Intelligence

Intelligence
1.Is Intelligence One General Ability or Several
Specific Abilities?
2.Intelligence and Creativity
3.Emotional Intelligence
4. Is Intelligence Neurologically Measurable?
Assessing Intelligence
 The Origins of Intelligence Testing
 Modern Tests of Mental Abilities
 Principles of Test Construction
The Dynamics of Intelligence
 Stability or Change?
 Extremes of Intelligence
Genetic and
Intelligence
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For example, people who do well on
vocabulary examinations do well on paragraph
comprehension examinations, a cluster that
helps define verbal intelligence. Other factors
include a spatial ability factor, or a reasoning
ability factor.
Contemporary Intelligence Theories
Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports the
idea that intelligence comes in multiple forms.
Gardner notes that brain damage may
diminish one type of ability but not others.

Environmental Influences on
Twin and Adoption Studies
Heritability
Environmental Influences
Group Differences in Intelligence
Test Scores
The Question of Bias

Do we have an inborn general mental
capacity (intelligence)? If so, can we
quantify this capacity as a meaningful
number?
Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability
to learn from experience, solve
problems, and use our knowledge to
adapt to new situations.
In research studies, intelligence is
whatever the intelligence test
measures. This tends to be “school
smarts.”

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Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?
Have you ever thought that since people’s
mental abilities are so diverse, it may not be
justifiable to label those abilities with only one
word, intelligence?
General Intelligence
The idea that general intelligence (g) exists
comes from the work of Charles Spearman
(1863-1945) who helped develop the factor
analysis approach in statistics.
Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things
Spearman proposed that general intelligence
(g) is linked to many clusters that can be
analyzed by factor analysis.

People with savant syndrome excel in abilities
unrelated to general intelligence.
Howard Gardner
Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences
and speculates about a ninth one — existential
intelligence. Existential intelligence is the
ability to think about the question of life, death
and existence.
Robert Sternberg
Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees with
Gardner, but suggests three intelligences
rather than eight.
1. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that
is assessed by intelligence tests.
2. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that
makes us adapt to novel situations,
generating novel ideas.
3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is
required for everyday tasks (e.g. street
smarts).
Intelligence and Creativity

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that
are both novel and valuable. It correlates
somewhat with intelligence.
1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge
base.
2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see
things in novel ways.
3. A Venturesome Personality: A
personality that seeks new experiences
rather than following the pack.
4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be
creative from within.
5. A Creative Environment: A creative and
supportive environment allows
creativity to bloom.
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is the ability to
perceive, understand, and use emotions
(Salovey and others, 2005). The test of
emotional intelligence measures overall
emotional intelligence and its four
components.
Emotional Intelligence: Components
Component

Description

Perceive
emotion

Recognize emotions
in faces, music and
stories

Understand
emotion

Predict emotions,
how they change and
blend

Manage emotion

Express emotions in
different situations

Use emotion

Utilize emotions to
adapt or be creative

Emotional Intelligence: Criticism
Gardner and others criticize the idea of
emotional intelligence and question whether
we stretch this idea of intelligence too far
when we apply it to our emotions.
Assessing Intelligence
Psychologists define intelligence testing as a
method for assessing an individual’s mental
aptitudes and comparing them with others
using numerical scores.
Alfred Binet
Alfred Binet and his colleague Théodore Simon
practiced a more modern form of intelligence

testing by developing questions that would
predict children’s future progress in the Paris
school system.
Lewis Terman
In the US, Lewis Terman adapted Binet’s test
for American school children and named the
test the Stanford-Binet Test. The following is
the formula of Intelligence Quotient (IQ),
introduced by William Stern:

David Wechsler
Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC), an intelligence test for school-aged
children.
WAIS
WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11
other aspects related to intelligence that are
designed to assess clinical and educational
problems.
Principles of Test Construction
For a psychological test to be acceptable it
must fulfill the following three criteria:
1. Standardization
2. Reliability
3. Validity
Standardization
Standardizing a test involves administering the
test to a representative sample of future test
takers in order to establish a basis for
meaningful comparison.
Normal Curve
Standardized tests establish a normal
distribution of scores on a tested population in
a bell-shaped pattern called the normal curve.
Reliability
A test is reliable when it yields consistent
results. To establish reliability researchers
establish different procedures:
1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test
into two equal halves and assessing
how consistent the scores are.
2. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same
test on two occasions to measure
consistency.

Validity
Reliability of a test does not ensure validity.
Validity of a test refers to what the test is
supposed to measure or predict.
1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a
test measures a particular behavior or
trait.
2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function
of a test in predicting a particular
behavior or trait.
Extremes of Intelligence
A valid intelligence test divides two groups of
people into two extremes: the mentally
retarded (IQ 70) and individuals with high
intelligence (IQ 135). These two groups are
significantly different.

High Intelligence
Contrary to popular belief, people with high
intelligence test scores tend to be healthy,
well adjusted, and unusually successful
academically.
Mental Retardation
Mentally retarded individuals required
constant supervision a few decades ago, but
with a supportive family environment and
special education they can now care for
themselves.
Flynn Effect
In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have
risen steadily by an average of 27 points. This
phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.
Genetic and Environmental Influences on
Intelligence
No other topic in psychology is so passionately
followed as the one that asks the question, “Is
intelligence due to genetics or environment?”
Adoption Studies
Adopted children show a marginal correlation
in verbal ability to their adopted parents.
Heritability
The variation in intelligence test scores
attributable to genetics. We credit heredity
with 50% of the variation in intelligence.
It pertains only to why people differ from one
another, not to the individual.

Environmental Influences
Studies of twins and adopted children also
show the following:
1. Fraternal twins raised together tend to
show similarity in intelligence scores.
2. Identical twins raised apart show
slightly less similarity in their
intelligence scores.
Early Intervention Effects
Early neglect from caregivers leads children to
develop a lack of personal control over the
environment, and it impoverishes their
intelligence.
Romanian orphans with minimal
human interaction are delayed in their
development.
Schooling Effects
Schooling is an experience that pays
dividends, which is reflected in intelligence
scores. Increased schooling correlates with
higher intelligence scores.
To increase readiness for schoolwork,
projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.
Group Differences in Intelligence Test
Scores
Why do groups differ in intelligence? How can
we make sense of these differences?
Ethnic Similarities and Differences
To discuss this issue we begin with two
disturbing but agreed upon facts:
1. Racial groups differ in their average
intelligence scores.
2. High-scoring people (and groups) are
more likely to attain high levels of
education and income.
Racial (Group) Differences
If we look at racial differences, white
Americans score higher in average intelligence

than black Americans (Avery and others,
1994). European New Zealanders score higher
than native New Zealanders (Braden, 1994).
White-Americans

BlackAmericans

Average IQ =
100

Average IQ =
85

Hispanic Americans
Environmental Effects
Differences in intelligence among these groups
are largely environmental, as if one
environment is more fertile in developing
these abilities than the other.
Reasons Why Environment Affects
Intelligence
1. Races are remarkably alike genetically.
2. Race is a social category.
3. Asian students outperform North
American students on math
achievement and aptitude tests.
4. Today’s better prepared populations
would outperform populations of the
1930s on intelligence tests.
5. White and black infants tend to score
equally well on tests predicting future
intelligence.
6. Different ethnic groups have
experienced periods of remarkable
achievement in different eras.
Gender Similarities and Differences
There are seven ways in which males and
females differ in various abilities.
1. Girls are better spellers
2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large
vocabularies

men do
The Question of Bias
Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the
sense that they are sensitive to performance
differences caused by cultural differences.
However, aptitude tests are not biased in the
sense that they accurately predict
performance of one group over the other.
Test-Takers’ Expectations
A stereotype threat is a self-confirming
concern that one will be evaluated based on a
negative stereotype.
This phenomenon appears in some instances
in intelligence testing among AfricanAmericans and among women of all colors.

Behavioral Assessment
History
 Behaviorism beginning in 1930’s
 Pavlov: Pavlovian or classical conditioning
 B.F. Skinner (most noteworthy work 1953)

Skinner box for rat learning
research

Operant or response-stimulus
(RS) conditioning
Behavioral Assessment Context in Clinical
Psych
 Grows from Behavior Theory / Learning
Theory
 Aspects of it can be easily combined with
other forms of assessment – very common
to do so
 Differs from traditional assessment (clinical
interview and testing) in 3 ways
1.

Interested in samples of behavior, not
behavior as a sign of internal processes
3. Girls are better at locating objects
2.
Functional Analysis, a very concrete
method, is employed to understand
4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and
behavior
color
3.
Assessment is an ongoing, active part of
5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of
all phases of treatment (not just always in
underachievement
the back of clinician’s mind, as in other
types of treatment)
6. Boys outperform girls at math problem
solving, but under perform at math computation
1.
Sample vs. Sign
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In behavioral assessment, test /
7. Women detect emotions more easily than
interview responses are interpreted as

“samples” of behavior that are
thought to generalize to other situations

In traditional assessment (even
psychodynamic), we interpret test data
as “signs” of internal processes
2.

Functional Behavioral Analysis (also
called Functional Analysis)

Derived from Skinner’s work with
SR (stimulus-response) learning
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SORC model
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ABC model (very similar)
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Isolates a target behavior for
analysis and understanding in a very
concrete, prescripted manor

SORC model for conceptualizing a
behavior
 S = stimulus or “antecedent” factors
which occur before target behavior
 O = organismic variables relevant to
target behavior
 R = the response = the target behavior
 C = consequences of target behavior
Elaboration of “O”
 Organismic
 Physical / medical / physiological,
cognitive / psychological aspects of the
client
 …that are relevant to treating the target
behavior
Example of SORC model
 S – Stimulus: a child is ignored by her
peers in class
 (O – Organismic: the child has
previously been diagnosed with ADHD)
 R – Response: She increases the
volume of her voice (i.e., yells)
 C – Consequences: her peers pay
attention to her, some role their eyes
Similar
 A
 B
 C
3.

to SORC: ABC
= Antecedent – similar to “situation”
= Behavior – similar to “response”
= Consequence – outcome

Is an ongoing & active process,
through all points of behavioral
therapy: initial assessment, therapy,
and evaluation of improvement
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Assessment is an ongoing
process in almost all clinical

orientations, in that it’s almost always in
the “back” of clinician’s mind.
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Ex: Hmm, I thought Mr. Z had
depression, but now he’s exhibiting
more anxious symptoms; I wonder if this
is more a mixed anxiety-depression
sydrome.
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behavioral assessment, is a
planned & integral part of entire
therapeutic process
Behavioral Assessment Methods
Behavioral Interviews
Observational methods
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Naturalistic Observation
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Controlled Observation
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Controlled Performance Techniques
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Self-Monitoring
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Role-playing
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Inventories, Checklists
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Cognitive-Behavioral Assessments
Behavioral Interviews
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Behavioral interviews: ask questions
focused on target behaviors

Goal: help clinician gain general
perspective of problem behavior and the
variables that perpetuate it

Understand antecedent factors

May use structured diagnostic interview
(relatively new development)

Not different from traditional interview
in format, only in focus.
Observation: a primary technique

Observational methods (as opposed to
self-report) provide a sample of behavior in
naturalistic OR controlled conditions

Fewer problems in research than
therapy

Naturalistic: at home or school, in a
hospital, or in therapy

Controlled: situational tests that
approximate real life
Controlled Performance Techniques

Similar to controlled observational
methods, except that the observer
interferes more

do not approximate real life, but may be
analogous to or heighten aspects of real life
(pressure, interpersonal challenges,
presence of phobic stimuli)

Contrived situations



Potential for standardization across
individuals

Self-monitoring techniques

Have client observe their own
behaviors, thoughts, and emotions

chance of bias?

Typically more part of treatment than
assessment for this reason

Clients keep list of observations in
similar fashion as SORC or ABC

Dysfunctional Thought Record DTR is
most common of self-monitoring in clinical
setting
Role Playing

Controlled-setting for “safety”

Provide a scenario for client to act out,
possibly with a clinical assistant or the
therapist

Benefit: therapeutic since it’s practice in
a safe setting plus provides ongoing
assessment
Inventories, checklists

E.g., child behavior checklist CBCL

Parent, peer, self, teacher rate on a list
of behaviors

Usually multiple raters

Questionnaire format

Often have multiple “factors” in
checklist

E.g., aggressive, depressed, anxious
behaviors

Benefit: they offer a quantitative
measure!
Cognitive-Behavioral Assessments

Add component of conscious &
remembered “thoughts” as an additional
type of behavior to assess

Example: Beck Depression Inventory

Asks questions about behaviors such as
sleep, appetite, decision making related to
decision

But also thoughts: negative thoughts
about self, thoughts about death, etc.
Challenges to validity and reliability

Reliability & validity influenced by

complexity of behavior observed

level of training, experience of
observer(s)

unit of analysis chosen & coding
system used

influence of observation on target
(problematic) behavior

generalizability of observations to
other settings/situations


How to conduct a Functional
Behavioral Assessment (FBA
An FBA is designed to assess the causes of a
student’s challenging behavior and to make
recommendations on corresponding reports
and subsequent behavioral intervention plans.
To conduct a FBA, you need to identify:

Problem behavior in concrete and
observable terms

Strength of the problem behavior
to establish baseline data

Conditions under which the
problem behavior occurs (including the
events that trigger and reinforce the
problem behavior)

Probable reasons for or causes of
the problem behavior (including biological,
social, cognitive, affective, and
environmental factors).
A FBA is Required When:
•
A special education student’s behavior
results in certain disciplinary actions.
•
Prior to placing a student in a
“Behavioral Disabilities Program” in the
NPS, and to create a Behavioral Disciplinary
Plan (BIP).
•
As a result of a Manifestation
Determination meeting when a student
behavior is a result of their disabling
condition (when no FBA was previously
conducted).
An FBA Should Also Be Considered When:
Children are referred for a special education
evaluation and/or students currently classified
who:
•
Behave in ways that “interfere” with
their education or with the education of
others.
•
Exhibit aggressive, destructive,
noncompliant, self-injurious, or dangerous
behaviors.
•
At the onset of the behavior rather than
waiting until the student is removed from
the setting in which the problem behavior
occurred.

•

•

When a student is in need of a more
restrictive placement because of behavioral
concerns, I.e. Behavioral Disabilities
Program (BD).
To create a behavior intervention plan
(BIP) or revise a BIP.

4 Steps for Conducting a FBA
1.
Identify challenging behavior in
concrete and observable terms and the
instruments to assist in this process.
2.
Measure the challenging behavior to
establish base-line data, and perform
assessments.
3.
Evaluate data collected.
4.
Develop a hypothesis that describes
why the behavior is occurring.
• Note: Once the FBA is complete, the IEP
team, or other practitioner’s should:
– Develop recommendations and/or
create a BIP to improve the
problem behavior.
– Implementation of a BIP.
– Evaluate the plan and modify as
needed.
STEP ONE
Identify challenging behavior in concrete and
observable terms and the instruments to assist
in this process.
Tool Box For Step One

Teacher Questionnaire

Parent Questionnaire

Problem Behavior Questionnaire

Functional Assessment Interview
(FAI)

Motivational Scale

Behavioral Assistant Scales for
Children, 2nd Edition (BASC- 2)

Child Depression Inventory (CDI)
Questions To Be Answered. . .
1. What are the antecedents of the
challenging behavior (e.g., setting
events that elicit the behavior)?
2. What are the consequences for the
challenging behavior, which may
reinforce it?
3. What does the student gain?
4. What does the student avoid?
Describing the Problem Behavior?
1. Note the type of problem behavior

2. Note where the problem behavior
occurs
3. Note when the problem behavior occurs
4. Note characteristics of the setting and
events related to the problem behavior
5. Note situations or personal events that
might induce the behavior: include
actions of others that increase or trigger
the behavior.
6. Note the consequences associated with
the problem behavior.
Type
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of Problem Behaviors?
Head banging
Being physically aggressive
Being truant
Biting
Crying
Defying authority
Destroying property
Pushing, pulling others
Running away
Threatening others
Throwing things
Inappropriate sexual behavior
Failing to complete assignments
Failure to follow directions
Failure to remain seated
Fighting
Yelling
Cursing
Talking out of turn
Use of inappropriate language

Where does the Problem Behaviors
occur?
 Auditorium
 Bus
 Bus stop
 Cafeteria
 Classroom (Reading, Writing, Math)
 Computer room
 Hallway
 Bathroom
 Library
 Special classrooms
 Walkways
When does the Problem Behaviors Occur?
a)
Subjects being taught (history writing,
reading, math,etc.)
b)
Time of day (before school. Morning,
afternoon)

c)

Instructional activity, or lack of,
(individual assignments, group activity,
small group
d)
Nonacademic activity (changing class,
playground, lunch)
Situations or setting events….
• Arguing with parents before school
• Fight with peer
• Getting in trouble previously
• Dislikes or has difficult time with
assignment or required activity
• Being teased, harassed or intimidated
by a peer
• Fatigue, illness
• Test anxiety
• Social conflict
Reported Consequences vs. Observable
Consequences
 Additional writing assignments
 Alternative educational placement
 Being given alternative task, different
from peers
 Being sent to office or removed from the
class
 Suspensions
 Loss of privileges
 Ignoring
 Physical restraint
 Call to parents
 Referral to counselor
Identify Challenging Behavior in Concrete
& Observable Terms
General
Descripti
ons

Concrete & Observable Descriptions

Measure the challenging behavior to establish
base-line data, and perform assessments.
Tool Box for Step Two
 Functional Assessment
Observation Form
 A-B-C observation form
 BASC POP or BASC SOS
 Sattler’s Functional Behavioral
Assessment Recording Form
 Student Directed Functional
Assessment Interview
Questions to be answered…
•
What is the strength of the challenging
behavior (e.g., frequency, duration,
strength, etc.)?
•
How does student’s challenging
behavior compare to his or her peers?
•
How does the student’s challenging
behavior vary across settings?
Direct Means
•
Classroom observation(s)- varied
settings & times
•
Observe systematic behaviors,
focusing on those environments in which
they occur
•
Observe the student in several
different settings, during different types of
activities, and at different times during the
day
Determining whether a student’s
behavior is considerable different than
that of his or her peers?

Student
is
aggressiv
e

Identifiable factors to consider:
 Settings
 Tasks
During lunch, when student doesn’t
 Reward contingencies (I.e. negative
get his way, he hits other children
reinforcement, such as escaping tasks
and responsibilities.

Student
is
disruptive

Student continuously call out and
makes inappropriate comments
during math seat work

STEP THREE
Evaluate data collected

Student
is
hyperacti
ve

Student continuously moves around
on seat, plays with items on desk,
and gets out of his seat w/o
permission during reading activities

Tool Box for Step Three
• Student Directed Functional Assessment
Interview
• Evaluate Teacher data
• Graph/chart the data

STEP TWO

Questions to be answered. . .

•
•
•

•

What patterns of antecedent events
and/or consequences are connected to the
student’s challenging behavior?
What is the student gaining or avoiding?
What are the antecedent events that
elicit the behavior and what are the
consequences that reinforce the behavior
(A-B-C’s)?
Do skills and/or performance deficits
contribute to the challenging behavior?

STEP FOUR
Develop a hypotheses that describes why the
behavior is occurring
Questions a Hypotheses Should Answer?
•
Based on previous steps, evaluation of
the data, the hypotheses should attempt to
explain the relationship between the
problem behavior and and the situation(s)
in which the behavior occurs.
•
Is the student engaging in the
challenging behavior to gain and/or avoid
something? If so, what?
•
Is the student engaging in the
challenging behavior because of
corresponding reinforcements? If so, what
are they?
•
Is the student engaging in the
challenging behavior because of a skill(s)
and/or performance deficit? If so what are
the deficits?
Hypotheses should include:
1. Relevant student background factors
associated with the problem behavior
2. Relevant environmental factors associated
to the problem behavior,
3. Functions or purpose (escape, avoidance,
control)
4. How others react to problem behavior
5. Level of understanding of problem behavior
from teachers, parents, peers, etc.
6. Students attitude about learning
environment (likes or dislikes school?)
7. Student attitude about parents
8. Cognitive and motivational ability the
student has for coping with the problem
behavior
9. Students family, school and community
strengths and resources for change.
Distractible and Hyperactivity Student
Sandra is a 7 year old 2nd grade student who is
being seen because she is said to be in

constant motion, which disrupts teaching and
learning. In addition, Sandra is said to be
unable to pay attention in class. Despite many
reported interventions, such as individual
assistance and parent conferences Sandra’s
behavior has not improved. You are being
asked to conduct a FBA to identify the causes
for Sandra’s hyperactive and disruptive
behavior.
Next Steps. . .
Develop recommendations and/or create a BIP
to improve the problem behavior.
Implementation of a BIP.
Evaluate the plan and modify as needed.
Develop recommendations and/or create a BIP
to improve the problem behavior.
Questions to be answered. . .
• What pro social replacement behaviors
are already in the students repertoire?
• Which reinforces & punishers are
effective with the student?
• What environmental changes are
needed to prevent the problem behavior
from occurring and encouraging positive
behavior?
• How to change antecedents that elicit
and consequences that reinforce
challenging behavior?
• Which skills does the student need to
replace problem behaviors with
appropriate behaviors?
• What positive strategies can be utilized
to prevent challenging behaviors
occurring and increase pro social
replacement behaviors?
Implementation of the BIP
1. Be consistent
2. Set boundaries
3. Monitor effectiveness
4. Monitor implementation
Evaluate the plan and modify as needed.
• Plans are always in constant evaluation
• If it is not working revise and reimplement
• Periodically interview the student,
teacher(s), and parents.
• Observe the student and administer
additional assessments if needed.

The Assessment
Interview
•
•

Clinical Assessment involves an
evaluation of an individual’s strength
and weaknesses
A conceptualization of the problem at
hand and some prescription for
alleviating the problem.

1. The referral
2. The Interview
•
An interaction
Interview Essentials and Techniques
• The Physical arrangements
• Note-taking and recordings
• Rapport
• Communication
– Beginning a session
– Language
– The use of questions (openended, facilitative, clarifying,
confronting, direct)
• The impact of clinician
• The clinician’s values and background
• Patient’s frame of reference
• The clinician’s frame of reference

Varieties of Interview
1. The Intake Interview
- to determine why the patient has come to
the clinic or hospital
- to judge whether the agency’s facilities,
policies and services will meet the needs and
expectations of the patient
- to inform the patient of such matters as the
clinic’s functions, fees, policies, procedures
and personnel
2. The Case-History Interview
- concrete dates, facts and events
- to provide a broad background and
context in which both the patient and the
problem can be placed
- covers both childhood and adulthood
which includes educational, sexual, medical,
parental environment, religious.
3. The Mental Status Examination
Interview
- conducted to assess the presence of
cognitive, emotional or behavioral problems.
4. The Crisis Interview
- to meet the problem as they arise and
to provide immediate resource