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Higher education and women's
empowerment in Pakistan
Malik, S. and Courtney, K.

Author post-print (accepted) deposited in CURVE July 2012
Original citation & hyperlink:
Malik, S. and Courtney, K. (2011) Higher education and women's empowerment in Pakistan.
Gender and Education, volume 23 (1): 29-45.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09540251003674071

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4071
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CURVE is the Institutional Repository for Coventry University
http://curve.coventry.ac.uk/open

Higher Education and Women’s Empowerment in Pakistan

Dr Samina Malik,
International Islamic University, Islamabad, Pakistan

[email protected]
Kathy Courtney,
Coventry University, Coventry UK
[email protected]

Abstract
This paper summarises the findings of a doctoral study by Malik (2005) which
explored to what extent participation in higher education offers empowerment to
women in Pakistan. A survey instrument was used to question female faculty
members and female students from ten public universities in Pakistan. 1,290
students and 290 faculty members responded. Subsequently, semi-structured
interviews were held with ten faculty members and ten students. Respondents
highlighted economic independence and an increased standing within family and
society as the main benefits of higher education participation. A major finding is that
participation in higher education enables women to impact on a number of
discriminatory practices simultaneously and thereby effect change for the better. The
main recommendation is that future educational strategies be developed with the aim
of further promoting gender equality in all areas of education in Pakistan, but
particularly with the aim of increasing female students’ participation in higher
education.

Acknowledgements:
Thanks go to Dr. Adrian Bromage, Coventry University and Dr. Mary Deane, Coventry
University, for their helpful comments on earlier drafts of this paper and their encouragement
and support to the authors in writing this paper.

1

Introduction
This paper summarizes the findings of a doctoral study by Malik (2005) which investigated
the effects of participation in higher education on women‟s empowerment in Pakistan. The
findings relate to the prevailing cultural conditions of a patriarchal society with deep-rooted
societal norms which act as powerful barriers to the introduction of change. This extends to a
situation where laws designed to establish greater gender parity remain largely ineffective,
due to forceful societal means of influencing women to refrain from claiming the rights
granted to them by law. Results from the study nonetheless indicate that participation in
higher education opens up new options for women as individuals in Pakistan and further sets
up ripples with the power to initiate significant changes in the direction of greater gender
parity in Pakistani society.
The Islamic Republic of Pakistan is a sovereign country located in South Asia. Its total
population is 155.5million. It is the sixth most populous country in the world (Government of
Pakistan 2005a). Pakistan is a rapidly developing country, but is facing a number of
challenges on both political and economic fronts. Establishing an education system that
delivers free, compulsory and high quality education even at primary level remains a target
for the future (Government of Pakistan 2009). Agriculture is the mainstay of Pakistan‟s
economy, employing about 50% of the population.
In Pakistan, socio-cultural values and norms strongly influence women‟s position in society
(Klein & Nestvogel 1992). Though the patriarchal structure is not uniform across the whole
country, in general, society is male-dominated. The gender gap is deep-rooted and violation
of constitutional laws is widespread (Mehdi 2004). Men tend to hold positions of power,
while women are adversely affected in all spheres of life (Madhani 2007). In South Asia,
Pakistan is the country with the widest gender gap and discrimination against women
continues to persist in all walks of life (UNICEF 2006).
Women‟s empowerment and gender equality are key objectives for the United Nations (UN)
and other humanitarian organisations. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) names gender equality as one of two global priorities
(UNESCO 2009).
Key events in the international dialogue relating to women‟s
empowerment and gender equality are the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action
(United Nations 1996), the United Nations‟ Millennium Declaration (United Nations 2000)
and the subsequently formulated Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), with targets for
achieving specific levels of improvements by 2015 (United Nations 2001; UNDP 2008;
World Bank 2003).
Eight MDGs are named, of which the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of
women is one. Others include the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, achieving
universal primary education for all, the reduction of child mortality and improving maternal
health. The MDGs are seen as highly interdependent, while gender equality and women‟s
empowerment are regarded as instrumental in achieving all other MDGs (UNDP 2008;
UNDP 2005; World Bank 2003). In general, the promotion of gender equality and women‟s
empowerment are viewed as key contributory factors towards achieving a range of highpriority humanitarian targets (United Nations 1996; United Nations 2000), including the
establishment of sustainable developments and securing conflict reduction and peace (UNDP
2008; United Nations 2000; World Bank 2003).
Providing a concise definition of women‟s empowerment is not easy. A definition taken from
POPIN (undated) captures key elements of this complex concept:

2

“Women‟s empowerment has five components: women‟s sense of self-worth; their
right to have and to determine choices; their right to have access to opportunities and
resources; their right to have the power to control their own lives, both within and
outside the home; and their ability to influence the direction of social change to create
a more just social and economic order, nationally and internationally.”
It is interesting to see how many of the responses offered by participants in the doctoral study
echo words used in the quoted definition of women‟s empowerment. The entire paper is
focused on gender issues within Pakistani society, pointing to the many ways in which girls
and women are disadvantaged and noting how attempts to bring about change have largely
failed to produce the desired results. In drawing on the experiences, hopes and aspirations of
the women who participated in the study, the paper highlights how participation in higher
education is able to contribute to women‟s empowerment in Pakistan and what empowerment
means to these women.
Access to relevant information and opportunities to engage in education are key factors in
achieving greater empowerment for women. The importance of education as a means to
increase gender parity is particularly highlighted in the Dakar Framework for Action
(UNESCO 2000), which emphasises not only the need to increased access to education for
girls, but equally, the need to ensure that their retention and completion rates remain high.
In order to contextualise the findings and recommendations presented in this paper, a broad
sketch of the state of education in Pakistan is provided. Clearly, for any individual, higher
education can only come into play if there has been an opportunity to complete the earlier
stages of education successfully.
The State of Education in Pakistan
Education in Pakistan presents a patchwork picture of almost bewildering complexity and
magnitude (Khalid & Khan 2006). In its structure, it shares many features with education
systems in Western countries. There is a pre-school level for children aged three to five years
old. This is followed by five years of primary school education (grades 1-5) and subsequently
five years of secondary education (grades 6-10). Pupils then enter what is termed intermediate
or higher secondary education (grades 11-12). Tertiary education begins after grade 12. In
contrast to degree programmes in the UK, a substantial proportion of first degrees in Pakistan
are of two years‟ duration, and Masters‟ degrees are typically of similar length (Saeed 2007).
However, overall, the structural aspects of tertiary education are complex and continue to
evolve (Saeed 2007).
Enormous differences emerge when we turn to an exploration of the way education is
currently implemented in Pakistan. The first thing to realise is that in Pakistan, education is
neither compulsory nor free, not even at primary level (Dean 2007a; Saeed 2007). One
consequence of this is that many children never enter the education system and of those who
do, large numbers drop out at various stages. The figures for 2005-06 show that as many as
one-third of primary school age children remained outside the school system, a figure which
increased to three-quarters with respect to children of secondary-school age (Government of
Pakistan 2009:3).
A major feature of education in Pakistan is that it consists of parallel systems of government
schools and private provisions. Within the latter, Deeni Madaris provide education with a
religious focus. Reform initiatives have been launched with the aim of adding more
mainstream subject content to these institutions (Government of Pakistan 2005c).
Private education has had something of a chequered history in Pakistan. In 1972, private
educational institutions were taken over by the government, but by 1979, private provision

3

was once more encouraged, especially in rural areas (Government of Pakistan 2005c). The
Education Sector Reform Action Plan for 2001-2005 introduced the concept of Public Private
Partnerships (Government of Pakistan 2004) as a means of bridging the gap in resources and
expertise for achieving the goals of universal access and quality education for all.
The introduction of Non-Formal Basic Education (NFBE), based on active community
involvement (Shami & Hussain 2005), represents a further attempt at closing the gap towards
educational provision for all, on the basis of providing “free and flexible learning
opportunities at the door steps of those girls who otherwise are denied the basic human right
of education” (Government of Pakistan [undated]). Figures taken from the same source show
that in these less formal educational settings, girls outnumber boys four to one.
Properly resourcing the education system in Pakistan remains a major hurdle. Accounts
relating to primary and secondary schools in 2003-04 in Punjab (Government of Pakistan
2005c) paint a bleak picture. Items lacking in considerable numbers include basics like
buildings, drinking water, electricity, latrines and furniture. These shortcomings are more
pronounced and more common in rural areas, but not entirely absent from urban ones
(Government of Pakistan 2009). In addition, corruption in the public sector appears to be a
significant problem (Khalid & Khan 2006; Shami & Hussain 2005; Government of Pakistan
2009). Private schools tend to be better equipped, but also vary greatly in this respect. The
best amongst these are considered to be on a par with comparable institutions in the UK
(Saeed 2007).
The medium of instruction adds another dimension to the complexity of Pakistan‟s education
system. Urdu is predominantly used in schools; some elite private institutions use English as a
medium of instruction, while others teach in regional minority languages. Rahman (2008)
names six major languages spoken in Pakistan, alongside some 57 minor ones. Urdu is the
national language of Pakistan and an important symbol of national cohesion (Government of
Pakistan 2009). A major dilemma is that whilst Pakistan wishes to preserve its rich cultural
heritage and the regional languages associated with it, there is also a perceived need to
promote English within the schools, which is seen as the international language dominating
the global market (Government of Pakistan 2009:11).
Inequalities across education in Pakistan are widespread and include gender disparities and
the urban-rural divide. Literacy rates in Pakistan have increased from 45% in 2000
(Government of Pakistan 2000) to 52.5% in 2005 (Government of Pakistan 2005b), but there
still exist significant gender gaps in this area. Overall figures for 2005 place literacy rates at
64.5% for males and 40.1% for females. However, literacy remains higher in the urban areas
where it is 71%, against a figure of 44% in rural areas (Government of Pakistan 2005b). Even
though literacy rates are increasing, the goals of universal basic education and gender parity
remain distant targets for Pakistan (Farah & Shera 2007; Government of Pakistan 2009).
Against this background of an education system full of challenges for educational planners
and reformers, being additionally and further disadvantaged on the grounds of gender is of
great concern. Dean (2007a:2) points out that primary school enrolment rates for girls are
amongst the ten lowest in the world. Drop out rates for girls in schools are very much higher
than those of boys (SPARK 2006). Gender disparities at secondary level are greater than at
primary level (UNESCO 2003).
The current political environment undoubtedly promotes women‟s educational opportunities,
but cultural attitudes towards the education of girls remain strongly biased and largely
unchanged. Although successive governments have announced various programs to promote
female education, they have been unable to translate their words into action because of deeprooted political, social and cultural obstacles. Thus, the educational status of women in
Pakistan remains low and is in fact amongst the lowest in the world. Women in Pakistan do
not form a homogeneous group, and their opportunities for education vary greatly, depending

4

on the social system of which they are a part (Khan, 2007; Stern 2001; Jayaweera 1997). In
rural areas, patriarchal structures often combine with poverty to limit educational
opportunities for girls (Farah & Bacchus 1999). In contrast, girls and young women belonging
to the upper and middle classes in urban areas have increasingly greater access to education
and employment opportunities (Khan 2007).
The role of higher education as a powerful instrument and mediator of social change has been
highlighted by Herz & Sperling (2004). But higher education enrolment in Pakistan is ranked
amongst the lowest in the world; in 2005, it was just 2.9 % of the population between the ages
of 17 and 23. Compare this to higher education participation in other developing countries,
such as India and Korea, which stand at 10% and 68% respectively (Government of Pakistan
2005b). One of the major reasons for the lack of progress may lie with the fact that in 200607, Pakistan was spending only 2.5% of its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) on education
(Government of Pakistan 2009), which is considerably below the South-Asian regional
average and UNESCO‟s recommendation of four per cent. Other reasons include the rising
cost of education and high population growth rates.

The Research Study
This section describes the doctoral research carried out by Malik in 2005. Throughout the rest
of the paper, this research project will be referred to as „the study‟.
Research Methodology
The purpose of the study was to gain a greater understanding of the sense of empowerment
achieved by women in Pakistan through participation in higher education.
The target population were female faculty members and female students drawn from ten
public universities in Pakistan. Data was collected in two parts. For the initial part, a survey
instrument was used to obtain feedback from female faculty and students, using a five-point
Likert scale with possible responses of “strongly disagree,” “disagree,” “neutral,” “agree,”
and “strongly agree” for the majority of questions. The full survey contained 98 questions, out
of which 14 were selected as a basis for this paper. The questions selected relate thematically
to issues of gender parity and include two open-ended questions. The survey was presented to
faculty members and students on paper.
Out of 102 public universities in Pakistan, 10 were selected, two from each of the four
provinces of Pakistan and two from the Federal capital of Pakistan, Islamabad. Across all ten
universities, the sample comprised 1500 female postgraduate students from a cross-section of
departments (5% of female students from each university) and 320 female faculty members
(50% of female faculty members from each university). Participants were selected randomly.
The researcher visited five out of these ten universities to administer the questionnaire in
person, while postal questionnaires were sent to the remaining universities. Out of 1500
questionnaires distributed to students, 1290 (86%) were returned, and out of 320 faculty
members approached, 290 (92%) responded.
The survey was followed up with semi-structured interviews with 10 faculty members and 10
students. Interviews were organized with faculty and students willing to assist further in the
research. Individuals were chosen from five different universities and in each case, the
researcher visited in person to conduct the interview. Each interview took 25 to 30 minutes,
and the participants‟ responses were recorded on audio tape. Questions were presented in

5

English, which is the main teaching language at higher education level in Pakistan. However,
most of the interviews were conducted in Urdu.
The study therefore makes use of both qualitative and quantitative data. The questionnaire
was used to gain a broad picture of the levels and nature of empowerment achieved through
participation in higher education. This quantitative data was augmented by a smaller set of
qualitative data obtained through the semi-structured interviews. Interview questions were
based on the themes that emerged from the analysis of the survey data.

Findings and Discussion
The questionnaire and interview findings are presented together in this paper. Six broad
themes were identified. The study revealed that participation in higher education substantially
increases women‟s awareness of their legal rights, particularly in relation to divorce and
inheritance laws. However, it also showed that the awareness of women‟s rights is not
matched by an ability to claim these rights, for a number of reasons. The attainment of
economic independence emerged as a strongly motivating factor for participating in higher
education. It was found that an increased educational and economic status by women was
linked to increased levels of confidence and the experience of gaining a voice within the
family and the wider community. As a result of being consulted and listened to in a variety of
contexts, women are enabled to contribute to family affairs and the wider society more fully.
There was an awareness that parents are more willing to finance sons to engage in higher
education. Finally, a number of reasons were highlighted as accounting for the fact that
current practices in the education system in Pakistan reinforce and widen the gender gap,
along with suggestions for rectifying some of these sources of gender discrimination within
education.
Increased Awareness of Legal Rights
Women in Pakistan are affected by many factors. For the most part, their lives are governed
by customs and traditions. When young, their fathers decide for them on all important
matters, while after marriage, husbands and in-laws take over the reins and decide matters on
their behalf. Most decisions pertaining to a woman‟s life are taken by the male members of
the family. This includes things like who they marry, decisions regarding their education and
profession, in some cases even how many children a woman should have. Weiss (2003)
argues that one of the reasons for women‟s marginalized status in all spheres of Pakistani
society is their exclusion from the decision-making process.
It is inevitable that cases arise where women are trapped in marriages which are dysfunctional
and where they may suffer violence and abuse. However, the practice of discouraging women
from referring cases of infringement of their personal rights to courts is pervasive. Despite the
fact that the Constitution of Pakistan states that all citizens are equal before the law and that
there shall be no discrimination on the basis of sex, there exist widespread customary
practices which violate these guarantees. These traditional structures are the chief obstacles to
women‟s equal status in Pakistan (Government of Pakistan 2005c).
A fundamental problem is the lack of awareness on the part of women of the rights granted to
them under Pakistani law. Thus, a survey conducted by the Human Rights Commission of
Pakistan (Government of Pakistan, 2002) established that in a sample population of females
from all sections of society, almost 90 % of the women questioned did not realize that they
had rights at all.

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Against this backdrop, one of the main objectives of the study has been to establish to what
extent participation in higher education increases women‟s awareness of their legal rights.
Both the questionnaire and the interviews explored issues relating to this topic, with a
particular focus on participants‟ awareness of women‟s divorce rights and women‟s
inheritance rights. Faculty and students gave similar responses to questions on these topics.
Survey results indicate that awareness of women‟s fundamental rights as enshrined under the
constitution of the country is exceptionally high amongst survey participants, with 77% of
staff and 71% of students giving positive responses to questions relating to this topic in a
broad sense. Many degree colleges in Pakistan are single-sex institutions. It appears that at
female colleges, the legal rights of women under Pakistani law are a frequent and popular
topic of informal discussion. Participants‟ awareness of women‟s rights relating specifically
to divorce and property inheritance was found to be even higher, with returns of 88% for staff
and 79% for students. One student expressed herself as follows:
I know what my rights are…In fact, it‟s the tragedy of our women that they are kept
ignorant…Without education, how can they know their position? (Interview quote, student)

These are very significant figures, given the levels of unawareness established by the Human
Rights Commission of Pakistan in 2002 (Government of Pakistan 2002). However, mere
awareness of legal rights is not sufficient to change women‟s condition of dependence, but it
is clearly an essential first step towards emancipation. Gradually, it will help free women
from being trapped in dysfunctional or unhappy marriages and the rightful application of
inheritance rights will strengthen women‟s position both economically and within the family.
Women’s ability to claim legal rights
One of the major findings of the study is that higher education substantially increases
women‟s awareness of their legal rights. Of greatest significance for women are the laws
relating to divorce and inheritance rights. Whilst awareness of these laws represents a
significant step forward, there remain substantial hurdles which prevent women from
claiming these rights.
It is the interrelatedness of different cultural and customary practices that affect women so
pervasively and place them in a position of subordination and dependence. This makes it
difficult for women to change one aspect of their lives without simultaneously and inevitably
inviting repercussions in other spheres of life.
Divorce is seen as an act of public defiance; a woman who has sought divorce is considered
disobedient. Divorce is permitted by law in Pakistan, but if a woman claims this right, she is
ridiculed and rejected by in-laws, by her birth family and all of society. From early childhood
it is impressed upon girls that their parents‟ first priority is to get them married, and that
obtaining a divorce is not an option for them. For a woman to appear in court is considered
highly undesirable. Women who do go to court in order to obtain a divorce are likely to be
subjected to humiliating responses from members of the wider family. This is intimidating
and prevents most women from exercising their legal rights (Government of Pakistan 2003).
Educated women in Pakistan may be aware of their rights as defined by the constitution, but
cultural and societal pressures continue to substantially prevent them from seeking their
rights. The study established that 61% of faculty and 49% of students were of the view that
even educated women are socially discouraged from claiming the right to divorce. Women
often do not feel that they can go against the wishes of their family, because they continue to
need their support. Even where women have a comparatively substantial degree of economic
independence, they may not feel secure enough to let go of the support the family provides.

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My husband doesn‟t live with me and doesn‟t divorce me either …going to court, no way …
as I have no support in this from my family. (Interview quote, faculty member)

Established attitudes are deeply entrenched and the stigma of a woman seeking a divorce
affects the entire family and may entail negative consequences for other family members.
My husband and I have nothing in common any more, but my mother says that I have to
compromise and refrain from getting a divorce, as she is afraid that my sisters wouldn‟t get
good proposals otherwise. (Interview quote, faculty member)

A similar picture emerges in relation to claiming inheritance rights. In Pakistan, a woman‟s
dowry is considered to be compensation for her inheritance. Survey results indicated that 73%
of faculty and 54% of students were of the opinion that educated women are socially
discouraged from claiming their inheritance rights.
Social pressures in this regard are very strong and the fear of putting kinship relations at stake
prevents women from claiming their share of an inheritance. Most women do not have an
independent safety net when faced with a real crisis, such as a serious illness, a violent
husband or financial hardship. Women are then forced to fall back on the support of the
parental home or that of a brother and hence forgo their share in property, partly as insurance
for the future.
We know that our religion and constitution allow us to have our shares in property but it never
happened before in my family so how could I ask for that. (Interview quote, faculty member)
I could have sought legal assistance for claiming my inheritance after my parents‟ death, but
that would have meant giving up my family. (Interview quote, student)

Nonetheless, higher education appears to have a significant impact on women‟s willingness to
take matters to court in order to defend their rights. 31% of students, but only 22% of faculty,
stated that they feel they would have the confidence to take matters to court, should this be
necessary.
Economic independence
In order to substantially change women‟s position in Pakistani society, it will be necessary to
increase opportunities for them to achieve economic independence. Currently, in rural areas,
young unmarried women are likely to be confined to their parental home, where they are
expected to take care of siblings and generally contribute to the running of the home. Often,
they are not allowed to engage in paid employment and therefore they have no means of
achieving even a small measure of economic independence. Married women may go out and
engage in paid employment, for example in agricultural work. However, this is likely to be
very low paid and in any case, her income will normally go towards boosting the family
budget. Whilst women remain economically dependent on their families or husbands, they
cannot hope to achieve equal status in society. Therefore, economic independence is a major
key to the elimination of gender inequalities in Pakistan.
The study sought to establish participants‟ level of economic independence, their attitudes
towards economic independence and their views and expectations with regard to opportunities
open to them for achieving economic independence in the future. Results indicate that
currently, participation in higher education is one of the few ways for women in Pakistan to
achieve this elusive goal.
As many as 62% of faculty stated that they have full control over their earnings.

8

I‟m so happy that I‟m not dependent on any man for my living and I don‟t intend to be.
(Interview quote, faculty member)
My earnings are my own, though I spend it mostly on household needs as my husband‟s
income is not enough and I want to give the best to my children. (Interview quote, faculty
member)

Expectations for gaining economic independence amongst students were even higher, with
71% of students indicating that they expected to have control over their future earnings.
My education means a lot to me, it is a ladder to achieving what I want in life…my income
will be my own. (Interview quote, student)

More generally, a rather smaller proportion of faculty members (69%) than students (87%)
saw higher education as a means to increased economic independence. The figures may
indicate that students‟ expectations are not totally realistic in this respect. However, overall
responses suggest both that student participants‟ optimism is justified and that economic
considerations play a significant role in women‟s striving to engage in higher education.
Nothing is more important in life than having your own money... You can achieve this only by
having a good degree and then a respectable job, which would eventually improve your social
status in society. (Interview quote, student)

Survey results and interview data indicate that educated women gain considerable control
over their earnings. This in turn increases their confidence and forms a basis for personal
development and expression. Importantly, the results show that ultimately, women‟s financial
independence benefits their family and especially their children.
Participation in civic society
Apart from any ethical considerations motivating the drive towards eliminating the gender
gap in Pakistani culture, there are other pressing reasons which argue for change in the same
direction. These include the establishment of a progressive civic society and the attainment of
greater economic wealth. It has indeed been shown that societies which maintain gender
disparities cannot benefit economically to their fullest potential (Coleman 2005). In order to
achieve such objectives, it will be necessary for Pakistan to make full use of the talents of all
its citizens. Increased educational opportunities for girls and women will provide them with
the skills and the knowledge base necessary to contribute more fully to society, both in an
economic and a civic sense. Simultaneously, education will provide women with the
confidence they need to engage at all levels in civic and economic aspects of life. Personal
confidence is a key ingredient in enabling an individual‟s full participation in society.
The gender gap in Pakistan begins at home, with boys being valued over girls in all respects
during their upbringing (UNICEF 2006; United Nations 2000a; Haque 2002). Parental
attitudes limit opportunities for girls from an early age (Haque 2002). Data from Haque‟s
(2002) study shows that in general, parental attitudes in Pakistan result in girls having limited
opportunities to participate in social networks.
Women in Pakistan are subject to an array of social and psychological disadvantages that
limit their mobility and prevent them from utilizing opportunities to develop their natural
capabilities. Hague‟s (2002) study reveals how societal patterns control women‟s mobility to
a very large extent. Because women have generally been subject to restrictions throughout
their upbringing, they lack both the skill and the confidence to promote themselves in a social
context where they would have opportunity to do so.

9

The women who participated in the study were keenly aware of the effects of their upbringing
on their levels of confidence:
Going out on your own is not considered acceptable in my family …and I believe in most
families. Our parents care for us, I think this is the reason, but it is also true that this kind of
protection keeps us dependent… and lacking in confidence. (Interview quote, student)

However, there are indications that as women are enabled to contribute to society in
substantial and relevant ways, attitudes towards women are changing and hence societal
norms which currently form the strongest barrier to change.
Women who are educated are more likely to be listened to; their views are increasingly
respected, which means that they are able to make a contribution to society. This is like an
upward spiral, resulting in greater opportunities for women‟s participation in all aspects of
life. Ashraf‟s (2007) study, which focused on female teachers in the Northern areas of
Pakistan, illustrates how women can have an impact on their community, in spite of
prevailing and deep-rooted social norms. This highlights the importance of social and
economic investment in the education of girls (Ashraf 2007).
Increasing girls‟ access to education will later empower them as women to play a greater role
within the family as well as at community and societal levels. Both the survey results and
interview data support this assumption. 79% of faculty members and 82% of students
expressed the view that higher education had strengthened their resolve towards fulfilling
multiple responsibilities in the home and in society.
Findings show that higher education enables women to have an impact at many levels. It
changes their lives, but it also benefits their immediate family, the wider family, friends and
the whole community. Ashraf‟s (2007) conclusion that educated women are given more of a
voice is confirmed in the current study. One student commented:
A few years back, my opinion was not taken into consideration… my parents call me when
they need advice; they share their problems with me and want suggestions to resolve them.
This really gives me confidence. I feel valued…I‟m not sure of the reason for this change
….but I think it‟s because of my education. (Interview quote, student)

This quote links back to the topic of having confidence to speak and act. 62% of faculty and
60% of students agreed with the statement that they now feel encouraged in expressing their
opinions, where previously this would not have been the case.
These findings illustrate the enormous difference educational status can make to individual
women, in terms of how they are being regarded and treated. Where previously they were
ignored, in many cases their opinions are now actively sought and hence they are able to
contribute to the well-being of their family. Inevitably, this substantially increases a woman‟s
self-worth, which has a spiralling positive effect on her developing identity as an accepted
and active member of society.
A study by Ahmad (2001) which focused on South Asian women living in the UK concludes
that participation in higher education gives women of Asian origin confidence in their
abilities whilst simultaneously strengthening their cultural, religious and personal identities. It
is noteworthy that participation in higher education by women within Pakistan demonstrates
similar results.
Women’s access to higher education
It has been argued (Khalid & Mujahid-Mukhtar 2002) that education is key to giving women
more control over their lives. However, social norms continue to prevent women from having
equal access to education. Educational inequality remains one of the major infringements of

10

the rights of women and an important barrier to social and economic development (UNESCO
2003).
Data from the study confirms that acute discrimination exists within the family with regard to
provision for educational opportunities. Giving preference to sons is a phenomenon that is
deeply rooted in the patriarchal systems. In Pakistan, it is a practice enshrined in the value
system. Sons are the focal part of the family; it is up to them to ensure continuity of, and
protection for, the family property and they also have economic obligations towards their
parents.
My parents have money to spend on my brother‟s education but not for me…I give tuition to
cover my university expenses… but I‟m still happy that they don‟t stop me from studying.
(Interview quote, student)

Survey results show that 82% of faculty and 80% of students believe that parents do not
spend similar amounts of money on educating their daughters as they do on sons.
Furthermore, 63% of faculty members taking part in the survey and 51% of students stated
that they needed the permission of their family to participate in higher education. Interview
data indicates that other family members may determine key choices for the women
concerned, such as what subject they study, which university they attend and the kind of
accommodation they may use at university. One student relates:
Because I was not allowed to go to Lahore to study Engineering, I ended up here, studying
Math…. Being able to study was really important to me… (Interview quote, Student)

The study therefore indicates that whilst participation in higher education brings women
many benefits, enabling them to make important strides towards a more emancipated way of
life, significant restrictions on making choices for themselves still apply. What comes across
form the study is that women are keen to accept a partial package, based on their awareness of
the unique advantages that participation in higher education can purchase for them.
The influence of current educational practice on women
Educational institutions in Pakistan, rooted as they are in traditional culture, contribute to
women‟s subordination rather than helping to empower them. There is considerable evidence
that educational institutions in Pakistan shape boys and girls differently (Qureshi, Pirzado &
Nasim 2007). The questionnaire reported on here included two open-ended questions which
focused on aspects of education that perpetuate gender discrimination and possible ways of
rectifying these. Responses show that gender biases in the education system are strong, even
to the point where participants in the study become aware of the impulse to further perpetuate
and reinforce these biases themselves in their own teaching practices. However, there is also a
determination to counter these tendencies.
It is true, we place more reliance on male students, and we subconsciously turn to them for
contributions. Even though I mean to treat male and female students equally, I‟m aware that
I‟m still biased at times. (Interview quote, faculty member)

Many participants revealed that they experienced gender bias in their education. This goes
back to their early school experiences, where we hear accounts of boys and girls being treated
differently by their teachers.
I remember during my early schooling, our teacher always considered us girls less than boys
and all main active responsibilities, like maintaining class discipline during teacher‟s absence,
were given to boys…but this is not the case at a higher level…at least I never do this.
(Interview quote, faculty member)

11

Curriculum design and the content of textbooks were seen as strong contributors to the
perpetuation of gender discrimination in the education system. This has been noted in
previous studies (Mutta & Hussain 2004). Dean (2007b) states that gender bias in textbooks is
an important reason why existing curricula persistently fail to project women as full members
of society. Participants made multiple references to the existence of a gender bias in textbooks
which commonly attribute active and prominent roles to men, while associating women with
passive and subordinate ones.
Our textbooks are full of references that attribute an active role to men, even though history is
full of courageous and remarkable women who made tremendous contributions in different
fields. But have you ever seen them mentioned in any text book? (Interview quote, faculty
member)
The curriculum needs to draw attention to women‟s contributions to society and highlight
women‟s activities as significant as well. (Interview quote, faculty member)

While there is clearly a strong gender bias in schools, evidence suggests that differential
treatment between male and female students persists at college and university levels.
In school, at college and now at university, we are treated differently …certainly there is
nothing in our educational experience that gives us a feeling of equality. (Interview quote,
student)

Gender inequalities are therefore widespread in Pakistan‟s education system. There is
substantial evidence that the education system contributes to and reinforces this state of
inequality between the sexes and that it fails to fulfil its potential as a change agent (Rarieya
2007). These findings point to the fact that there is an urgent need to address these issues in
teacher education programmes (Rarieya 2007). Interview data from the current study also
reiterates this point:
I believe teacher education programs need to develop classroom management strategies that
encourage co-operation and respect for all students, regardless of gender… something that‟s
missing at the moment. (Interview quote, faculty member)

Improvements in teacher training programs that promote awareness of practices which serve
to reinforce prevalent stereotypes and injustices are thus seen as an important step towards
bringing about societal change.

Conclusions and Recommendations
It has been noted that education in general and higher education in particular is recognised as
an instrument for social change. Throughout, it has been stressed that while substantial and
noteworthy efforts are being made to address the gender gap in Pakistan, prevailing cultural
norms and practices continue to mitigate against the successful introduction of change. This is
particularly evident with respect to legislative efforts designed to establish gender parity in
the areas of divorce and inheritance rights. In general, women do not feel able to take
advantage of these laws.
Why is it that the introduction of laws designed to redress important aspects of gender
discrimination in Pakistan does not bring about the expected improvements in women‟s lives?
It is argued here that these legislative changes fail to have the intended impact because they
represent an attempt to rectify in isolation one specific aspect of gender discrimination in
Pakistan. Women who wish to take advantage of their legal rights risk alienating their
immediate family and the wider community. For them, it is not just a matter of facing the risk
of becoming a social outcast; they would also be losing the only protection and support
network they have, that of their family. Women cannot benefit from the legislation because

12

their circumstances are such that they cannot afford to alienate their family and the
community they live in.
This paper has made reference to a catalogue of discriminatory practices which are portrayed
as interrelated and mutually reinforcing. Discrimination starts in the home, where boys are
preferred over girls and continuous throughout a woman‟s life. Largely excluded from the
decision-making process, denied an equal share of things and very importantly, denied
opportunities to develop confidence in their abilities, girls are assigned a passive and
subordinate role. The education system adds to these discriminatory practices and thereby
reinforces the value system experienced by girls in the home. The effect of these prevailing
cultural influences is that girls are not able to develop to their full potential. Having been
denied opportunities to acquire confidence in their abilities, their sense of self-worth will be
low. As women, they will not be equipped with either the knowledge or the skills that would
give them economic independence. As a result, they cannot expect the kind of respect that
would be given to an educated person. For similar reasons, they are largely prevented from
assuming a rightful and responsible role within society.
Through the voices of the women who were consulted in the original doctoral study, the paper
demonstrates that participation in higher education by women in Pakistan brings them many
benefits. Engagement in higher education equips women with the knowledge that will form
the basis of their economic independence. Attainment of these achievements brings with it an
increased status and recognition from their family and the wider community. Being educated,
achieving economic independence, developing personal confidence, gaining status within the
community and being given a voice, are all aspects of a tightly interlinked package of
benefits.
We become more and more aware of inequalities and how they are perpetuated….by gaining
an education we can achieve our purpose in life… my education has given me a light, a spark,
a mission…. My education is my confidence…. My whole family has benefited… I was the
first woman in my family to go to university and I now serve as an inspiration to my younger
cousins. (Interview quote, faculty member)

There are indications that changes towards a more just and equal society in Pakistan are
possible and that these changes have already begun (Ashraf 2007). In spite of the restrictions
still imposed on women, including educated women, there is hope for the future. Participants in
the study expressed a determination not to perpetuate the system within their homes and to treat
daughters on an equal footing with sons. The importance of these female graduates as role
models within their families and communities must not be overlooked.
Thus, it appears that women‟s participation in higher education is able to make inroads along
the multiple different dimensions implicated in hindering progress towards greater gender
parity in Pakistan. The reason for the optimism voiced lies in the fact that participation in
higher education appears to make an onslaught on all the identified and interwoven strands of
gender discrimination raised in this paper. It is the fact that higher education can impact on
multiple aspects of gender discrimination in concert that makes this avenue for bringing about a
more just society in Pakistan one of greatest importance.
All of the education issues that have been highlighted in this study are being addressed in
Pakistan‟s most recent National Education Policy (Government of Pakistan 2009). A key
objective of the policy is to bring uniformity into the country‟s education system by
encouraging the various strands that exist for historical reasons to blend, through the
introduction of common curricula features and educational standards. The policy further
aligns itself strongly with the Dakar Framework for Action (UNESCO 2000), a key target of
which is free quality education at primary level for all by 2015.
The need for promoting disadvantaged groups is emphasised, with special mention of girls.
The policy highlights that curriculum reform „shall emphasise the fundament rights

13

guaranteed to the citizens of Pakistan‟ (Government of Pakistan 2009:39), which will raise
awareness levels of legal rights for women across the country. The projected vision includes
for higher education to contribute to „the attainment of social goals of developing civic
responsibilities, social cohesion and a more tolerant society‟ (Government of Pakistan
2009:48). A key focus is on building up a broad educational base, so as not to leave so many
young people outside the system.
Teacher quality is addressed, with a focus on sound subject and pedagogical knowledge. The
current study suggests that here lies a further opportunity for addressing gender issues: teacher
education should raise awareness of practices that treat boys and girls differently and suggest
approaches that promote gender parity.
The study has highlighted the role that textbooks play in perpetuating gender inequalities. The
quality of textbooks and other learning materials is already under scrutiny in Pakistan
(Government of Pakistan 2007; Government of Pakistan 2009). While there has to be a clear
focus on promoting effective learning materials, the current findings suggest that textbooks
present another key opportunity for closing the gender gap. It seems desirable to commission
textbooks which redress the identified imbalance. Textbooks should present women as citizens
who are able to make a full contribution to society and contain accounts of women who have
made exceptional contributions in various fields of action.
Most significantly, the study has highlighted the interrelatedness of different aspects of gender
discrimination in Pakistan and hence the need for finding ways of confronting these in concert,
wherever possible. Planning for educational reform in Pakistan is clearly a monumental and
challenging task. In doing so, focusing on the big picture is essential. However, the findings of
this paper suggest that small changes can make an important difference and opportunities for
such changes should not be overlooked. Attacking gender issues on a broad front is likely to
achieve results where narrower approaches may fail.
Khan (2007) has argued that political commitment in Pakistan has been „growth oriented‟
rather than „equity orientated‟. The 2009 National Education Policy talks of the „dream of a
knowledge-based economy‟ (Government of Pakistan 2009; Government of Pakistan 2005c),
which is to be realised through graduates who are seen as the „building blocks‟ of such an
economy (Government of Pakistan 2009). The findings of the current study suggest that the
achievement of growth and equity goals should not be seen as separate and hence can be
achieved together.
This paper has argued that an effective way of narrowing the gender gap in Pakistan is to
develop and implement educational policies with the aim of motivating and enabling increasing
numbers of women to participate in higher education. Through participation in higher
education, the women who took part in the study have gained insights into the ways gender
parities are perpetuated and discovered ways of changing this. It is hoped that many female
graduates will take up positions within Pakistan‟s education system at different levels and help
accelerate its progress towards the full vision of Pakistan‟s 2009 National Education Policy.

14

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