How to Write an Assignment

HOW TO
WRITE AN
ASSIGNMENT
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HOW TO
WRITE AN
ASSIGNMENT
Proven techniques from a chief examiner
that really get results
“Don’t start writing your assignment
without this book.“
Pauline Smith
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purposes of review), without the express permission of the
publisher in writing.

© 2009 Pauline Smith

Fourth edition 2000
Fifth edition 2002
Reprinted 2003
Reprinted 2004
Reprinted 2005
Sixth edition 2008
Seventh edition 2009
First published in electronic form 2009

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from
the British Library.

The right of Pauline Smith to be identified as the author
of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with
the Copyright, Design and Patents Act 1988.

Consultant editor Roland Seymour

978 1 84803 335 1

Produced for How To Books by Deer Park Productions, Tavistock
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Cover design by Baseline Arts Ltd, Oxford

NOTE: The material contained in this book is set out in good
faith for general guidance and no liability can be accepted
for loss or expense incurred as a result of relying in particular
circumstances on statements made in the book. The laws and
regulations are complex and liable to change, and readers should
check the current position with the relevant authorities before
making personal arrangements.
List of Illustrations ix
Preface xi
■ ■ ■ 1. What is an Assignment? 1
Various types of assignment 1
How your assignment will be assessed 5
Choosing the right format for your assignment 9
Who am I writing the assignment for? 10
Case studies: an introduction 11
Summary 12
Self-evaluation 12
■ ■ ■ 2. Making the Right Start 14
Finding your preferred style of learning 14
Managing your time effectively 22
Case studies 26
Summary 28
Self-evaluation 28
■ ■ ■ 3. Analysing the Title Question or Brief 30
Identifying the key words 30
Techniques for understanding the instructions 33
Case studies 36
Summary 38
Self-evaluation 38
■ ■ ■ 4. How to Plan and take Notes 40
Brainstorming 40
Note-taking and collecting further information 43
Producing an outline plan 44
Case studies 47
Contents
IIIII
v
Summary 48
Self-evaluation 49
■ ■ ■ 5. Drafting the Structure 50
Paragraph writing 50
Using sub-headings 53
Writing introductions and conclusions 54
Case studies 56
Summary 57
Self-evaluation 58
■ ■ ■ 6. Improving Your Style 59
Working with a rough draft 59
Achieving the right tone 60
Keeping it clear and simple 60
Avoiding plagiarism 61
Keeping it flowing 61
Avoiding gender and other bias 62
Case studies 63
Summary 66
Self-evaluation 66
■ ■ ■ 7. Presenting Your Final Assignment 69
Using quotations 69
Providing references 71
Preparing bibliographies 73
Preparing appendices 76
Compiling summaries and abstracts 77
Successful layout and presentation 77
Case studies 79
Summary 81
Self-evaluation 82
■ ■ ■ 8. Improving through Reflection 84
Recording your own progress 84
Using constructive feedback 86
Time to reflect 91
Summary 92
Self-evaluation 96
vi Contents
■ ■ ■ 9. Where Are You Now? 97
Case studies 97
And how about you? 101
Conclusion 102
Glossary 103
Further reading 105
Index 107
Contents vii
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1. Assessment criteria for an assignment 6
2. A time log 23
3. Time management: action planner 24
4. Process words: a key to their meanings 31
5. Example of a spider diagram 42
6. Example of a pattern note 42
7. Example of a planning tree on managing stress 46
8. A patterned note on managing stress 47
9. Structuring your assignment into paragraphs 51
10. Examples of transition (linking) words and phrases 62
11. Steve’s planning tree (case study example) 64
12. Examples of good and bad page layout for an assignment 78
13. Levels of competence 89
List of Illustrations
IIIII
ix
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This is a practical book explaining how you can really succeed in the
skill of writing assignments – essays, reports and dissertations.
Each chapter covers a different stage of assignment writing. Each is
illustrated with examples and mini case studies to show you the
results of both good and bad practices.
Summary checklists are included to help you, and each chapter ends
with self-evaluation questions to ensure that you are on the right lines.
If you read this book and follow the advice and guidance provided,
then you should achieve success in assignment writing whether for
study, work or pleasure. The skills you acquire should be helpful to
you in all sorts of ways throughout your life.
My own students tell me that they have found the book very useful to
them and certainly they have produced very good assignments! This
seventh edition includes revisions and improvements in order to pro-
vide further support for your assignment writing, and includes
guidance on online databases and electronic journals to make your
research easier. It is used by students across several college and univer-
sity courses.
When you have read the book I would be pleased to receive any com-
ments and suggestions from you that would be helpful in future
editions. Finally, I would like to thank my students and colleagues
past and present for providing the inspiration for the case study mate-
rial and for giving such constructive feedback on the earlier editions.
Pauline Smith
Preface
IIIII
xi
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1
What is an Assignment?
IIIII
Journalists and detectives are asked to take on specific ‘assignments’ as
part of their day-to-day work where they investigate an issue or crime and
then produce a report for their newspaper or police bosses. Similarly, stu-
dents are given assignments, by their tutors, as part of their coursework
or in preparation for examinations. These assignments are usually in the
form of a title question (or hypothesis); a short description (or brief); or
task. Students, like journalists and detectives are expected to investigate
or research the ‘brief’ set, and to produce a written piece of work.
An assignment, therefore, involves undertaking both the investigation
and the piece of writing which provides evidence of that research. An
assignment is both process and product. This book concentrates on help-
ing you to develop your skills of researching assignments and
concentrates especially on how to produce a good assignment.
VARIOUS TYPES OF ASSIGNMENT
These are some of the forms that assignments can take:
I
essays
I
reports
I
dissertations.
Let’s consider them in turn.
1
Essays
These are probably the most popular form of assignment set by tutors
for their students on ‘A’ level to Master’s level courses. Whilst
Humanities and Social Science courses are often totally essay-based,
some science courses do incorporate other forms of assignment, such as
reports (see page 3).
Essays can be set by tutors for both coursework and examination
purposes. Many courses are designed so that a percentage (or even
100%) of the overall marks required for the qualification is awarded
for successfully completing a number of coursework essays. The length
of these essays varies from course to course but is usually between
1,500–5,000 words each. The final examination is also made up of a
number of essays to be completed in a given length of time; three to
four essays in three hours is fairly usual.
Being able to write a good essay in a limited amount of time is there-
fore an important skill to develop!
Essay structure – A good essay should incorporate the following structure:
2 How To Write an Assignment
Essay section Possible material
Introduction Define any key terms. State what you propose to
do in the assignment/your objectives.
Main body/ Your main points/arguments and supporting
development evidence/examples, in a sensible order.
Conclusion A summary of what you have said/argued/
discovered so far. A conclusion about how you have
fulfilled your objectives. Any recommendations you
can make as a result of your work.
Reports
This form of assignment is becoming more popular in certain courses,
eg business and management. Reports have also been used in the writ-
ing up of formal research projects in the science area for a long period
of time.
A report can be shorter than an essay; it is usually more focused and
tightly defined in its structure, using sub-headings suggested by the
nature of the research project undertaken.
A report is written to describe and analyse (or assess) what the aims of
the project were; what happened and how successful it was in achieving its
aims; and to recommend what should happen next.
Report structure – A typical project report structure is provided above.
1 · What is an Assignment? 3
Report section Possible material
Introduction/ A brief clear statement of the purpose and aims/
aims/objectives objectives of the project/activity/investigation.
The organisational A description of the organisational context and
context of how the project is influenced by the
contextual factors.
Implementation The project/investigation itself; steps undertaken;
the evidence gathered.
Evaluation Assessing the extent to which the aims of the
project were achieved and the evidence used to
make this evaluation.
Explanation A discussion of the factors influencing the success
of the project/activity/investigation.
Conclusion A critical reflection on the project with
recommendations for future practice.
Dissertations
These are major assignments undertaken towards the end of diploma, first
degree, masters and PhD level courses. Dissertations often count for a
large percentage of the overall marks awarded by tutors for the final qual-
ification. For PhD, the dissertation is usually the sole written assignment.
Dissertations can range in length from 8,000 to 25,000 words. The
length is stipulated by the examination requirements of the particular
course or qualification. For a PhD dissertation, 40,000 to 50,000
words is usual.
Structure of dissertations – The structure of a dissertation is usually fairly
tightly laid down by the course requirements. Tutorial support is pro-
4 How To Write an Assignment
Dissertation Key questions
section
Introduction/research Are the hypothesis or aims clearly stated?
Questions/hypothesis
Review of literature Is the review sufficiently extensive? Is the
literature reviewed critically?
Research design Is the research methodology adequately
justified and is it appropriate?
Data collection Are the issues of validity and reliability
considered?
Analysis/interpretation Does the analysis allow the initial
aims/research questions to be further
explored/redefined?
Conclusions/ Are the conclusions/recommendations
recommendations substantiated by the evidence presented?
Is there evidence of personal and critical
reflection?
vided to ensure that the final dissertation meets these requirements.
The overall structure of the dissertation has similarities with the
research project report described above, although the dissertation has
clear chapters or sections, rather than sub-sections or headings.
A typical dissertation structure is shown on page 4.
HOW YOUR ASSIGNMENT WILL BE ASSESSED
One of the main purposes of setting and writing assignments is
for assessment. Tutors set assignments that will allow them to assess
a student’s
I
knowledge
I
skills
I
understanding
in a particular topic or area of the course. Both coursework and exami-
nation assignments are therefore strategies or tools that allow the
tutor to assess the student’s achievements.
Understanding the assessment criteria
As a student you really need to understand what tutors are looking for
in your assignments – that is the assignment criteria used by the
tutor to mark your work. By understanding the assessment criteria
used, you will be able to make sure that your essay, report or disserta-
tion satisfies them – and you will be able to achieve a high mark!
Figure 1 shows a set of assessment criteria (or indicators of achieve-
ment) that tutors on an education degree course use. These are
provided openly for the students, together with an explanation of
what these criteria mean. Each student can then think carefully about
1 · What is an Assignment? 5
6 How To Write an Assignment
The criteria What this means for you
1 Understanding Education is full of theories, ideas, models
of the theoretical and arguments. Whatever work you are
models from writing about (even practical work) you
which issues and must link it to the theories and ideas of
key concepts are writers working in this area.
derived.
For example, if you are asked to describe your
ideas about equality you will need to include in
your assignment references to the major
documents and books on the subject eg The
Swann Report 1985; The Sex Discrimination Act;
The Race Relations Act 1978; LEA Policies on
Equality of Opportunity; Equal Opportunities:
Gender (G. Hannan 1982); Invisible Women
(D. Spencer 1982) etc, etc.
You need to show that you understand these key
documents and ideas and the way in which they
have influenced your ideas (and practices)
relating to equality.
2 Link between This is easy and very important! It means that
conceptual you must not simply describe the theories and
framework ideas of educationalists and writers, instead,
and practice. you must include examples from your own
practice to show that you understand the
theories or concepts and can apply this to your
own professional experiences.
Therefore in relation to equality, you should not
simply refer to the LEA Equal Opportunities and
Multi-cultural, or anti-racist policy documents;
instead you should show how your own practice, or
the practice you observe in the classroom, supports
or reflects the theories of equality of opportunity.
BE AS CRITICAL AS YOU CAN!
Fig. I. Assessment criteria for an assignment.
1 · What is an Assignment? 7
The criteria What this means for you
3 Structural The structure of your assignment must
development be very clear:
from objectives (i) you must set out your objectives in the
to analysis and introduction – say what you are arguing in
synthesis, the assignment.
conclusions and (ii) in the main body of the assignment you
recommendations. should go on to develop your argument
revealing that you understand the theories,
models and arguments and that you can
relate them to your own practical
experiences as critically as possible.
(iii) finally, in your conclusion refer back to your
introduction and objectives and show how
you have fulfilled them. If possible make
some recommendations for teachers/
schools to consider as a result of your work.
(See also ‘Planning and Organising the
Assignment’).
4 Evidence of When you write about the educational
personal and practices you have observed, experienced
professional or read about you should try to be
sell-evaluation. evaluative.
Look at what you are saying, critically. Is there
more than one view or argument or are you
simply describing something rather than
evaluating whether it is important, relevant,
good, bad or could be improved?
BE CRITICAL, BE REFLECTIVE ESPECIALLY
ABOUT YOURSELF, YOUR OWN VIEWS
AND EXPERIENCES.
Fig. I. Continued.
8 How To Write an Assignment
The criteria What this means for you
5 Research Most assignments will require you to research.
activities.
You will need to investigate an area of work or
study. You will investigate by gathering data or
information through: reading relevant literature,
using your observation skills, interviewing
colleagues and so on. It is important to collect
and use as wide a range of evidence or
information as possible in order to be able to
compare and to interpret what the information is
saying.
REMEMBER TO BE CRITICAL OF THE DATA
OR INFORMATION YOU ARE USING.
IS IT TOTALLY RELIABLE?
ARE THERE OTHER VALID
ARGUMENTS/VIEWS?
6 Referencing and When you refer to a particular author’s work,
acknowled- it is important to use the Harvard system of
gements. referencing.
With this system you should refer to their name
and the date they published their work only, eg
P. Smith (1994) produced a guide for students on
producing good assignments; but your course
tutor will be pleased to talk through these criteria
in more detail.
PLEASE ASK YOUR TUTORS FOR ANY HELP
YOU REQUIRE.
Fig. I. Continued.
how to provide evidence of achievement within their assignment.
Even if you are not on an education-related course, spend a few min-
utes reading these ‘criteria’ and ‘what this means for you’ and then
answer the questions which follow.
Now examine your own assessment criteria. Are they open and shared
between the tutor and student? Ask yourself whether you fully under-
stand what your assessment criteria require you to demonstrate in
your assignment. If you do not fully understand them (and often these
criteria are written in complex assessment language) then you need to
ask your tutor for a clearer explanation, so that you can then fulfil
their requirements in your essay, report or dissertation.
CHOOSING THE RIGHT FORMAT FOR YOUR
ASSIGNMENT
The main purpose of writing an assignment, then, is for you to
demonstrate your knowledge, skills and understanding of a particular
topic or area of the course to your tutor or assessor. You will be pre-
senting evidence of your abilities through the assignment and therefore
you need to consider its format and structure carefully. Is the piece of
work you are producing more suited to the essay or report format?
You may be able to choose whether to write a report or an essay when
set the assignment by the tutor. Often the decision is made according
to preferred styles of working or old habits gained from our school-
days! Some of us prefer a lengthier, more discursive style of writing,
and would probably choose an essay format with its flexibility. Others
prefer the tighter and more sharply-focused format of the report.
The aims and title brief of the assignment set by your tutor or exami-
nation may however determine its format. For example, ‘Discuss the
advantages and disadvantages of working in a bureaucratic organisa-
tion’ – this lends itself clearly to an essay format with discursive style
1 · What is an Assignment? 9
and a clear structure. Whereas, ‘Evaluate the planning and implemen-
tation of a staff development programme in an organisation known to
you’, lends itself to a report format with its sharp tightly-defined
focus; yet, it could also lend itself to a structured essay format – as
well as providing the working title for a dissertation!
WHO AM I WRITING THE ASSIGNMENT FOR?
There are clearly overlaps between the essay, report and dissertation in
appropriateness of structure. A consideration of the audience of your
assignment, however, is very useful in determining the overall style and
final format. You need to ask, ‘Who am I writing this assignment for?’
In some cases, this audience is clearly defined for you in the assign-
ment brief, eg ‘Produce a report for your line manager on the
effectiveness of the recruitment and selection procedures in operation’.
In this example, your audience – your line manager – is clearly
defined. You will have a good idea of what is the most suitable type of
report (length, style, tone) for this person through your contact with
him/her.
Of course your ‘other audience’ is your tutor/assessor and it is essential
that you also have a good idea of what they expect from an appropriate
report. Get to know your tutor and the assessment criteria as well as
you can. Find the time to talk to your tutor! If you are on a distance-learn-
ing course, write or telephone. A personal contact will really help you.
In those cases where an audience is not clearly defined in the assign-
ment brief and where your only ‘real audience’ is your tutor or assessor
(and in the case of an examination one you may never have met!), then
it is often better to define your audience to the reader. At the start of
your assignment explain to the reader that you intend to write this
essay or report for . . . presentation to your line manager; future employer;
governing body, examiner and so on . . . In this way you will be justifying
10 How To Write an Assignment
the format chosen for the assignment according to the purpose and
audience defined by you. You will be in control of the assignment from
the outset.
1 · What is an Assignment? 11
CASE STUDIES: AN INTRODUCTION
In the following chapters we will be following the assignment-writing skills of
three different students, Steve, Gill and Sarah. Their individual methods of
tackling the various stages in assignment writing will help to illuminate many of
the techniques you will need to learn.
Steve, a part-time college student
Steve is a young man with a lot of talent on the sporting side. He plays football
at semi-professional level; he is relied upon to play cricket for the local team and
has just bought a set of golf clubs! Steve works in a garage whilst studying part-
time at a Further Education College for two ‘A’ levels – Biology and Sociology.
He needs to pass these ‘A’ levels in order to gain a place on a PE and Leisure
HND course. Steve needs to complete several coursework essays and to prepare
for essay writing in the final examination.
Gill, a management student
Gill is a young woman with ambition. She gained good ‘A’ level results and has
started to work as a management trainee with a large computer manufacturing
company. Gill is anxious to gain high level management qualifications to aid her
career development. She has registered for a part-time Diploma in Management
at the local university. This management course requires students to undertake
management research activities and to write several project reports. Gill has
never written a management report – her ‘A’ levels were largely based on
prepared essays.
Sarah, a mature student
Sarah is a mature student. She works full-time as a technology teacher and has
responsibility for key stage co-ordination and resources. She had a six year
period out of teaching when her children were young and is keen now to
L
SUMMARY
I
There are various types of assignments. Essays, reports and dissertations are
three major types used across a wide range of courses.
I
Each assignment has a clear structure.
I
One of the main purposes of assignment is assessment.
I
It is essential for students to understand the assessment criteria used by the
course tutor so that they can provide appropriate evidence of achievement in
relation to each criteria.
I
The format of the assignment may be determined by the aims and title brief
given by the tutor, or may be chosen by the student.
I
A careful consideration of the audience of the assignment can help to clarify
the format and structure.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. (a) What are your experiences of essay, report or dissertation writing?
(b) How would you define your own present level of assignment-writing skills?
(c) Which area of assignment writing would you most like to develop?
2. What are the assessment criteria used on your course? Are they shared openly?
Do you fully understand them? What types of knowledge, skills and
understanding must you demonstrate in your assignment?
12 How To Write an Assignment
develop her career. She has been studying for a part-time MA at the local
university, through evening taught courses and independent study. After two
years’ study Sarah is now doing the final dissertation stage of her degree.
3. How do you know whether an essay or a report is the best format? What are the
differences and similarities between these two forms of assignment?
4. Who are you writing your next assignment for? What is your target audience?
1 · What is an Assignment? 13
This chapter asks you to identify those skills and attitudes that will
help you to produce a good assignment. You are encouraged to recog-
nise your strengths and to identify your preferred ways of learning and
effective ways of managing your time. You are also asked to target
areas for further professional development and to plan how you will
achieve those targets.
N
Warning! This chapter could change your life.
FINDING YOUR PREFERRED STYLE OF LEARNING
Writing an essay, report or dissertation is difficult and challenging. It
involves a complex learning process. Fortunately, the writing gets
easier the more often you practise the skills involved in this learning
process. It is also aided by the learner/writer being more aware of his
or her preferred style of learning and developing a flexible range of
learning strategies.
Considerable research has been carried out over many decades into
the processes of effective learning. More recently, the work of D. Kolb
and Honey and Mumford has revealed the importance of the student
(and teacher!) identifying their preferred learning style and for devel-
opment programmes to fit appropriate learning strategies into
2
Making the Right Start
IIIII
14
their design. In this way, the programme or course will be designed
and delivered to suit a range of preferred learning styles within the
student group.
Student-centred and teacher-centred approaches
This student-centred approach to teaching and learning has been
used in mainstream education and in FE and HE courses to varying
extents. How has your course been designed: in a student-centred or
teacher-centred way? Examine the descriptors below. Which column
most closely matches the design and delivery of your course?
Student-centred Teacher-centred
Students engage in a variety All students go through the
of activities at any one time. same learning process together.
Students control the order Teachers control the order and
and pace of their learning. pace of the programme of work.
Students and teachers select Relatively few teaching/
jointly from a wide range of learning methods are used. They
teaching/learning strategies. are selected by the teacher
according to his/her preference.
The teacher is seen as a The teacher is seen as an
resource and personal ‘authority’ and relationships are
relationships are encouraged. formal.
Emphasis on a variety Emphasis on the final written
of assesment strategies. examination.
Emphasis on the development Emphasis on the recall of facts
of practical skills and and theoretical knowledge.
understanding.
2 · Making the Right Start 15
Obviously the above descriptors are stereotypical and most courses
will incorporate both descriptors at some point. For example, as the
final examination or coursework assignment approaches most students
are happy for their teacher to adopt a more teacher-centred and didac-
tic style! Such an approach reinforces the authority of the syllabus and
identifies the teacher as the ‘source of all wisdom’ in passing examina-
tions and gaining qualifications.
Many of us have preferred teaching–learning styles if we think back to
our old teachers and those lessons and subjects we enjoyed, compared
to those we struggled with. It may be a little unfair to ‘blame the
teacher’ totally for our successes and failures in learning; nevertheless
there is a large body of evidence stressing the crucial role of the
teacher in the learning process.
Modern teacher-training courses attempt to prepare the teacher in a
wide range of teaching-learning strategies so that an individual student’s
preferred learning style can be accommodated flexibly.
I
Read the General Descriptors of Learning Styles provided by Honey and
Mumford (1986). Which style – activist, reflector, theorist or pragma-
tist – most closely depicts your preferred or usual way of learning?
Summary of the four learning styles
The learning characteristics of these styles can be summarised as:
Learning Styles – General Descriptors
Activists
Activists involve themselves fully and without bias in new experi-
ences. They enjoy the here and now and are happy to be dominated by
immediate experiences. They are open-minded, not sceptical, and this
16 How To Write an Assignment
2 · Making the Right Start 17
tends to make them enthusiastic about anything new. Their philoso-
phy is: ‘I’ll try anything once’. They tend to act first and consider the
consequences afterwards. Their days are filled with activity. They
tackle problems by brainstorming. As soon as the excitement from
one activity has died down they are busy looking for the next. They
tend to thrive on the challenge of new experiences but are bored with
implementation and longer term consolidation. They are gregarious
people constantly involving themselves with others but, in doing so,
they seek to centre all activities around themselves.
Reflectors
Reflectors like to stand back to ponder experiences and observe them
from many different perspectives. They collect data, both first hand
and from others, and prefer to think about it thoroughly before
coming to any conclusion. The thorough collection and analysis of
data about experiences and events is what counts so they tend to
postpone reaching definitive conclusions for as long as possible. Their
philosophy is to be cautious. They are thoughtful people who like to
consider all possible angles and implications before making a move.
They prefer to take a back seat in meetings and discussions. They
enjoy observing other people in action. They listen to others and get
the drift of the discussion before making their own points. They tend
to adopt a low profile and have a slightly distant, tolerant unruffled
air about them. When they act it is part of a wide picture which
includes the past as well as the present and others’ observations as
well as their own.
Theorists
Theorists adapt and integrate observations into complex but logically
sound theories. They think problems through in a vertical, step by
step logical way. They assimilate disparate facts into coherent theories.
They tend to be perfectionists who won’t rest easy until things
are tidy and fit into a rational scheme. They like to analyse and
synthesise. They are keen on basic assumptions, principles, theories
models and systems thinking. Their philosophy prizes rationality and
logic. ‘If it’s logical – it’s good’. Questions they frequently ask are:
‘Does it make sense?’ ‘How does this fit with that?’ ‘What are the
basic assumptions?’ They tend to be detached, analytical and dedi-
cated to rational objectivity rather than anything subjective or
ambiguous. Their approach to problems is consistently logical. This is
their ‘mental set’ and they rigidly reject anything that doesn’t fit with
it. They prefer to maximise certainty and feel uncomfortable with sub-
jective judgements, lateral thinking and anything flippant.
Pragmatists
Pragmatists are keen in trying out ideas, theories and techniques to
see if they work in practice. They positively search out new ideas and
take the first opportunity to experiment with applications. They are
the sort of people who return from management courses brimming
with new ideas that they want to try out in practice. They like to get
on with things and act quickly and confidently on ideas that attract
them. They tend to be impatient with ruminating and open-ended
discussions. They are essentially practical, down to earth people who
like making practical decisions and solving problems. They respond to
problems and opportunities ‘as a challenge’. Their philosophy is:
‘There is always a better way’ and ‘If it works – it’s good’.
Honey and Mumford, 1986.
Activists learn best from the activities where they can engross
themselves in immediate tasks (eg games and simula-
tions, team exercises, and so on);
Reflectors learn best from activities where they have extensive oppor-
tunities to review and reflect on what has happened;
Theorists learn best when what is offered is part of a system,
model concept or theory;
18 How To Write an Assignment
2 · Making the Right Start 19
Pragmatists learn best when there is an obvious link between
subject matter and a problem or opportunity on the job.
Each ‘style’ obviously has its strengths and weaknesses. Research on
learning styles can be used to:
I
Become more aware of your own ‘preferred style’.
I
Identify those learning styles which might benefit from further
development, thus increasing the effectiveness of a range of learn-
ing strategies.
I
Develop an action plan to improve and extend the flexibility of
your learning styles.
Strategies for improving and extending your learning styles include
practising certain behaviours, skills and attitudes associated with your
weaker style.
Activist style
If you wish to improve your activist style:
I
Practise doing something new.
I
Change activities each half hour. For example, if you have had half
an hour of cerebral activity, switch to doing something utterly rou-
tine and mechanical.
I
Practise initiating conversations with strangers.
I
Force yourself into the limelight, volunteer to chair meetings or
give presentations.
I
Practise thinking aloud and on your feet. Set yourself a problem
and bounce ideas off a colleague.
Reflector style
If you wish to improve your reflector style:
I
Practise observing. Study people’s behaviour both verbal and non-
verbal.
I
Keep a diary; reflect on the day’s events and see if you can reach any
conclusions.
I
Practise reviewing after a meeting or event. Review what happened
in great detail. List the lessons learned from this activity.
I
Give yourself something to research, requiring pain-staking data
collection. Spend a few hours in the reference section of the library.
I
Practise producing highly polished pieces of writing. Give yourself
essays to write on something you have researched. Write a report.
Draft a policy statement. When you have written something, put it
aside for a week then force yourself to return to it and do a substan-
tial rewrite.
I
Practise drawing up lists for and against a particular course of
action or issue. Whenever you are with people who want to rush
into action, caution them to consider alternatives and to anticipate
the consequences.
Theorist style
If you wish to improve your theorist style:
I
Read something ‘heavy’ and thought-provoking for at least 30
minutes each day. Try to summarise in your own words what you
have read.
I
Practise spotting inconsistencies/weaknesses in other people’s
arguments. Take two newspapers of different persuasions and do a
comparative analysis.
20 How To Write an Assignment
I
Take a complex situation and analyse why it developed the way it
did. Do a detailed analysis of how you spend your time.
I
Collect other people’s theories, hypotheses and explanations about
events. Try to understand the underlying assumptions each theory
is based upon. See if you can group similar theories together.
I
Practise structuring situations so that they are orderly. Try struc-
turing a meeting by having a clear purpose, an agenda and a
planned beginning, middle and end.
I
Practise asking probing questions – the sort of questions that get
to the bottom of things. Ask questions to find out precisely why
something has occurred.
Pragmatist style
If you wish to improve your pragmatist style:
I
Collect techniques, ie: practical ways of doing this, for example
time saving techniques; presentation techniques and so on.
I
Concentrate on producing action plans. Never emerge from a meet-
ing or discussion without a list of specific actions with deadlines.
I
Study techniques that other people use and model yourself on them.
I
Get experts to observe your technique and to coach you in how to
improve it.
I
Tackle a ‘do-it-yourself’ project at home or work – eg learn to type.
Source: Honey and Mumford (1986).
Drawing on all four learning styles
It can clearly be seen that there are behaviours, skills and attitudes
in all four learning styles that are appropriate to writing a good
assignment.
2 · Making the Right Start 21
For example: thinking aloud and on your feet (activist); giving
yourself something to research and write and rewrite (reflector);
analysing in detail what happened (theorist); and, using experts to
coach you in a particular technique (pragmatist) are all valuable com-
ponents of successful assignment production.
Ask yourself
I
What personal strengths can you identify in your preferred learn-
ing styles?
I
What areas have you targeted for further development?
MANAGING YOUR TIME EFFECTIVELY
One of the techniques the pragmatist would see as valuable in assign-
ment writing is time management. The following section helps you
to practise the skills or techniques of managing your time more effec-
tively in both your ‘everyday life’ and in your ‘studying and
assignment writing life’.
Most part-time students, like those in our case studies, will be suf-
fering from ‘overload’ and ‘deadlines’. They will find it difficult to
devote sufficient time to the assignment researching and writing
process. It is, of course, essential to see assignment writing as a
high priority, planned activity, and allocate quality time to the
whole process.
The following time management techniques and strategies are
designed to help you to make effective use of the short amount of
time you have available to you. Practising time management
should prevent procrastination and a lack of preparation and planning.
Your assignments will be submitted on time and your stress levels
will be reduced!
22 How To Write an Assignment
1. Recording your use of time
Keep a time log or diary and record all of your activities (preferably
for one week). See Figure 2.
2. Analysing your use of time
Consider how your time is spent. Have you wasted time – how? Is your
time too fragmented? Could you consolidate small parcels of free (or rela-
tively free) time into larger more useful units of time by moving or
reviewing activities? Do unplanned activities tend to take over from
planned intentions? Why?
2 · Making the Right Start 23
Time log
DATE: __________________________________________________
TIME ACTIVITIES
08.00
08.15
08.30
08.45
09.00
09.15
09.30
09.45
10.00
10.15
and so on
Fig. 2. A time log.
Ask yourself:
(a) What am I currently doing with my time?
(b) What actually needs doing?
(c) How much priority do I attach to the remaining tasks?
(d) How can I achieve more?
24 How To Write an Assignment
Fig. 3. Time management: action planner.
Time management – action planner
Things to do (A) (B) (C) Delegate Achieve
Must Should Could to by
do do do whom? when?
3. Improving your time management
Consider the following techniques, questions and strategies and
ask yourself whether these are a strength for you or an area for
further development.
I
Clarify objectives
Are you clear about your objectives? What are your long-term
objectives? Why do you want to pass this course/write this assign-
ment? Are you clear about the objectives for the assignment? (See
Chapter 3.)
I
Planning
Effective planning saves considerable time overall. Always plan
your assignment carefully (see Chapter 4). Use a daily ‘to do’ list, a
diary and a long-term planner to carry out forward planning for the
day, week, year. See Figure 3.
I
Prioritise
Prioritise your activities into categories of:
(a) What you must do.
(b) What you should do.
(c) What you could do.
I
Delegate
Can you delegate any of the above tasks and responsibilities to
other colleagues? Have you involved your colleagues or tutor suffi-
ciently in the task/assignment?
I
Say ‘No’
Analyse why you say ‘yes’ when you know you should say ‘no’. By
saying ‘yes’ you are probably putting additional pressure on your
short supply of time. Learn to be more assertive; practise four steps
in saying ‘no’: listen; say no; give reason if appropriate; suggest
alternatives if possible.
2 · Making the Right Start 25
I
Dealing with paperwork
Learn to speed or skim read documents; adopt an effective system
of classifying and storing the information you will be gathering;
learn to use IT – word processing and data base can save time in
information handling.
I
Eliminate time wasters
These include the telephone and other unplanned activities and
temptations. When you are working on your assignment be
focused; do not be side tracked.
I
Identify your best hours
Do you work more effectively in the mornings, afternoons,
evenings or in the night? Use your quality time most productively.
I
Effective meetings
These include course meetings and tutorials. Decide if the meeting
needs to be held/attended; decide on the purpose and outcomes of
the meeting; decide on the starting and finishing time and stick to
these times; make sure you participate effectively in these meetings
to achieve your aims.
You may wish to study how to manage your time in more depth. The
work of J. Adair (1983) and P. Drucker (1968) are both valuable
sources of time management strategies for the busy assignment writer
to consider.
26 How To Write an Assignment
CASE STUDIES
Steve the activist
Steve is an activist. He likes variety and excitement, works quickly and gets
others involved and enthusiastic. He works well with other people and talks
readily to strangers both on and off the sports field. In his ‘A’ level classes he is
not concerned with making a fool of himself and will ask questions and
2 · Making the Right Start 27
volunteer opinions readily. His major strengths are his ability to ask for help and
to talk through any problems in his essay writing with his tutor and colleagues.
Steve is, however, a fairly typical activist in that he has a tendency to rush into
essays without careful planning and he is not very good at managing his time.
He leaves things to the last minute and tries to do too many things at once
instead of prioritising his limited time.
Gill the theorist
Gill is a theorist. She has set herself clear goals in obtaining her management
diploma and has prioritised her time in pursuit of this goal. She has always
worked well alone with minimum help from teachers and colleagues. Gill is
precise and thorough; she organises her facts and material and plans well in
advance for her projects and reports. Gill likes to work things out clearly on
paper and also to rework her notes over and over again.
As a theorist used to drafting and redrafting ‘A’ level essays, Gill may find it
difficult to adapt to report writing. She has a tendency to fail to use teachers
and colleagues as a resource and can get bogged down in information and
theory. At the moment Gill does not function very well in group discussions and
active learning situations, preferring the more didactive style of teaching she is
used to.
Sarah the reflector
Sarah is a reflector. She is unhurried and doesn’t get into a flap. Sarah’s strength
lies in her ability to listen to others and share ideas. She is good at pinpointing
important new questions, coming up with new ways of doing things; and in
presenting her work in interesting and appealing ways. As a reflector she can
see the long-term implications of things and has chosen a long course (the MA)
which will allow her to study several different subjects.
Sarah is, however, a fairly typical reflector in that she sometimes doesn’t see the
‘trees for the wood’ and forgets important details. She is also a little uncritical of
ideas, too easy-going and not assertive enough with teachers or friends. Sarah’s
time management skills also need to be examined. She waits too long before
L
SUMMARY
I
It is important to start from where you are now; to recognise your strengths and
skills and to identify and target areas requiring further professional development.
I
Recognising your professional learning style and its relative strength and
weaknesses is important in developing a flexible range of learning styles and
strategies useful in assignment writing.
I
Time management can be an effective strategy in assignment writing, ensuring
adequate preparation, planning and prioritisation of the work involved. Effective
time management can help to reduce the stress levels of the busy assignment
writer.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. What learning styles should our case studies aim to develop in order to improve
their assignment writing? What is your preferred learning style? What skills do
you intend to practise from the other learning styles?
2. Which teaching-learning strategies have you experienced recently? (See page 29)
3. Is it important for tutors to incorporate a wide range of teaching-learning
strategies into their course design and delivery? Why?
4. Keep a time log for one week and analyse your use of time. Consider the time
management strategies and analyse your targets for further development.
Action-plan those targets by practising the relevant techniques and skills. Do you
need any help? Reflect and critically evaluate over the period of one term
whether you have made more effective use of your time.
28 How To Write an Assignment
getting started; doesn’t like planned time tables; only works in bursts of energy
and can get easily distracted from the job in hand. Sarah has a 20,000 word
dissertation to write this year.
2 · Making the Right Start 29
Teaching/learning strategy Tick
Games
Role play
Brainstorming
Case studies
Debates
Individual work
Whole group teaching
Working in groups
Syndicates
Demonstrations
Surveys
Interviews
Tasks/challenges
Design briefs
Computer assisted learning
Video/film
Work experience
Field studies
Lectures
The title question, or brief of your assignment is very important. It
tells you and the reader what is going to happen in the assignment.
You need to read your title question or assignment brief very carefully,
several times! In the case of an essay or a brief for a report, you need to
decide what you are being asked to do before you can even start to
plan. In the case of a dissertation where you select your own title and
research question, you still need the same close matching of response
to question in order to ensure relevance and coherence.
It is important to practise the skills of analysing questions, titles
and briefs in order to fully understand what is expected of you – so
that you can then respond with a relevant and pertinent assignment.
This section helps you to analyse key words and ideas in the title ques-
tion or brief of essays, reports or dissertations.
IDENTIFYING THE KEY WORDS
You need to examine the precise wording of the title question or brief
in order to establish what this particular assignment (and the tutor) is
looking for in terms of evidence of achievement. The title question or
brief will carry, within its words, its own assessment criteria – that
3
Analysing the Title
Question or Brief
IIIII
30
is, the important concepts, knowledge and skills you are required to
include in your assignment to satisfy the criteria already established.
Chapter 1 outlined the importance of understanding the assessment
criteria your tutor will be using to judge your assignment. Analysing
the key words in the title will help you to clarify the criteria relating
to both content and process. See Figure 4.
3 · Analysing the Title Question or Brief 31
Process words: a key to their meanings
Key word Meaning
Account Account ‘for’ asks you to give reasons for. An account ‘of’
asks for a detailed description.
Analyse Make a detailed examination or investigation into
something.
Assess Consider in a balanced way the points for and against
something.
Comment State clearly your opinions on the topic in question.
Support your views with evidence.
Compare Look for the similarities and differences.
Contrast Emphasise the differences between two or more things.
Criticise Give your considered opinion about the value of the
theories/practices, back up your criticism with evidence
from your research (reading, observation, and so on).
Define Give the precise meaning of something. Show how the
distinctions you make are necessary.
Describe Give a detailed account
Discuss Investigate or examine by argument; give reasons for and
against.
Fig. 4. Process words: a key to their meanings.
32 How To Write an Assignment
Three steps to take
Try following these three steps in analysing the key words in title
question or brief:
1. First, look for the process word – discuss, plan, review, evaluate,
and so on. The sort of words (usually verbs) tells you how you must
deal with the content of the assignment. Underline these key
process words and check their meaning (see below).
2. Next, look for and underline the content words – social class, lead-
ership style, The Children Act 2004, and so on. These words tell
you what you must focus on in the assignment.
Evaluate Make a judgement about the value/importance/worth of
something.
Examine Present in depth and investigate fully the implications.
Explain Make plain, interpret, give reasons.
Extent ‘To what extent’ – asks you to weigh the evidence for and
against something: to state ‘how far’ something is valid.
Illustrate Use examples, diagrams and so on to explain or make
clear.
Interpret Make clear the meaning of something, usually giving your
own views also.
Justify Show adequate grounds for decisions or conclusions.
Outline Give the main features, structure or general principles of a
topic omitting minor details.
Review Make a survey of; critically examine the subject.
State Specify fully and clearly.
Summarise Give a concise account of the main points of the topic.
Fig. 4. Continued.
3 · Analysing the Title Question or Brief 33
3. Finally, read and write out the whole title question or brief, trying
to establish precisely what you are being asked to do. What is the
content area? What must you do with that content? What sort of
structure, style and audience is indicated?
Tip
If you are in any doubt at all about the meaning of the assignment
brief, seek advice from your tutor or experienced colleague.
TECHNIQUES FOR UNDERSTANDING THE
INSTRUCTIONS
When you have underlined your key content and process words
(and read the question through several times!) you will have
some general idea of what you are being asked to do. You will
know whether the topic requires a general or specific treatment.
You will know whether you can include your own opinions and
experiences, or, whether you should include only the views or theo-
ries of other writers.
You need to analyse the title question or brief very closely and the fol-
lowing techniques may be of some further help:
I
using a dictionary
I
rewriting the question in your own words
I
looking at the opposite view
I
recognising the type of question.
Let’s consider each in turn.
34 How To Write an Assignment
Using a dictionary
Use a dictionary to check the meaning of every individual word.
Even ordinary words like ‘should’ or ‘must’ need to be ‘unpacked’ and
defined by you.
Take for example the question ‘To what extent should parents
prepare their children for school?’ This requires you to explore the key
content words of ‘parent’, ‘children’, ‘school’ and ‘preparation’. It also
gives you the key process words ‘to what extent’ asking you to state
‘how much preparation’ parents should make. But what about the
word ‘should’? If you look in the dictionary ‘should’ is defined in
terms of ‘duty’ or ‘obligation’. This will immediately give you a good
critical idea for your assignment in that you can explore the whole
questionable notion that parents ‘ought to’ prepare their children for
school. Should they? Why is it a duty? – and so on.
Rewriting the question in your own words
Translate the whole question into your own words. Try to avoid using
any of the same wording as in the title question or brief. You will
probably find that your translation will be double the length of the
original question. No matter! – it will help you to fully understand
the point or emphasis of the question.
If you have any difficulty in translating the question into your own
words the dictionary will help. Also, Roget’s Thesaurus can be most
helpful in finding synonyms, partner words and different forms of the
same content or process word. This translation and redefinition should
really help you in the next stages of assignment writing.
The opposite view
Try writing down the opposite of the title question or brief. This
technique can often provide illuminating ideas about how to tackle
the question and raises interesting arguments not always considered.
For example the previous question could be rephrased to read: ‘To
what extent should parents not prepare their children for school’ is
critically raised for you to consider as a possible line of argument.
Recognising the type of question
Make sure you recognise the type of question being asked – and
therefore the type of assignment in style, structure, format.
This technique requires you to examine the process words carefully
(see above). For example ‘discuss’ tends to depict an open-ended question –
where if you are not careful you could discuss far too widely! A useful
technique is to define the limitations of your discussion in your opening
paragraph, eg ‘In this argument I intend to discuss the following
important factors . . . in the space available, I do not intend to discuss the
relative merits of . . . although it is recognised that such factors also play an
influential role in . . .’ and so on. In an open-ended assignment, you need
to define your ‘limitations’ or ‘restrictions of focus’ clearly to the reader.
In this way you will be assessed on what you have justified as important
and included in the assignment, and not on what you have left out.
Other types of questions can be categorised as descriptive, analytical
or argumentative. Again, study the ‘process’ word to decide what you
are being asked to do.
Descriptive assignments
These tend to be structured in a chronological or survey/review of lit-
erature fashion. They are often difficult to write well in a short
assignment and many students end up writing too much!
Analytical assignments
These allow the structure to be determined by the writer, according
to the categories, sub-sections, factors chosen for the analysis.
3 · Analysing the Title Question or Brief 35
Analytical essays are usually well-organised as long as you tell your
reader how you are going to proceed with the analysis at the begin-
ning of the assignment.
Argumentative assignments
These allow the topic to be the subject of critical debate, setting out
arguments for and against the issue under investigation. Differing
and competing viewpoints are used to structure the assignment and
the writer needs to understand these different arguments and to use
them effectively.
36 How To Write an Assignment
– Essay questions can require you to be descriptive, analytical or
argumentative.
– Report briefs can require you to be descriptive and/or analytical.
– Dissertations can require you to be descriptive, analytical and
argumentative.
CASE STUDIES
Steve is asked to ‘critically discuss’
Steve has a sociology essay to submit by Monday evening entitled: ‘The essential
functions of the family in Britain are in decline. Critically discuss this statement’.
He has left the essay to the last minute unfortunately, and has arranged to play
football on both Saturday and Sunday afternoon. Steve knows that he needs to
get a good mark on this essay and has read quickly around the area of the
functions of the family. On Friday evening he is ready to write the essay and he
rushes straight in.
Steve has not analysed closely the title of the essay. In his haste, he failed to
spot the key words ‘essential’ and ‘critically’ and instead writes a descriptive
3 · Analysing the Title Question or Brief 37
essay which supports the statement that the functions of the family in Britain
are in decline without giving any opposing arguments – eg around the area
of ‘essential’.
When his assignment is returned, Steve realises that he failed to answer
the question completely – he is determined to analyse the question closely
next time!
Gill is asked to ‘assess’
Gill has been asked to produce a report to ‘Assess the effectiveness of the
departmental resource allocation system operating in your organisation’. She
needs to hand it in to her tutor on Monday. In her precise and thorough way she
has spent considerable time reading widely in the area of resource
management; she has assembled many facts and theories on effective resource
allocation, from an extensive range of management text books. By Friday, she
too had left the writing of the report a little too late, still getting bogged down
in theory after theory.
Gill has identified the key words ‘effective’ and ‘resource allocation’. However,
she has failed to appreciate the importance of the process word ‘assess’, in
relation to considering the strengths and weaknesses of her own particular
system at work. Gill needs to apply her theories to practice. Analysing more
closely the word ‘assess’ would have helped her to consider in a balanced way
the effectiveness of her own system; it would have alerted her to the need to
give her own judgements, rather than simply those of lots of theorists!
Sarah’s ‘investigation’
Sarah has her second tutorial with her dissertation supervisor on Monday after
school. She has decided that she would like to do some research into teacher
stress and National Curriculum testing. After much creative thought on the
way to the university, Sarah suggests the following title for her dissertation to
her tutor:
‘A study of the National Curriculum and an assessment of its impact on teacher
morale and pupil achievement’.
L
SUMMARY
I
Understanding the title question or brief is very important in answering the
right question.
I
Analysing the key words will help you to define the important concepts,
knowledge and skills you should include in your assignment.
I
Look for and underline process and content words.
I
Use a dictionary to check meanings.
I
Translate the question into your own words. Use Roget’s Thesaurus to find
helpful synonyms.
I
Try writing down the opposite question to see if it sparks new ideas.
I
Learn to recognise the type of question being asked (open-ended, descriptive,
analytical, argumentative) and therefore the style and structure of the answer.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. Look back at your previous assignments and tutor comments. Have you ever
misunderstood the point of what is being asked for in the question? Have you
ever failed to fully understand the emphasis of the question? Did you analyse in
detail the key words in the question?
38 How To Write an Assignment
Sarah’s tutor helps her to focus down on what she really wants to do in her
research. ‘National Curriculum tests (SATS)’ and ‘teacher stress’ are identified as
key content words and the tutor suggests that Sarah will be ‘investigating’
rather than ‘assessing’. This results in the working title of: ‘An investigation into
the relationship between teacher stress and National Curriculum testing’. A good
starting point!
2. Identify the content and process words in the following title question:
‘Evaluate the extent to which an understanding of equal opportunities helps to
inform recruitment and selection practices.’
Your answer probably included ‘Equal Opportunities’ and ‘recruitment and
selection’ as key content words and ‘evaluate’, ‘extent’ and ‘inform’ as key
process words.
3. Translate the above title question into your own words. Use a dictionary and
Roget’s Thesaurus to find as many meanings and interpretations of all the words
as you can.
3 · Analysing the Title Question or Brief 39
Before you can start writing you need to create a plan for your assign-
ment. This is usually best done in three steps:
1. Brainstorming every idea and piece of material you think you
might include; and using patterned notes if possible.
2. Making notes on relevant material in the area; collecting further
information. Note: Online databases and Electronic Journals
available in your library make it easier for you to find out what has
been written on the topic.
3. Drawing up an outline plan of the assignment with a clear struc-
ture and a logical order.
This section will help you to develop the essential skills of the pre-
writing stage – brainstorming, note-taking and outline planning.
BRAINSTORMING
The last chapter asked you to analyse ‘key words’. If you were to
analyse ‘brainstorming’ using the dictionary, you might question the
value of having a ‘violent mental disturbance’ (Oxford Dictionary) to
effective assignment writing!
4
How to Plan and
take Notes
IIIII
40
4 · How to Plan and take Notes 41
However, after analysing the title question or brief, many people do
find it helpful to brainstorm the subject or topic concerned in order to
generate ideas and material for their answer. Try the following brain-
storming activity yourself:
Example
Take a sheet of blank paper and write in the middle of it the subject or
questions to be considered. Then write down everything that comes
into your mind which is connected with the subject or question.
It does not matter at this stage about the order of the things you
write down. You can include trivial and even loosely associated
thoughts since these might trigger an interesting line of argument.
Write in note form, quickly. Give your thoughts a chance to flow freely
and creatively.
You could draw a spider or bubble diagram if you wish – see
Figure 5.
A further variation on brainstorming which takes you one stage fur-
ther towards detailed note-taking is a technique called pattern notes.
The Open University Open Teaching Toolkit describes how this style
of note-taking can be used.
The title/main idea/topic is written in a box or bubble in the centre
of a plain sheet of paper (eg A4 turned sideways). Then themes are
written along lines radiating out from the centre and subsidiary
points branch off from these main branches. Dotted lines/arrows can
be added to bring out links and connections between points. You can
use different coloured pens to highlight main points and so on. See
Figure 6.
42 How To Write an Assignment
Fig. 5. Example of a spider diagram.
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t
s
Fig. 6. Example of a pattern note. Source: Open University 1992.
4 · How to Plan and take Notes 43
NOTE-TAKING AND COLLECTING FURTHER
INFORMATION
After analysing the title question, brainstorming, and using patterned
notes to identify what you already know or questions you would like
to pursue on the topic or subject, it is time to gather further information.
This information in the form of notes will come from a variety of rele-
vant sources eg:
books
films
video
radio
programmes
periodicals
encyclopaedias
abstracts
indexes
talking to other people
online data bases
electronic journals
Online databases and Electronic Journals in your library can save you
time and make it easier for you to find out what has already been writ-
ten on the topic you are researching.
Coping with a flood of new ideas
As you collect information from your sources you will find yourself
asking new questions and having new ideas and arguments to include
in your assignment. You will therefore be modifying and improving
your earlier brainstormed or patterned notes through a careful collec-
tion of relevant information. You need to take care to collect enough
information and not to collect too much so that you get bogged down in notes
and detail!
Noting useful examples
As you read your books and articles, watch TV, listen to radio programmes
and delve into the reference section and online facilities of the library it is
important to keep a note of all useful examples, illustrations, definitions,
quotations and references, as well as possible points of argument.
Keeping the right type of notes
The type of notes you keep will probably vary according to the subject
and the type of source you are using (interview, textbook, TV, pro-
gramme, article). You can write your notes on separate sheets of paper or
cards so that you can shuffle them around when it comes to the
detailed planning and writing stage of your assignment. It is impor-
tant to remember to keep a record and web address of the source of your
note (the author, title, publisher, date of publication). This can save
you hours of time searching for that particular book or article you
know you copied a quotation from.
Using IT, for example a personal computer, can prove helpful in stor-
ing and retrieving data or notes made during this stage of assignment
writing. You will develop your own style of note-taking (to suit your
preferred style of learning, perhaps!).
Some people tend to keep highly organised records or notes whilst
others are a little more disorganised or impulsive. Experience will help
you to find a style of note-taking that is effective for you.
PRODUCING AN OUTLINE PLAN
Planning your essay, report or dissertation makes effective use of your
limited time. By preparing a plan you put yourself in control of the
material you have collected and you will be able to present your
assignment in a logical, concise and coherent way.
44 How To Write an Assignment
4 · How to Plan and take Notes 45
I
Tip. Remember, in examinations, drawing up an outline plan of
what you intend to include in your answer is valuable for the exam-
iner to see. It could gain you marks!
The basic framework of the essay, report and dissertation is provided in
Chapter 1 and the paragraph, sub-heading and chapter heading forms
the major organisational device giving structure to the assignment.
I
Tip. Try writing an assignment without any paragraphs or headings
at all to see how completely disorganised it looks!
At the outline planning stage you should aim to organise your selected
notes (ie those items you have decided are relevant to the title question
or brief) into a logical order in order to create a clear structure. You
should ensure that your assignment plan uses all of the relevant ideas
and material you brainstormed and collected earlier. You should also
ensure that the whole assignment plan is designed to answer the title
question or brief set!
There are various planning techniques to use in assignment writing
from simple lists under key headings, to planning trees and a detailed
form of pattern notes. The use of these methods will vary according
to personal preference and to the formation or structure of the assign-
ment. However, the planning tree and pattern notes could be useful
for planning an essay, report and the literature review chapter of your
dissertation. Figure 7 is an example of a planning tree and Figure 8 an
example of patterned notes.
Whatever planning method you decide to use, the end result must be
an outline plan that is systematic and organised. The material must
be logically ordered and the paragraphs and/or sub-sections clearly
indicated as above.
4
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The Importance of Managing Stress
Looking at the Signs and
Symptoms of Stress
Physical Emotional Behavioural
Strategies for
Coping with Stress
Personal
Coping
Strategies
Managing
Stress
Organis-
ation
Self
Identifying
Sources of Stress
In the
Home
In the
Work-
place
Fig. 7. Example of a planning tree on managing stress.
4 · How to Plan and take Notes 47
Fig. 8. A patterned note on managing stress.
CASE STUDIES
The typical activist’s approach
Steve is a typical activist in that at the moment he does not plan his work well
in advance. He leaves things to the last minute instead of planning an effective
use of his limited time. Steve is good at brainstorming ideas to include in his
assignment; but in his last sociology essay he failed to organise these ideas into
a logical structure that answered the question set. His tutor, realising Steve’s
inexperience in essay writing, has loaned him a book on planning techniques.
Steve is willing to try any new ideas or techniques and is going to use the
planning tree next time!
Gill the theorist
Gill is a typical theorist in that she plans well in advance for her assignments.
Indeed, she spends hour after hour gathering detailed information in the library
using the online facilities and making copious notes. Her notes are so detailed
that she found it difficult to organise them all into her last report. Gill would
L
48 How To Write an Assignment
SUMMARY
I
Brainstorming the title question, subject or topic can help to generate ideas and
material for the answer.
I
Using patterned notes can help to take the state of ideas generated one stage
further and raise questions for further exploration.
I
Collecting relevant information for the assignment can be helped by developing
an effective style of note-taking.
benefit from going through a more creative stage before delving into detailed
note-taking. After analysing the brief for her next report she should consider
brainstorming all possible lines of enquiry; she should then use pattern notes to
select the important and relevant ideas and concepts or questions requiring
further exploration in the library. This technique may help to reduce the amount
of information Gill gathers, helping her to get down to writing the report earlier
and to valuing her own opinion and viewpoint.
Sarah’s energetic and creative approach
Sarah has managed to successfully complete several short assignments in her
MA pathway, over the last two years. She has a tendency to work rather
sporadically and with bursts of energy. Like a true reflector, Sarah is good at
coming up with creative solutions to assignment questions or problems to be
solved. She is also easily able to identify important questions which must be
considered. Sarah has long used the brainstorming technique to generate ideas
for her assignments, but her tutor’s comments reveal that she has often failed to
organise and use her excellent ideas effectively in a logical and coherent
structure, to answer the question set. Adopting detailed planning techniques,
such as a planning tree or pattern notes, will ensure that in future Sarah
capitalises on her powers of reflection and does not forget to include important
details, or material in her dissertation.
I
Producing an outline plan of your assignment with a logical order and clear
structure is essential. Planning trees and pattern notes can help in this outline
planning stage.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. Look back at a recent assignment. Does it have a clear structure? How did you
plan the structure of the assignment?
2. Try brainstorming what you know already about ‘writing a good assignment’.
Can you extend these brainstormed notes into patterned notes with main points
and sub-points?
3. Practise using both a planning tree and detailed patterned notes in your next
two assignments. Which technique is most helpful to you in defining the
structure of the paragraphs and sub-sections?
4 · How to Plan and take Notes 49
After producing an outline plan (see Chapter 4) the next stage is the
writing of a rough draft of your assignment. In this stage you will try
to keep to your plan, but expressing your ideas clearly often means
that you come up with new and better ideas as you write. This can
involve you in restructuring your original plan, but these revisions
will probably be minor ones!
As you write your rough draft you will be using paragraphs and also
sub-headings and chapter headings. These organising devices help
to clarify the structure of your assignment to the reader and signpost
your main and supporting (sub) points.
This section takes you through the skills of paragraph writing and
emphasises the importance of writing good introductory and con-
cluding paragraphs, sections or chapters.
PARAGRAPH WRITING
One point per paragraph
Each of the main points in your outline plan needs to have one or
more paragraphs devoted to it. In other words a paragraph should
cover only one idea or key point. If a main point has several support-
5
Drafting the Structure
IIIII
50
ing (sub) points then these key points will probably each require
a paragraph.
In the example given on page 47 it would be wrong to put physical,
behavioural and emotional signs of stress into one paragraph since
each is a different sub-point of the main point. Therefore each sub-
point deserves a separate paragraph and there is also a considerable
amount of information to include on each of these aspects of stress (see
Figure 9). Indeed, as you write you may find yourself further sub-
dividing your points into further paragraphs in order to keep the
paragraphs a reasonable length.
A paragraph can vary in length!
A paragraph might occasionally consist of just one sentence (usually to
give maximum effect to the key point you are making). An average
paragraph is probably around 100 words and no longer than half a
page in length. If your essay, report or chapter needs to be about 2,000
words long then you can quickly check your outline plan to see if you
are attempting to ‘fit in’ too many main and sub-points, or whether
you might need to add further sub-points through additional research
if necessary.
5 · Drafting the Structure 51
Fig. 9. Structuring your assignment into paragraphs.
Each sub-point will probably require a separate paragraph.
HOW TO MANAGE YOUR STRESS
signs and symptoms of stress
(main point)
Behavioural Emotional Physical
(sub-points)
How many paragraphs?
Look back at the planning tree on page 46 and decide how many para-
graphs should be included in this assignment on ‘How to manage
your stress’. Don’t forget to include an introduction and conclusion.
What might be the approximate length of this assignment, as indicated
by the main and sub-points included in the plan?
Highlighting key points
The one key point in your paragraph needs to stand out clearly to
the reader. This key point is placed in a key sentence usually at the
start of the paragraph, so that you are then explaining to the reader
what this paragraph is about. Therefore the first sentence in any para-
graph is usually very important as it summarises the main or
sub-points covered in the paragraph. (Each of the other sentences in
the paragraph should go on to explain or illustrate the key points
that the paragraph is making.)
I
What is the main or key point of the paragraph above? Is there a
key sentence? Where is it placed?
Note: Although key points are usually made at the beginning of para-
graphs they can also be made in the final sentences of paragraphs!
I
What might be the advantage of this technique?
Joining it all together
Paragraphs need to be coherent, which means that the sentences
must link with one another. If each sentence in the paragraph is dis-
cussing or further exploring the same key points then the paragraph
will probably be coherent However, it can help to use transitional
words to join your sentences together and to make the paragraph
flow more smoothly.
52 How To Write an Assignment
Examples of transitional words include ‘for example’, ‘on the other
hand’, ‘however’, ‘similarly’, ‘in contrast’, ‘therefore’, ‘for instance’,
‘furthermore’, ‘in other words’ and so on.
I
Look back at the preceding paragraphs and identify the transitional
words used to add coherence and linkage within the paragraphs.
Using transitions to link your sentences helps you to write more
clearly and also helps the reader to understand the key points you are
making and extending. Transitions can also be used to link paragraphs
together effectively (see Chapter 6). Paragraphs are important in all
assignments, whether essays, reports or dissertations. They give struc-
ture and order to the piece of work. However, they are not the only
organisational devices or signposts that writers can use.
USING SUB-HEADINGS
The sub-heading can be used as a structuring signpost for the reader
not simply in reports or within dissertation chapters, but they can
also be used effectively in traditional essay writing. Sub-headings are
deliberately obvious and point out clearly to the reader the main
point or argument being explored in the subsequent paragraph(s).
This ensures that the reader (or examiner!) fully understands the
point(s) you are making.
Using sub-headings in a humanities or social science essay can be very
useful. They provide structure and a set of signposts for the reader to
follow through often very detailed descriptive, analytical or argumenta-
tive essays. Sub-headings, therefore, help to inform and guide the reader.
I
Look back through this book to see how sub-headings are used as
signposts to guide the reader through the material on assignment
writing.
5 · Drafting the Structure 53
WRITING INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Introductions
An introduction can act as a major signpost in the assignment. This is
the first opportunity for you to direct and guide your reader, giving
them a clear idea of what is to follow.
The following points will be useful in ensuring that your introduc-
tions are effective.
Note: introductions should:
I
Define the key words and ideas to be used in the essay, report or
dissertation. Avoid long-winded definitions.
I
Explain clearly how you have interpreted the question or brief.
What you understand by the title.
I
State which aspects of the topic you intend dealing with and why.
Justify your selected focus.
I
Say how you intend to tackle the question: the structure and
order of your essay, report or dissertation.
I
Aim to be bright, crisp and make the reader want to read on. No
more than half a page in length, preferably less.
In a dissertation or report you will need to state the hypothesis and/or
research question(s) you are going to investigate and then to report on.
In an essay it is useful to pose a question in the introduction which you
will then pursue through the main body of the essay.
Example 1
‘In this report/dissertation I intend to investigate the potential relationship
between effective teams and leadership style’. My research questions will
include: What is an effective team? What is leadership? What is meant
54 How To Write an Assignment
by leadership style? What are the perceptions of the research group on
the potential relationship between effective teams and leadership style?
Example 2
‘Social class differences in Britain are disappearing. We are all middle-class
now. Critically discuss this statement’. This essay might start with a ques-
tion to grab the interest of the reader and to identify a line of
argument you intend to pursue. For example: ‘With two million
unemployed and many thousands homeless, how can we claim that
Britain is undergoing a process of embourgeoisement?’ The introduc-
tion might then go on to identify those social class differences of
wealth, income, occupation, education, status and so on that would be
explored in the main body of the essay.
Writing conclusions
A conclusion is very important as these are the last words you leave
with the reader or examiner. Both first and last impressions are vitally
important!
The following points will be useful in ensuring that your conclusions
are effective.
Note: conclusions should:
I
pull the assignment together
I
answer the title question or brief set
I
summarise the main points you have covered
I
indicate areas for further research
I
include your own personal views on the topic
I
not end abruptly in case the reader feels you have run out of words
I
end on a crisp and pertinent point which illustrates your main
arguments and findings.
5 · Drafting the Structure 55
In conclusion to this chapter, please remember that all writing is hard!
Producing a draft of your assignment that you will be happy with first
time is unlikely. You will need to work on your paragraphs, sections,
introduction and conclusion by drafting and redrafting them.
I
Writing is a skill. It takes time and practice to develop.
56 How To Write an Assignment
CASE STUDIES
Steve – good flow, poor structure
Steve enjoys writing freely – just as it comes! He decided against producing a
rough draft in his last sociology essay on ‘the family’ due to a shortage of time
and he wrote the finished version straight off. His largely descriptive essay
flowed easily but the structure was not made clear to the reader in the
introduction. Steve did not analyse the title question closely and did not define
the terms and ideas critically at the beginning of the assignment. Some of his
paragraphs were overlong and his conclusion ended abruptly. Steve failed to
summarise the points he had made in the essay. In a follow-up tutorial, Steve’s
tutor encouraged him to clarify the structure of his essay more clearly to the
reader in the introduction; to use sub-headings and to use the conclusion to pull
the essay together. Steve learns quickly by talking things through with people
and he is certain to take these techniques on board next time!
Gill – clear structure, weak follow-through
Gill likes to set clear goals in her life and in her assignments. In the introduction
to her recent report she clearly identified the main points of ‘effective resource
allocation’ which she was about to cover, and clarified the structure of the
report. She used sub-headings to signpost the important theories she covered
and in her conclusion she summarised the theories of ‘effectiveness’ and
‘resource management’. However, she failed to link the two concepts together
sufficiently in a practical assignment. Neither did she add her own personal
views. The report was well structured and precise in its theoretical detail, but it
was descriptive rather than analytical, and rather bland.
SUMMARY
I
Paragraphs, sub-headings and chapters are useful ways of structuring and
signposting your assignment.
I
Each main or sub-point should have its own paragraph.
I
Paragraphs need to be coherent. Using transitional words can help to link
sentences and make paragraphs flow.
I
The key sentence in the paragraph explains to the reader what the paragraph
is about.
I
Sub-headings proide structure and signposts for the reader and are useful in
essays, reports and dissertations.
I
Introductions are major signposts. They should define the key words and state
clearly what is going to happen in the assignment.
I
Conclusions need to pull the assignment together and summarise the main
points covered.
5 · Drafting the Structure 57
Sarah – getting at what the title means
Sarah has been asked to produce a rough draft of her introduction to the
dissertation for her next tutorial. In it she needs to ‘unpack’ the working title to
clarify her hypothesis (her belief that there is a relationship between teacher stress
and national curriculum assessment). Sarah needs to define her key terms. She
also needs to identify her research questions: (what specific questions will she be
pursuing in this investigation?). The rough draft introduction to the dissertation is
a most important planning or signposting tool for the rest of the research.
Clarifying her objectives at an early stage in the research will help Sarah to focus
down and will make the data collection stage more manageable. Sarah is good at
seeing the ‘total picture’ of teacher stress but is finding it difficult to focus down
on specific research questions. Her tutor is happy to guide her in this area and
Sarah leaves the tutorial session having pinpointed several key questions.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. Pick up a periodical in the library and examine one or two articles. What are the
main structuring devices used by the author to signpost the material in the
article? Is the structure clear? Do the signposts help to indicate the main points
or arguments?
2. Analyse a series of paragraphs. What is the topic of the paragraph? What is the
main point? Where is the key sentence placed? What is the approximate length
of these paragraphs?
3. Read three or four introductions and conclusions to these articles or any essays,
reports, dissertations you can obtain. Analyse how clearly the introduction
defines the topic and states clearly what is going to happen in the piece of
writing. Analyse the effectiveness of the conclusion in terms of pulling the
writing together and in summarising the main points covered.
58 How To Write an Assignment
So far we have analysed the title question and planned and struc-
tured the paragraphs and sections to produce a rough draft of the
assignment. When you have finished writing your rough draft you
have completed most of the hard work on your assignment. Drafts,
however, need to be redrafted – perhaps more than once in order to get
the assignment right! At this redrafting stage you will be editing
your work. This chapter helps you to edit in order to improve your
overall style of writing and to check your punctuation.
Remember! Nobody finds assignment writing easy – it always
involves hard work and a rejection of some of your earlier ideas and
writing in favour of better ones.
WORKING WITH A ROUGH DRAFT
Wherever possible write a rough draft, work on it and then leave it for
a few days before you write the final draft. Leaving the assignment for
a few days will allow you to review it a little more objectively.
Alternatively, you might ask a colleague or tutor to read it and com-
ment on it. You may want to change a sentence or paragraph;
re-arrange the order or add something important you have missed out.
Either way, give yourself time to reflect on your whole assignment before you
sit down to produce your final draft.
6
Improving Your Style
IIIII
59
ACHIEVING THE RIGHT ‘TONE’
Check the tone of your assignment. Have you pictured your audi-
ence and written in a manner appropriate to them? If you are
in doubt about the level of writing to aim at, then imagine that
you are writing for an intelligent ‘lay person’ – someone who is
interested in your subject but who knows little about it. This will
stop you assuming that your reader understands what you mean,
when you actually need to define your interpretation. When you
make general statements, always support them with reasons or
examples. Too much use of ‘I think’ or ‘I feel that’ can have the effect
of making the assignment too personal or subjective in its tone. In a
formal essay, report or dissertation a casual ‘chatty’ or conversational
tone is inappropriate.
Terms to avoid
Avoid using slang or ‘fashionable’ terms such as ‘cool’ or unnecessary
‘jargon’ – use your own words instead. You should also avoid using
abbreviations such as ‘e.g.’ or acronyms such as ‘TV’. Instead, you
should write these terms out in full: ‘for example’ and ‘television’. The
use of contractions such as ‘can’t’, ‘haven’t’, ‘don’t’ should not be used
in formal assignments although they may appear within direct quota-
tions (see Chapter 7). Instead, you should write out the words in full:
‘cannot’, ‘have not’, ‘do not’.
KEEPING IT CLEAR AND SIMPLE
Write in a simple and straightforward language. Generally stick to
short sentences; avoid long complex sentences with several clauses
where the reader might lose the point. A ‘good style’ is clear and con-
cise so that the reader can follow your argument or analysis easily and
60 How To Write an Assignment
they are not distracted by ‘flowery’, ‘pompous’ or ‘over-embellished’
writing. Set out your arguments clearly in your own terms and avoid
adding irrelevant detail or ‘padding’.
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
Do not plagiarise. This occurs if you use another author’s words
without acknowledgement and it can seriously affect the assessment
of your assignment. You should always give references for
any ‘direct quotation’ from another author (see also Chapter 7). You
should also acknowledge the original source of any words or ideas which
you use in your own words, eg ‘It is possible to define management
as a combination of both art and science and to agree with
J. Humphries (1992) that it also requires “a large helping of
common sense”.’
Do try to use your own words as far as possible. An assignment that is
full of quotations and references can sometimes appear disjointed and
lacking in your own interpretations. It is often best to paraphrase –
ie: to express another person’s thoughts in your own words and to
acknowledge their source.
KEEPING IT FLOWING
Help your assignment to flow by using transitions (see also Chapter
5). Transitions are words or phases which help you to write clearer
assignments that are more easily understood by the reader. Using tran-
sitions to link both sentences and paragraphs together adds to the
coherence, continuity and style of your written work. Figure 10 gives
examples of some common ‘linking’ words or phrases and what they
can be used for:
6 · Improving Your Style 61
AVOIDING GENDER AND OTHER BIAS
Watch for gender bias in your writing. Try to use non-sexist lan-
guage at all times. Do not use ‘he’ or ‘his’ when you are referring to
both sexes. Instead use ‘she or he’; or ‘he or she’ or ‘s/he’. If this makes
your sentence clumsy you could change it to include a ‘pronoun’ or
use the plural. For example, instead of ‘the student and his assign-
ment’ you might be able to use ‘students and their assignments’.
Instead of ‘the reader . . . he is able’ you might be able to use ‘readers .
. . they are able’. Advice to Open University students in writing their
assignments includes the principle that males should not always be
placed first in order. It is better to alternate the order, eg ‘women and
men’; ‘her or his’; but do not mix your orders in the same sentence or
paragraphs as it may sound awkward (Open University 1993).
62 How To Write an Assignment
Transition words and phrases
Purposes Common linking words
and phrases
To extend an argument or In addition; similarly; further-
point you could use more; moreover; also . . .
To contrast two points you Whereas it can be argued that;
could use however; on the other hand;
in contrast; yet; nevertheless;
on the contrary . . .
To illustrate an argument or For example; for instance; that
give examples of a is; in particular; in this case . . .
particular point you could use
To conclude a topic, section To conclude; to summarise; to
or the whole assignment sum up; in conclusion; in brief;
you could use as a result; therefore . . .
Fig. 10. Examples of transition (linking) words and phrases.
6 · Improving Your Style 63
CASE STUDIES
Steve improves his planning
Steve has taken on board the tutor’s advice regarding analysing the title
critically. Using a planning tree he has structured the paragraphs for his next
sociology essay on ‘The differences between males and females in British Society
are diminishing. Discuss.’(See Figure 11.)
The first section of Steve’s essay is included on page 67. It can be seen by his
planning tree that he has now addressed the structuring of his essay well.
However, he must ensure that his work does not become compartmentalised
and disjointed. Steve needs to use transitional words and phrases to protect
the ‘flow’ of his essay. If he had allowed ‘time’ to reflect on his rough draft
(even overnight!) instead of writing it all up on Sunday evening then he would
have noted and addressed this problem of linkage. Steve has never really
thought about gender bias until his study of the ‘Sociology of Sex and
Gender’. He is now trying to use non-sexist language in all his essays. Has
he succeeded?
Gill works on structure and tone
Gill is working on her third draft of the report to senior management on
‘The Effectiveness of Mentors within the Staff Development Programme’.
She has analysed the title brief well and has taken on board her previous
weaknesses with regards to applying the theories to practice. She has
therefore carried out some research in her own organisation into mentoring
and has interviewed several colleagues on their views of its effectiveness. She
has structured all of the sections and paragraphs of the report well and has
now written them up to her satisfaction. Gill puts this third draft to one side
for a couple of days before finally word processing the report and handing it
in to her course tutor.
When she returns to read the draft she finds that she is still happy with the
analysis, structure and application of the theories to practice and she thinks the
findings are very useful and pertinent. However, she is unsure about the ‘tone’
L
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Differences between Males and Females = Sex/Gender
Sex role
socialisation
School Media Family
Sex/Gender
theories
Culture Biology
Women
at Work
Pay Housework Statistics
Changes in
the law
Employment
Protection
Act
Sex
Discrimination
Act
Equal
Pay Act
Fig. 11. Steve’s planning tree on ‘The differences between males and females in British Society’.
6 · Improving Your Style 65
of the report. At the moment it is written totally for her senior management and
there are many specialist terms and acronyms throughout the report. These
terms are used commonly in her company but they would mean little to her
course tutor. She decided to write out all acronyms in full and to define any
specialist terms to the reader at the beginning of the report. A good move!
Sarah’s handling of sources
Sarah is now three months into her MA dissertation. She is happy with her title
and research questions and has been busy in the university library using the
online catalogues and indexes to gain interesting sources and references on
‘Teacher Stress’ and ‘National Curriculum Assessment’. With an array of notes
taken and an awareness of the danger of a lack of structure, Sarah has sought
additional tutorial support to help her to plan the ‘literature review’ better with
clear sub-headings that reflect her major research questions. She found that
this ‘plan’ helped her considerably and she was able to organise her notes (on
separate pages) under each of the planned sub-headings. Sarah has now
produced her draft of the literature review chapter and is about to share it
with her tutor.
Sarah’s tutor is pleased with the structure of the chapter. It is clear that Sarah
has done a lot of research into the relevant literature using the university library
online databases and electronic journals. However, the tutor is concerned to see
that, although Sarah does reference correctly when she quotes directly from
another author’s work; she has also written large chunks of the ‘sources, signs
and symptoms of stress’ sub-section without acknowledging the work of key
stress management theorists in these areas, even though she has used several of
their ideas in her narrative. Sarah did not fully realise the seriousness of not
acknowledging the source of her ideas in terms of ‘plagiarism’. Also, she did not
realise that her work would benefit academically from the inclusion of more
references to the research she carried out in the library over many hours.
SUMMARY
I
Give yourself time to reflect on your drafted assignment. Put it to one side for a
few days and then reread it.
I
Check the tone of your assignment. Write at an appropriate level for your
audience, or write for an intelligent lay reader. Do not allow the tone to be
too ‘conversational’.
I
Check that you have not used any slang terms, abbreviations, acronyms
or contractions.
I
Make sure that you use simple and straightforward language. Present clear and
concise points and arguments in your own terms.
I
Do not plagiarise. Instead paraphrase another person’s thoughts into your own
words and acknowledge their source. Reference all direct quotations used and
the sources of your ideas. (See Chapter 7).
I
Help your assignment to ‘flow’ by using transitions between paragraphs
and sentences.
I
Watch for gender bias in your writing. Always use non-sexist language.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. Ask yourself whether you are giving yourself enough time to produce the
assignment. Do you deliberately put your draft essay, report or the chapter of
your dissertation on one side for a few days and then return to it afresh to
review it initially? Do you use a colleague as a critical reader? Is your tutor
willing to give you feedback on your draft assignment before final marking?
Have you asked her/him?
2. Analyse this chapter (or the book as a whole) in terms of simple and
straightforward language. The author has tried to be clear and concise in style
66 How To Write an Assignment
and has tried to avoid ‘over-embellished’ writing. Has she succeeded? Can you
follow the points easily?
3. Read the three paragraphs of Steve’s next essay below and consider transitions
and gender bias. In what ways might it be improved?
Some anthropologists argue that the biological or genetic differences between
males and females are responsible for the differences in life style between men
and women in society. Males are more aggressive and stronger by nature than
females and it is right and proper that they should undertake most of the work
in society and also take the dominant position of power.
It is claimed that women are programmed to produce and care for children and are
most suited to less strenuous tasks in society and to carrying out work in the
home. Since mothers bear and nurse children they automatically have a closer and
stronger relationship with them than anyone else. One of these writers, J. Bowlby,
argues that ‘a mother’s place is in the home’, caring for her child especially during
his early years. He argues that if a mother and child are separated in the early
years, it can cause the child to be psychologically disturbed.
There are major differences in brain structures between males and females.
Males have a superior right-hand side of the brain giving them more highly
developed spatial skills; whereas females have a stronger left-hand side of the
brain which gives them superior skills in language. Adapted from: Bowes,
Gleeson and Smith (1990).
Comment
Did you suggest that a transitional phrase such as ‘on the other hand’ at the
start of the second paragraph; and ‘whereas, another group of sociologists argue
that . . . ’ at the start of the third paragraph would improve the flow of writing?
You may have found the need for other transitional words, eg between
sentences, in order to improve the flow of the writing.
Should Steve have reversed ‘males and females’ in the first paragraph? You
might have decided that this would be useful considering the fact that this is a
6 · Improving Your Style 67
sex and gender sociology essay. (But remember to alternate such terms in a
science, maths, management or engineering assignment, also!) Did you spot the
penultimate sentence in the second paragraph where the child is male? It would
be preferable to use the ‘plural’ – ie ‘children’ and ‘their’, rather than indicate to
the reader that all children are male.
68 How To Write an Assignment
This chapter explains how to use the conventions of
I
quotations
I
references
I
bibliographies
I
appendices
I
summaries and abstracts
to help you to present your assignment in a correct and appropriate
form. It also outlines important aspects of layout and presentation in
your written or typescript final copy. Let’s consider each of these in turn.
USING QUOTATIONS
Quotations are useful in illustrating or supporting a point you are
making in your assignment. You will be quoting from someone else’s
work and it is important to check that your quotations are accurate.
A quotation needs to be clearly indicated to the reader as being ‘a
quotation’. There are conventional ways of presenting quotations so
that the reader knows which words are yours and which belong to
another author.
7
Presenting Your
Final Assignment
IIIII
69
Using shorter quotations
If the quote is short then it will fit into your own text and is simply
indicated by quotation marks or inverted commas (a single inverted
comma is usual).
Example – First impressions count in presenting assignments to your
tutor and the same is true in writing for publication where a ‘sloppy
manuscript won’t get a warm welcome’ (C. McCallum, 1999).
Using longer quotations
If the quote is longer than two lines then it is better to set it apart from
your own words by:
I
using a colon to introduce the quote to the reader;
I
adding a space above and below the quotation;
I
indenting the quotation; and
I
using single line spacing when the rest of the assignment is double
line spaced.
Example – In her book The Beginner’s Guide to Getting Published Chriss
McCallum (2008) supports the argument that first impressions count
and says that:
‘Your submission says a lot about you. When you give an editor a
crisp, clean, well set-out manuscript, with accurate spelling,
grammar and punctuation, you encourage him to have confidence
in its content, even before he reads it.’
Quoting part of a sentence
Finally, if you are quoting only part of a sentence, to fit into your own
words and to maintain the flow of writing, then you need to indicate
that there are some of the author’s words missing by the use of dots.
70 How To Write an Assignment
Example – First impressions count in presenting assignments to your
tutors or a manuscript to your editor. The important point is that you
‘. . . care about what you’re doing, and that you’re approaching the job
in a professional way.’
PROVIDING REFERENCES
References provide the source of the quotation or paraphrase you have
used and are important in preventing possible plagiarism (see Chapter 6).
Out of interest, the reader may wish to pursue a source further and you
must therefore make sure that your reference is accurate and detailed.
There are two basic ways of handling references:
I
footnotes
I
Harvard referencing.
Using footnotes
Basically footnotes work by inserting small superscript numbers into
your text which then guide the reader to the note which is provided
by you at the bottom of the page, end of chapter or end of the disser-
tation (sometimes referred to as end-notes).
Example – ‘Your submission says a lot about you. When you give an
editor a crisp, clean, well set-out manuscript. . .’.
1
I
See footnote at the bottom of this page.
You will see that the footnote contains all the detail the reader would
need to pursue the particular source, ie the name of the author, the title
of the publication (underlined or italic), the name of the publisher, the
date of the publication and the page number of the quote or point.
7 · Presenting Your Final Assignment 71
1
Chriss McCallum, The Beginner’s Guide to Getting Published, 6th Edn. (How To Books 2008).
p.39.
Footnotes are useful since the reader can usually see the source of the
quote or acknowledgement very quickly without turning the page.
However, footnotes can take up a lot of room on the page and the
numbering system can be a little inflexible and difficult to alter. If
you are using the same source several times over you can, however,
shorten the footnote to the author’s surname and the page number
(once you have written out the reference in full the first time it is
used): eg McCallum, p.39.
Abbreviations in footnotes – Some writers still use the abbreviations
‘ibid.’ (meaning ‘the same’) and ‘op.cit.’ (meaning ‘the work cited’) as
part of their referencing systems. When an author’s name is referred to
more than once then these forms of shorthand can help. For example,
if you are referring to an author’s work consecutively then you could
use ‘ibid.’ in the footnote or end-note. So, ‘ibid. p.45’ could be used
instead of McCallum, p.45. Similarly, if you are referring to an
author’s work that you have already quoted before (but not immedi-
ately before) then you could use ‘op.cit.’ in the footnote or end-note.
For example, ‘Humphries, op.cit., p.12’ could be used in this book
because the work of John Humphries was referred to in Chapter 6.
I
Warning: this system of footnoting can be difficult and cumber-
some. It is difficult to know how much space to leave at the
bottom of a page and if you use ‘ibid.’ or ‘op.cit.’ the reader may
still be flicking through pages to find the full reference!
Using Harvard referencing
The Harvard system of referencing does not entail numbered quotes
and footnotes. Instead you include the author’s name and the date of
the publication in brackets in your text. The reader then looks up the
reference in your list of references or bibliography. If you are referring
to quotes or a specific item you also need to include the page number.
Harvard systems are easier to write and to change, but they can tend
to interrupt your text more, especially if you are referring to several
72 How To Write an Assignment
authors or sources. You need, therefore, to work on ‘the flow’ of the
writing (see Chapter 6).
The Harvard system is now generally used in many universities, for
example the Open University, in preference to the use of ‘footnotes’.
Examples – The first reference given in this chapter used the Harvard
system of referencing. Here is a paraphrased version where the author’s
name appears within the sentence rather than at the end:
For example: In relation to presentation, C. McCallum (1999)
argues that an untidy manuscript will not be well received by the
publisher.
You will have noted that in the first Harvard reference (see page 70),
where the author’s name appears at the end of the point or paragraph
the whole of the author’s name and date was placed in brackets.
Whereas, when the reference to the author’s name is included as part of
your own text then only the publication date will be placed in brackets.
PREPARING BIBLIOGRAPHIES
You must list the references of all your quotations and sources of infor-
mation in full at the end of your assignment. These references must be
arranged alphabetically by the author’s surname. It may, therefore, pay
you to keep your references as you write in a separate electronic docu-
ment; or on separate cards or pieces of paper so that you can quickly
order them for the bibliography.
Some courses and particularly dissertations require you to separate your
types of sources (books, articles, Internet, Electronic Journal Articles,
oral information, and so on) into sub-sections of the bibliography. The
sources within each sub-section will then be arranged alphabetically.
You will need to obtain from your tutor a copy of the course referenc-
ing procedures, since it is possible that each course within the same
university or college may vary slightly in its requirements.
7 · Presenting Your Final Assignment 73
The accepted format for a bibliography
The examples of bibliographic format given below are generally well
accepted throughout the academic world. As a basic rule you need to
be sure to include the following details for each reference:
I
The author’s name (surname, initial of given names)
I
The date of the publication (in brackets)
I
The title of the article (in single inverted commas)
I
The title of the book (or journal or newspaper) italicised (and
volume and editions and page numbers)
I
The publisher’s name
I
The place of publication.
Examples: books
(a) Single author:
Evans, M. (2002) Exams are easy when you know how, How to Books,
Oxford.
(b) Two authors:
Smithers, A. and Robinson, P. (2006) Physics in schools and universities,
11: patterns and policies, Buckingham, University of Buckingham.
(c) More than two authors:
Black, P., Harrison, C., Marshall, B. and William, D. (2003)
Assessment for learning: putting it into practice, Open University Press,
Maidenhead.
(d) An author’s chapter in an edited book:
Grundy, S. and Robinson, J. (2004) Teacher professional development:
themes and trends in the recent Australian experience, in: C. Day and
J. Sachs (Eds) International handbook on the CPD of teachers, Open
University Press, Maidenhead.
I
Note: the book and not the chapter is italicised.
74 How To Write an Assignment
(e) If a book has more than one edition:
Make clear in the bibliography or list of references which edition you
have used:
Smith, P. (2009, 7th edn) Writing an Assignment, How to Books, Oxford.
Examples: articles in journals, periodicals, newspapers
(a) Journal
Gleeson, D., Davies, J. and Wheeler, E. (2005) On the making
and taking of professionalism in the further education workplace,
British Journal of Sociology Education, 26 (4), 445–460.
I
Note: the journal and not the article is italicised and you should pro-
vide the volume number, the edition number and page numbers.
(b) Newspaper
Whitston, K. (2008) Working for social mobility, the Education
Guardian, 16th September 2008, p.10.
I
Note: the newspaper is italicised and not the article.
Example: oral information
State whether it was a lecture, conference, television or radio programme:
(a) Staley, J. (2005) Teaching assistants and the school workforce of tomor-
row conference, Institute of Education, London, 13th July.
Example: Internet Sources and Electronic Journal Articles
(a) For the Internet: be sure to put ‘online’ in square brackets after the
title of the document and where the information is available from.
7 · Presenting Your Final Assignment 75
In square brackets supply the date you accessed the site:
Eg:
Standler, R. (2000) Plagiarism in college in the USA. Available on
line at www.rb2.com/plag.htm [accessed 22 September 2008].
(b) For Electronic Journal Articles: the same rules apply – give surname,
initial of given names, year of publication (in brackets), title of
article (enclosed in single inverted commas), name of journal
underlined or in italic, the volume and issue number of the jour-
nal; the available on-line information and in square brackets the
date you accessed the site.
Eg:
Song, K. and Catapano, S. (2006) ‘Improving literacy skills with
urban children in USA: seeing themselves in literature books’,
International Journal of Learning, 13(3), 111–118 available on-line
at: http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.1021 [accessed
22 September 2008].
PREPARING APPENDICES
An appendix is a section at the back of the assignment, after the bibli-
ography, where you can include supporting data to corroborate your
findings. It is particularly useful in a report or dissertation where
detailed material relating to the data collection stage can be placed
more appropriately in an appendix; placing it in the main body of the
assignment would make it appear cumbersome and inhibit the flow of
your points and arguments.
You must remember to refer to your appendix in your text and you
need to number and title each appendix to match up with the references
in the body of the report or dissertation.
76 How To Write an Assignment
Example
Appendix 1 provides a complete list of the brainstormed sources of stress
generated by those Key Stage 2 teachers included in the sample.
Remember to include your appendices in your list of contents at the
front of your assignment.
COMPILING SUMMARIES OR ABSTRACTS
An abstract is a summary or synopsis of the completed report or disserta-
tion. Obviously it can only be written when you have completed your
report or dissertation; and you should spend time in doing it well. An
abstract gives a clear picture of the main structure, approach and findings
of your report or dissertation to the reader in no more than two hundred
words. It is important to do full justice to your research and often these
abstracts are included in library catalogues, indexes and journals.
SUCCESSFUL LAYOUT AND PRESENTATION
After all your hard work in writing the assignment it would be a great
pity if its assessment by the reader was affected by a poor presentation.
Most assignments are word processed these days. If you need to hand
write it, make sure your handwriting is neat and legible.
Techniques to help you
The following points will be helpful in terms of producing an accept-
able layout and overall presentation (see also Figure 12):
I
Wordprocess/write your assignment on A4 sized paper (this is the
standard size these days, but some foolscap is still around). A4
measures 297 × 210 mm.
7 · Presenting Your Final Assignment 77
I
Leave a wide margin (at least 4 cm) on the left-hand side of the
page for your tutor to comment fully.
I
Your right-hand margin does not need to be quite as wide, but do
not write/type to the edge of the page. A ‘justified’ right-hand
margin looks neat (as in this book).
I
Leave wide margins (4 cm) at the top and bottom of each page.
This may seem a lot, but it does ‘frame’ your work and enhance its
appearance (see illustration below).
I
Try to learn how to type or word process your work – it improves
the presentation greatly. If this is not possible write as clearly and
neatly as you can in black ink.
I
Leave a double line space between your sentences, except where
quoting which should be indented and single line spaced.
I
Triple line space between paragraphs so that you do not need to
indent the first word.
78 How To Write an Assignment
Fig. 12. Examples of good and bad page layout for an assignment.
Single-line spaced, with little or no
margin.
* Too crowded – no space for tutor’s
comments.
Double-line spaced, wide margins top,
bottom, left and right.
* An easy-to-read layout with wide
margins ‘framing’ the writing.
I
Write/type on one side of the paper only.
I
If your word processor has a spell check facility – use it.
I
Always provide a cover sheet giving your name, the assignment
title, course title, tutor’s name and date.
I
To help your reader understand the structure of the assignment
provide a contents page. This is normal in dissertations but is also
useful in essays and reports.
I
Keep a photocopy of your assignment in case it gets lost.
I
When posting your assignment to your tutor use a large envelope.
Do not fold your assignment.
I
Tutors prefer to mark assignments which are presented as in exam-
ple two. They are easier on the eye and allow more space for tutor
comments.
7 · Presenting Your Final Assignment 79
CASE STUDIES
Steve’s handwriting problem
Steve has been working hard on improving the structure and style of his ‘A’ level
essays. Both of his tutors are pleased with his development over the last term
and a half; the future looks promising in terms of continuing development and
increasingly high grades. However, Steve has noticed that both tutors underline
words and put question marks in the margin as if they could not fully
understand his point. When Steve saw his tutors and asked about the question
marks, he was told that some words were difficult to read.
One tutor asked Steve whether he could possibly word process his work and
pointed out that the college library had two computers available for such a task.
Steve decides to improve his handwriting immediately! He leaves more time for
the writing up stage, improving his layout with wide margins at the top, bottom
and sides and he writes clearly in black ink. Steve has also enrolled for a short
L
80 How To Write an Assignment
word-processing evening course – even though it will mean arriving later at his
regular Thursday night rugby club meeting.
Gill struggles with references
Gill has been working hard on her mini-project reports throughout the last two
terms. She is now engaged on her major 5,000 word management project report
entitled ‘Effective team leadership in the Personnel Department’.
Gill has been meticulous in referencing every quotation and source that she had
used in her research and she has now accumulated a long list of references for
her bibliography. Unfortunately these references are not in alphabetical order,
and Gill has to spend an hour writing them out in order that the office secretary
who has volunteered to type Gill’s report can copy them accurately. Next time
Gill vows to use a card index system that can easily be sorted, or better still use
a personal computer.
Gill is using an appendix to the report to include supporting material such as:
‘The Staffing Structure of the Personnel Department’. She has referred to this
appendix in her report through a numbering system, for example Appendix 1,
and she has given the appendix a title. Unfortunately, Gill has omitted to
include the Appendices in her ‘List of Contents’ page at the front of the report.
Sarah puts the finishing touches
Sarah has been working hard on her dissertation and has now referenced and
acknowledged fully the work of the other researchers working in the field of
teacher stress and National Curriculum Assessment. Sarah was used to the
older style of footnotes and using ‘ibids’ and ‘op.cits.’ in her earlier studying,
but she is now happy with the Harvard system of referencing, finding it to be
flexible and quick to use. Sarah has carried out her questionnaire and
interviews with staff and has written up her research methods, data collection
and analysis sections.
The tutor is pleased with Sarah’s efforts which are now much more consistent
and she feels that she may be able to submit by the completion deadline of
May 1st. Sarah is now concentrating on producing her ‘main findings’ and then
SUMMARY
I
A quotation is useful in illustrating or supporting your point.
I
Short quotations can be fitted into your text and be indicated by the use of
‘single inverted commas’.
I
Longer quotations need to be set apart from your own words, indented and
single line spaced.
I
When using only part of a quotation indicate the missing words by the use
of dots . . .
I
Make sure that your references are accurate and detailed.
I
Footnotes provide the name of the author, title of publication, name of
publisher, date of publication and page number.
I
The abbreviations ‘ibid.’ and ‘op.cit.’ can be used when a reference has already
been given in full.
I
The Harvard system of referencing is now generally accepted in universities and
is more flexible than the footnote system.
I
In Harvard referencing you include the author’s name and date of publication in
the text.
7 · Presenting Your Final Assignment 81
the ‘conclusion and recommendations for future practice’. Her bibliography is
not a problem as Sarah learnt to word process three years ago and she has
stored the references, including those accessed via the internet, on disc and can
rearrange them alphabetically at the touch of a button. She knows that she
must use her appendix to support her findings and intends to include her
questionnaire and interview schedule. Sarah does not yet fully realise that she
also needs to produce in abstract of 200 words describing her dissertation
structure, approach and findings. It would be a pity to rush this last section!
I
References used must be listed in a bibliography at the end of the assignment.
I
Bibliographies should be alphabetically ordered and should provide details of
the author’s name, date of publication, title of publication, name of publisher
and place of publication.
I
An appendix can be used to provide supporting data for your assignment
findings. Appendices must be numbered and referenced within the main body of
your assignment.
I
An abstract is a summary or synopsis of the main structure, approach and
findings of your report or dissertation. The abstract should be completed
with care.
I
Poor presentation will affect your overall marks.
I
Always leave generous margins at the top, bottom and sides of your assignment
for tutor comments.
I
Try to learn how to type or word process your assignment.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. Look back at your recent assignments and check the quotations. Did you indent
and single line space any quotations that were longer than about twenty words?
2. Which system of referencing do you prefer and why?
(a) Footnoting?
(b) Harvard?
Which system is favoured by your course?
3. How do you compile your list of references/ bibliography? Do you keep all of
your references on separate pages so that you can arrange them into
alphabetical order easily? Can you use your computer to store these references
and order them?
82 How To Write an Assignment
4. What is your handwriting really like? Do you dot your ‘i’s accurately? Can you
keyboard, or are you still learning this valuable skill? Critically analyse the layout
and presentation of your last assignment according to the points given on pages
77–79.
7 · Presenting Your Final Assignment 83
Reflecting on your assignment writing skills is what this book has
been about! The points covered in the chapters, the case studies, the
self-evaluation questions – all have tried to engage you in ‘learning
through reflection’.
This penultimate chapter concentrates on the importance of
self-reflection in recognising your strengths and identifying areas
for further development. It also considers the value of tutor, col-
league or family feedback on your assignments and how to use it
constructively. The time to reflect and to practise the skills of
assignment writing has been clearly highlighted in the preceding
chapters, but also deserves a final consideration. The chapter ends
with a final reflective profile of the skills involved in good assign-
ment writing.
RECORDING YOUR OWN PROGRESS
Reflecting on your learning through a written evaluation of your
assignment writing skills is a useful way of recognising your strengths
and identifying areas for further development.
8
Improving through
Reflection
IIIII
84
Keeping a portfolio
Many students nowadays keep a professional development portfolio in
which they profile (or self-assess) their skills and in which they keep
individual pieces of completed and assessed work as evidence of achieve-
ment. In relation to the assignment writing process there are many
specific skills (eg bibliographic layout) and generic skills (eg information
gathering) that you will have developed during your course. A skills pro-
file helps you to identify which skills are ‘highly developed’ (a strength)
and which skills ‘need further development’ (a relative weakness).
Action
I
Complete the skills (or competency) profile on pages 93–95 and
self-assess your assignment writing skills or competences.
The benefit of self-reflection
The benefit of self-reflection, using a skills profile, is that you can
learn to become more self-aware and conscious of your present stage of
development. Hopefully, the process of self-reflection will lead to
increased self-confidence as you recognise your strengths and track
your progress over a period of time. It is important to complete the
self-assessments regularly in order to continually review your skills
levels and to set targets for further development.
Sharing your self-assessment
It is also important to share your self-assessments with your tutor in
order to check out your perceptions. It may be possible that you are
underestimating your present level of skills development or achieve-
ment. A tutorial session spent reviewing your work and using the
reflective profile as a starting point for the discussion with your tutor
can prove most enlightening. You may find that you have skills you
did not realise you had!
8 · Improving through Reflection 85
USING CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK
Tutor reflections on your assignment writing skills are also an impor-
tant source of learning and improvement. These reflections usually come
in the form of written evaluations or assessments. In order to aid learning
this tutor feedback needs to be both given and received constructively.
The following principles of giving and receiving constructive feed-
back have been provided for tutors and students in Higher Education.
Read through these principles and consider:
I
the feedback you receive from your tutor, and
I
the way you receive the feedback.
Giving and receiving constructive feedback
Feedback is information you give to people about their behaviour and
its effect on you, how you feel towards them and what you want them
to achieve.
Giving constructive feedback is therefore an important communica-
tion skill for tutors to use since it increases self-awareness, identifies
options for alternative behaviour and this encourages development.
Both positive and negative feedback can be constructive or helpful if it is
given skilfully since it identifies areas for continued or further improve-
ment. Students give and receive feedback in a constructive way.
The principles of giving constructive feedback
Helpful feedback – Tutors should take care to:
I
Be concrete and specific: say exactly what the student is doing and
focus on specific behaviour.
86 How To Write an Assignment
I Refer to actions and behaviour: say what the student is doing and what
can be changed. Keep it impersonal.
I Own the feedback: make statements instead of general comments of
praise or blame.
I Be immediate: be sure to give helpful feedback at the time it is
needed. This is usually immediate but can also be at a planned
time, a little later.
I Be understood by the receiver: make sure that the person receiving the
feedback understands what you are saying. Use your active listen-
ing skills.
Students can be taken through these principles by the tutor as part of
their ongoing development.
Unhelpful feedback – Tutors and students will give unhelpful feedback
when they give criticism that:
I is vague or too general I eg ‘I like your style’
I labels people I eg ‘You’re incompetent’
I is poorly timed I delays in providing feedback
lessens the likelihood of change.
Plus . . .
I Helpful positive feedback encourages the students to continue the
behaviour that is successful.
I Helpful negative feedback allows the students to alter their
actions, if they wish (you cannot force change).
I Unhelpful positive feedback is likely to make the receiver feel
pleased or flattered but confused as to what s/he is doing right.
I Unhelpful negative feedback is likely to make the receiver feel
angry, confused and upset. They will not know how to change their
actions, or how to improve.
8 · Improving through Reflection 87
Handling feedback constructively
Students and tutors can be encouraged to receive your feedback in a
constructive way by adopting the following strategy:
I
Listen – don’t jump to your own defence immediately. Give your-
self time to make sure you are clear about what is being said. Try
repeating the evaluation to check out your understanding.
I
Decide – whether the feedback is valid and helpful. You are enti-
tled to reject the criticism, but remember that although feedback
can be uncomfortable to hear, it is helpful to know how others see
our behaviour.
I
Respond – decide how to act as a result of the feedback: how to use
the criticism to aid your personal and professional development.
I
Let go – do not build up the criticism in your mind. It is often
better to disclose how you feel about the feedback and the way in
which it was given. Then let it go and move on.
Source: adapted from Acton, Kirkham and Smith (1991).
Tutors and students need to practise these skills of giving and receiv-
ing constructive feedback, in order to improve their skill level.
Reflect critically on the level of your, and your tutor’s skills develop-
ment in the areas of:
(a) giving constructive feedback
(b) receiving constructive feedback.
Which level have you reached? See Figure 13.
Getting feedback from peers, friends and family
Besides tutor evaluations, valuable feedback can be gained from your
peers, friends or family. As discussed in Chapter 6, you could ask your
88 How To Write an Assignment
colleagues, family member or friend to read your draft essay, report or
dissertation chapter (all of it may be a little too much!). Ask them to
give you constructive feedback on:
I
the style of the assignment
I
the structure of the assignment
I
the logic of the argument
I
the knowledge and understanding demonstrated
I
the application to practice/personal interpretation.
All of this feedback – tutor comments and peer/family review – will
help you to become more self-aware of your strengths and help you
to identify those areas you need to further develop. Targeting these
weaknesses and then seeking out professional support to help
you to develop in these particular skill areas is the most effective way
8 · Improving through Reflection 89
UNCONSCIOUS
INCOMPETENCE
I don’t know
CONSCIOUS
INCOMPETENCE
I now know
I can’t do well
CONSCIOUS
COMPETENCE
I can do . . .
being aware
UNCONSCIOUS
COMPETENCE
I can do . . .
without thinking
Fig. 13. Levels of competence: why or how did you reach this level?
What experiences helped you to develop these skills?
of managing your own learning. You will also become more confident
in your own ability to improve. Support for this development can
come from your tutor and also through supported self study using
books like this.
More than just ‘marks’ – One final point about tutor feedback.
Hopefully, your tutor will appreciate the need to provide constructive
feedback in order to help you to develop in your assignment writing
skills. This will entail her/him not simply giving you a ‘mark’, but
recognising your strengths with a positive comment and identifying
specifically your present weaknesses and then suggesting ways of
improving your work.
I
How meaningful is ‘C+ – satisfactory’?
If your tutor’s level of skills development in providing meaningful
feedback is not high, then do practise the skills of constructive feed-
back yourself. Explain to the tutor that you need a detailed
evaluation in order to improve your assignment writing skills.
I
Be assertive! Manage your own learning process as effectively as
you can.
Remember, tutor assessment can never be totally objective. It is hoped
that your tutor uses a criterion-referenced method of assessment (see
Chapter 1). These criteria should be shared openly with you in order
to help you to become aware of the knowledge, skills and conceptual
understanding you need to demonstrate in your assignment. Tutors do
sometimes get assessments wrong!
Asking for the assessment to be reviewed – You would be operating within
your rights as a student if you were to ask the tutor to review the
assessment given you. You need to be quite clear about your reasons
for this request. That is, you need to understand the assessment crite-
ria clearly to know how well your assignment fulfills these criteria. If
you feel a mistake has been made, request a re-mark politely but
90 How To Write an Assignment
firmly. Tutors often use a colleague for double-marking or internal
moderation. Has your assignment been double-marked?
Resolving misunderstandings – Often a misunderstanding or disappoint-
ment about a mark can be explained in a tutorial session. Hopefully,
your tutor will have provided you with detailed evaluative and
constructive feedback that pinpoints where you went wrong and sug-
gests ways of improving next time. Talk to your tutor.
TIME TO REFLECT
In Chapter 2 the importance of managing your time effectively was
stressed as an important skill in assignment writing. Certainly, more
than one of our case study students has needed to develop good time
management skills in order to succeed.
I
Do you need to improve YOUR time management skills?
Learning requires time
– Time to reflect on your learning (self-reflection).
– Time to reflect on your drafted assignment (see Chapter 6).
– Time to reflect on your tutor’s and others’ feedback (learning
through feedback).
– Time to practise the skills of assignment writing (drafting and
redrafting).
Plan and prioritise – It is important to plan and prioritise your assign-
ment writing, allocating quality time to the process of reflection and
development.
I
When is your quality time for reflection? Do you think and work more
effectively – in the mornings, afternoons, evenings or night?
8 · Improving through Reflection 91
Remember, effective assignment writing is more about thinking and
planning than actual writing. Thinking and planning needs quality
reflective time. Writing needs practice time.
I
Never underestimate the amount of time you need to complete
an assignment to your satisfaction. This can be especially difficult
to judge in an examination situation and needs to be rehearsed
with care.
I
Time spent reflecting in your learning is the most valuable use of your
precious time and will reap rich dividends in further improvements.
I
Time spent with your tutor in this reflection on your work should be
doubly effective, as two heads are better than one and your tutor
has expert advice to offer.
I
Finally, time spent in practising the skills of assignment writing will
be time well spent in your on-going professional development.
SUMMARY
I
Keeping a professional development portfolio can help you to profile your skills
and keep a record of your achievement in assignment writing.
I
Self assessing your skills using a profile can help you to recognise your strengths
and identify areas for further development.
I
Sharing your self-assessments with your tutor can help to raise your self
confidence.
I
Feedback from tutors and others can be helpful, but needs to be given and
received constructively.
92 How To Write an Assignment
A profile of assignment writing skills
Self-reflect against this profile and evidence your level of competence.
8 · Improving through Reflection 93
Skills Self-assessment
Level of
competence
I understand the importance of assessment criteria
in assignment writing
– I understand the assessment criteria for the
assignment/course.
– I know that I must demonstrate knowledge of the
subject, skills of research, application/interpretation
of theory to practice; clear structure and
accurate referencing.
I know myself as a learner
– I know my preferred style of learning and its advantages
and disadvantages.
– I have effective time management skills.
I understand the title question and answer it relevantly
– I can analyse the key process and content words.
– I use a dictionary and Roget’s Thesaurus to define
their meaning.
– I can recognise open-ended, descriptive, analytical
and argumentative questions.
I plan and take notes carefully
– I use brainstorming to generate ideas.
– I use the internet to help my research.
– I use patterned notes and/or planning trees
to provide an outline plan.
– I have an effective style of note-taking for my
information gathering.
94 How To Write an Assignment
Skills Self-assessment
Level of
competence
I know how to structure my rough draft
– I use paragraphs, sub-headings and chapters to
structure and signpost my assignment effectively.
– My paragraphs contain one main or sub-point.
– I use key sentences to explain the meaning of
the paragraph.
– I use sub-headings wherever possible to signpost
my structure.
– My introductions define the key words and state
what will happen in the assignment.
– I use conclusions to pull the assignment together
and I summarise the main points covered.
I know how to improve my style
– I leave enough time to reflect on my drafted
assignment and I edit it.
– I use an appropriate formal tone and I know my audience.
– I do not use slang, abbreviations, acronyms or contractions.
– I use simple straightforward language.
– I never plagiarise.
– I use transitions to help my assignment flow effectively.
– I use non-sexist language.
I know how to make an effective final presentation
– I know how to present short and longer quotations.
– My references are detailed and accurate.
I
Targeting your areas of weakness and seeking professional support for further
development is important.
I
Make sure that you understand the assessment criteria and that you can ‘check’
your tutor’s assessment.
I
Remember that learning through reflection takes time.
I
Practising the skills of assignment writing takes time.
8 · Improving through Reflection 95
– I use the Harvard or footnoting system of
referencing accurately.
– My bibliographies are complete and alphabetically ordered.
– I use an appendix to support my main findings
wherever possible.
– I complete my abstracts with care.
– I can type or word process my assignment.
– I leave generous margins at the top, bottom and sides.
I know how to improve through reflection
– I use tutor, peer and family feedback constructively
to help me develop my skills.
– I know that assignment writing requires reflection
time and I prioritise this activity.
– I use this profile regularly to review my competences.
– I can recognise my strengths and identify my areas
for further development.
– I target my weaknesses and seek support for my
further development.
SELF-EVALUATION
1. Self-reflect against the skills profile on the previous pages and evidence your
level of competence.
2. Analyse the feedback you have received to date from your tutor. Is it
constructive? Have you received it constructively and acted on it? Do you ask
your peer group for feedback on your assignment?
3. Do you prioritise reflection time? Do you allow yourself enough time to practise
the skills of assignment writing?
96 How To Write an Assignment
9
Where Are You Now?
IIIII
Our case studies have reached the end of their courses! They have
completed and submitted all of their coursework assignments and
Steve has just sat his ‘A’ level examinations. Where are they now?
CASE STUDIES
How Steve has improved
Steve has developed his essay writing skills a good deal over the last year. His
natural ‘activist’ style has been balanced by the development of a more
‘reflective’ approach to learning. Steve has also developed a keen desire to
manage his time more effectively! He still juggles several balls in the air at the
same time (cricket, football, rugby . . . ). However, his ability to receive tutor
feedback constructively, and to act on it immediately, has saved him lots of time
in the learning process.
Steve has just reflected on the skills profile (Chapter 8). He recognises that he
has now developed a strength in the area of ‘understanding the assessment
criteria’ and ‘understanding and answering the question set’. When he thinks
back to his first rushed sociology essay he feels slightly embarrassed! Steve
now plans and structures his essays with care and his note-taking is improving.
He has learned how to word process and finds this has helped his drafting
and presentation skills. The compilation of bibliographies remains a source of
difficulty: they never seem to be totally accurate. This area, plus note-taking,
L
97
98 How To Write an Assignment
are identified by Steve as areas for further development, so he intends to
target these skills particularly over the next year.
Steve’s greatest strength lies in his ability to know himself, to recognise his
weaknesses and then to identify specific areas for development and to seek
practical support from his tutor. He found reading the chapter on ‘how to plan
your assignment’ to be of great help.
Steve has practised writing essays under fixed conditions in preparing for his
examination. He realised that the skills of essay writing – particularly
analysing the question and planning the structure – are vital in the
examination. On the day, he made sure that he wrote the required four essays
within the three hours allowed.
Steve has been conditionally accepted for a place on a HND PE and Leisure
course. His essay writing skills came in very useful when he applied for the
place, both in terms of planning his letter of application and in the presentation
of it. Steve needs to pass both ‘A’ levels in order to take up the place. He is
eagerly awaiting the results!
Gill achieves a balanced professionalism
Gill started the year as a typical ‘theorist’, making lots of notes and references
to other theorists’ work, but not interpreting or applying them to her own
practices. She has now learned to balance her predisposition to theory and
logic, with a more ‘pragmatic’ style which has helped her practical report writing
skills. Gill’s time management skills have much improved over the last year by
her having consciously practised various strategies: for example, effective note-
taking and using and storing references.
Gill has enjoyed her management course. Her tutor has been good at
giving ‘constructive feedback’ on specific areas of further development.
She needed to improve her application of the theory to practice, to develop
confidence in conducting interviews and questionnaires with colleagues; and
using this data effectively in her findings. Gill can now produce a very
effective management report in a much shorter length of time than her first
9 · Where Are You Now? 99
effort! She has worked hard and has practised the skills of report writing
throughout the year.
Gill has now gained in overall self-confidence. She can talk more easily with
people she does not know well. Her skills profile reveals an increased self-
awareness of her strengths, particularly in ‘learning through reflection’, ‘analysis
of the question’, ‘planning’, ‘structuring’ and ‘understanding the assessment
criteria’. She feels that she has learned a lot about management and wants to
progress to the advanced stage of the management diploma if her grades are
good enough. Gill has set as her targets for development: ‘knowing how to
improve your style’, particularly the ‘use of simple and straightforward language’
and the ‘use of transitions’ to aid the flow of her writing.
Gill’s overall result in the management course is due out very soon!
Sarah’s greater maturity
Sarah has surprised herself and her tutor by submitting her dissertation on
time! Sarah’s natural ‘reflector’ style of learning was helpful in coming up with
creative ideas during her data collection period and she could see several
attractive ways of interpreting this data. She needed, however, to develop a
more ‘activist’ and ‘pragmatic’ style of working in order to actually get started
on the research project!
Luckily her tutor spotted this potential weakness early on and provided the
necessary guidance and support to keep her ‘feet on the ground’. Sarah’s creative
and imaginative skills have therefore been ‘controlled’ over the year in favour of a
more logical, planned and structured approach to dissertation writing. A big
turning point in her skills development came when her tutor helped her to
generate an outline plan for ‘Teacher Stress and National Curriculum assessment’.
Sarah found this most helpful, particularly in the literature review and data
analysis chapters of the dissertation. She now uses plans more frequently in her
daily life and finds them a most effective time management strategy.
Sarah is good at self-reflection; her skills profile reveals clear strengths in the area
of ‘allocating reflection time to the process of learning’. She feels that she has
L
100 How To Write an Assignment
spent many hours reflecting on her research during this dissertation year (her
children thought she was day dreaming!). She knows that this reflection time has
helped her to improve the quality of her data analysis and interpretation and she
has been able to edit her drafted chapters to her satisfaction.
Sarah knows that she must continue to target and practise the skills of
‘planning’, ‘structuring’, and in particular ‘the pulling together of her main
points into a pertinent conclusion’. She hopes that she has managed to
demonstrate these skills satisfactorily in her dissertation, in the end. Sarah did
produce a rather hurried ‘abstract’ about an hour before handing in her
dissertation. She is still targeting time management as an area for ongoing
professional development.
Sarah’s MA results are due out shortly!
Our three case studies have reflected against the skills profile on pages 93–95
and have targeted certain areas for their further development.
Steve
Target Action plan
How will you achieve your target?
What help do you need?
I
To make sure that my Learn how to use IT more
bibliographies are complete effectively.
and alphabetically ordered.
I
To improve the effectiveness Try different strategies of
of my note-taking/ note-taking. Read a
information gathering. chapter/book on taking
notes effectively.
AND HOW ABOUT YOU?
I
What was the result of your skills profile? What specific targets did
you set? How will you achieve your target? What help do you need?
I
Please complete your own target-setting/action-planning proforma,
on page 102.
9 · Where Are You Now? 101
Gill
Sarah
Target Action plan
I
To use more simple and Study good management
straightforward language reports and practise the skills
in reports. of clarity.
I
To use transitions more Use transitions to link my
effectively to aid the flow paragraphs. Practise this skill.
of my writing.
Target Action plan
I
To continue to plan with care. Use planning techniques – eg
planning trees.
I
To structure my writing. Use sub-headings more
frequently.
I
To use conclusions effectively. Summarise my main points.
Practicise this skill. Ask
colleagues to check it for me
with care.
CONCLUSION
Our case studies have just received their results:
I
Steve has passed both ‘A’ levels and is going to start his HND course
in September. He celebrates his achievement at the Rugby Club!
I
Gill has received a commendation for her management course and
her tutors want her to progress to the advanced course in September.
Her company gives her a pay rise in recognition of her achievement!
I
Sarah has passed her MA. She feels at a bit of a loose end now and has
volunteered to research and write an asessment policy document for
school. She intends to apply for Head of Key Stage posts immediately!
‘Our Case Studies are continuing with their assignment writing skills
development.’ ARE YOU?
102 How To Write an Assignment
Target Action plan
How will you achieve your target?
What help do you need?
I
To . . .
Abstract. A summary or synopsis of the completed report or dissertation.
Appendix. Material at the back of the assignment, used to provide
supporting data.
Assignment. An investigative research resulting in a piece of writing
eg essay, report, dissertation.
Assessment criteria. The knowledge, skills and understanding you
need to demonstrate in your assignment.
Audience. The receivers of your assignment.
Bibliography. A complete list of all quotations and references
included in the assignment.
Brainstorming. An activity to generate ideas and material for the
assignment.
Constructive feedback. Evaluations from tutors and others helping
you to improve.
Dissertation. Major written assignments undertaken towards the end
of diploma, degree, masters and PhD courses.
Essay. A flowing piece of writing, answering the title question set and
which has an introduction, main body and conclusion.
Key sentence. The sentence in the paragraph explaining the main
point of the paragraph.
Key words. Those words that indicate the important criteria or sub-
stance of a sentence.
Learning style. Preferred ways of working and studying.
Glossary
IIIII
103
Managing time. Analysing and improving your use of time to
improve effectiveness.
Paragraph. An organising device for text which usually has one
main point.
Pattern notes. An outline or detailed planning technique.
Planning tree. An outline or detailed planning technique.
Professional development portfolio. A record of the skills achieved,
targets set and evidence of achievement.
Project report. A written evaluative report on an activity undertaken
which has a clear structure.
Quotations. The use of someone else’s words directly.
References. Providing the source of your quotations and references
for the reader.
Sub-heading. An organising device or signpost for the reader.
Transitions. Linking words or phrases which give flow to a piece of
writing.
104 How To Write an Assignment
Critical Thinking for Students, Roy van den Brink-Budgen, 3rd edn,
(How To Books, 2003).
Essay to Write? Brendan Hennessy (How To Books, 2002).
A Guide to Learning Independently, L. A. Marshall and F. Rowland
(Open University Press).
How to Pass Your Exams, Mike Evans (How To Books, 2009)
How To Write Essays, R. Lewis (Collins, 1993).
Improve Your Punctuation and Grammar Marion Field 3rd edn, (How To
Books, 2009).
Improve Your Written English, Marion Field, 5th edn, (How To Books,
2009).
The Manual of Learning Styles, 2nd edn, P. Honey and A. Mumford
(Honey, 1986).
Open Teaching Tool Kit – Writing Skills (Open University Press, 1991).
Oxford Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 1997).
Quick Solutions to Common Errors in English, Angela Burt, 3rd edn,
(How To Books, 2004)
Study and Learn, S. Asham and A. George (Heinemann, 1982).
Studying for a Degree, P. Dunleavy (Macmillan, 1980).
Further Reading
IIIII
105
Writing an Essay, 5th Revised edn, Brendan Hennessy (How To Books,
2007).
Writing Your Dissertation, 3rd edn, Derek Swetnam (How To Books,
2000).
106 How To Write an Assignment
Abbreviations, 60, 81
Abstracts, 77, 82
Achievement, evidence of, 5, 30, 85
Acronyms, 60, 66
Activists, 17, 19, 20, 26, 47, 97
Adair, John, 26
Analytica1 questions, 35
Appendix, 76, 82
Argumentative questions, 35
Assessment criteria, 5–9, 12, 30, 90–1
Audience, 10, 13, 60
Bias, 62
Bibliographies, preparing, 73–6, 82
Brainstorming, 40–2
Bubble diagram, 42
Chapters, 5, 50
Collecting further information, 40, 43
Competences, 89
Conclusions, 2, 3, 4, 7, 55
Constructive feedback, 86–9
Contents, 77
Contractions, 60
Conventions, 69
Coursework, 1
Deadlines, 22
Descriptive questions, 35
Diary, value of, 23
Dictionary, using a, 33–4
Dissertations, 4–5, 54
Distance learners, 10
Drafting your work, 50–8
Drucker, Peter, 26
Editing, 59–62
Electronic journals, 75
Essays, 2–3, 54–5
Evidence, presenting, 6–9, 69–71
Feedback, obtaining, 86–93
Flow, ensuring, 56, 61, 66
Footnotes, 71–2, 81
Format, 9–11
Gender bias, 62
Handwriting, 79–80, 83
Harvard referencing, 8, 72–3, 81
Headings, 50, 53
Honey & Mumford (1986), 14, 16, 18, 21
Hypothesis, 54
‘Ibid.’, 72, 81
Instructions, 33–4
Internet, 75
Introduction, 2, 3, 4, 7, 54–5, 57
Jargon, 60
Key points, 50–2
Key sentences, 70
Key words, 30–2
Language, 60–1, 66–7
Layout, 77–9
Learning styles, 14–22
Index
IIIII
107
Length, 1, 2, 3, 4, 51
Linking, see Transitions
Margins, 99, 100
Marks, 2, 90
Note-taking, 40–9
On-line, 75
‘Op.cit.’, 72, 81
Open-ended questions, 37
Outline plan, 40, 44–9
Paragraphs, 50–3, 57
Pattern notes, 40–3, 46
Plagiarising, 61
Planning trees, 46, 63–4
Pragmatists, 18–19, 21
Presentation, 77–9, 82
Prioritising, 22, 25
Process words, 31–2, 34–5
Professional development portfolio, 85
Project reports, 3
Questions, types of, 34
Quotations, 61, 69–71
Recommendations, 1–8, 80–1
Referencing, 8, 61, 71–3, 74–9
Reflections, 84–96
Reflectors, 17, 18, 20, 27, 48, 99
Reports, 3, 54
Rough drafts, 50, 59
Self–evaluation, 7, 12–13, 28, 38–9, 58,
66–7, 82–3, 84–6, 92
Skills profile, 84–5, 92–3
Slang, 60, 66
Sources, 43, 65
Spider or bubble diagrams, 42
Structure, 5, 7, 50–8, 63–8
Style, 59–67, 89
Sub-headings, 53
Summaries, 77
Synopsis, 77
Targeting, 85, 91, 100–1
Teacher-learning strategies, 15–16
Theorists, 17–18, 20–1, 27, 47–8, 98
Thesaurus, 34
Time log, 23–4
Time management, 22–3, 91–2
Tone, 60, 64–6
Transitions, 52–3, 61, 62
Typing, 77–9, 82–3
Word processing, 77–9, 82
108 How To Write an Assignment
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