through the capture-recapture method. International Journal of Epidemiology. 27(5):866-70. Razzak, J.A. (2005). Ambulance data provides accurate information on road accidents. Karachi. Aga Khan University. Shah, S.A, Altaf, A., Mujeeb, S.A, & Memon A. (2004). An outbreak of HIV infection among injection drug users in a small town in Pakistan: potential for national implications. International Journal of STD & AIDS.15(3):209. UNAIDS (2004) Report on the global AIDS epidemic, Geneva, UNAIDS, 2004 UNDCP (2000). Perspective on Female Drug Abuse in Pakistan. Islamabad. United Nations Drug Control Program Country Office for Pakistan. UN-Pak/UNDCP/2000/2 UNDCP (2002). Drug Abuse in Pakistan. New York. United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime prevention. UNDCP (2003). Drug Demand Reduction Program: Mainstreaming and Drug Abuse Prevention. Islamabad. United Nations Drug Control Program Country Office for Pakistan. UN-Pak/UNDCP/2003/3 UNDP (2004). Human Development Report 2004. New York. United Nations Development Program. USAIDS (2005). HIV/AIDS in Pakistan. Islamabad. USAIDS.

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WHO (1995b). AIDS Fact Sheet: August. Geneva. World Health Organization. WHO (1997a). Fourth International Conference on Health Promotion (4ICHP) "New Partners for a New Era Leading Health Promotion into the 21st Century", Jakarta, Indonesia, 21-25 July. World Health Organization. WHO (1997b). Health For All. HFA Policy. Geneva. World Health Organization. WHO (1998a). Health for All Renewal: Building Sustainable Health Systems-From Policy to Action. Geneva. World Health Organization. WHO (2005). World Health Report 2005. Geneva: World Health Organization. World Bank. (2005). World Bank Development Report 2005. Oxford. Oxford University Press.

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CONTEXT ANALYSIS: POLITICAL

5
The Impact of Political Context upon Health Policy Process in Pakistan
Chapter 5 Context Analysis: Political

Muhammad Mushtaq Khan and Wim Van den Heuvel Public Health, accepted pending revisions 69

CHAPTER 5

Abstract
Analysis of the political context is important to understand health policy and its success because contextual factors may significantly influence health policy process and health. This article describes how the political structure and the policy context in Pakistan influences the health policy process. The article used content analysis based upon documents on policy in Pakistan and data from research reports. Interviews of one hundred and forty-four relevant actors were used to analyze the impact of the political context on the health policy in practice. The country experienced unbalanced power structure and frequent change in governments which caused disruption in health policy formulation, planning and implementation. The political system was centralized which hindered wider participation of citizens. Health care needs were not recognized adequately. It is concluded that the political context has had a negative influence on the health policy process in Pakistan. Key words: Health Policy Analysis: political context, impact, health policy process

Introduction
Context analysis is important to understand health policy and to explain its success since contextual factors significantly influence health policy process (Navarro, 2000, Phillips, et al., 1998; Walt & Gilson, 1994). Health policy context includes political, socio-cultural, economic and demographic domains. Contextual factors such as violent political conflicts, civil war, the distribution of wealth and income, housing, employment, literacy level, corruption, industrialization, aging of the population and rural urban migration may significantly influence the health policy process and health itself. It is therefore also important to pay attention to all such contextual factors in realizing an effective health policy. This article focuses upon the political context (for other contextual factors such as economic, and socio-cultural) see other (Khan et al., 2006) because of the complex contextual analysis. The political context reflects power relationships between various sectors, actors and stakeholders. It influences agenda building, policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation, and deals with the allocation of resources. Factors such as violent political conflicts and civil wars are direct causes of high mortality and morbidity particularly in developing countries (Horton, 1999; Lanjouw et al., 1999; Navarro, 2000; Zwi & Ugalde, 1989). Several studies state that political instability resulting in frequent change of governments, tends to stimulate centralization and threatens accountability, while low priority is given to the welfare sector, allocating minimum resources for the health sector (Khan et al., 2006; Lanjouw et al., 1999; Phillips, et al., 1998; Walt & Gilson, 1994). Even more important, a review of 139 studies found that the complex relationships that occur between individual and contextual variables were largely neglected in studies focusing upon health in developing countries (Navarro, 2000; Phillips, et al., 1998). In many developing countries, the impact of the political context upon the health system and the health of the people is ignored when health policies are analyzed (Phillips, et al., 1998). This article attempts to fill the gap for Pakistan. The article presents an analysis of the political context in which health policy is embedded. The article will first shortly describe the political structure of Pakistan , followed by an analysis on how the political context affects the health policy process. The discussion will comment on these effects and offer some solutions/recommendations.

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CONTEXT ANALYSIS: POLITICAL

Methods
The most important stakeholders involved in the health policy process were identified by document analysis. The document analysis was based upon policy documents, official reports of health ministries, health related departments and international agencies published during 1970-2005. The reviewed policy documents include: reports of the medical reform commissions and health study groups, Peoples Health Schemes 1972 and three national health policies. The governmental reports and documents include evaluation reports of health programs including nutrition programs, immunization programs, Primary Health Care (PHC) and Health For All (HFA) prepared by the Ministry of Health, annual plans, economic surveys manuals for development projects, and reports of the social action program prepared by the Planning and Development Division, Islamabad. International reports include Human Development Report 2004 of the UNDP, World Health Report 2003 and 2004 of the World Health Organization and World Bank’s Development Report of 2004 and 2005. The impact of governance crisis and of the political context upon health policy making, planning and implementation was derived from these documents and from health policy documents particularly the National Health Policy 1990, National Health Policy 1997 and National Health Policy 2001 of the country. Besides the document analysis, open-ended interviews of one hundred and fiftytwo actors involved in the health policy process at the district (local), provincial, federal and international level were conducted in Islamabad, Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta, Rawalpindi, Abbottabad and Geneva in 2004. Of the interviewees one hundred forty four were asked about the impact of political context upon health policy process. Excluded were representatives of international agencies. These interviewees included elected representatives (including current and former health related ministers of the Ministry of Health, The Environment, Local Government & Rural Development), policy makers and civil servants from the Ministry of Health, physicians, public heath professionals, health managers and representatives of health-related NGOs as well as associations including Pakistan Medical Association, Pakistan Medical and Dental Council and Public Health Association of Pakistan. The interviewees were visited in their offices, homes and public places. They were asked about their opinions and experiences concerning the impact of the political context on the health policy process and were invited to speak as open as possible by assuring anonymity of their whereabouts particularly to those who work within ministries and other governmental departments. The content of the interviewees were analyzed by categorizing their experiences, opinions and statements. The used categories are change in governments, financial resources, centralization and accountability, based on the reviewed literature concerning the role of the political context. These four categories were also used in analyzing reports, studies and documents.

The political structure in Pakistan
The total population of Pakistan is 153. 96 million with a population growth rate of 2 percent. The population is denser in the industrialized and agriculturally fertile regions than in the uncultivated areas (Pakistan, 2004). The population is a complex mixture of indigenous people. Pakistan is in general linguistically heterogeneous, and no single language can be said to be common to the whole population. Each province has its own language. However, Urdu is used as a common language for communication in every part of the country. Almost the entire population in Pakistan is Muslim. Hindus, Sikhs, and Christians constitute only 3 percent of

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CHAPTER 5 the population. The current literacy rate is 53 percent; males 66.25 percent, females 41.75 (Pakistan, 2005). After its independence from British in 1947, Pakistan experienced a delay in framing a constitution. The first constitution was promulgated in 1956, which was federal in form and parliamentary in composition. The second constitution was promulgated in 1962; this emphasized a presidential over a parliamentary form of government, referred the entire executive powers to the President, and made him solely responsible for the country’s administration (Mahmood, 2000). In 1973, the first elected National Assembly approved the new constitution. Given the parliamentary democratic system, the Parliament is the most important institution in Pakistan. The Constitution provides two lists for the legislation. One list is called the Federal List and the other is known as the Concurrent Legislative List. These constitutional lists describe the distribution of legislative powers between the national and provincial assemblies. According to Article 90 of the Constitution, the Federal Government of Pakistan is composed of the Prime Minister and the members of his cabinet. The Prime Minister and his Cabinet are collectively responsible to the National Assembly. In order to be elected as Prime Minister, the Constitution requires the candidate to poll the votes of the majority of the total number of members of the National Assembly. The Prime Minister forms his Cabinet from amongst the Members of Parliament. The Prime Minister has the power to remove any Minister from the Cabinet. The President is elected in a joint sitting of the two Houses (the Senate and the National Assembly) of Parliament by a majority vote. The term of the President is five years from the day he assumes office. A person cannot hold the office of President more than two consecutive terms. According to Article 48 of the Constitution as it originally stood, the President was bound by the advice of the Prime Minister in the performance of his duties. However, military regimes amended the constitution and presently the President, who is also the chief of Army, is more powerful than the Prime Minister and the Parliament. The President appoints the Governors, Attorney General, Chief Election Commissioner, Chief Justice, and Chief of Staff of the Army, the Navy, and the Air Force. The Constitution of Pakistan specifies a bicameral legislature: the Senate as upper and the National Assembly as lower house. However, the National Assembly enjoys more powers than the Senate. The National Assembly consists of 332 members who are directly elected by the people. The seats have been allocated in the National Assembly for each province, the Federal Capital and Federally Administered Tribal Areas. These seats have been allocated on the basis of the population of each province. The term of the National Assembly is fixed for five years unless it is dissolved earlier. All the decisions in the National Assembly are taken by the majority vote of the members. The National Assembly elects from amongst its members a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. The Senate comprises 100 members representing the four provinces, Tribal Areas, and the Federal Capital. Provincial assemblies conduct the election for the Senate in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote. The term of office of the members of the Senate is four years. The members of the Senate elect from among themselves a Chairman and a Deputy Chairman. The term of the office of Chairman and Deputy Chairman is two years. Pakistan is divided into four provinces, North West Frontier Province (NWFP), Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan. Each province is headed by a Governor who is appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. Constitutionally, the Governor is the representative of the President and is responsible to him. The Governor’s political and executive position in the province is similar of that of the President at the federal level. The Provincial Government is 72

CONTEXT ANALYSIS: POLITICAL composed of the Chief Minister and his Cabinet. It performs its functions and duties through the Chief Minister. Although executive actions and decisions are taken in the name of the Governor, the actual source of these decisions is the Provincial Government, that is, the Chief Minister. The provincial assemblies legislate for their provinces within the limits laid down in the Constitution. The tribal belt adjoining NWFP is managed by the Federal Government and is named Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas have their own respective political and administrative machinery, although certain matters are managed by the Federal Government through the Ministry of Kashmir Affairs and Northern Areas. The Provinces are divided into Divisions. Every division is administratively controlled by a Commissioner who is a civil servant and appointed by the provincial government. There are no elected bodies at division level. Divisions are further divided into Districts. Every district body is consisted upon the Nazims (councilors) who are democratically elected by the people for four years. Nazims democratically elect a Nazim-e-Ala (head of the district) for four years. Districts are divided into Tehsils (municipalities). Every Tehsil level body is also consisted upon the councilors who are democratically elected by the people for four years. They democratically elect a Tehsil Nazim (head of the Tehsil) for four years. The district is the organizational basis for the health care system. There are 118 districts in the country and every district is engaged in the delivery of health care services (Pakistan, 2005). There is a Supreme Court in Pakistan and a High Court in each province, and other courts exercising civil and criminal jurisdiction. The Supreme Court is the highest in the judicial system of Pakistan. It consists of a Chief Justice and thirteen other judges that are appointed by the President. To deal with specific types of cases Special Courts and Tribunals are constituted. The Constitution (1973) of Pakistan protects fundamental rights, but several amendments enacted by the military governments have administratively limited the judicial authority of the courts to protect basic human rights. Military regimes in 1977 and 1999 amended the constitution. These amendments caused an unbalanced power structure and turned the Presidency into a dominant authority with the power to dismiss the Prime Minister, government and the National Assembly. In practice, a ruling establishment referred to as the “troika”, consisting of the President, the Prime Minister, and the Chief of the Army Staff (COAS), rules the country (Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Jalal, 1995; Mahmood, 2000). It means that ministries with a specific content like health and education are considered less influential and less powerful in formulating policy and setting priorities on their field. The governorgenerals, presidents and chiefs of the army have dissolved elected governments and parliaments. No elected civilian government has ever transferred power to another civilian government; all have been replaced through non-electoral instruments and imposition of military rule. The Governor Generals abolished the governments and 1953 and 1955. The military dissolved governments and assemblies in 1958, 1969, 1977, and 1999. Furthermore, Presidents dissolved governments and assemblies in 1988, 1990, 1993, and 1996.

The influence of the political context on health policy
Of the 144 interviewees 98 (68%) gave their opinions and comments about the influence of the political context on health policy (see table 1). All respondents on federal level expressed opinions. On district level about two third of the interviewees gave their opinions. Remarkable is the low number of civil servants and managers on provincial level, who answered on this issue. The role of the political context is clearly recognized by most respondents. According to an expert working in a health related international organization “health strategies and

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CHAPTER 5 programs that successfully work in other countries may not work in Pakistan primarily due to unfavorable political context”.
Table: 1. Number of Interviewees (Actors) who believe that political context, i.e. change in government, lack of financial resources, centralization and lack of accountability, affects the health policy process Federal level Provincial level District level Interna- Politi- Mana- Profes- Politi- Mana- Profes- Politici- Mana- Professitional cians gers sionals cians gers sionals ans gers onals 6 4 8 8 8 24 12 15 32 27 6 5 6 5 4 3 2 2 8 2 2 1 8 3 4 4 8 8 6 5 4 4 4 3 12 6 8 6 13 1 10 13 16 17 17 18 1 18 16 Total

Total Interviewees Interviewees Responded Change in Government Lack of Financial Resources Lack of Decentralization Lack of Account ability

144 98

5

3

3

5

6

4

7

7

8

15

Change of government
As described Pakistan experienced frequent change of government that affected health policies accordingly 33 interviewees as shown in the Table1. Mostly this was seen by the interviewees at federal and provincial level, exclusively civil servants. The 33 actors believed that due to changes of government every new government changed the health policy formulated by the previous government. It meant that not enough time was available to any health policy for its effective implementation, which resulted into wastage of resources. This issue is not recognized as much by the actors at local level. In 1997, the government introduced its new National Health Policy by replacing the National Health Policy of 1990. The present government introduced a new health policy in 2001 by replacing the previous one. According to the interviewees at federal level particularly representatives from the international organizations and health professionals at the federal and provincial level the content of these health policies do not vary much in essence as considerable attention is still given to the delivery of health care service rather than disease prevention and health promotion. Frequent changes of governments have also removed the political energy that is needed for the effective implementation of health policies and programs. As expressed by a professional at federal level “it is impossible to work and plan under uncertain political situation particularly when health ministers are changed and every new minister asks for changes in health plans”. During the military regime of General Zia, the population-planning program was seriously affected (Lee et al., 1998; Khan, 1996). Zia froze the population program when he assumed power in 1977 due to his antagonism to former Prime Minister Z. A. Bhutto and Pakistan People’s Party (PPP). Mr. Bhutto used his party (PPP) workers as field motivators to make the population program accessible and popular (Khan, 1996).

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CONTEXT ANALYSIS: POLITICAL The Army has directly ruled the country longer than the elected regimes. On average, military regimes have tended to last for a decade, while civilian regimes had tenure of three years or less (Noman, 1997). Military regimes tend to propagate topics that concern national enemies, or perceived threats to security in order to increase defense expenditures at the cost of good health. During interviews 74 interviewees at all levels expressed that military regimes consider defense and industry as high profile ministries and allocate these sectors maximum financial resources as compared to health. According to the interviewed political leaders and health professionals at national level, health-related issues, environmental protection, and the promotion of a healthy lifestyle do not attract the attention of the military regimes in agenda building and health policy making due to low priority given to health. According to a representative of a professional organization “a constant increase in health-damaging industries including tobacco is acceptable to ruling elite due to their large share in governmental revenue”. Military regimes consider defense, industry and interior as high profile sectors and allocate these sectors maximum financial resources as well as better staff (Jalal, 1995; Noman, 1997).

Lack of resources
The country has maintained an average growth rate of GDP of 6% during the past three decades (Pakistan 2005). However, there is a persistent contrast between reasonable economic growth and governmental expenditures upon health. The average share of the health sector in the national budgets during elected regimes (1990-1998) was 0.8 percent of the total GDP (Pakistan, 2003). The current military regime during 1999-2002 dropped the share of health sector in the national budgets to 0.7 percent and from 2003-2005 it fell further to 0.6 percent of the total GDP (Pakistan, 2004; 2005). A governmental document stated that the government has committed itself to increase governmental health expenditures in the national budgets to 2 percent of the GDP by 2010 (Pakistan, 2004). In practice in June 2006, the government dropped it further and allocated 0.5 percent of the GDP to the health sector in the national budget for 2006-2007 (Mahmood, 2000). According to a representative of a professional organization “Pakistan has attained the status of a nuclear power but its health indicators and overall health conditions are still lower than many other developing countries in the Asian region due to low priority given to health and minimum governmental health expenditures”. According to governmental documents the health authorities intend to reduce child mortality, improve maternal health and combat disease including HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria in accordance with the MDGs (Pakistan, 2005; 2006). In practice, infant mortality is still 74 per 1000 and the under-fives mortality rate is 98 per 1000. Eighty percent of all births take place at homes and 16,500 maternal deaths occur annually in the country (Pakistan, 2004; Pakistan, 2005). There are about 80,000 HIV/AIDS infected persons in Pakistan and level of infection is increasing (Baqi et al., 1999; UNAIDS, 2004; USAIDS, 2005). The percentage of TB cases detected and cured increased to 40 percent in 2005 (Pakistan, 2006). According to many studies Pakistan needs to pay attention to health good health in its political agenda by increasing governmental health expenditures, protecting environment and promote healthy lifestyle in order to address health problems such as higher child and infant mortality, malaria. cancer, TB., HIV/AIDS and Diabetes (Baqi et al., 1999; Haque et al, 2004; Siddiqi, 2004; USAIDS, 2005).

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CHAPTER 5 Low governmental expenditures for health sector in the national budgets lead to resource constraints for the health sector as indicated by interviewees at all the levels. However this problem was more frequently mentioned at district level as compared to respondents at federal level, exclusively representatives of international organizations. The later recognized this problem evidently (see Table 1). As a consequence of the lack of financial resources, health policy implementation is difficult and health projects suffer from delays in their preparation and successful implementation as disclosed by the interviewees. For example, interviewees working at federal and provincial level indicated that government planned to open 50 new basic health units (BHUs) and 13 new rural health centers (RHCs) in 2003. In practice government could open 25 BHUs and 6 RHCs due to lack of financial resources. Similarly, in 2000 government planned to introduce school nutrition package for schoolgirls in 5300 girlsschools in rural areas of the country till 2005. However, government introduced the said nutritional program in 3679 schools and stopped further implementation of the program due to lack of financial resources (Pakistan, 2005; 2006). The resource constraints also increase the dependency of the Ministry of Health on donors (Abbasi, 1999; Bhutta, 2001). Health professionals working at the federal and provincial level disclosed during the interviews that Pakistan has been highly dependent on donors for the implementation of health programs including Health for All (HFA) and Primary Health Programs (PHC). According to said interviewees, donor dependence for these programs creates uncertainties regarding the amount and flow of financial resources and disturbs implementation. Many studies have also expressed the similar view regarding the said donor dependence of the Ministry of Health and its negative impact upon the health policy implementation (Abbasi, 1999; Bhutta, 2001; UNAIDS, 2004).

Decentralization
Pakistan has a centralized health system. According to a governmental document Pakistan is fully committed to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and acknowledges access to essential health as a basic human right (Pakistan, 2006). The Government takes responsibility to provide free medical treatment to all citizens in need for health care services. The public health sector in the country comprised 916 hospitals, 552 Rural Health Centers, 5,301 Basic Health Units and 4,582 dispensaries. There were 99,908 hospital beds and population per bed ratio was 1,540 in the country (Pakistan, 2005). There are also number of hospitals, nursing homes, maternity homes and pediatric hospitals offering health care services in the private sector but it is very expensive and the majority of people, particularly the poor, cannot afford private services as learnt from the interviewees working at all levels. The Federal Ministry of Health in collaboration with the Ministry of Planning formulate and approve health programs and projects. A concern about the lack of decentralization is expressed by 72 actors. The issue of centralization/decentralization is most often mentioned by respondents at district level (62%) as compared to federal level (46%). In every province there is a provincial ministry that controls health care system and implement the health policies, programs and recommendations of the Federal Health Ministry. Due to centralization provincial health ministries implement health policies and plans without playing any role in health agenda building, policy making and planning as described by the politicians and professionals at provincial level. These interviewees have also expressed that there is a need to decentralize the health system in order to assure participation from important stakeholders, individuals, groups, and communities in the health policy process. According to a health professional

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CONTEXT ANALYSIS: POLITICAL working in an international organization “generally, people are less willing to place confidence in centralized health institutions and not willing to extend their participation and cooperation in making health policies and programs effective”. Below the provincial level the district (local) level is also responsible only for the implementation of plans and recommendations of the provincial health ministry. According to a representative of a professional organization “the existing health systems at the federal and provincial levels are not enough decentralized and participative in responding adequately to health problems and finding their practical solutions at lower levels”. According to the interviewees at local level, there is a general absence of delegation of authority for operational decisionmaking to the local level and decision making on matters such as program budgeting and finance are restricted to the top level of the provincial and federal hierarchy. The interviewees working locally were rather explicit on the many health care needs in the population, but stated these needs were not recognized at the provincial and national level. The interviewees, involved in health care practice at local level, felt they were not heard even if they tried to catch the attention of politicians and administrators on the provincial and national level. Interviewees at the provincial and local level disclosed that centralization also hinders wider participation from professional groups, NGOs and communities in the health policy process and so often results in the implementation failures. Lack of participation decreases the chances of effective implementation and leads to the issues related to access, inclusion, equity and collaboration (Khan, 1996; Siddiqi, 2004; UNAIDS, 2004). A representative from an international health related organization expressed during his interview “in a centralized and nonparticipative health system, effective democratic control by the beneficiaries of health services cannot be established”.

Accountability
Many governments have maintained their supremacy over the judiciary and tried with varying degrees of success to appoint judges of their own choice in the superior courts by violating the rules and principles of merit (Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Memon, 1997; Newberg, 1997). In popular perception, there is also criticism of the judiciary and its role in certain situations as disclosed by interviewees, especially by health professionals (see Table 1). It is viewed as a status quo institution that does not act on issues that are unfavorable to the government (Newberg, 1997). For example, the Supreme Court upheld the unconstitutional acts of the dissolution of the governments and legislative assemblies in 1954, 1959, 1977, and 1999. It declared General Yaya Khan and General Zia “usurpers” and their military coups illegal only at the time when they were already out of their offices (Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Newberg, 1997). Consequently the systems of accountability has been handicapped and civil servants as well as health professionals working in the governmental health sector do not feel themselves accountable for their performance, eventually bribery and misuse of resources (Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Newberg, 1997; Noman, 1997). Such a view has been expressed by the 63 interviewees in total (see Table. 1). The health sector is among the top six key sectors in Pakistan that are seriously affected by the corruption (Waxman, 2003). There are numerous charges of corruption, repeated complaints of bribery, misuse of resources and sale of public equipment in government hospitals (Khan et al, 2006; Rehman et al, 2004; Waxman, 2003). As a result the health sector loses its scarce resources and health policy implementation is distorted as disclosed by the interview-

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CHAPTER 5 ees at all levels. They have recognized that there is high level of corruption in the health sector that disturbs trust of people in health sector and hinders wider participation in the implementation of health care polices, programs and innovations in health care. According to a politician at provincial level “corruption has undermined the health system consequently health services suffer from quality and people do not trust governmental health services”. Such eroded institutions could not develop cooperation, integration and collaboration in promoting health and improving life conditions. Interviewees at provincial and local level have disclosed that corruption demotivates many workers in the field, creates problems of accessibility, and hinders wider participation from the people in implementing health programs such as immunization, nutrition, maternal and child health care and family planning. Free media is an important prerequisite for good governance. However, Pakistan has no free, independent and pluralistic media as a source of information and knowledge (Baqi et al, 1999; Jalal, 1995; Shafqat, 1997). The position of the media is weak and its influence on public opinion is limited (Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Jalal, 1995; Shafqat, 1997). The electronic media, comprising radio and television, are entirely owned and controlled by the government. So electronic media only reflects the governmental view and officially certified health needs of the people. The official print media falls in the same category. However, independent journalists work hard to promote general awareness, the protection of human rights and democratic values in the society (Hussain & Hussain, 1993; Shafqat, 1997). According to interviewees, generally, public health-related issues, issues of equity, availability and accessibility of health services, environmental protection, and the promotion of healthy lifestyles do not attract the attention of the media. Mostly the media feel comfortable in propagating topics that concern national enemies, or perceived threats to security rather than better health conditions and quality of life as stated by the interviewees. So, the impact of the media on the health policy process is limited as expressed by most of the interviewees.

Discussion
Health policy process does not take place in a political vacuum but is embedded in a political and administrative context (Navarro, 2000; Walt & Gilson, 1994; Walt, 1994). According to international organizations, governments should be “stewards” of their national resources, maintaining and improving them for the benefit of their populations (W HO, 2000; 2005). In health this means government’s continuous and permanent responsibility for the careful management of the citizens’ health and well being (WHO, 2000; 2005). By acknowledging the importance of political context the National Health Policy of Pakistan (2001) states that good governance is one of the basic key features of the policy and government considers good governance as the basis of health sector reform to achieve quality of health care (Pakistan, 2001). However, as the analysis showed, in practice governments could neither offer a good governance nor a favorable policy context that can assure an effective health policy process. Consequently health policies and programs lack sustainability, the health sector suffers from the resource constraints and the health system does not offer any wider participation in the health policy process. Modern health paradigms including Health For All (HFA) approach argue for a wider participation from people their representatives, groups and communities in order to develop networks of trust, respect, and cooperation to mediate between differing interests of the governmental sectors and society at large for the pursuit of good health (WHO, 1997; 2005). A

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CONTEXT ANALYSIS: POLITICAL continuous democratic political context is important in developing a wider participation and ensuring that health systems, policies and programs are aligned to health and well being of the people (WHO, 1998; 2000; World Bank, 1994). In Pakistan, the basic administrative, legal and health care structure is centralized that neither offers a place for wider participation nor a favorable health policy context assuring the availability of health and welfare services to the people. Consequently a large part of the population feels alienated from the political process generally and in health care especially (Mahmood, 2000; Memon, 1997; Shaikh, 2000). Pakistan needs to develop a democratic and participative health policy context so that people and their representatives can participate in a democratic process as well as health policy process. It is important to create mass public awareness among people, their representatives, professional groups, technocrats and NGOs in order to avoid the undue influence of political instability and frequent change in health policies. Involving media in the health policy process can effectively create awareness about health-related issues, the importance of environmental protection and the development of healthy lifestyle. The Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Environment need to collaborate with media particularly with journalists who write about health related issues, environmental protection and healthy lifestyles at national, provincial and local level. Such collaboration may lead to the participation from journalists and representatives of media in the health policy process. It can also stimulate journalists to increase their knowledge about health related issues and to create massive awareness through media campaigns including documentary films, group discussions, lectures and TV talks. A democratic and participative context can also develop a strong feeling among the people to own health and welfare projects, avoid the wastage of their resources and to build a pressure upon authorities and NGOs for the sustainability of health policies and programs. According to a study wider participation and collaboration by local governments, NGOs, and community groups helped health authorities in Indian state of Kerala in implementing primary health program and improving health condition of the people (Varatharajan et al, 2004). In Bangladesh participation and collaboration with stakeholders, communities and NGOs in a decentralized health system showed positive results in controlling tuberculosis (WHO, 2003). Siddiqi et al (2004) believes that maternal and child health (MCH) and family planning programs can be implemented more effectively by involving communities and their representatives, relevant interest groups, stakeholders and district governments in Pakistan (Siddiqi et al, 2004). Health ministries need to stimulate wider participation from individuals, professional groups, political parties stakeholders, NGOs and communities to play their role in the implementation of health policies, programs and projects. As mentioned collaboration with media, professional groups and community representatives can help in providing health related information and finding feasible as well as desirable ways to reach the people and initiate the process of creating mass awareness. For example, in controlling smoking various ways can be found and different health promoting roles can be assigned to various stakeholders and groups. In this regard, media can highlight smoking risks and present ways that can help in quitting smoking through talks, discussions, movies, and documentaries as recommended by the interviewees at all the levels. Interviewees particularly at local level have recommended that provincial health ministries in collaboration with the local governments need to provide free TV sets to community centers and youth centers in the rural areas where people can watch healthy TV programs and films. Furthermore, collaboration and wider participation can help to control smoking in public places and in controlling selling cigarettes to the teenagers. Involving people is more important in the rural areas because health professionals particularly at local level be-

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CHAPTER 5 lieve that a large part of the population in the rural areas feels alienated from the health system and services. According to international organizations Pakistan falls in that category of countries where economic advances are being made but low governmental health expenditures have blocked progress towards achieving several health and welfare goals (UNDP, 2005; WHO, 2003; World Bank, 2005). Pakistan needs to increase its governmental health expenditures from 0.5 percent up to 2 percent in the next national budget 2007-08 and 3 percent till 2009 as recommended by the international agencies including WHO, UNDP and World Bank (UNDP, 2005; WHO, 2000; 2005; World Bank, 2005). Increasing governmental expenditures for health sector not only can solve the problem of resource constraints but can also decrease the dependency of the Ministry of Health on donors for the implementation of health programs as disclosed by the representatives from the international organizations and health professionals at federal and provincial level. Furthermore, increasing governmental health resources can avoid uncertainties regarding the amount and flow of financial resources and risks of implementation failures. The government needs to decentralize the health system by delegating powers and functions to lower levels (provinces and districts) enhance the institutional capacity of these levels and ensure their participation not only in implementation but all the stages of health policy process. Interviewees at local level have recommended that studies based upon the experience of the field officers and professionals involved in the health policy process need to be considered by the planners at provincial and federal level because such studies can provide useful feedback for the policy formulation, planning and implementation. It should be emphasized that interviewees working at local level believe that a regular bottom up communication and its careful consideration at provincial and federal level can make the health policy process flexible, participative, collaborative and effective. It is also important to develop an effective system of accountability in the health sector through democratization and wider participation from the people and their representatives. Wider participation can also help in building trust of population health policies, programs, and services. In controlling low quality medicines and medical equipment the ministry of health needs to increase the number of drug inspectors, ensure their regular visits of the drug market and pharmaceutical industry by offering them financial and career incentives for good performance and penalties for poor performance. Collaboration among provincial health ministries, health departments and local governments in the district, consumer organizations, media and health boards should be developed to control low quality medicines and medical equipment. Such collaboration may supervise the performance of drug inspectors and other health professionals. It can also control the low quality drugs and medical equipment, bribes and kickbacks in the health sectors. An effective collaboration and wider participation can develop communication between the users of health services and health authorities in improving the health system and services. In this regard provision of special telephone numbers and telephone facilities to the beneficiaries in order to make their complaints can be a positive step.

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References
Abbasi, K. (1999). The World Bank and World Health: Focus on South Asia II- India and Pakistan. British Medical Journal. 318:1132-1135. Baqi, S., Sharaf, A.S., Mirza, A.B., et al. (1999). Seroprevalence of HIV, HBV and Syphilis and Associated Risk Behaviors in Male Transvestites (Hijras) in Karachi, Pakistan. International Journal of STD & AIDS. 10:300-304. Bhutta, Z.A. (2001). Structural Adjustments and their Impact on Health and Society: a Perspective from Pakistan. International Journal of Epidemiology. 30:712-716. Haque, N., Zafar, T., Brahmbhatt, H., Imam, G., & Strathdee, S.S. (2004). High risk sexual behaviors among drug users in Pakistan: implications for prevention of STDs and HIV/AIDS. International Journal of STD & AIDS. 15 (9):601-607. Horton, R. (1999). Croatia and Bosnia: the Imprints of War. I: Consequences. Lancet. 353(9170):2139-2144. Hussain M, Hussain A. Pakistan: Problems of Governance. New Delhi. Vanguard Books, 1993. Jalal, A. (1995). Democracy and Authoritarianism in South Asia. Lahore. Sange e-meel Publications. Khan, A. (1996). Policy Making in Pakistan’s Population Program. Health Policy and Planning.11:30-51. Khan, M.M, Van Dijk J.P, & Van den Heuvel, W. (2005). The Impact of Economic and Socio-cultural Context upon Health Policy Outcome in Pakistan. Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, accepted pending revisions. Lanjouw, S., Macrae, J., & Zwi, A.B. (1999). Rehabilitating Health Services in Cambodia: the Challenge of Coordination in Chronic Political Emergencies. Health Policy and Planning 14(3):229-242. Lee, K., Lush, L., Walt, G., & Cleland, J. (1998). Family Planning Policies and Programs in Eight Low-income Countries: A Comparative Policy Analysis. Social Science & Medicine. 47(7):949-959. Mahmood, S. (2000). Pakistan, Political Roots and Development 1947-1999. Karachi. Oxford University Press. Memon, A.N. (1997). Pakistan: Islamic Nation in Crisis. Lahore. Vanguard. Navarro, V. (2000). Assessment of the World Health Report. Lancet. 356:1598-1601. Newberg, P.R. (1997). As if to Frame a Picture: Courts and Politics. In Rais, R.B. (Ed). State, Society, and Democratic Change in Pakistan. Karachi. Oxford University Press. 76-102. Noman, O. (1997). Economic and Social Progress in Asia. Karachi. Oxford University Press. Pakistan (2001). National Health Policy 2001 The Way Forward: Agenda for Health Sector Reform. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Pakistan (2003). Economic Survey 2002-2003. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Pakistan (2004). Economic Survey 2003-2004. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Pakistan (2005). Economic Survey 2004-2005. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, Economic Adviser's Wing. Phillips, K.A., Morrison, K.R., Andersen, R., & Aday, L.A. (1998). Understanding the Context of Healthcare Utilization: Assessing Environmental and Provider-Related Variables in the Behavioral Model of Utilization. Health Services Research. 33:571-596. Rehman, S., Rehman, M.O., & Ahmed, T. (2004). Diseases causing biochemical changes during Pregnancy in the population of Karachi. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 17(2):125-7. Shafqat, S. (1997). Transition to Democracy: An Uncertain Path. In Rais R.B. (Ed.)., State, Society, and Democratic Change in Pakistan. Karachi. Oxford University Press. 235-254. Shaikh F. (2000). Pakistan between Allah and Army. International Affairs. 76(2):325-332. Siddiqi, S., Haq, I.U., Ghaffar, A., Akhtar, T., & Mahaini R. (2004). Pakistan’s maternal and child health policy: analysis, lessons and the way forward. Health Policy. 69(1):117-130. Syed, A.H. (1997). The Ouster of Nawaz Sharif in 1993: Power Plays within the Ruling Establishment. In Rais RB (Ed.) State, Society, and Democratic Change in Pakistan. Karachi. Oxford University Press. 45-74. UNAIDS. (2004) Report on the global AIDS epidemic, Geneva, UNAIDS, 2004 UNDP. (2004). Human Development Report 2004. New York. United Nations Development Program. USAIDS (2005). HIV/AIDS in Pakistan. Islamabad. USAIDS. Varatharajan, D., Thankappan, R., & Jayapalan, S. (2004). Assessing the performance of primary health centers under decentralized government in Kerala, India. Health Policy and Planning. 19(1):41-51. Walt G. (1994). Health policy: An Introduction to Process and Power. London. Zed Books. Walt, G., & Gilson, L. (1994). Reforming the Health Sector in Developing Countries: The Central Role of Policy Analysis. Health Policy and Planning. 9(4):353-370.

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Waxman, A. (2003). Corruption in Health Services. Conference Paper. The 11th International Anti-Corruption Conference. Seoul, 2003: "Different Cultures, Common Values". Seoul. IACC. WHO (1998a). Health 21: The Health for All Policy for the WHO European Region: 21 targets for the 21st century. Copenhagen. WHO Regional Office for Europe. WHO (1997). Inter-sectoral Action for Health: A Cornerstone for Health-for-All in the Twenty-first Century. Report of the International Conference, 20-23 April, 1997 Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Geneva. World Health Organization. WHO (2000) World Health Report 2000. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO (2003) World Health Report 2003. Geneva: World Health Organization. WHO (2005) World Health Report 2005. Geneva: World Health Organization. World Bank (1994). Governance: The World’s Bank Experience. Washington. D.C. World Bank. World Bank (2005). World Bank Development Report 2005. Oxford. Oxford University Press. Zafar Ullah, A.N., Newell, J.N., Ahmed, J.U., Hyder, M.K.A., & Islam, A. (2006) Government-NGO collaboration: the case of tuberculosis control in Bangladesh. Health Policy and Planning. 21(2):143-155. Zwi, A., & Ugalde, A. (1989). Towards an Epidemiology of Political Violence in the Third World. Social Science and Medicine. 28(7):633-642.

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6
The Impact of Economic and Socio-cultural Context upon Health Policy Outcome in Pakistan

Chapter 6 Context Analysis: Economic, Socio-cultural

Muhammad Mushtaq Khan, Jitse P. van Dijk and Wim Van den Heuvel Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, accepted pending revisions 83

CHAPTER 6

Abstract
The analysis of economic and socio-cultural context is an important component of health policy analysis because contextual factors significantly influence the health policy process and the overall health of population. Such an analysis also helps in understanding the health policy process and its success. This article presents an analysis of economic and socio-cultural contextual factors in Pakistan and their impact upon the health policy process in the country. The study used secondary data in order to analyze health policy context in the country. The main findings are that in spite of its reasonable economic growth Pakistan allocates minimum resources to health sector in order to combat increasing health problems and improve quality of life. The country also experiences the low status of women in the society, a low literacy level and high corruption. It is concluded that economic and socio-cultural context in the country significantly influence resource allocation for health policy and its implementation and therefore affect the health status of the people in Pakistan. Keywords: Health Policy Context Analysis: Health Outcomes, Pakistan.

Introduction
Analysis of economic and socio-cultural context analysis is an important component of health policy analysis because contextual factors significantly influence the health policy process and the overall health of population directly and indirectly (Frenk, 1995; Gonzalez, 1997; Walt and Gilson, 1994; WHO, 1998). Paying attention to contextual factors helps in understanding the role of the state, society and market forces influencing health agenda building, health planning and implementation, and even more important health outcomes (Collins et al., 1999; Hinebusch, 1993; Toye, 1993; Walt & Gilson, 1994; Wismar & Busse, 2002). Contextual factors can be categorized as political, economic, socio-cultural and demographic. This article focuses upon the impact of the economic and socio-cultural context on health policy outcome in Pakistan, since these factors are considered most relevant in developing countries. In developing countries economic factors, such as the distribution of wealth, production, distribution and consumption processes, income, housing, and employment, significantly influence the health of the population. Many health policies and programs are doomed to fail because of the lack of resources (Perkins & Roemer, 1991; Toye, 1993). The problem of scarce resources also implies the existence of great differences in the access to health care between the rich and the poor and the presence of a well-developed private system that serves only the rich (Abbasi, 1999a; Bhutta, 2001; Green et al, 2001; Hjortsberg & Mwikisa, 2002). The poor must resort either to the government-paid sector of the health care system that is often badly equipped and performs poorly in term of quality of care or to the private healers who render health services of very questionable quality (Abbasi, 1999b; Islam & Tahir, 2002; Khan & Bhutta, 2001). The consequences for life expectancy and mortality between groups may be enormous. Economic and socio-cultural factors affect the health policy environment, and influence the socio-political behavior of the people and the flow of resources for health development (de Leeuw, 1999; Hasan, 1999; Johansson et al., 2001). Many studies report clear relationships between health and culture, explaining the links (positive or negative) between various lifestyles and people’s attitudes to participate in the health policy process (Hasan, 1999; Mooney, 1994). Similarly, poverty, illiteracy, and low status of specific groups (women, minorities,

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CONTEXT ANALYSIS: ECONOMIC, SOCIO-CULTURAL and ethnic groups) in the society have been identified as contributing factors to the high mortality and morbidity in developing countries (Green et al, 2001; Hjortsberg & Mwikisa, 2002; Khan & Bhutta, 2001). The problem of corruption in the developing countries also makes health policies ineffective. Several organizations including the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and Transparency International have highlighted corruption and its impact upon the policy process in developing countries (Zemenides et al., 1999). This article analyzes how the economic and socio-cultural factors affect the health policy process and the health status of the people in Pakistan.

Methods
This study used secondary data analysis in order to analyze economic and socio-cultural context in Pakistan. The analysis is based on the study of policy documents, financial reports and economic surveys focusing upon resource allocation and the execution of health policy in the country. Economic factors have been derived mostly from the annual budgets, financial reports and evaluation reports of the Ministry of Finance, Pakistan over the period 1995-2005. In some cases economic factors have also been found from the evaluation reports and surveys of the Ministry of Health. Furthermore, socio-cultural factors have been derived from evaluation reports of the Ministry of Health, Surveys of the Planning and Development Division, Pakistan and reports/surveys from the offices of the international agencies that have extended their support to develop health in Pakistan over the period 1995-2005. For health outcome reports of the Ministry of Health, international agencies, particularly the World Health Organization, the World Bank and UNICEF over the period of 1995-2005, were used. Besides the document analysis, interviews were conducted with the one hundred and fortyfour actors involved in the health policy process at various levels in Islamabad and provincial head quarters of the provinces (Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar and Quetta). These actors included politicians, health ministers (current and former), policy makers, civil servants, physicians, public heath professionals, health managers and representatives of health-related associations including Pakistan Medical Association and Pakistan Medical and Dental Council.

Economic Context
Pakistan's economy has gathered momentum during the last five years, particularly in the fiscal year 2004-05. Pakistan’s real GDP growth of 8.4 percent in 2004-05 positioned the country as the fastest growing economy after China. Acceleration in growth accompanied by a pick-up in industrial production and agriculture, an upsurge in investment, and strengthening of the external balance of payments have been the hallmarks of economic performance (Pakistan, 2005a). The country succeeded in attaining growth in real GDP, large-scale manufacturing, a better performance in services and growth in per capita income. Pakistan also experienced a strong rebound in investment: an increase in credit to the private sector; rising levels of economic activity; a reduction in the fiscal deficit; growth in exports; and a decline in the public and external debt burden (Pakistan, 2005a). A disturbing feature of the economic context in Pakistan is a persistent dichotomy between a respectable rate of economic growth and only a marginal improvement in social indicators. The country has maintained an average growth rate of GDP of 6% during the past three decades. In an inter-country comparison, according to the data compiled by the IMF on the GDP growth rate, Pakistan performed better than most other developing countries in the Asian region (IMF, 2005) as shown in the Table 1.

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Table 1. Growth Performance in the Asian Region (Real GDP Growth %) Region / Country Afghanistan Bangladesh India Indonesia Iran Malaysia Pakistan Sri Lanka Thailand 2001-02 4.8 4.0 3.5 5.4 0.3 3.1 -1.5 2.1 2002-03 4.1 4.9 4.7 3.7 7.2 4.1 5.1 3.9 5.4 2003-04 5.5 5.4 7.4 4.1 5.9 5.2 6.4 5.5 6.7 2004-05 7.5 5.4 7.3 5.1 6.3 5.7 8.4 5.2 6.1 Average 5.4 5.1 5.85 4.1 6.2 3.8 5.75 3.3 5.1

Source: CIA, 2005; IMF, 2005

In spite of its better economic performance and reasonable economic growth the country allocates minimal resources for health development. For example, the average share of the health sector in the national budgets during 1994-1997 was 0.8 percent of the total GDP (Pakistan, 2003). During 1998-2002 the share of health sector in the national budgets dropped to 0.7 percent and from 2003-2005 it fell further to 0.6 percent of the total GDP (Pakistan, 2003, 2005a). A governmental document stated that the government has committed itself to increasing health expenditures to 2 percent of the GDP by 2010 (Pakistan, 2004b). However, in June 2005, the government did not increase its health expenditure in the annual budget for 2005-06, maintaining 0.6 percent of the GDP for health sector as in the recent past (Pakistan, 2005b). International organizations have commented that Pakistan falls in that category of countries where economic advances are being made but resources or policy deficiencies are blocking progress towards achieving several health and welfare goals (UNDP, 2002; 2004; WHO, 2003; Word Bank, 2004). In the inter-country comparison, according to the data compiled by the World Health Organization (WHO), governmental expenditure on health in the other developing countries in the Asian region are higher than in Pakistan as shown in the Table 2.
Table 2. Average Health Expenditures in the Asian Region (1999-2003) Country Per capita total expenditure on health average exchange rate (US$) 9.2 11 27.2 19.4 70.4 125.4 14 30.6 75.2 42.8 Total expenditure on health as % of gross domestic product 6 3.5 5.8 2.8 6.1 3.4 0.7 3.6 3.8 3.9

Afghanistan Bangladesh India Indonesia Iran Malaysia Pakistan Sri Lanka Thailand Average Source: Pakistan 2004a; WHO, 2005.

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CONTEXT ANALYSIS: ECONOMIC, SOCIO-CULTURAL Table 2 shows that average per capita expenditure on health (average exchange rate in US$) in the Asian region is US$42.8 and total expenditure on health is 3.9% of GDP, whereas, in the case of Pakistan, the average per capita expenditure on health is US$14 and total expenditure on health is 0.7% of GDP. Table 2, shows that in Asian region Pakistan allocates minimum financial resources for the health sector in spite of its better economic position. This indicates that health development in Pakistan is not a priority. Such an unfavorable economic context of particularly low governmental expenditures for health has led to severe resource constraints for the health sector. As a consequence, health policy implementation is difficult and health projects suffer from delays in their preparation and successful implementation. The resource constraints also increase the dependency of the Ministry of Health on donors in implementing international health strategies and programs. For example, Pakistan has been highly dependent on donors for the implementation of vertical programs including Health for All (HFA) and Primary Health Programs (PHC). Donor dependence for these vertical programs prevents long-term health planning, creates uncertainties regarding the amount and flow of financial resources and disturbs implementation (Abbasi, 1999a; Bhutta, 2001a; Khan & Bhutta, 2001). According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), Pakistan was 134th in the Human Development Index (HDI) in 2002, 138 in 2003 and 144 in 2004 (UNDP, 2002; 2003; 2004). The World Bank disclosed in its annual report for 2004 that Pakistan's economy has grown more than other low-income countries, its social sector growth in comparison has lagged (World Bank, 2004). Other developing countries in the Asian region have better health indicators than Pakistan despite their lower rate of economic growth (World Bank, 2005) as shown in the Table 3.
Table 3. Health Indicators in the Asian Region in 2005 Country Afghanistan Bangladesh India Indonesia Iran Malaysia Pakistan Sri Lanka Thailand Average Life Expectancy 42.9 62 63 67 69 73 64 74 69 68 Infant Mortality Rate per 1000 163 46 63 31 30 7 74 13 23 35 Mortality Rate Underfive per 1000 69 87 41 41 7 98 15 26 47

Source: CIA, 2005; World Bank, 2005.

The Socio-Cultural Context
The socio-cultural context for health policy in Pakistan may be characterized by the low status of women, the low literacy level and corruption.

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CHAPTER 6 Low Status of Women The constitution of Pakistan states that there will be no discrimination on the basis of gender. The government has also signed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination. However, in practice, women in the country suffer from low status in the society, a suppressive attitude, various types of harassments, sexual assaults and domestic violence (HRCP, 2004). Male domination has become culturally sanctioned and gender-based subordination has become ingrained in the consciousness of both men and women in Pakistan. Pakistani society still attaches enormous importance to the well being of their male children while considering daughters to be a shameful burden (Wallerstein, 1998). The female economic activity rate is 36 per cent in the country, as compared to the South Asian average of 43 per cent (UNDP, 2004). As for the female participation in decision-making at every level, only 9 per cent of the administrators, senior officials and managers in Pakistan are women (UNDP, 2004). Rapes, sexual assaults and domestic violence result in an increasing number of suicides, suicide attempts, and psychological problems among women in Pakistan (HRCP, 2004; Khan & Reza, 1998; WHO, 2002). Sexual violence and rapes mostly go unreported because of the socio-cultural stigma, the trauma associated with such violence and the complicated legal system. Rape in police custody is widespread but goes unreported and regulations protecting women are ignored with impunity (HRCP, 2004). Domestic violence results in many women dying or suffering permanent disabilities and severe injuries. There are repeated incidences of “stove burns” (suicidal and homicidal acts) and honor killings particularly in the rural areas (HRCP, 2004). Gender discrimination in Pakistan leads to malnutrition among pregnant and lactating mothers and a higher child mortality rate for girls than for boys (Khan & Bhutta, 2001; Rehman et al, 2004; WHO, 2004). One woman in 38 dies during pregnancy or childbirth in Pakistan, compared with a regional average of one in 230. Up to 13% of these deaths are the result of unsafe abortions (Wallerstein, 1998). According to World Health Report 2004, the probability of dying (per 1000) among under five-year-olds is 105 in case of males and 115 in case of females (WHO, 2004). According to several studies (Khan, 1996; Khan & Raza, 1998; Pakistan, 2005a), the low status of women in Pakistan hinders female participation in health development, results in high morbidity among women, and may lead to the implementation failure of immunization programs, women’s health programs and family planning programs. Restrictions on the mobility of women to obtain access to health and social services, women’s restricted decisionmaking power, and their incapability to negotiate with their partners for safer sexual practices contribute to women’s HIV vulnerability (UNDP, 2004). According to United Nations Drug Control Program (UNDCP), the low status of women in Pakistan can lead to drug abuse and other health problems (UNDCP, 2002; 2003). As a consequence of the overall low status of women and particularly their low health status in the country, there is an unusual population ratio between men and women (women 48.1 % and men 51.9 %) (Pakistan, 2005a; UNDP, 2004). Low Literacy Rate Pakistan has a low literacy rate particularly among women. According to the Economic Survey of Pakistan, the literacy rate is 54 percent. However, the male literacy rate is estimated at 88

CONTEXT ANALYSIS: ECONOMIC, SOCIO-CULTURAL 64 percent and female at 36 percent (Pakistan, 2005a). According to UNESCO, the adult literacy rate (15 and above) in Pakistan is 53.4 for males and 28.5 for females, which contrasts considerably with most other countries in the South Asian region. In Bangladesh male is 50.3 and female 31.4, in India male is 61.9 and female 35.9, in Iran male is 83.5 and female 70.4, in Nepal male is 61.6 and female 26.4 and in Sri Lanka male is 94.7 and female 89.6 as shown in Table 4 (UNESCO, 2005).
Table 4. Socio-cultural Indicators and GDP per capita in the Asian Region in 2005 Country Afghanistan Bangladesh India Indonesia Iran Malaysia Pakistan Sri Lanka Thailand Average GDP per capita % growth 3.5 6.4 2.8 4.4 3.2 3.3 4.3 6.1 4.22 Literacy rate ≥ 15 Male Female 51 21 50.3 31.4 61.9 26.4 92.5 83.4 83.5 70.4 92 85.4 50.3 28.5 94.7 89.6 94.9 90.5 76.6 62.1 Corruption Perceptions Index Rate (1-145) CPI-score (1-10) 145 1.5 90 2.8 133 2.0 87 2.9 39 5.0 129 2.1 67 3.5 64 3.6 95.2 2.9

Source: CIA, 2005; Transparency International, 2004; UNESCO, 2005; World Bank, 2005.

The low literacy rate in Pakistan particularly among women has been identified as one of the factors that disturb the implementation of various health programs and projects (Bhutta, 2001; Bhutta et al, 2003; Luby et al, 2004; Qazi, 2002). For example, it is one of the reasons why reproductive health programs could not achieve their targets (Bhutta et al, 2003; Luby et al, 2004). A low literacy rate particularly among women creates difficulties in creating awareness to prevent HIV/AIDS, activate participation and develop healthy lifestyles (Pakistan, 2005a; UNDCP, 2003; UNDP, 2005; USAID, 2005). Women’s low literacy rate also disturbed immunization programs (Pakistan, 2005a). Pakistan’s National Health Policy (NHP) 2001 intended to increase immunization coverage of children and mothers to 85 percent by 2003-04 and full coverage by 2010 (Pakistan, 2001). According to a governmental report, at June 2005 the expanded program of immunization had attained immunization coverage of 50 percent due to restrictions on the mobility of women to obtain access to health and their low level of literacy (Pakistan, 2005a). Gender disparities in educational enrolment and women’s low literacy level present obstacles for HIV/AIDS prevention efforts in general; it is much harder to reach women than men with information (UNDP, 2005).

Corruption
Corruption is another economic and socio-cultural factor that affects health policy implementation in Pakistan. The Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) 2004 of the Transparency International (TI) presents the level of corruption in the 145 countries of the world by indicating 10 as a highest clean score. Finland was rated top with the highest CPI score of 9.7 out of a clean score of 10 whereas Bangladesh was bottom with a CPI score of 1.5. Pakistan was ranked 129th with a CPI score of 2.1 as shown in the Table 3 (Transparency International, 2004).

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CHAPTER 6 Several international organizations, including the World Bank, the IMF, and Transparency International, have demonstrated their concern about corruption in Pakistan and its negative impact upon the development of the country (Khan, 2005; Zemenides et al., 1999). The health sector is among the top six key sectors in Pakistan that are seriously affected by the corruption (Waxman, 2003). Numerous charges of corruption and misuse of public authority against civil servants working in health ministries, health managers and physicians appear in the press regularly. Factors responsible for corruptions in health sector include: weak judicial system, lack of accountability, low salaries, non-recognition of performance and lack of motivation particulraly among professionals working in rural areas (Khan 2005; Khan & Van den Heuvel, 2006; Zemendis et al, 1999). Health sytem is centralized that harrdly leaves a space for wider partricipation and health professionals working in the public sector do not feel themselves accountable for their performance to the people (Khan 2005; Khan & Van den Heuvel, 2006; Zemendis et al, 1999). Corruption in the health sector significantly affects health policy implementation and health outcomes in various ways. For example, corrupt health officials working in the health ministries and hospitals purchase outdated medicines, accept bribes and kickbacks for purchasing low quality medical equipment and technologies, steal public equipment and medicines meant for poor patients (Khan 2005; Waxman, 2003). There are repeated complaints of bribery, misuse of resources (including ambulances), and sale of public equipment in government hospitals (Khan, 2005; Mwaffisi, 1999; Waxman, 2003). As a result the health sector loses its scarce resources and health policy implementation is distorted. There are complaints of doctors, nurses and other health professionals being absent from Rural Health Centers (RHCs) and Basic Health Units (BHUs). Corruption has eroded the capacity of the health sector to ensure that other public policies and the activities of the other sectors are aligned to health development in the country. According to the reports of UNDCP and other studies, corruption negatively affects efforts to combat the drug abuse, violence and crime and road traffic accidents (Agha et al, 2003; Emmanuel et al., 2004; UNDCP, 2003). There are many illegal pharmaceutical factories operating in homes and backyards. They manufacture low standard medicines by using labels of established pharmaceutical firms (including international ones) and change the dates of the expired medicines (Khan, 2005; PDTL, 2005; Waxman, 2003). According to a report of Pakistan Drug Testing Laboratory (PDTL), about 91 medicines of 60 national and multinational manufacturers were found to be counterfeit and harmful. These counterfeit drugs included antibiotics, painkillers and drugs for ulcers, cancer, heart disease, tuberculosis, asthma, mental problems, and fever as well as pediatric drugs. The same report also revealed that about 90,000 people have died due to counterfeit drugs in the past five years (PDTL, 2005).

Conclusion
Economic and socio-cultural factors influence health policy process in various ways in Pakistan. The country has maintained a reasonable economic growth; however, its public health expenditures are low. This has led to resource constraints for health sector and results in health policy implementation failures. As a consequence the country has lagged behind in terms of its health indicators compared with many other developing countries, which are economically poorer than Pakistan. Suppressive attitude towards women leads to murders and

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CONTEXT ANALYSIS: ECONOMIC, SOCIO-CULTURAL severe injuries of women. Gender discrimination hinders the participation of women in disease prevention and health promotion, which ultimately results in high morbidity, high child mortality and the failure of health policies and programs in the country. Corruption leads to low quality in the human resources for health, to the low quality of drugs and medicines and of the health services, and ultimately to implementation failures in health policies and programs. The low level of literacy particularly among women hampers awareness raising to prevent disease, to stimulate participation, to protect the environment, and to develop healthy lifestyles. It particularly disrupts immunization programs, family planning programs, and the health of mother and child in the country.

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References
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7
Health Policy Process and Health Outcome: The Case of Pakistan

Chapter 7 Health Policy Process Analysis

Muhammad Mushtaq Khan , Jitse P. van Dijk and Wim Van den Heuvel Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, accepted pending revisions

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Abstract
The health policy process is the process by which a government or society sets its goals, activities and allocates resources to develop and maintain health services for the population. In developing health policy it is important to pay attention to the health policy process because it helps in understanding how (far) health policies and programs achieve their targets. This article presents an analysis of the important stages of the health policy process such as agenda building and policymaking, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation in Pakistan. Various problems existing in these stages of the health policy process are identified. The main problems, which affect the health policy process, are centralization, the influence of narrowly focused biomedical model of health, shortage of trained public health professionals, unfavorable health policy context and lack of financial resources. The suggested directions in order to improve health policy process include: decentralization, participation, knowledge and awareness of modern health paradigms, training of public health professionals and a reasonable increase in financial resources. Keywords: Health Policy Process: effectively, planning, implementation

Introduction
A government or society, which has formulated a health policy and defined its goals as well as its activities to combat health problems and improve life conditions, has to plan actions, allocate resources and build awareness. This so-called health policy process consists of different phases or stages such as agenda building and policymaking, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation (Barker, 1996; Falcone, 1980; Walt, 1994). In developing health policy it is important to pay attention to the health policy process because it helps in understanding why many health problems are not solved, why policies are not implemented effectively and why health policies as well as programs could not achieve their targets (Brewer & Leon, 1983; Walt & Gilson, 1994). In developing countries, health policies and programs scarcely achieve their targets because the health policy process is often characterized by many weaknesses and failures (Falcone, 1980; Theobald, et al, 2005; Walt & Gilson, 1994). Firstly, within a health policy process the causes of important health problems may not be recognized, and secondly these causes are not effectively reached with the planned actions (Brewer & Leon, 1983; Kingdon, 1984; Laterveer, et al, 2003; Theobald, et al, 2005). In some countries policymakers seem to deny factors explaining the major health problems (Bracht, 1999; Khan & Van den Heuvel, 2005a). In many developing countries, there is seldom attention for an effective policy process focusing upon all major determinants of health. There are also huge gaps between declared goals on the one hand and the resources and implementation instruments needed to achieve those goals on the other (Green & Kreuter, 1999, Siddiqi et al, 2004). As a consequence, health policymaking often consists of a cascade of policy plans that are not or only partly implemented (AbelSmith, 1994; Green, 1995; Theobald, et al, 2005). Socio-cultural, political and economic conditions and as a consequence insufficient resources also frustrate and delay the implementation process in the developing world (Lush et al, 2003; Siddiqi et al, 2004; Walt & Gilson, 1994; Walt 1994).

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HEALTH POLICY PROCESS ANALYSIS This article describes briefly the health system in Pakistan and important stages of the health policy process such as agenda building and policymaking, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. It also identifies different problems in the said stages of the process and how these problems affect the health policy outcome in the country. In the discussion strategies are suggested to overcome the described problems.

Methods
The most important stakeholders involved in the health policy process were identified by document analysis. The document analysis was based upon policy documents, official reports of health ministries, health related departments and international agencies. The reviewed policy documents include: reports of the medical reform commissions and health study groups, Peoples Health Schemes 1972 and three national health policies. The governmental reports and documents include evaluation reports of the Ministry of Health, annual plans, economic surveys manuals for development projects, and reports of the social action program prepared by the Planning and Development Division, Islamabad. International reports include Human Development Report 2004 of the UNDP, World Health Report 2003 and 2004 of the World Health Organization and World Bank’s Development Report of 2004 and 2005. The problems in agenda building and policymaking were derived from policy documents particularly the National Health Policy 1990, National Health Policy 1997 and National Health Policy 2001 of the country. The problems in planning and implementation were derived from evaluation reports of the Ministry of Health, surveys, plans, and manuals of the Planning and Development Division and reports of international organizations. Besides the document analysis, open-ended interviews of one hundred and fifty-two important actors involved in the health policy process at the district (local), provincial, federal and international level were conducted in Islamabad, Rawalpindi, Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Abbottabad and Quetta. These interviewees (actors) included elected representatives (including current and former health ministers), policy makers, civil servants, physicians, public heath professionals, health managers and representatives of health-related NGOs as well as associations including Pakistan Medical Association, Pakistan Medical and Dental Council and Pakistan Public Health Association. The interviewees were visited in their offices, homes and public places.

The Health System in Pakistan
Pakistan has a centralized health care system. The Government takes responsibility to provide free medical treatment to all citizens in need for health care services. National health care services provide medical care, including hospital care free of charge and immunization program exist in almost all cities and towns. The governmental institutions involved in the health policy process include the Federal Ministry of Health and several planning and approval institutions. The Federal Ministry of Health handles all health matters. The Ministry has to plan its activities according to the goals expressed on in the national health policy. The Federal Ministry of Health is responsible for health legislation, quality of health care, health planning and coordination of health related activities. The Ministry is also responsible for educational standards in the field of medicine and nursing, dental, pharmaceutical, and paramedical professions. In addition, the Ministry takes care of the provision of educational facilities for backward areas, and admissions in all the state-owned medical colleges. The

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CHAPTER 7 Ministry is involved in the collection of health statistics. It elaborates the provision of health care in accordance with the guidelines approved by the government. Although the Federal Ministry of health is formally responsible for all these tasks realization is strongly dependent from other governmental bodies such as Planning and Development Division (P&D Division), the National Economic Council (NEC), the Executive Committee of the National Economic Council (ECNEC), the Economic Coordination Committee of the Cabinet (ECC), and Provincial Developmental Working Party (PDWP). These institutions are engaged not only with health affairs, but with other sectors of public policy as well. The P&D Division plays an important role in health planning in collaboration with the Ministry of Health. The NEC, being the supreme policymaking body, has an overall control over planning and approves all plans and policies in the country including health. The ECNEC sanctions health projects and schemes costing more than 100 million Pakistani Rupees (US$ 1 = Pak Rupees 60). It also supervises the implementation of health care policy. The ECC coordinates the health and other public policies, oversees the monetary situation, and extends approval to the health projects in private sector such as hospitals, health institutes and medical colleges. Each province has a PDWP that scrutinizes various health projects and approves provincial health projects costing up to 100 million Pakistani Rupees. The Federal Ministry of Health consists of one division: the Health Division and eighteen departments. These departments are situated in different cities, however, working under the supervision of the Health Division in Islamabad. The important functions performed by these federal health departments include, hospital services, drug control, stimulation of medical research, child health care and care for the handicapped. Civil servants working in the Federal Ministry of Health deal with all stages of the health policy process such as agenda building, policy formulation, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. These top-level civil servants make health policy statements and introduce laws as well regulations in a centralized way (Bjorkamn, 1986; Khan, 1996). There are about 462 employees working in the Federal Ministry of Health in Islamabad. Among these employees 78 are mid- and top level civil servants (Grade 17 and above) and 384 administrators as well as clerical staff (Grade 16 and below). In all the four provinces (Baluchistan, NWFP, Punjab and Sind) of Pakistan there is a provincial ministry of health having an exclusive directorate of health care services. Several directors and deputy directors deal with administration, preventive health, and curative care in the provincial directorates. The number of directors and deputy directors in the provincial health ministries vary due to different size of population and number of health facilities in every province. There are teaching hospitals providing specialized care and medical training for both medical students and newly graduated physicians in every province. The provincial health ministries exert direct control over these teaching hospitals. Below the provincial level the district (local) level is responsible for the implementation of plans, policies and recommendations of the federal and provincial government. There are 118 districts in the country and in every district several agencies and departments are engaged in the delivery of health care services (Pakistan, 2005c). These agencies include: teaching and district headquarter hospital headed by a medical superintendent, state-owned health care services under the administrative control of the district health officer, and municipal health services exclusively for urban areas under the administrative control of the municipal health officer. At June 2005, the public health sector in the country comprised 916 hospitals (teaching, district and municipal hospitals), 552 Rural Health Centers (RHCs), 5,301 Basic Health Units (BHUs) and 4,582 dispensaries. There were 99,908 hospital beds and population per bed ratio 98

HEALTH POLICY PROCESS ANALYSIS was 1,540 in the country (Pakistan, 2005a). The majority of health care facilities are in urban areas so the rural population has much lower access to health care facilities. Mostly, the rural population gets health care from traditional healers (Hakims and Homoeopaths) operating in the private health sector (Pakistan, 2005a). In urban areas the private sector also offers health care but it is very expensive and the majority of people, particularly the poor, cannot afford private services. There are number of hospitals, nursing homes, maternity homes and pediatric hospitals offering health care services in the private sector in all the cities of Pakistan. However, the reliable figures showing the number of these health facilities in the private sector are not available.

Health Policy Process and Health Outcome in Pakistan
This section describes the important stages of the health policy process (i.e. agenda building and policymaking, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation), which influence health outcome in Pakistan. The description is followed by an explanation, why problems exist in the process.

Agenda Building and Policymaking
Formally, the health agenda is set and the Federal Ministry of Health makes policy decisions. Civil servants and medical professionals play a major role in setting health agenda and making policy. Within the ministry of health physicians among the civil servants play a dominant role due to their health-related knowledge and skills. Physicians are trained to find the solution to a health problem mostly in clinical diagnosis and treatments. They tend to find solutions to every health problem in accordance with the biomedical model of health. The content of National Health Policy 1990, 1997 and 2001 clearly show that the main focus in formulating the health policies was on clinical health care (Khan & Van den Heuvel, 2005). Such approach may hinder the understanding of more behavior-related health problems and may pay less attention to other determinants of health and disease lying outside the biomedical model of health. The biomedical model of health particularly ignores comprehensive sociocultural and environmental factors of health and therefore is not able to provide solutions for new health problems (Ali, 2000; Green, et al, 1997). The consequence is that health care facilities are high on the health agenda. The influence of biomedical model of health results in strong investment in the delivery of clinical health care services. For example, NHP 2001 identified ten keys areas to address health problems and improve health conditions in the country. Most of these key areas aim to increase health care services by increasing the number of hospitals, basic health units and the number of nurses as well as physicians (Pakistan, 2001). The intention of another key area of the policy document is to increase the provision of equipment and medical technologies, emergency care, surgical services, anesthesia and laboratory facilities in hospitals (Pakistan, 2001). The aim is also to increase the number of specialists in areas such as Medicine, Surgery, Pediatrics, Gynecology, ENT and Ophthalmology in the hospitals. Moreover, the seventh key area stipulates the intention to introduce the required regulation for quality assurance of health care services in the private hospitals, clinics laboratories and medical colleges in the private sector (Pakistan, 2001). It is positive that these key areas of the NHP 2001 intend to increase and improve the quality of health care services, however, it is also important to pay

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CHAPTER 7 attention to other determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle. NHP 2001 has neither offered any policy intervention to protect the environment nor to stimulate healthy lifestyles in order to prevent disease and promote health in accordance with the principles of new public health (Khan and Van den Heuvel, 2005; Khan et al., 2005).

Planning
The important institutions engaged in health planning include the Federal Ministry of Health, P&D Division, NEC, ECNEC and ECC at the feral level. However, the Ministry of Health plays an important role in health planning in collaboration with the P&D Division. At provincial level, provincial ministries of health in collaboration with the PDWP are engaged in health planning. Below the provincial at district (local) level no planning activity takes place. Districts are responsible only for the implementation of plans, policies and recommendations of the federal and provincial government. Health planning is hardly flexible, participative and integrated with other decision-making processes in Pakistan (Bjorkman, 1986; Green et al 1997). As a consequence of the narrowly focused agenda building, planning is mostly directed to the delivery of health care services and increasing the number of clinics, clinical laboratories and physicians. For example, the Annual Plan 2004-05 of Pakistan stated that the government planned to open 40 new Basic Health Units (BHUs), to upgrade 35 existing BHUs, to open 8 new Rural Health Centers (RHCs), to upgrade 15 existing RHCs, to increase the number of hospital beds by 1800, to train 3700 physicians, 250 dentists and 2300 nurses (Pakistan, 2004c). These are positive steps in increasing and improving health care services by following the biomedical model of health , however, the said plan did not pay attention to disease prevention and health promotion by investing in healthy lifestyles and protecting environment in accordance with modern health paradigms. It also ignored the shortage of public health professionals and did not include any plan to increase training opportunities in the area of public health and health promotion. Similarly, the Annual Plans 2002-2003 and 2003-2004 also focused on increasing the number of BHUs, RHCs, hospital beds, physicians and nurses and without any attention to increase the number of public health professionals in the country (Pakistan, 2002; Pakistan 2003b; Siddiqi et al, 2004). Many studies have stated that health planning in Pakistan has largely consisted of the production of planning documents, and the preparation of formal documentation for short-term measures (Alam et al., 2003; Ali, 2000; Bjorkman, 1986; Green et al., 1997). Many observe that health policies and planning documents in Pakistan set ambitious targets in the absence of a concern about distributional aspects of health status, services and providing enough details about how objectives will be translated into practice or how realistic they are (Ali, 2000; Green et al., 1997; Siddiqi et al, 2004). It is positive that the Annual Plan 2005-06 aims to immunize 4.5 million infants against preventable diseases, 2 million children against polio, and 5.6 million childbearing women against tetanus through Extended Program of Immunization (EPI) in collaboration with Global Alliance for Vaccine Initiative (Pakistan, 2005b). However, as learnt by the interviews of the actors at provincial and district level, it is not clear that without increasing the financial and human resources how 4.5 million infants against preventable diseases and 2 million children against polio will be immunized. It is also not clear that how 5.6 million childbearing women will be immunized against tetanus. Furthermore, it is not clear that how a collaboration will be developed between the EPI program of the Ministry of Health and Global Alliance for Vaccine Initiative. Governmental analysis has pointed out that the health planning process in the country suffers from problems of inade-

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HEALTH POLICY PROCESS ANALYSIS quacy of data, unrealistic cost estimates, over-estimation of benefits, lack of coordination, incorrect assumption of the availability of inputs, lack of proper implementation schedules and lack of appropriate human resources (Pakistan, 2003a).

Implementation
The implementation process in the country is influenced by the political, economic and sociocultural context. Governments change frequently and every new government tends to change or decrease its support for health policies and programs initiated by the former government. Such a trend in governments neither provides specific time for the implementation nor for the intended goals to be achieved. It also results in a lack of government support for health programs and a waste of resources. For example, the military government, after assuming power in 1977, froze the family planning program due to its antagonism to the former elected government. The former Prime Minister and his party Pakistan People Party (PPP) were motivated to make the population program accessible and popular on priority basis. The then military government suppressed the family planning program while suppressing the PPP (Khan, 1996). In implementing health policies and programs health professionals, civil servants and administrators working at the federal, provincial and district levels play various roles according to their qualifications and professional capabilities. During interviews these actors working at federal, provincial and district level acknowledged that the implementation process suffers from communication gaps between health professionals, civil servants and administrators. They also disclosed that these communication gaps hinder the flow of information from upper to lower level actors particularly in understanding specific objectives of the planned health projects before implementation. As disclosed by the interviewees, during implementation of comprehensive public health projects, field officers and health professionals at grass roots level are neither provided sufficient information nor proper guidance to attain control over the implementation process. The interviews also added that health professionals working at district level were trained only for the delivery of health care services but have to implement comprehensive disease prevention programs. Health professionals and field officers working at district level acknowledged during interviews that they were neither trained in public health nor had they been properly informed about how to implement multi-sectoral disease prevention programs in a collaborative way. As a result, such health professionals could not take appropriate actions to keep the implementation of multi-sectoral health programs upon the desired track in order to avoid implementation failures (Casterline et al., 2001; Khan, 2005; Lee et al., 1998). Implementation schedules for women’s health programs and nutrition programs are not based on a systematic approach such as Bar Charts, Critical Path Methods (CPM), Project Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT) (Ali, 2000; Pakistan, 2003a). As indicated by the interviewees, the Ministry of health intends to follow implementation schedules, however, in practice several times implementing agencies and private contractors do not follow implementation schedules in accordance with specified time frame, resulting in delays in the completion of projects and wastage of resources. For example, so often, the ministry of rural development and private contractors delay in constructing and handing over the buildings of BHUs and RHCs to the Ministry of Health. Consequently, the Ministry cannot employ the necessary staff and arrange the equipment in order to provide health care services through BHUs and

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CHAPTER 7 RHCs according to its time frame. Public health projects and programs aiming to promote health by protecting environment, restraining industry that is causing pollution, and promoting tobacco cessation are resisted by tobacco manufacturers and owners of the polluting industrial units (Khan et al., 2005). These industrialists and manufacturers feel threatened because effective implementation of health promotion programs may restrict the growth of the polluting industry and reduce the sale of tobacco, and ultimately can lead to a loss of profits.

Monitoring and Evaluation
Health authorities in the country have not developed an efficient system of monitoring particularly to monitor multi-sectoral public health projects (Bhutta et al, 2003; Lee et al., 1998; Luby et al., 2004; Green et al., 1997). The interviewees working at the provincial and district level state that there are no institutionalized arrangements for monitoring, especially a set-up with forward and backward linkages. Furthermore, collected data and information from the districts are not properly processed, trained personnel are not available, and site visits of the health projects are often lacking (ADB, 2005; Green et al., 1997; Pakistan 2003a). During interviews health professionals and field officers working at district level have disclosed that the Ministry of health has developed particular forms for monitoring and evaluation of health projects, however, in practice this system comprises only paper monitoring, depending solely on the completion of the specified forms. They also disclosed that there is no mechanism to ensure that the monitoring forms are completed and returned in time to the appropriate authorities. Monitoring of health projects and programs particularly in the rural areas is not regularly conducted, as has already reported for many years (Al-Jalaly, 1991; Lee et al., 1998; Pakistan, 2003a). As a result the process of collecting important information does not work properly. Modern monitoring and evaluation techniques as well as methods such as CPM, PERT, BAR Chart, etc are not regularly used, particularly in observing the delivery of multi-dimensional services according to plan, ways of resource extension, and utilization of resources according to the various public health activities in Pakistan. Experimental methods and quasiexperimental methods are not used regularly in evaluating health projects in the country (ADB, 2005; Al-Jalaly, 1991; Ali, 2000; PHMIS, 2005). Field officers pointed out during the interviews that regular site visits at the pre-evaluation stage and post-evaluation stage are not conducted systematically. Furthermore, in evaluating health projects it is uncommon to compare the situation after program implementation with the situation before the program (ADB, 2005; Al-Jalaly, 1991; Ali, 2000; Bhutta et al., 2003).

Discussion
The health policy process is centralized and lacks wider participation from other important stakeholders such as NGOs, professional groups, people representatives and communities (Khan and Van den Heuvel, 2005; Siddiqi et al., 2004). New public health is a comprehensive approach that argues to increase institutional capacities of health ministries and institutions, enhance competences of human resource for health, ensure participation and collaboration in order to prevent disease and promote health (Green & Kreuter, 1999; Laterveer, et al, 2003; Lush et al, 2003). It is positive that Pakistan, became a signatory of the Health for All (HFA) in 1978, however, could not increase institutional capacity of the ministry of health, enhance

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HEALTH POLICY PROCESS ANALYSIS competences of human resource for health, ensure participation and develop collaboration between health and other social welfare sectors, NGOs, professionals groups and communities. Pakistan needs to decentralize its health system by delegating powers as well as functions to lower levels in order to involve provinces and districts not only in implementation but also in other stages of the policy process. Decentralization can help in ensuring wider participation and developing collaboration between the Ministry of health and other social welfare sectors, NGOs, professionals groups and communities in order to improve health policy process, make the health programs more effective and services more accessible. In a decentralization structure collaboration and participation by local governments, NGOs, and community groups helped health authorities in Indian state of Kerala in implementing PHC program and improving health condition of the people (Varatharajan, et al., 2004). In Bangladesh participation and collaboration with stakeholders, communities and NGOs in a decentralized health system showed positive results in controlling tuberculosis (Zafar Ullah, et al., 2006). Siddiqi et al., (2004) believes that maternal and child health (MCH) and family planning (FP) policies and programs can be implemented more effectively by involving communities and their representatives, relevant interest groups, stakeholders and district governments. Participation can also help in protecting the environment, targeting specific groups, addressing the issues of implementation and developing health lifestyles. It is positive that training facilities and the number of health care professionals has been increased in the country. There are 113,206 physicians, 6,127 dentists, and 48,446 nurses (Pakistan, 2005a). However, as mentioned earlier that the training facilities in the area of public health and number of public health professionals is low. The Health Services Academy, Islamabad, is the only governmental institute that offers a “Master of Public Health (MPH)” degree to its students. The academy awarded MPH degrees to 118 public health professionals during 1997-2004 (Pakistan, 2004a). A private university “Baqai Medical University, Karachi” has also been providing public health training and awarding MPH degrees to 15 health professionals annually since 1999. It indicates that Pakistan experiences an imbalance among health care professionals and public health professionals having knowledge and experience in accordance with HFA. There is a general lack of knowledge and awareness regarding modern health paradigms among human resource involved in the policy process at federal, provincial and local level as demonstrated before. Consequently, the causes of many health problems are neither recognized nor properly addressed in the health policy process. Interviewees have indicated that the lack of knowledge and awareness regarding modern health paradigms disturbs coordination between planners (at top levels) and implementers (at grass roots levels). Although implementers are close to the problem in the local situation, they cannot translate policy objectives of the national health policy and international programs (including HFA) to their local situation. Furthermore, they cannot give any input into policy making, and change plans for the purpose of effective implementation. Interviewees also pointed out that the knowledge deficiencies disturb collaboration between health and other welfare sectors such as education, water and sanitation, environment, local government and rural development. Pakistan seriously needs to increase training opportunities in order to train its health professionals, increase knowledge and create awareness in the comprehensive areas of new public health and health promotion (Khan and Van den Heuvel, 2005; Siddiqi et al, 2004). It is also important to launch awareness campaigns through media, NGOs, religious leaders and com103

CHAPTER 7 munity representatives. Comprehensive knowledge and awareness of public health can help in making health system participative, developing collaboration and improving the health policy process paying attention not only upon the clinical health services but also upon other determinants of health. Furthermore, trained public health professionals can strengthen links between planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation, develop a smooth as well as effective flow of information from federal to provincial and local levels. According to the evaluation of the Government of Pakistan and the World Bank, the National Health Policy (NHP) 2001 has been achieving its targets however, progress is slow and achievement record is still low (Pakistan, 2004a; Pakistan, 2004b; World Bank, 2005). It is positive that second key area of the NHP intended to recruit, train and deploy 100,000 Lady Health Workers (LHWs) in the field by the year 2005. At June 2005, health authorities recruited, trained and deployed 80,000 LHWs in the field. It is also positive that the fifth key area of the NHP intended to reduce low birth weight babies from 25% to 12% by 2010. In practice, the country did not experience a reasonable improvement in the number of low birth weight babies. The number of low birth weight babies was 25% during 2000-2001. During 2002-2003 the rate felt to 23%, and in 2004 to 21% (Pakistan, 2004). At the present in 2006, the number of low birth weight babies is 20%. It is positive that the country is reducing infant and child mortality rate however, the progress is still slow. For example, the infant mortality rate was 82 per 1000 and mortality among the under-fives was 105 per 1000 in 2004 (Pakistan, 2004). At the present in 2006, infant mortality is 74 per 1000 and the under-fives mortality rate is 98 per 1000 in the country (Pakistan, 2005a). An estimated 400,000 infant deaths and 16,500 maternal deaths occur annually in Pakistan. Eighty percent of all births take place at homes either unsupervised or supervised by inadequately trained personnel (Pakistan, 2004a). The data shows that Pakistan experienced progress in increasing the number of physicians and health care facilities, in improving the health of mothers, newborn babies, infants and children under-five. Pakistan needs to improve the institutional capacity of the Ministry of Health, provide appropriate training to its human resource for health and improve its health policy process (Khan et al 2005; Pakistan, 1990, 1997, 2004a; Siddiqi, et al., 2004). As disclosed by the interviewees, health authorities do not consider political desirability, cultural sensitivities, socio-cultural blockades and early warning signals on expected implementation failures. For example, religious groups opposed population-planning programs by mobilizing the people. They persuaded the people not to use birth control methods by labeling such methods as anti-religion and immoral. The professionals working at grass roots level informed their higher authorities of the influence of religious groups on the implementation of population programs (Khan, 1996; Lee et al., 1998). However, the authorities ignored these warnings and kept on increasing the supplies of contraceptives rather than creating awareness among the people and religious groups. As a result population-planning programs suffered from implementation. In India family planning program particularly forced sterilization campaigns also suffered by ignoring political desirability (Kambo et al., 1994; Rajaretnam & Deshpande, 1994). Whereas, Bangladesh experienced effective implementation of its family planning program with a better outcome by creating mass awareness, increasing community participation and involving religious leaders into family planning campaigns (Barkat et al., 2000; Rahman et al., 2001). Health authorities in Pakistan need to consider political desirability, possible socio-cultural blockades and technical feasibilities in implementing health programs particularly family planning programs and control of HIV/AIDS. 104

HEALTH POLICY PROCESS ANALYSIS According to interviewees and scientific data implementation failures and a slow progress in improving the health conditions in the country can also be attributed to unfavorable policy context and lack of resources for health sector (Khan et al., 2005; Siddiqi et al, 2004). The average economic growth rate of Pakistan during the past three decades was 6 percent and in 2004-05 it was 8.4 percent (IMF, 2005; Pakistan, 2005a). However, the country allocated minimal resources for health sector as compared to other developing countries in Asian region as mnetioned earlier.

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CHAPTER 7

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8
CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Chapter 8 Conclusions, Discussion, Recommendations

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CHAPTER 8

Introduction
This study analyzes health policy developments in Pakistan during the last decade. Pakistan is seen as a developing country, which has common problems in improving health care services and the health status of the population similar to other developing countries in the region. At the same time the situation of Pakistan differs from some other developing countries since its economic growth has been significant during the last years, which may affect health policy positively. However, in practice a reasonable economic growth has not always or not yet resulted in better health indicators. Health policy analysis is important to identify what has been the government’s response to address health problems, to improve health services, to prevent health problems and to stimulate a healthy population, especially in developing countries. Policy analysis means different things to people. For some, policy analysis mainly concerns policy content, while others argue it is more concerned with policy context and process. Traditionally, there are two approaches to policy analysis: the "rationalist" and the "behaviorist” approach. The rationalist or idealistic approach or ‘linear model’ tends to focus more on the content of the policy and is more value oriented - since it analyses how policy-making should be undertaken (Ranney, 1968; Van Herten & Gunning-Schepers, 2000a; 2000b; Walt & Gilson, 1994). Policy making is seen as a problem solving process, where decisions are made on sequential phases, i.e. problem definition, alternative approaches to solve the problem, choosing the best approach and implementing it (Sutton, 1999). Unlike rationalism, the behaviorism approach (also called incrementalism) argues that it is essential to pay more attention to the process and the context within which policies are formed and implemented (Sutton 1999; Walt, 1994; Walt & Gilson, 1994). According to this approach analysis of policy process helps in understanding why many health problems are not solved, why policies are not implemented effectively and why health policies do not achieve their targets (Brewer & Leon, 1983; Jenkins-Smith & Sabatier, 1993; Sabatier, 1993; 1998; 1999; Walt & Gilson, 1994). It is among others a ‘political process’, which outcomes are ‘evolutionary’ and not rational or ‘logical’ (Juma & Clarke 1995). So, for behaviorists the understanding of contextual factors, including political, socio-cultural and economic ones, is critical in any policy analysis (Collins et al., 1999; Navarro, 2000; Saltman, 1997). Understanding such factors should lead to the best choice of strategies for implementation in a specific community. According to behaviorism various processes or factors may be seen as crucial in understanding the outcome and various theories are developed (Sabatier, 1998, 1999). The policy process moves through a number of distinct phases but not in an orderly way. Interaction between policy makers and executive officers is an important aspect (Juma & Clarke 1995, Kingdon, 1995; Mukandala, 1992, Panday 1989). Within this wide variety of (sub) theories and models the choice has to be determined by the research questions and by the circumstances the research has to be executed (availability of data, existing institutions, established procedures etc.). In developed countries the role of well organized interest groups and stakeholders is more pronounced, interest groups are better organized, various policy processes are based on formalized procedures and embedded in democratic systems. In developing countries, the policy process is different, for example the relationship and interaction between policy makers and

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CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS executive officers influences the implementation process considerably and may change the goals and outcomes (Juma & Clarke 1995; Mukandala, 1992; Panday, 1989). Furthermore, interest groups are neither so pronounced nor organized and policy processes are not based on formalized procedures rather influenced by political instability, change in regimes, lack of resources and socio-cultural factors. Therefore, in analyzing health policies in Pakistan and other developing countries many theories and models (like of Sabatier and Kingdon) are not appropriate due to differences in political, economic and socio-cultural context in which policy process takes place. We believe that the model of Walt and Gilson (1994) can be a helpful tool to analyze health policies in Pakistan because the model has been specifically designed for analyzing health policies in developing countries. This model gives specific attention to the content, context and process of health policy and to the role of actors played in health policy process. The study presents content analysis of the National Health Policy (NHP) 2001. Context analysis focuses upon contextual factors (political, economic and socio-cultural) because they influence the health policy process, the sustainability of health policies and programs, participation, health resources and health outcome. The health policy process (i.e. agenda building, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation) describes the availability and use of resources, expertise and methods to realize the policy objectives. This chapter answers the research questions briefly presenting the analysis of health policy content, context and process in Pakistan. Next the results will be discussed. This chapter also describes weak and strong aspects of this study and makes recommendations for changes in health policy in Pakistan. Research questions The research questions of this study are 1. What is the content of the National Health Policy (2001) of Pakistan? More in particular this question will focus on a. which health problems are addressed; b. whether major changes in priority occur; and c. whether the content is in accordance with the principles of modern health paradigms including HFA strategy. 2. How do contextual factors (political, economic and socio-cultural) influence the health policy process and health outcomes in Pakistan? 3. How is the health policy process (i.e. agenda building, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation) executed in Pakistan and how does this affect health outcome? Traditionally, health policies in Pakistan intend to pay attention to the supply side: the number of health care services, basic health units, hospitals, physicians, dentists and nurses. This approach is inherited from the Western world following the biomedical model of health. Although known, less attention is given to disease prevention and health promotion in accordance with the principles of new public health and health promotion. The last health policy document is formulated in 2001 (NHP 2001). In this document the principles of Health for All and new public health are recognized and seen as the basis for the new health policy. In analyzing the content of the national health policy in Pakistan it is shown that the NHP 2001 has emphasized curative care and institutional facilities for the delivery of health care services, the need for immunization and extension of district health services. Major ‘classical’ health problems, such as childhood diseases, diarrhea, Malaria, TB and Hepatitis- are recognized and therefore immunization programs and cure services are stimulated. These health problems 111

CHAPTER 8 have also been emphasized in former health policy documents. At the same time the data show major ‘modern’ health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, and drug addiction are increasing. In the NHP 2001 less attention is given to these diseases/problems and no attention is given to address the factors, which may determine these ‘modern’ diseases. In its activities and plans, the NHP 2001 does not mirror in many respects the comprehensive principles of new public health particularly the mission of HFA. In analyzing health policy context it has been shown that the political context is unstable and experiences frequent change in governments that results into change in health policies plans and projects, but less into priorities. This political instability may lead to centralization, weak institutions, and a low priority to social welfare issues including health. Analysis of the economic context shows that in spite of a reasonable economic growth governmental expenditures upon health are low which leads to constraints in resources (money, manpower, measures). Therefore, plans are difficult to realize. Similarly, socio-cultural factors such as low status of women, low literacy rate and corruption influence health policy implementation and health outcome. Low status of women hinders female participation in health development, results in high morbidity among women, and may lead to the implementation failure of immunization programs, women’s health programs and family planning programs. Restrictions on the mobility of women to obtain access to health and social services, women’s restricted decision-making power, and their incapability to negotiate with their partners for safer sexual practices contribute to women’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. The low literacy rate particularly among women disturbs the implementation of health programs such as mother and child health, reproductive health, immunization and family planning programs. It also creates difficulties in creating awareness to prevent HIV/AIDS, activating wider participation, protecting environment and developing healthy lifestyles. Corruption results into illegal pharmaceutical factories operating in homes and backyards that manufacture low standard medicines by using labels of established pharmaceutical firms (including international ones) and change the dates of the expired medicines. Bribes and kickbacks result into the purchase of low quality medical equipment and technologies, stealing and misuse of public equipment and medicines meant for poor patients and misuse of resources in the governmental hospitals. Sometimes, physicians, nurses and other health care professionals working in rural areas are found absent during their duty hours. Sometime they accept bribes and sell medicines meant for poor patients. In analyzing the health policy process the study indicates that the important stages of the health policy process (agenda building and policymaking, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation) experiences various problems that affect the process. The involvement of citizens in agenda building and implementation is low. The specific problems, which affect the health policy process, are centralization, the influence of the narrowly focused biomedical model of health, a shortage of trained public health professionals, unfavorable health policy context and lack of financial resources. Centralization hinders the wider participation from other important stakeholders such as NGOs, professional groups, people representatives and communities in the policy process. The planning and implementation is mostly directed to the delivery of health services and increasing the number of clinics, clinical laboratories and health care professionals. ‘New’ diseases increase and proper actions are not taken partly due to lack of expertise. The emphasis stays on ‘classical’ cure issues and health care facilities. The implementation process is negatively influenced by the socio-cultural context as described already. Cultural and religious values particularly hinder implementation of family

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CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS planning programs and control of HIV/AIDS because religious groups and leaders label these programs anti-religion and immoral.

Discussion
By following the model of Walt & Gilson (1994) our health policy analysis focuses upon the health policy content, its context and the process. These three areas of the health policy will be discussed by highlighting the role of important actors involved in the health policy process. The Health Policy Content Analysis Our content analysis has focused how the NHP 2001 deals with important principles of HFA such as equity, participation and collaboration because the policy document has stated that the basic purpose of formulating a new health policy is to renew the policy in accordance with the principles of HFA strategy. However, in practice, the NHP 2001 has not sufficiently and appropriately met these principles of HFA. By considering equity as a basic principle of new public health HFA argues for advocating equity as a means of making the health programs, policies and projects more accessible, effective and sustainable. HFA also demands to address health inequalities particularly in the developing countries. But equity is absent in Pakistan because ruling elite give low priority to health sector, allocate minimum governmental expenditures for health in national budgets and are not dependent upon public health sector. It also hinders women’s access to health and social services, restricts their decision-making power and capability to negotiate with their partners for safer sexual practices. According to HFA participation helps in making the health programs, strategies and services more effective and sustainable (Campbell & Mzaidume, 2001; Cockburn & Trentham 2002; Minkler, 1999). Participation is particularly important for Pakistan in making its health programs and policies more effective but the NHP 2001 has offered only limited participation in specific health programs such as extended program of immunization (EPI), the national program against tuberculosis and the malaria control program. This participation is limited to some international organizations, health ministries and departments. Health care organizations, NGOs, non-medical health professional groups, the media and the community are not involved as stated by the interviewees particularly representatives of the international and professional organizations and health professionals at provincial and local level. As we demonstrated earlier that socio-cultural values such as low status of women, low literacy level particularly among women hinder female participation in health development, result in domestic violence and high morbidity among women. Furthermore, it may lead to the implementation failure of immunization programs, women’s health programs and family planning programs. Involving relevant actors such as NGOs, non medical health professional groups, the media, academicians, school teachers, religious leaders and the community in preventing disease and promoting health is not easy because there is not enough space for a wider participation in the centralized health system and health related sectors as well actors are not well coordinated while delivering public health services. Furthermore participation however will be needed to establish a sound infrastructure for health development programs and health promotion. The NHP 2001 has not offered an appropriate policy intervention either to create a space for participation in the existing centralized health system or to decentralize the health system in

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CHAPTER 8 order to develop collaboration that can ensure effective linkages between ministries, other sectors, groups, organizations, actors, and communities to achieve the comprehensive goals of the HFA stated by the interviewees particularly representatives of the international and professional organizations and health professionals at provincial level. These interviewees believe that in the absence of collaboration, the Ministry of Health can neither develop partnership nor cooperate with other sectors and agencies in combating behavioral and environmental health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents and drug addiction (including tobacco use) by addressing determining factors of these health problems that are numerous, complex and interdependent. Combating these problems needs collaboration between the health sector and other actors, NGOs as well as sectors such as education, water and sanitation, environment, local government and rural development in order to control and prevent disease as well as promote health (de Leeuw, 1993; 1999; WHO, 1997a; 1997b; WHO, 1998). At the same time, the Ministry of Health can control the quality of water, air and food and health risks of smoking, drug abuse and unhealthy food but it needs to collaborate with other sectors at federal, provincial and district level because the provision of clean water, air and sanitation is the responsibility of the Ministries of Housing and of Work. Collaboration and cooperation among these ministries can help in developing standards for the quality of water, air and food and its availability to the people. Therefore HFA principles may not be applied yet in Pakistan. The NHP (2001) has planned to combat childhood diseases, diarrhea, Malaria, TB and Hepatitis by offering immunization programs, TB control program, reproductive health programs and nutrition program. It also intends to increase the coverage of emergency care, surgical services, anesthesia, gynecology, ophthalmology, pediatrics, laboratory facilities in hospitals, open new health centers. It also intends to increase the number of physicians, nurses, dentists and other health care professionals in the country. All these policy interventions reflect that the NHP 2001, indeed pays sufficient attention to the health care services in accordance with the biomedical model of health. However the NHP 2001 does not pay enough attention to other determinants of health, particularly environment and lifestyles. Concrete plans in improving socio-cultural context by addressing low status of women, illiteracy and corruption have not been presented. Environmental and behavioral factors result in various health problems but the policy document does not offer solutions to address the environmental and behavioral factors in order to prevent disease. Pakistan needs to reformulate its national health policy by paying attention not only to delivery of health care services but also other determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle by following the principles of HFA with clear targets, concrete plans and feasible implementation instruments. Such a comprehensive health policy considering all important determinants of health in accordance with HFA needs to follow a multi-sectoral approach by ensuring equity, participation and collaboration with all health related actors, sectors, NGOs and communities in preventing disease and promoting health. Collaboration between the Ministry of Health and the Ministries of Housing and Works in executing their tenders to assure the availability of safe water and sanitation is particularly recommended for disease prevention. The Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Interior Affairs together may address the causes of risky behaviors such as smoking, drug abuse, negligent driving, low quality of roads and faulty vehicles by collecting important data, analyzing factors and finding ways to control smoking, drug abuse and number of accidents. Such collaboration and a wider participation will be basis for the programs of disease prevention and health promotion. Participation from communities, their 114

CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS leaders and religious groups is particularly recommended to build awareness, develop healthy lifestyles and to avoid the resistance in use of condoms and sex education in controlling STDs, HIV/AIDS and implementation of family planning programs The Health Policy Context Analysis We have stated that the political context in Pakistan does not stimulate wider participation from individuals, professional groups, political parties stakeholders, NGOs and communities to play their role in the implementation of health policies, programs and projects. We have also stated that application of HFA strategy could be hindered due to unfavorable health policy context. A large part of the population particularly in the rural areas feels alienated from the political system resulting in to a credibility gap between the people and government as stated by the interviewees particularly by the representatives of professionals groups, NGOs and health professionals working at provincial and local level. In creating a stable political environment and improving participation it is important to conduct free and fair general elections according to proper schedules stated in the constitution so that people and the representatives can participate in a democratic process in order to form a representative and elected government. The unimportance of health policy and the disinterest in the health status of the population might be demonstrated in allocation of lowest governmental health expenditures in national budgets. International organizations have commented that Pakistan falls in that category of countries where economic advances are being made but allocation of lowest financial resources for health and policy deficiencies are blocking progress towards achieving several health and welfare goals (UNDP, 2002; UNDP, 2004; WHO, 2005; Word Bank, 2004). The low governmental expenditure on health has led to resource constraints for the health sector and results in health policy implementation failures in the country as stated by the interviewees representatives of international agencies and professional organization, NGOs and health professionals working at all levels. It is important to improve the health policy context and to treat the health sector as an important sector like other sectors such as defense, industry, trade and commerce in allocating reasonable amount of financial resources. Pakistan needs to increase its governmental expenditures from 0.7 of the GDP percent up to 2 percent in the next national budget 2007-08 and 3 percent of the GDP till 2009 as recommended by the international agencies including WHO, UNDP and World Bank. It will improve the health policy process and will minimize the dependency of the country on donors in implementing health programs including PHC and HFA. Furthermore, a reasonable amount of resources can help in comprehensive long-term health planning and its effective implementation without facing uncertainties regarding the amount and flow of financial resources. Besides increasing the governmental health expenditures, it is also important to address the poverty because poverty is a major determinant of poor health in the country. In combating poverty it is important to address issues as income, employment, distribution and access to education, access to safe water and sanitation, availability of food and nutrition. Creating job opportunities and providing employment to unemployed youth, introducing income generating schemes particularly in rural areas, increasing education and training opportunities for unskilled youth, assuring access to basic amenities like water, sanitation and housing may address the problem of poverty. One, socio-cultural factor should be mentioned, i.e. the low status of women together with the low literacy rate and corruption influence health policy process and health outcomes. Stimu115

CHAPTER 8 lating opportunities for the primary education particularly in rural areas by opening new schools and increasing the female enrolment rate in the schools may increase literacy level. Increasing literary level and improving status of women will certainly increase female participation and can assure effective implementation of immunization programs, women’s health programs, reproductive health programs, and family planning programs. Furthermore, it can increase the access of women to health services; enhance their decision-making power, and their capability to negotiate with their partners for safer sexual practices in order to avoid their vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. The Health Policy Process Analysis In addressing the problems in the health policy process (agenda building, policy making, planning, monitoring and evaluation) need to delegate powers and responsibilities to the lower levels (provincial and district). Furthermore it is important to increase the institutional capacity of the provinces and districts in ensuring their participation not only in policy implementation but also in other stages of the health policy process. Paying attention to districts and ensuring their participation in all the stages of health policy process is particularly important because districts are more close to the people, risk groups and to the beneficiaries of the health services. Furthermore, districts can play an important role in developing cooperation and collaboration with NGOs, health professionals, health institutions, health boards, consumer organizations, communities and their leaders for the protection and promotion of patient rights as stated by the interviewees particularly representatives of international and professional organization, NGOs and health professionals. Such a participation and collaboration at district level can also develop networks of trust, respect, and cooperation among communities and their representatives, governmental sectors, NGOs and professional groups in order to mediate between differing interests in society for the pursuit of good health. As stated earlier, there are communication gaps between actors at top level and professionals working at provincial and district levels that disturb flow of information from the top to the bottom level. In order to address these problems there is a need to integrate the implementation process at district, provincial and national level so that health professionals, civil servants and administrators working at these levels can develop an effective communication at all levels. Such integration is important for a flow of information from upper to lower levels in understanding specific objectives of the planned health projects before implementation. Similarly, it can help to establish a communication from bottom to the top level in order to keep the implementation upon the desired path. Besides improving the communication between all levels it is also important to provide appropriate knowledge and skill to health professionals working in the districts. As shown in the analysis Pakistan experiences an imbalance among health care professionals and public health professionals having knowledge and experience in accordance with HFA. There is also a general lack of knowledge and awareness regarding modern health paradigms among human resource involved in the policy process at federal, provincial and local level as demonstrated before. Consequently, the causes of many health problems are neither recognized nor properly targeted in policy making. Similarly, the knowledge deficiencies disturb collaboration between health and other welfare sectors. Trained and skillful health professionals can play an effective role in increasing quality, availability, accessibility and sustainability of health services.

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Weak and strong points of the study
The most problematic aspect of this study is lack of reliable data. Various sources, national and international, are explored and used. Nevertheless, it has to be stated that figures about vital statistics pertaining to births, mortality and morbidity are not accurate in Pakistan and other important ‘back ground’ material is not available, or derived from the same material from Pakistan. For example, in case of accidents basic information regarding the exact time, date, working conditions, and existing safety measures are not available. In case of road traffic accidents, information such as quality of the road and the vehicle, the number of people traveling in the vehicle, the health conditions of the driver, and the speed at the time of accident are not available. Pakistan did not develop an effective management information system (MIS) that would yield basic information about incidence and prevalence of disease, exact number of health services particularly in private sector, progress in delivery of services, and outcome of health programs. Another problem occurs when data are available which affects the objectives set by the health policy. It is not unusual to change, twist or withhold certain data deliberately to conceal the facts from the people, the agencies involved in the approval procedures, and the donors. There were considerable difficulties in assembling a satisfactory time-series on health expenditures because reporting agencies at various points in time use different assumptions and definitions. Underreporting is chronic and there is no way to ascertain the correct cause of death and ill health. If data are unreliable, not existent and difficult to get, it may be questioned why such study is undertaken. The answer put forward an important point of this study. It is for the first time that such a study is attempted in Pakistan, i.e. to make a comprehensive analysis of recent health policy in Pakistan and to combine several information resources. A positive aspect of the study is that it has considered secondary data in the form of previous studies about health policy analysis, official reports of health ministries and departments in Pakistan, international agencies, reports of seminars and conferences on health policy. In order to collect reliable information and data, the Federal Ministry of Health, the provincial ministries of health in all the four provinces, health and other welfare departments, libraries, academic and research institutes in Pakistan, the Netherlands and Switzerland were visited. Besides the document analysis, open-ended interviews of one hundred and fifty-two actors involved in the health policy process at the district (local), provincial, federal and international level were conducted in Geneva, Islamabad, Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar, Quetta, Rawalpindi, Abbottabad during 2000 and 2005. The interviewed international actors include: the officials of WHO, the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, UNICEF, and UNDP. The interviewed national actors included: elected representatives, policy makers and civil servants from the Ministry of Health, physicians, public heath professionals, health managers and representatives of health-related NGOs as well as health associations. These interviews helped in obtaining useful and important information and to get further insights into health policy context, process and role of actors in the health policy process. This approach of conducting interviews of the actors involved in the health policy process is new in Pakistan. In conducting interviews certain difficulties were also experienced particularly in finding time from political leaders and top-level civil servants. In some cases, appointments were made

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CHAPTER 8 with political leaders and top-level civil servants, but when their offices or homes were visited, their personal secretaries and assistants declared that the appointment had to be cancelled because their boss was very busy. New appointments were made, but these too were later delayed or cancelled. In a few cases, interviewees met, but after they learned the purpose of the interview, they suggested to approach another person (mostly a junior civil servant of the ministry) for such information. It shows the discomfort of the top level actors may feel when they are asked to comment upon poor health conditions in the country. Mostly, top-level civil servants working in the federal and provincial health ministries did not feel comfortable during interviews. They supported the governmental view and avoided to comment upon health policy and implementation failures experienced in Pakistan. However, junior civil servants and officials working in other governmental, and non-governmental departments and field offices in provincial head quarters and districts were more critical. They started speaking openly, providing information and expressing their personal views, experiences and discussing health policy issues related to context, process and role of actors. They also provided useful information that differed from governmental documents on the condition of anonymity. The study has also identified that important determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle need to be considered in policy formulation in order to make healthy choices easier and unhealthy choices more difficult. The study has also identified that contextual factors (political, economic and socio-cultural) influences the health policy process and health outcome. Furthermore, it has identified the problems in agenda building, policy formulation, planning, monitoring and evaluation. This study can help in finding effective ways of policy formulation, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.

Recommendations
Based on the analysis and the discussion it is recommended that the health authorities in Pakistan need to reformulate its national health policy by paying attention not only to delivery of health care services but also other determinants of health particularly environment and lifestyle by following the principles of HFA with clear targets, concrete plans and feasible implementation instruments. Such a comprehensive health policy considering all important determinants of health in accordance with HFA needs to follow a multi-sectoral approach by ensuring equity, wider participation and collaboration with all health related actors, sectors, NGOs and communities in preventing disease and promoting health. It is recommended to pay improved attention to the health policy context and to treat the health sector as an important sector like other sectors such as defense, industry, trade and commerce in allocating human as well as financial resources. Concretely, Pakistan needs to increase its governmental health expenditures in its national budgets up to 3 percent of the GDP. Concerning the socio-cultural policy context the following is recommended. • To address low status of women. The international declarations, conventions and the Constitution must be followed in order to treat women on equal basis in providing them opportunities of health, education and employment. It is also important for authorities to enforce the laws in order to address suppressive attitude, various types of harassments, sexual assaults and domestic violence.

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CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSION, RECOMMENDATIONS • • To improve the literacy level it is necessary to increase the education facilities, and increase the enrollment rate particularly for girls by offering incentives. To set up a new quality control system that can effectively control purchase and use of low quality medicines and medical equipment by increasing the number of drug inspectors , ensure their regular visits of the drug market and pharmaceutical industry, control bribes and kickbacks in the health sectors and to control the absenteeism of doctors, nurses and other health professionals from their duties it is important to improve the system of complaints by providing special numbers and telephone facilities to the beneficiaries for making their complaints.

In order to improve health policy process the following is recommended. • To ensure the participation of provinces and districts not only in implementation but all the stages of health policy process. Views, opinions and experiences of public health professionals, field officers and community workers working at provincial and district level regarding policy implementation need to be forwarded regularly to the policy makers and planners at top levels as a feedback in order to improve health policy process. To develop effective linkages between all the stages of health policy process, monitor and evaluate health projects and programs by conducting regular sight visits and using modern techniques such as Bar Charts (BCs), Critical Path Methods (CPM), Project Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT), compare the situation after program implementation with the situation before the program in evaluating health projects. To increase training opportunities in the area of new public health by opening schools of public health, introducing public health in the curriculum of medical colleges and to send health professionals working in the ministries and departments of health and health related sectors for training programs for different duration of time keeping in view their needs and working schedules.





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References
Brewer, G., & Leon, de P. (1999). The Foundations of Policy Analysis. Homewood. Dorsey Press. Campbell, C., & Mzaidume, Z. (2001). Grassroots Participation, Peer Education and HIV Prevention by Sex Workers in South Africa. American Journal of Public Health. 91(12):1978-1986. Cockburn, L., & Trentham, B. (2002). Participatory Action Research: Integrating Community Occupational Therapy Practice and Research. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 69(1):20-30. Collins, C., Green, A., & Hunter, D. (1999). Health Sector Reform and the Interpretation of Policy Context. Health Policy. 47:69-83. de Leeuw, E. (1993). Health Policy, Epidemiology, and Power: The Interest Web. Health Promotion International. 8(1):49-54. de Leeuw, E. (1999). Healthy Cities: Urban Social Entrepreneurship for Health. Health Promotion International. 14:261-269. de Leeuw, E. (2000). Beyond Community Action: Communication Arrangements and Policy Networks. In Poland, B.D., Green, L.W. and Rootman, I. (Eds.). Settings for Health Promotion: Linking Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks. Sage. 287-300. Jenkins-Smith, H.C., & Sabatier, P.A. (1993). The Study of Public Policy Process. In Sabatier, P.A., & JenkinsSmith, H.C (eds). Policy Change and Learning. Boulder etc. Westview Press. 1-9. Juma, C., & Clark, N. (1995). Policy research in sub-Saharan Africa: an exploration. Public Administration and Development. 15:121-137. Kingdon, J. (1995) .Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies. Michigan: Harper Collins College Publishers. Minkler, M. (1999). Community Organizing and Community Building for Health. New Brunswick. Rutgers University Press. Mukandala, R.S. (1992). Bureaucracy and Agricultural Policy: The Experience in Tanzania. In Asmerson, H.K., Hoppe, R., & Jain, R.B. (Eds.). Bureaucracy and Development Policies in the Third World. Amsterdam. VU University Press. Navarro, V. (2000). Assessment of the World Health Report. Lancet. 356: 1598-1601. Ostrom, E., Gardner, R., & Walker, J. (1994). Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources. Ann Arbor. University of Michigan Press. Pakistan (2001). National Health Policy 2001 The Way Forward: Agenda for Health Sector Reform. Islamabad. Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Health. Panday, D.R. (1989). Administrative Development in a Semi Dependency: The Experience of Nepal. Public Administration and Development. 9:315-29. Ranney, A. (1968). Political Science and Public Policy. Chicago. Markham Publishing Company. Sabatier, P.A. (1993). Policy Change over a Decade or More. In Sabatier, P.A., & Jenkins- Sabatier, P.A. (1998). The advocacy coalition framework: revisions and relevance for Europe. Journal of European Public Policy. 5(1):98-130. Sabatier, P.A. (1999). Theories of the Policy Process. Boulder etc. Westview Press. Saltman, R.B. (1997). The Context for Health Reform in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Germany, and United States. Health Policy. 41 Supp:9-26. Smith, H.C. (eds). Policy Change and Learning. Boulder. Westview Press. 13-39. Stinchcombe, A. (1968). Constructing Social Theories. Chicago. University of Chicago Press. Sutton, R. (1999). The policy process: an overview. Chameleon Press, London, 1999 UNDP (2002). Human Development Report 2002. New York. United Nations Development Program. UNDP (2004). Human Development Report 2004. New York. United Nations Development Program. Van Herten, L.M., & Gunning-Schepers, L. (2000a). Targets as a Tool in Health Policy. Part I: Lessons Learned. Health Policy. 53(1):1-11. Van Herten, L.M., & Gunning-Schepers, L. (2000b). Targets as a Tool in Health Policy. Part II: Guidelines for Application. Health Policy. 53(1):13-23. Walt G. Health policy: An Introduction to Process and Power. London. Zed Books, 1994. Walt, G., & Gilson, L. (1994). Reforming the Health Sector in Developing Countries: The Central Role of Policy Analysis. Health Policy and Planning. 9(4): 353-370. WHO (1997a). Fourth International Conference on Health Promotion (4ICHP) "New Partners for a New Era Leading Health Promotion into the 21st Century", Jakarta, Indonesia, 21-25 July. World Health Organization. WHO (1997b). Health For All. HFA Policy. Geneva. World Health Organization.

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WHO (1998). Health for All Renewal: Building Sustainable Health Systems-From Policy to Action. Geneva. World Health Organization. WHO (2005). World Health Report 2005. Geneva: World Health Organization. World Bank (2004). World Bank Development Report 2004. Oxford. Oxford University Press.

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SUMMARY

Summary
Summary Summary This study is composed of eight chapters. Chapter 1 presents a brief general introduction of the study and Chapter 2 gives a brief general overview of Pakistan. Chapters 3-7 provide answers to the research questions, and the final chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations of the study. The study presents a health policy analysis in Pakistan. It intends to identify what has been the government’s response to address health problems, to improve health services, to prevent health problems and to stimulate a healthy population. The content of the most recent national health policy is analyzed in this study. Contextual factors (political, economic and sociocultural) influencing the health policy process, health resources and health outcome have been analyzed in the health policy context analysis. Furthermore, the health policy process (i.e. agenda building, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation) has been analyzed by focusing upon the availability and use of resources, expertise and methods to realize the policy objectives.

Chapter 1
This chapter presents general introduction of the study by highlighting its general background, the importance of health policy analysis, approaches and models, methodology and overview of the study. It describes that for the purpose of the health policy analysis the policy analysis model developed by Walt and Gilson (1994) has been used that pays specific attention to the content, context and process of health policy and to the role of actors played in health policy process. The study answers the following research questions in analyzing health policy content, context and process in the country. • What is the content of the National Health Policy (2001) of Pakistan? More in particular this question will focus on a. which health problems are addressed; b. whether major changes in priority occur; and c. whether the content is in accordance with the principles of modern health paradigms including HFA strategy? How do contextual factors (political, economic and socio-cultural) influence the health policy process and health outcomes in Pakistan? How is the health policy process (i.e. agenda building, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation) executed in Pakistan and how does this affect health outcome?

• •

Chapter 2
This chapter provides some basic information on Pakistan, covering physical and human geography, economy, national resources, political, administrative and social conditions, education, cultural life, history, the health system and, finally a brief overview of health policy. This overview helps to understand overall health conditions and the health policy environment.

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Chapter 3
Chapter 3 and 4 present content analysis by responding to the first research question. Chapter 3 presents a brief overview of the National Health Policy (2001) of Pakistan by highlighting the various goals and targets of the policy. It observes that the current National Health Policy (NHP) 2001 recognizes the importance of the principles of Health for All (HFA) and new public health in combating health problems and improving life conditions. However, the content analysis shows that the NHP 2001 has emphasized curative care and institutional facilities for the delivery of health care services, and pays less attention to disease prevention and health promotion in accordance with the comprehensive principles of new public health particularly the mission of HFA. Important principles of HFA such as equity, participation and collaboration have not been sufficiently and appropriately considered in agenda building and policymaking. Furthermore, the policy content does not reflect these principles in policy objectives and implementation modalities.

Chapter 4
This chapter describes the occurrence of health problems such as HIV/AIDS, cancer, diabetes, accidents, and drug addiction and their contributing factors including socio-cultural, environmental and infra-structural. The chapter has observed that the NHP (2001) offers several interventions to combat childhood diseases, diarrhea, malaria, TB and hepatitis by offering immunization programs, a TB control program, reproductive health programs and a nutrition program. The policy document also intends to increase the coverage of emergency care, surgical services, anesthesia, gynecology, ophthalmology, pediatrics, laboratory facilities in hospitals and open new basic health units as well as health centers in rural areas. It also aims to increase the number of physicians, nurses, dentists and other health care professionals in the country. However, the NHP 2001 does not pay enough attention to other determinants of health, particularly environment and lifestyles. Concrete plans in improving socio-cultural context by addressing low status of women; illiteracy and corruption have not been presented. Environmental and behavioral factors result in various health problems but the policy document does not offer solutions to address the environmental and behavioral factors in order to prevent disease. The policy document has also not offered comprehensive, appropriate and feasible policy interventions that can effectively address the risk factors of health problems on the one hand and to give citizens the responsibility for their own health on the other hand.

Chapter 5
Chapter 5 and 6 present context analysis in responding to the second research question. Chapter 5 deals with political structure and political context in which health policy is embedded in Pakistan. It has shown that the political context is unstable and experiences frequent change in governments that results into change in health policies plans and projects. This political instability also leads to centralization, weak institutions, and a low priority to social welfare issues including health. Analysis of the economic context shows that in spite of a reasonable economic growth governmental expenditures upon health are low which leads to constraints in resources (money, manpower, measures). Therefore, health policies and plans experience implementation failures.

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Chapter 6
Chapter 6 describes the economic and socio-cultural policy context in Pakistan. It presents the economic growth of Pakistan, the share of the health sector in national budgets, the status of women in society, the literacy level and corruption level. This chapter has analyzed the sociocultural context and showed that socio-cultural factors such as low status of women, low literacy rate and corruption influence health policy implementation and health outcome. Low status of women hinders female participation in health development, results in high morbidity among women, and may lead to the implementation failure of immunization programs, women’s health programs and family planning programs. Restrictions on the mobility of women to obtain access to health and social services, women’s restricted decision-making power, and their incapability to negotiate with their partners for safer sexual practices contribute to women’s vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. The low literacy rate particularly among women disturbs the implementation of health programs and creates difficulties in creating awareness to prevent HIV/AIDS, activating wider participation, protecting environment and developing healthy lifestyles. Corruption particularly in the health sector results into illegal pharmaceutical factories that manufacture low standard medicines and change the dates of the expired medicines. Bribes and kickbacks result into the purchase of low quality medical equipment and technologies, stealing and misuse of public equipment and medicines meant for poor patients and misuse of resources in the governmental hospitals. Sometimes, physicians, nurses and other health care professionals working in rural areas are found absent during their duty hours, accept bribes and sell medicines meant for poor patients.

Chapter 7
In responding to the third research question Chapter 7 has analyzed the health policy process and has indicated that the important stages of the health policy process (agenda building and policymaking, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation) experiences various problems. The specific problems are centralization, the influence of the narrowly focused biomedical model of health, a shortage of trained public health professionals, an unfavorable health policy context and lack of financial resources. Centralization hinders the wider participation from other important stakeholders such as NGOs, professional groups, people representatives and communities in the policy process. The planning and implementation are mostly directed to the delivery of health services and increasing the number of clinics, clinical laboratories and health care professionals. ‘New’ diseases increase and proper actions are not taken partly due to lack of expertise. The emphasis stays on ‘classical’ cure issues and health care facilities. The implementation process is negatively influenced by the socio-cultural context. Religious values particularly hinder implementation of family planning programs and control of HIV/AIDS because religious groups and leaders label these programs as antireligion and immoral.

Chapter 8
This chapter has presented conclusions, discussion and recommendations. Regarding the health policy content, the chapter recommends that Pakistan needs to reformulate its national health policy by paying attention not only to the delivery of health care services but also to other determinants of health, particularly environment and lifestyle, by following the princi-

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SUMMARY ples of HFA with clear targets, concrete plans and feasible implementation instruments. Such a comprehensive health policy considering all important determinants of health in accordance with HFA needs to follow a multi-sectoral approach by ensuring wider participation and collaboration with all health related actors, sectors, NGOs and communities in preventing disease and promoting health. Collaboration between the Ministry of Health and other health related sectors is recommended in order to assure the availability of safe water and sanitation, building basic health units, rural health centers, addressing the causes of risky behaviors such as smoking, drug abuse, negligent driving and faulty vehicles. Participation from communities, their leaders and religious groups is particularly recommended to build awareness and develop healthy lifestyles. Concering the health policy context, it is recommended to treat the health sector as an important sector like other sectors such as defense, industry, trade and commerce in allocating human as well as financial resources. Concretely, it is recommended to increase governmental health expenditures in the national budgets from 0.7 percent up to 2 percent in the next budget 2006-07 and 3 percent till 2008 as recommended by the international agencies including WHO, UNDP and World Bank. Concerning the socio-cultural policy context it is recommended to address low status of women, improve the literacy level, increase the enrollment rate in schools particularly for girls. It is also recommended to control corruption in the health sector in order to avoid the use of low quality medicines and medical equipment, avoid bribes and kickbacks and to combat the absenteeism of health care professionals from their duties. In order to improve health policy process it is recommended to decentralize the health system, delegate powers and functions to lower levels (provinces and districts), enhance the institutional capacity of the districts and ensure their participation not only in implementation but all the stages of health policy process. It is recommended to develop a mechanism that can assure effective linkages between all the stages of health policy process (agenda building, policy making, planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation). It is also recommended to monitor health projects and programs by conducting regular sight visits and using modern techniques such as Bar Charts, Critical Path Methods, Project Evaluation and Review Techniques. The study also recommends to increase training opportunities in the area of new public health and health promotion, introduce public health training in the curriculum of medical colleges and to send health professionals working in the health and health related sectors for training programs keeping in view their needs.

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SAMENVATTING

Samenvatting (Summary in Dutch)
Samenvatting Samenvatting Deze studie omvat acht hoofdstukken. Hoofdstuk 1 geeft een korte algemene inleiding van de studie en hoofdstuk 2 van Pakistan. De hoofdstukken 3 – 7 geven antwoorden op de onderzoeksvragen en het laatste hoofdstuk presenteert de conclusies en aanbevelingen van de studie. De studie analyseert het volksgezondheidsbeleid in Pakistan. Beoogd wordt vast te stellen, wat het antwoord van de regering is geweest om gezondheidsproblemen aan te pakken, om de gezondheidszorg te verbeteren en om de gezondheid van de bevolking te beschermen. De inhoud van het meest recente volksgezondheidsbeleid wordt in deze studie beschreven. Daarbij wordt specifiek aandacht besteed aan de context van het volksgezondheidsbeleid, welke omgevingsfactoren (politieke, economische en sociaal-culturele) het beleidsproces beïnvloeden en welke middelen en menskracht ter beschikking staan voor volksgezondheidsbeleid. Daarenboven wordt het proces van het volksgezondheidsbeleid geanalyseerd door na te gaan in hoeverre beschikbaarheid en gebruik van middelen, van expertise en van werkmethodes de beleidsdoelen realiseren. In hoofdstuk 1 wordt een algemene inleiding van de studie gegeven en de achtergrond van de studie gepresenteerd. Het belang van analyse van het (volksgezondheid)beleid wordt benadrukt, inclusief beschikbare benaderingen en modellen. Tevens presenteert het hoofdstuk de gevolgde werkwijze en de indeling van de studie. Voor de analyse van het volksgezondheidbeleid wordt een model, ontwikkeld door Walt en Gibson (1994), gebruikt, dat specifiek ingaat op de inhoud, de context en het proces van het (volksgezondheid)beleid en aandacht besteedt aan de rol, die personen en organisaties (actoren) spelen in het beleidsproces. De studie beantwoordt de volgende vragen: Wat is de inhoud van het Nationale Beleidsplan Volksgezondheid (NBV) in Pakistan, vastgesteld in 2001? Deze vraag richt zich in het bijzonder op a. welke gezondheidsproblemen komen in het beleidsplan aan de orde? b. zijn er grote veranderingen in prioritaire onderwerpen? c. is de inhoud van het beleidsplan in overeenstemming met de uitgangspunten van moderne gezondheidsparadigma’s, inclusief de ‘Health For All’ (HFA) strategie. Op welke wijze beïnvloeden omgevingsfactoren (politieke, economische en sociaal-culturele) het beleidsproces in de volksgezondheid en de gezondheidsuitkomsten in Pakistan? Hoe wordt het beleidsproces (zoals agendaopbouw, planning, implementatie, monitoring en evaluatie) in de volksgezondheid in Pakistan uitgevoerd en hoe beïnvloedt dit gezondheidsuitkomsten? In hoofdstuk 2 wordt basis informatie over Pakistan gegeven. Het gaat in op geografische en economische aspecten, op nationale hulpbronnen en middelen, op politieke, administratieve en sociale omstandigheden, op onderwijs, geschiedenis en cultureel leven, op het gezondheids(zorg)systeem en tenslotte presenteert het een kort overzicht van het volksgezondheidsbeleid. Dit overzicht beoogt bij te dragen aan begrip voor de algemene gezondheidsomstandigheden en de context van het volksgezondheidbeleid. De hoofdstukken 3 en 4 richten zich op de inhoudsanalyse, zoals aangegeven in de eerste onderzoeksvraag. 127

SAMENVATTING Hoofdstuk 3 geeft een kort overzicht van het Nationale Beleidsplan Volksgezondheid (NBV) uit 2001 door de verscheidene doelen en acties van het beleid te belichten. Vastgesteld wordt, dat het huidige beleidsplan (NBV 2001) het belang van zowel de uitgangspunten van ‘Health For All’ als een nieuwe ‘public health’ om gezondheidsproblemen te bestrijden en levensomstandigheden te verbeteren erkent. De inhoudsanalyse toont echter, dat het NBV 2001 curatieve zorg en institutionele voorzieningen als gezondheidszorgdiensten benadrukt en aan ziektepreventie en bevordering van gezondheid, de uitgangspunten voor de nieuwe ‘public health’ benadering, in het bijzonder de missie van HFA, minder aandacht besteedt. Belangrijke uitgangspunten van HFA zoals gelijkheid, participatie en samenwerking worden onvoldoende en niet op de juiste wijze meegewogen bij het vaststellen van de agenda en bij de beleidsvorming. Bovendien, zijn deze uitgangspunten niet herleidbaar in de beleidsdoelen en de wijze van implementatie. Hoofdstuk 4 beschrijft het voorkomen van gezondheidsproblemen zoals HIV/AIDS, kanker, diabetes, ongelukken en verslaving en de factoren, die daaraan bijdragen, inclusief de sociaalculturele, omgeving en infrastructurele factoren. In het hoofdstuk wordt vastgesteld, dat het NBV 2001 verscheidene interventies biedt om kinderziektes, diarree, malaria, tuberculose en hepatitis te bestrijden door immunisatie programma’s, tuberculose controle programma’s, voorlichtingprogramma’s over zwangerschap en voedingsprogramma’s aan te bieden. Het beleidsplan beoogt ook de beschikbaarheid van diverse medische diensten, zoals eerste hulp, chirurgie, anesthesie, gynaecologie, oogheelkunde en kindergeneeskunde, te vergroten evenals laboratoria in ziekenhuizen en wil tevens nieuwe basisgezondheidsdiensten in stedelijke en plattelandsgebieden oprichten. Tevens wordt beoogd het aantal artsen, verpleegkundigen, tandartsen en andere gezondheidswerkers te laten toenemen in Pakistan. Het NBV 2001 geeft echter te weinig aandacht aan andere determinanten van gezondheid, in het bijzonder omgeving en leefstijl. Concrete plannen om de sociaal-culturele context te verbeteren door aandacht te besteden aan de lage status van vrouwen, analfabetisme en corruptie worden niet gepresenteerd. Omgevings- en gedragsfactoren resulteren in verscheidene gezondheidsproblemen, maar het beleidsdocument biedt geen suggesties hoe deze factoren aan te pakken, om op die manier ziekte te voorkomen. Het document biedt evenmin samenhangende, geschikte en realiseerbare beleidsinterventies, gericht op zowel de effectieve aanpak van risicofactoren als op het geven van (mede)verantwoordelijkheid aan burgers voor de eigen gezondheid. In de hoofdstukken 5 en 6 wordt de contextuele analyse gepresenteerd als antwoord op de tweede onderzoeksvraag. Hoofdstuk 5 handelt over de politieke structuur en context, waarin volksgezondheidsbeleid in Pakistan is ingebed. Het laat zien, dat de politieke context niet stabiel is; veelvuldig is er een verandering in regeringen, die weer resulteert in veranderingen in beleidsplannen en projecten op het terrein van de volksgezondheid. Die politieke instabiliteit leidt ook tot centralisatie, zwakke instituten en een lage prioriteit voor onderwerpen, gericht op sociale welvaart en volksgezondheid. Analyse van economische factoren toont, dat regeringsuitgaven op het terrein van volksgezondheid laag zijn, ondanks de redelijke economische groei in Pakistan. Die lage uitgaven leiden tot beperkingen van middelen (geld, menskracht en maatregelen). Daarom mislukken beleid en plannen op het terrein van volksgezondheid bij implementatie. De economische en sociaal-culturele beleidscontext wordt in hoofdstuk 6 beschreven. Het geeft de economische groei in Pakistan weer, het deel voor de volksgezondheidssector in de nationale budgetten en de sociaal-culturele context, die aantoont dat factoren zoals de lage status van vrouwen, het hoge analfabetisme en het hoge niveau van corruptie implementatie van volksgezondheidsbeleid en gezondheidsuitkomsten beïnvloeden. De lage status van 128

SAMENVATTING vrouwen verhindert, dat vrouwen deelnemen aan de gezondheidsontwikkeling, met als resultaat een hoge morbiditeit onder vrouwen. Ook kan de lage participatie van vrouwen ertoe leiden dat implementatie van immunisatie programma’s, gezondheidsprogramma’s voor vrouwen en programma’s over familieplanning mislukt. De kwetsbaarheid van vrouwen voor HIV/AIDS en (andere) seksueel overdraagbare aandoeningen wordt mede veroorzaakt door beperkingen van vrouwen om toegang te krijgen tot gezondheids- en sociale diensten, door hun beperkte macht om beslissingen te nemen en door de onmogelijkheid om met hun partners te onderhandelen over veilig seksueel gedrag. Het hoge analfabetisme, in het bijzonder onder vrouwen, verstoort de implementatie van gezondheidsprogramma’s en maakt het moeilijk om bewustzijn te creëren voor preventie van HIV/AIDS, maar ook om participatie te bevorderen, om de omgeving te beschermen en om gezonde leefgewoontes te ontwikkelen. Corruptie in de gezondheidssector resulteert in illegale farmaceutische bedrijven, die medicijnen maken van lage kwaliteit en de datum van verlopen geneesmiddelen veranderen. Omkopingen en tegenvallers leiden tot de aanschaf van medisch materiaal en technologie van lage kwaliteit, het stelen van gereedschap, dat publiek eigendom is, en van medicijnen, die bedoeld zijn voor arme patiënten, en misbruik van middelen in de regeringsziekenhuizen. Artsen, verpleegkundigen en andere gezondheidswerkers, die in plattelandgebieden werken, blijken soms afwezig tijdens de uren, dat ze verplicht aanwezig moeten zijn, nemen smeergeld aan en verkopen geneesmiddelen, die bedoeld zijn voor arme patiënten. Ter beantwoording van de derde onderzoeksvraag wordt in hoofdstuk 7 het beleidsproces in de volksgezondheid geanalyseerd. Aangegeven wordt, dat de realisatie van belangrijke onderdelen van het beleidsproces (agendaopbouw en beleidsvorming, planning, implementatie, monitoring en evaluatie) verscheidene problemen ondervindt. De specifieke problemen zijn centralisatie, de invloed van het ‘enge’ biomedische gezondheidsmodel, een tekort aan getrainde deskundigen op het terrein van ‘public health’, een ongunstige beleidscontext en gebrek aan financiële middelen. Centralisatie belemmert de brede participatie in het beleidsproces van andere belangrijke stakeholders, zoals niet-gouvernementele organisaties, professionele groepen, volksvertegenwoordigers en mensen uit de samenleving. Planning en implementatie richten zich meestal op de levering van gezondheidszorgdiensten en op toename van het aantal klinieken, klinische laboratoria en gezondheidszorgwerkers. Nieuwe ziekten nemen toe en geëigende acties worden niet genomen mede door gebrek aan expertise. De nadruk blijft op klassieke ‘cure’ onderwerpen en gezondheidszorgvoorzieningen. Het implementatieproces wordt door de sociaal-culturele context negatief beïnvloed. In het bijzonder religieuze waarden bemoeilijken de implementatie van programma’s gericht op familie planning en op controle van HIV/AIDS, omdat religieuze groepen en leiders dergelijke programma’s als antireligieus en immoreel aanduiden. Hoofdstuk 8 geeft de conclusies, bediscussieert de bevindingen en doet aanbevelingen. Wat betreft de inhoud van het volksgezondheidsbeleid wordt in het hoofdstuk aanbevolen, dat Pakistan het nationale volksgezondheidsbeleid herformuleert door niet alleen aan de levering van gezondheidszorgdiensten aandacht te besteden, maar ook aan andere determinanten van gezondheid, in het bijzonder omgeving en leefstijl, en door de uitgangspunten van HFA te volgen met duidelijke doelstellingen, concrete plannen en haalbare implementatie instrumenten. Een dergelijk samenhangend volksgezondheidsbeleid, waarbij alle belangrijke determinanten van gezondheid conform HFA worden betrokken, vraagt om een multi-sectorale benadering met garantie voor een brede participatie en samenwerking met alle actoren, sectoren en organisaties, die te maken hebben met gezondheid, en met de locale gemeenschappen om ziekte te voorkomen en gezondheid te bevorderen. Samenwerking tussen het Ministerie van Volksgezondheid en andere gezondheidsgerelateerde sectoren is aanbevolen om de beschik129

baarheid van noodzakelijke voorzieningen te garanderen zoals schoon water en sanitair, de bouw van basis gezondheidsdiensten en gezondheidscentra op het platteland, maar ook om aandacht te kunnen besteden aan de oorzaken van risicogedrag zoals roken, drugs misbruik, onveilig rijgedrag en onveilige auto’s. In het bijzonder wordt aanbevolen om gemeenschappen, hun leiders en religieuze groepen te laten deelnemen om bewustzijn voor gezondheidsproblemen en gezonde leefgewoontes te ontwikkelen. Wat de context van het volksgezondheidsbeleid betreft wordt aanbevolen om de volksgezondheidssector, zowel in toewijzing van menskracht als beschikbaarheid van financiële middelen als een belangrijke sector te behandelen, zoals de sectoren defensie, industrie, handel en commercie. Concreet wordt aanbevolen de gezondheidsuitgaven van de regering in het nationale budget te doen toenemen van 0.7 procent naar 2.0 procent in het budgetjaar 20062007 en tot 3 procent voor 2008 zoals ook door internationale organisaties als de Wereldgezondheidsorganisatie en de Wereldbank wordt aangegeven. Wat betreft de sociaal-culturele context wordt aanbevolen de lage status van vrouwen aan te pakken, het analfabetisme te bestrijden en de werkdeelname, vooral voor meisjes, te bevorderen. Ook wordt aanbevolen corruptie in de gezondheidssector te bestrijden om daarmee het gebruik van slechte geneesmiddelen en slechte medische apparatuur, omkopingen en onnodig werkverzuim van gezondheidszorgwerkers te voorkomen. Wat betreft het proces van het volksgezondheidsbeleid wordt aanbevolen om het gezondheidszorg systeem te decentraliseren, zeggenschap en functies naar lagere echelons (provincies, districten) te delegeren, institutionele capaciteit van de districten te benutten en participatie te verzekeren, niet alleen in de implementatie fase, maar bij alle fasen in het beleidsproces. Aanbevolen wordt om mechanismen te ontwikkelen, die effectieve verbindingen kunnen leggen tussen de fases in het beleidsproces (agenda opbouw, beleidsvorming, planning, implementatie, monitoring en evaluatie). Ook wordt aanbevolen om projecten en programma’s te volgen door regelmatige werkbezoeken en door moderne technieken te gebruiken zoals Bar kaarten, kritische pad methode, project evaluatie en reviews. Deze studie leidt ook tot de aanbeveling om faciliteiten voor trainingen op terreinen als nieuwe ‘public health’ en gezondheidsvoorlichting te doen toenemen, om deze kennis in het medische curriculum op te nemen en om gezondheidswerkers bijscholing te laten volgen afhankelijk van hun behoeften en werk.

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Acknowledgments
Finishing a PhD project is the result of participation and collaboration of many persons. It starts with the development of the idea, the participation of experts in the survey and the collaboration with colleagues, scientists and promoters. But all this only have been possible with the blessings of God Almighty. Thanks to Allah (SWT). My gratitude and appreciation to all the individuals, groups, institutes and organizations who contributed in this study directly or indirectly. I am thankful to the interviewees who participated in this study. They extended their kind cooperation and assistance in sparing their valuable time for interview. The interviewees provided useful information, discussed health issues and extended their traditional Pakistani hospitality during my visits to their offices, homes and public places. I want to thank my promoters Prof. Dr. W.J.A. van den Heuvlel, Prof. Dr. J.W. Groothoff and co-promoter Dr. J.P. van Dijk. Prof. Dr. Wim Van den Heuvlel played an important role to realize the results as they are now, despite his academic and administrative activities being a Professor in the University of Groningen and Scientific Director of the research school CaRe, University of Maastricht, Managing Director Institute of Rehabilitation Research (IRV) Hoensbroek and International Consultancies. He was ‘een drukke baas’, but always there in extending his guidance and discussing the scientific matters. I appreciated the comments and support of the promotion committee: Prof. Dr. E. de Leeuw, Prof. Dr. J. Groothoff and Prof. Dr. H. Philipsen, which contributed to the quality of the thesis. Thank you. I am happy to thank my colleagues and friends at the National Center for Rural Development, Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development, Islamabad, Pakistan, Faculty of Health Sciences, the University of Maastricht, Netherlands, Institute of Rehabilitation Research, Hoensbroek, Netherlands and the Faculty of Medical Sciences, the University of Groningen, Netherlands. They all contributed a lot in the completion of this work. They encouraged me to complete this work, provided moral support in difficult times and built a positive hope that became a reality at the end. My words are helpless to extend my thanks particularly for those who helped me in difficult times and tried to keep the stress away from in the years 2003-04. During my stay in the University of Maastricht (1995-2004) I worked as a lecturer in the Maastricht School of Public Health and performed various activities as a tutor, unit coordinator and research supervisor of students attending Master of Public Health (MPH) study program. Working with MPH students from different countries provided a wonderful opportunity in sharing knowledge and experience, knowing different cultures, understanding various socio-cultural values and in learning the art of thinking globally and acting locally in promoting health. I am happy to extend my gratitude to my loving mother and all the family members and friends in Pakistan, Belgium, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia and UK. I really appreciate their kind cooperation, love and affection that helped me in overcoming my problems, acting with patience and sustaining my research process. 131

About the Author
Muhammad Mushtaq Khan was born in Abbottabad (Pakistan) a beautiful valley (1,250 meters above sea level) surrounded by lofty peaks and pine scented air. He completed his Bachelor of Arts degree with Law and Political Science from the University of Peshawar, Pakistan in 1979, Master of Arts in Public Administration in 1983 and Bachelor of Law and Legislature (LLB) in 1984 from the University of Punjab Lahore, Pakistan. He served Agricultural Development Bank of Pakistan (ADBP) as Assistant Director Personnel Administration in 1985. The same year he qualified entry test of Federal Public Service Commission of Pakistan (FPSC) and joined Ministry of Environment, Local Govt., & Rural Development, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan. He served the said Ministry (1985-1990) as Assistant Director, National Center for Rural Development Islamabad, Project Director Peoples Program, District Mardan and Project Director Peoples Program, District Abbottabad. He came to Netherlands in 1990 for further studies and completed Master of Development Studies, Specialization in Public Policy & Administration from the Institute of Social Studies, The Hague, Netherlands in1992, Master of Public Health, Specialization in Health Policy & Administration from the University of Maastricht, Netherlands in1995. He served Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Maastricht, Netherlands (1995-2004) as a lecturer in the Maastricht School of Public Health and researcher in the Department of Health Organization, Policy and Economics. In 2005, Khan started his doctoral research in the University of Groningen and started working as a researcher in the Institute of Rehabilitation Research, Hoensbroek, Netherlands as partial fulfillment to attain the degree of Ph.D.

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NORTHERN CENTER for HEALTHCARE RESEARCH (NCH)
This thesis is published within the research program Public Health and Public Health Services Research of the Northern Center for Healthcare Research. More information regarding the institute and its research can be obtained from our internetsite: www.med.rug.nl/nch. Previous dissertations from the program Public Health and Public Health Services Research Jutte PC (2006) Spinal tuberculosis, a Dutch perspective; special reference to surgery. PROMOTOR: prof dr JR van Horn COPROMOTORES: dr JH van Loenhout-Rooyackers, dr AG Veldhuizen Leertouwer H (2006) Het heil van de gezonden zij onze hoogste wet; de geschiedenis van de medische afdeling bij de arbeidsinspectie PROMOTORES: prof dr JW Groothoff, prof dr MJ van Lieburg, prof dr D Post Jansen DEMC (2006) Integrated care for intellectual disability and multilpe sclerose. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr JW Groothoff COPROMOTOR: dr B Krol
Ham I van (2006) De arbeidssatisfactie van de Nederlandse huisarts

PROMOTORES: prof dr J de Haan, prof dr JW Groothoff COPROMOTOR: dr KH Groenier Jansen GJ (2005) The attitude of nurses towards inpatient aggression in psychiatric care: the development of an instrument. PROMOTORES: prof dr SA Reijneveld, prof dr ThWN Dassen COPROMOTOR: dr LJ Middel Post M (2005) Return to work in the first year of sickness absence; an evaluation of the Gatekeeper Improvement Act. PROMOTOR: prof dr JW Groothoff, prof dr D Post COPROMOTOR: dr B Krol Landsman-Dijkstra JJA (2005) Building an effective short healthpromotion intervention; theorydriven development, implementation and evaluation of a body awareness program forchronic a-specific psychosomatic symptoms. PROMOTOR: prof dr JW Groothoff COPROMOTOR: dr R van Wijck Bakker RH (2005) De samenwerking tussen huisarts en bedrijfsarts. PROMOTOR: prof dr JW Groothoff COPROMOTORES: dr B Krol, dr JWJ van der Gulden Nagyová I (2005) Self-rated health and quality of life in Slovak rheumatoid arthritis patients. PROMOTOR: prof dr WJA van den Heuvel COPROMOTOR: dr JP van Dijk Gerritsma-Bleeker CLE (2005) Long-term follow-up of the SKI knee prosthesis. PROMOTORES: prof dr JR van Horn, prof dr RL Diercks COPROMOTOR: dr NJA Tulp Vries M de (2005) Evaluatie Zuidoost-Drenthe HARTstikke goed!; mogelijkheden van communitybased preventie van hart-en vaatziekten in Nederland. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr JW Groothoff COPROMOTOR: dr JP van Dijk 135

Jungbauer FHW (2004) Wet work in relation to occupational dermatitis. PROMOTORES: prof dr PJ Coenraads, prof dr JW Groothoff Post J (2004) Grootschalige huisartsenzorg buiten kantooruren. PROMOTOR: prof dr J de Haan Reneman MF (2004) Functional capacity evaluation in patients with chronic low back pain; reliability and validity. PROMOTORES: prof dr JW Groothoff, prof dr JHB Geertzen COPROMOTOR: dr PU Dijkstra Bâra-Ionilã C-A (2003) The Romanian health care system in transition from the users’ perspective. PROMOTORES: prof dr WJA van den Heuvel, prof dr JAM Maarse COPROMOTOR: dr JP van Dijk Lege W de (2002) Medische consumptie in de huisartspraktijk op Urk. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr JW Groothoff Hoekstra EJ (2002) Arbeidsbemiddeling met behulp van Supported Employment als interventie bij de reïntegratie van chronisch zieken; de rol van de arbeidsbemiddelaar, chronisch zieke en werkgever. PROMOTORES: prof dr JW Groothoff, prof dr K Sanders, prof dr WJA van den Heuvel, prof dr D Post Enk JG van (2002) Determinants of use of healthcare services in childhood. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr AJP Veerman, prof dr WJA van den Heuvel Gecková A (2002) Inequality in health among Slovak adolescents. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr JW Groothoff. REFERENT: dr JP van Dijk Dijk JP van (2001) Gemeentelijk gezondheidsbeleid; omvang en doelgerichtheid. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr M Herweijer, prof dr JW Groothoff Middel LJ (2001) Assessment of change in clinical evaluation. PROMOTOR: prof dr WJA van den Heuvel REFERENT: dr MJL de Jongste Bijsterveld HJ (2001) Het ouderenperspectief op thuiszorg; wensen en behoeften van ouderen ten aanzien van de thuis(zorg)situatie in Friesland. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr B Meyboom-de Jong REFERENT: dr J Greidanus Dijkstra GJ (2001) De indicatiestelling voor verzorgingshuizen en verpleeghuizen. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr JW Groothoff Dalen IV van (2001) Second opinions in orhopaedic surgery: extent, motives, and consequences. PROMOTORES: prof dr JR van Horn, prof dr PP Groenewegen, prof dr JW Groothoff Beltman H (2001) Buigen of barsten? Hoofdstukken uit de geschiedenis van de zorg aan mensen met een verstandelijke handicap in Nederland 1945-2000. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr AThG van Gennep Pal TM (2001) Humidifiers disease in synthetic fiber plants: an occupational health study. PROMOTORES: prof dr JGR de Monchy, prof dr D Post, prof dr JW Groothoff Goossen WTF (2000) Towards strategic use of nursing information in the Netherlands. PROMOTORES: prof dr WJA van den Heuvel, prof dr ThWN Dassen, prof dr ir A Hasman Hospers JJ (1999) Allergy and airway hyperresponsiveness: risk factors for mortality. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr DS Postma, prof dr ST Weiss

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Wijk P van der (1999) Economics: Charon of Medicine? PROMOTORES: prof dr WJA van den Heuvel, prof dr L Koopmans, prof dr FFH Rutten REFERENT: dr J Bouma Dijkstra A (1998) Care dependency: an assessment instrument for use in long-term care facilities. PROMOTORES: prof dr WJA van den Heuvel, prof dr ThWN Dassen Tuinstra J (1998) Health in adolescence: an empirical study of social inequality in health, health risk behaviour and decision making styles. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr WJA van den Heuvel COPROMOTOR: dr JW Groothoff Mink van der Molen AB (1997) Carpale letsels: onderzoek naar de verzuimaspecten ten gevolgen van carpale letsels in Nederland 1990-1993. PROMOTORES: prof dr PH Robinson, prof WH Eisma COPROMOTOR: dr JW Groothoff REFERENT: dr GJP Visser Mulder HC (1996) Het medisch kunnen: technieken, keuze en zeggenschap in de moderne geneeskunde. PROMOTOR: prof dr WJA van den Heuvel Dekker GF (1995) Rugklachten-management-programma bij de Nederlandse Aardolie Maatschappij B.V.: ontwerp, uitvoering en evaluatie. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof WH Eisma COPROMOTOR: dr JW Groothoff Puttiger PHJ (1994) De medische keuring bij gebruik van persluchtmaskers. PROMOTORES: prof dr D Post, prof dr WJA Goedhard COPROMOTOR: dr JW Groothoff Engelsman C & Geertsma A (1994) De kwaliteit van verwijzingen. PROMOTORES: prof dr WJA van den Heuvel, prof dr FM Haaijer-Ruskamp, prof dr B Meyboom-de Jong Lucht F van der (1992) Sociale ongelijkheid en gezondheid bij kinderen. PROMOTOR : prof dr WJA van den Heuvel REFERENT: dr JW Groothoff

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