Interior Design
Content
Interior design is "the art or process of designing the interior decoration of a room or building".[1][2] An interior
designer is someone who coordinates and manages such projects. Interior design is a multifaceted profession that
includes conceptual development, communicating with the stakeholders of a project and the management and
execution of the design.
History
In the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building.[2] The profession of interior
design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex architecture that has resulted from
the development of industrial processes. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design
has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession.[3]
In ancient India, architects used to work as interior designers. This can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma
the architect - one of the gods in Indian mythology. Additionally, the sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are
seen in palaces built in 17th century India.
Throughout the 17th and 18th century, and into the early 19th Century, interior decoration was the concern of the
homemaker or, an employed upholsterer or craftsman who would advise on the artistic style for an interior space.
Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings.
Commercial interior design & management
In the mid- to late-19th century, interior design services expanded greatly, as the middle class in industrial countries
grew in size and prosperity and began to desire the domestic trappings of wealth to cement their new status.
Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management, offering full house furnishings
in a variety of styles. This business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly
usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the professional interior
design in the mid-20th century.[4]
Illustrated catalog of the James Shoolbred Company, published in 1876.
In the 1850s and 1860s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits. They framed their business more
broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. To meet the growing demand for
contract interior work on projects such as offices, hotels, and public buildings, these businesses became much larger
and more complex, employing builders, joiners, plasterers, textile designers, artists, and furniture designers, as well
as engineers and technicians to fulfil the job. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different
lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes.[4]
As department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as
examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up model rooms at national and
international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the pioneering firms in this regard were Waring
& Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons and Holland & Sons. These traditional high-quality furniture making firms began
to play an important role as advisers to unsure middle class customers on taste and style, and began taking out
contracts to design and furnish the interiors of many important buildings in Britain.[5]
This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War. The Herter Brothers, founded by two German emigre
brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior
decorators. With their own design office and cabinet-making and upholstery workshops, Herter Brothers were
prepared to accomplish every aspect of interior furnishing including decorative paneling and mantels, wall and ceiling
decoration, patterned floors and carpets and draperies.[6]
Illustration from The Grammar of Ornament (1856), by interior designer Owen Jones.
A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the middle class was the architect Owen Jones, one of the
most influential design theorists of the nineteenth century.[7] Jones first project was his most important - in 1851 he
was responsible for not only the decoration of Joseph Paxton’s gigantic Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition, but
also for the arrangement of the exhibits within. He chose a controversial palette of red, yellow and blue for the interior
ironwork and, despite initial negative publicity in the newspapers, was eventually unveiled by Queen Victoria to much
critical acclaim. His most significant work was The Grammar of Ornament (1856),[8] in which Jones formulated 37 key
principles of interior design and decoration.
Jones was employed by some of the leading interior design firms of the day; in the 1860s he worked in collaboration
with the London firm Jackson & Graham to produce furniture and other fittings for high-profile clients including art
collector Alfred Morrison and the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha.
In 1882 the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators. Some of the most distinguished
companies of the period were Crace, Waring & Gillow and Holland & Sons; famous decorators employed by these
firms, included Thomas Edward Collcutt, Edward William Godwin, Charles Barry, Gottfried Semper and George
Edmund Street.[9]
Transition to professional interior design
This interior was designed by John Dibblee Crace, President of the Institute of British Decorators, established in 1899.
By the turn of the 20th century, amateur advisors and publications were increasingly challenging the monopoly that
the large retail companies had on interior design. English feminist author Mary Haweis wrote a series of widely read
essays in the 1880s in which she derided the eagerness with which aspiring middle-class people furnished their
houses according to the rigid models offered to them by the retailers.[10] She advocated the individual adoption of a
particular style, tailor made to the individual needs and preferences of the customer:
One of my strongest convictions, and one of the first canons of good taste, is that our houses, like the fish’s
shell and the bird’s nest, ought to represent our individual taste and habits.
The move towards decoration as a separate artistic profession unrelated to the manufacturers and retailers,
received an impetus with the 1899 formation of the Institute of British Decorators; with John Dibblee Crace as its
president it represented almost 200 decorators around the country.[11] By 1915, the London Directory listed 127
individuals trading as interior decorators, of which 10 were women. Rhoda and Agnes Garrett were the first
women to train professionally as home decorators in 1874. The importance of their work on design was regarded
at the time as on a par with that of William Morris. In 1876, their work - Suggestions for House Decoration in
Painting, Woodwork and Furniture - spread their ideas on artistic interior design to a wide middle-class audience.
[12]
By 1900, the situation was described by The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder:
Until recently when a man wanted to furnish he would visit all the dealers and select piece by piece of
furniture ....Today he sends for a dealer in art furnishings and fittings who surveys all the rooms in the house
and he brings his artistic mind to bear on the subject.[13]
In America, Candace Wheeler was one of the first woman interior designers and helped encourage a new
style of American design. She was instrumental in the development of art courses for women in a number of
major American cities and was considered a national authority on home decoration. An important influence
on the new profession was The Decoration of Houses, a manual of interior design written by Edith
Wharton with architect Ogden Codman in 1897 in America. In the book, the authors denounced Victorianstyle interior decoration and interior design, especially those rooms that were decorated with heavy window
curtains, Victorian bric-a-brac and overstuffed furniture. They argued that such rooms emphasized
upholstery at the expense of proper space planning and architectural design and were, therefore,
uncomfortable and rarely used.The book is considered a seminal work and its success led to the
emergence of professional decorators working in the manner advocated by its authors, most notably Elsie
de Wolfe.[14]
Elsie de Wolfe, taken from The House in Good Taste, 1913.
Elsie De Wolfe was one of the first female interior designers. Rejecting the Victorian style she grew up with,
she chose a more vibrant scheme, along with more comfortable furniture in the home. Her designs were
light, with fresh colors and delicate Chinoiserie furnishings, as opposed to the Victorian preference of heavy,
red drapes and upholstery, dark wood and intensely patterned wallpapers. Her designs were also more
practical;[15] she eliminated the clutter that occupied the Victorian home, enabling people to entertain more
guests comfortably. In 1905, de Wolfe was commissioned for the interior design of the Colony
Club on Madison Avenue; its interiors garnered her recognition almost over night.[16][17] She compiled her
ideas into her widely read 1913 book, The House in Good Taste.[18]
In England, Syrie Maugham became a legendary interior designer credited with designing the first all-white
room. Starting her career in the early 1910s, her international reputation soon grew; she later expanded her
business to New York and Chicago.[19] Born during the Victorian Era, a time characterized by dark colors and
small spaces, she instead designed rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and
mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white
vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases,
upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of
graduated glass balls, and wreaths.[20]
Expansion
The interior design profession became more established after World War II. From the 1950s onwards
spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of
textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the
decorative arts specialists were made available. Organisations to regulate education, qualifications,
standards and practices, etc. were established for the profession.[18]
Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many
connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of architects, industrial designers, engineers,
builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons the government of interior design standards and qualifications
was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design.[18] Organisations such as
the Chartered Society of Designers, established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute,
founded in 1938, were established as organisations that governed various areas of design.
It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US
National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and
Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish
Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design
Association was founded.[18]
Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of Origins of Graphic Design in America (1997), determined that professional
status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organizations.
[18]
Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession.
Interior decorators and interior designers
Interior design in a restaurant
An interior designer is a designer who designs interior spaces. The profession of interior design is not
clearly defined and projects undertaken by an interior designer vary widely. Terms such as decorator and
designer are often used interchangeably. However, there is a distinction between the terms that relates to
the scope of work performed, the level of education achieved, and often, professional accreditation as an
interior designer.
Interior designer
Interior Designer implies that there is more of an emphasis on Planning, Functional design and effective use
of space involved in this profession, as compared to interior decorating. An interior designer can undertake
projects that include arranging the basic layout of spaces within a building as well as projects that require
an understanding of technical issues such as acoustics, lighting, temperature, etc.[2] Although an interior
designer may create the layout of a space, they may not alter load-bearing walls without having their
designs stamped for approval by an architect. Interior Designers often work directly with architectural firms.
An interior designer may wish to specialize in a particular type of interior design in order to develop
technical knowledge specific to that area. Types of interior design include residential design, commercial
design, hospitality design, healthcare design, universal design, exhibition design, spatial branding, etc. The
profession of Interior Design is relatively new, constantly evolving, and often confusing to the public. It is an
art form that is consistently changing and evolving. Not only is it an art, but it also relies on research from
many fields to provide a well-trained designer's understanding of how people are influenced by their
environments. NCIDQ, the board for Interior Design qualifications, defines the profession in the best way:
Specialties
The interior of a private residence
An electric wire reel reused like a center table in a Rio de Janeiro decoration fair.
Residential
Residential design is the design of the interior of private residences. As this type design is very specific for
individual situations, the needs and wants of the individual are paramount in this area of interior design. The
interior designer may work on the project from the initial planning stage or may work on the remodelling of
an existing structure. It is often a very involved process that takes months to fine tune and create a space
with the vision of the client.[21] Fine examples of contemporary designers include Kelly Hoppen and David
Collins who in keeping with current trends have both a strong media presence and successful independent
business.
Commercial
Commercial design encompasses a wide range of sub specialties.
Retail: includes malls and shopping centres, department stores, specialty stores, visual merchandising
and showrooms.
Visual and Spatial Branding: The use of space as a media to express the Corporate Brand
Corporate: office design for any kind of business such as banks
Healthcare: the design of hospitals, assisted living facilities, medical offices, dentist offices, psychiatric
facilities, laboratories, medical specialist facilities
Hospitality and Recreation: includes hotels, motels, resorts, cafes, bars, casinos, nightclubs, theatres,
music halls, opera houses, restaurants, gyms, health clubs and spas, etc.
Institutional: government offices, financial institutions (banks and credit unions), schools and
universities, religious facilities, etc.
Industrial facilities: manufacturing and training facilities as well as import and export facilities.[21]
Teaching in a private institute that offer classes of Interior Design
Self-Employment
Employment in private sector firms
Other
Other areas of specialisation include amusement and theme park design, museum and exhibition design,
event design (including ceremonies, parties, conventions and concerts), theatre and performance design,
stage and set design, production design for film and television. Beyond those, interior designers, particularly
those with graduate education, can specialize in healthcare design, gerontological design, educational
facility design, and other areas that require specialized knowledge. Some university programs offer
graduate studies in theses and other areas. For example, both Cornell University and University of Florida
offer interior design graduate programs in environment and behavior studies. Within this at University of
Florida, students may choose a specific focus such as retirement community design (under Dr. Nichole
Campbell) co-housing (Dr. Maruja Torres) or theft prevention by design (Prof. Candy Carmel-Gilfilen)
(Campbell, 2012, Personal Communication).
Profession
Education
Main article: Interior design education
There are various paths that one can take to become a professional interior designer. All of these paths
involve some form of training. Working with a successful professional designer is an informal method of
training and has previously been the most common method of education. In many states, however, this path
alone cannot lead to licensing as a professional interior designer. Training through an institution such as a
college, art or design school or university is a more formal route to professional practice.
A formal education program, particularly one accredited by or developed with a professional organisation of
interior designers, can provide training that meets a minimum standard of excellence and therefore gives a
student an education of a high standard. There are also university graduate and Ph.d. programs available
for those seeking further training in a specific design specialization (I.e. gerontological design or healthcare
design) or those wishing to teach interior design at the university level.
Working conditions
There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large
and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for
smaller firms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, which make up 26% of
interior designers,[22] usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet
deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs.
In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval
by clients or construction permisioning. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality,
relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work can involve significant travel to visit different locations,
however with technology development, the process of contacting clients and communicating design
alternatives has become easier and requires less travel.[23] They also renovate a space to satisfy the specific
taste for a client.
Styles
Art Deco
Terracotta Art Decosunburst design above front doors of the Eastern Columbia Building in Los Angeles; built 1930.
The Art Deco style began in Europe in the early years of the 20th century, with the waning of Art Nouveau.
The term "Art Deco" was taken from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels
Modernes, a world’s fair held in Paris in 1925.[24] Art Deco rejected many traditional classical influences in
favour of more streamlined geometric forms and metallic color. The Art Deco style influenced all areas of
design, especially interior design, because it was the first style of interior decoration to spotlight new
technologies and materials.[25]
Art Deco style is mainly based on geometric shapes, streamlining and clean lines.[26][27] The style offered a
sharp, cool look of mechanized living utterly at odds with anything that came before.[28]
Art Deco rejected traditional materials of decoration and interior design, opting instead to use more unusual
materials such as chrome, glass, stainless steel, shiny fabrics, mirrors,aluminium, lacquer, inlaid
wood, sharkskin, and zebra skin.[25] The use of harder, metallic materials was chosen to celebrate the
machine age. These materials reflected the dawning modern age that was ushered in after the end of
the First World War. The innovative combinations of these materials created contrasts that were very
popular at the time - for example the mixing together of highly polished wood and black lacquer with satin
and furs.[29] The barber shop in the Austin Reed store in London was designed by P. J. Westwood. It was
soon regarded as the trendiest barber shop in Britain due to its use of metallic materials.[28]
The color themes of Art Deco consisted of metallic color, neutral color, bright color and, black and white. In
interior design, cool metallic colors including silver, gold, metallic blue, charcoal grey and platinum tended to
predominate.[26][30] Serge Chermayeff, a Russian-born British designer made extensive use of cool metallic
colors and luxurious surfaces in his room schemes. His 1930 showroom design for a British dressmaking
firm had a silver-grey background and black mirrored-glass wall panels.[28][31]
Black and white was also a very popular color scheme during the 1920s and 1930s. Black and white
checkerboard tiles, floors and wallpapers were very trendy at the time.[32] As the style developed, bright
vibrant colors became popular as well.[33]
Art Deco Furnishings and lighting fixtures had a glossy, luxurious appearance with the use of inlaid wood
and reflective finishes. The furniture pieces often had curved edges, geometric shapes and clean lines.[24]
[28]
Art Deco lighting fixtures tended to make use of stacked geometric patterns.[34]
Arab Materials
“Majlis painting”, also called nagash painting is the decoration of the majlis or front parlor of traditional
Arabic homes in the Asir province of Saudi Arabia and adjoining parts of Yemen These wall paintings,
anarabesque form of mural or fresco, show various geometric designs in bright colors: “Called 'nagash' in
Arabic, the wall paintings were a mark of pride for a woman in her house.” [35]
The geometric designs and heavy lines seem to be adapted from the area’s textile and weaving patterns.
“In contrast with the sobriety of architecture and decoration in the rest of Arabia, exuberant color and
ornamentation characterize those of 'Asir. The painting extends into the house over the walls and doors, up
the staircases, and onto the furniture itself. When a house is being painted, women from the community
help each other finish the job. The building then displays their shared taste and knowledge. Mothers pass
these on to their daughters. This artwork is based on a geometry of straight lines and suggests the patterns
common to textile weaving, with solid bands of different colors. Certain motifs reappear, such as the
triangular mihrab or 'niche' and the palmette. In the past, paint was produced from mineral and
vegetablepigments. Cloves and alfalfa yielded green. Blue came from the indigo plant. Red came
from pomegranates and a certain mud. Paintbrushes were created from the tough hair found in a goat's tail.
Today, however, women use modern manufactured paint to create new looks, which have become an
indicator of social and economic change.”[36]
Women in the Asir province often complete the decoration and painting of the house interior. “You could tell
a family’s wealth by the paintings,” Um Abdullah says: “If they didn’t have much money, the wife could only
paint the motholath,” the basic straight, simple lines, in patterns of three to six repetitions in red, green,
yellow and brown.” When women did not want to paint the walls themselves, they could barter with other
women who would do the work. Several Saudi women have become famous as majlis painters, such
as Fatima Abou Gahas.[35]
The interior walls of the home are brightly painted by the women, who work in defined patterns with lines,
triangles, squares, diagonals and tree-like patterns. “Some of the large triangles represent mountains.
Zigzag lines stand for water and also for lightning. Small triangles, especially when the widest area is at the
top, are found in pre-Islamic representations of female figures. That the small triangles found in the wall
paintings in ‘Asir are called banat may be a cultural remnant of a long-forgotten past.” [35]
"Courtyards and upper pillared porticoes are principal features of the best Nadjdi architecture, in addition to
the fine incised plaster wood (jiss) and painted window shutters, which decorate the reception rooms. Good
examples of plasterwork can often be seen in the gaping ruins of torn-down buildings- the effect is light,
delicate and airy. It is usually around the majlis, around the coffee hearth and along the walls above where
guests sat on rugs, against cushions. Doughty wondered if this "parquetting of jis", this "gypsum fretwork...
all adorning and unenclosed" originated from India. However, the Najd fretwork seems very different from
that seen in the Eastern Province and Oman, which are linked to Indian traditions, and rather resembles
the motifs and patterns found in ancient Mesopotamia. The rosette, the star, the triangle and the stepped
pinnacle pattern of dadoes are all ancient patterns, and can be found all over the Middle East of
antiquity. Al-Qassim Province seems to be the home of this art, and there it is normally worked in hard
white plaster(though what you see is usually begrimed by the smoke of the coffee hearth). In Riyadh,
examples can be seen in unadorned clay."[37]
Japanese materials
Japanese design is based strongly on craftsmanship, beauty, elaboration, and delicacy. The design of
interiors is very simple but made with attention to detail and intricacy. This sense of intricacy and simplicity
in Japanese designs is still valued in modern Japan as it was in traditional Japan.
Japanese interior design is very efficient in the use of resources. Traditional and modern Japanese interiors
have been flexible in use and designed mostly with natural materials. The spaces are used as
multifunctional rooms. The rooms can be opened to create more space for an occasion or more private and
closed-off by pulling closed paper screens called shoji. A large portion of Japanese interior walls are often
made of shoji screens that can be pushed opened to join two rooms together, and then close them allowing
more privacy. The shoji screens are made of paper attached in thin wooden frames that roll away on a track
when they are pushed opened. Another large importance of the shoji screen besides privacy and seclusion
is that they allow light through. This is an important aspect to Japanese design. Paper translucent walls
allow light to be diffused through the space and create light shadows and patterns. Another way to connect
rooms in Japan’s interiors is through Sliding panels made of wood and paper, like the shoji screens, or
cloth. These panels are called Fusuma and are used as an entire wall. They are traditionally hand painted.
[38]
Tatami mats are rice straw floor mats often used as the actual floor in Japan’s interiors; although in modern
Japan, there usually are only one or two tatami rooms. A Tokonoma is often present in traditional, as well as
modern Japanese living rooms. This determines the focus of the room and displays Japanese art; usually a
painting or calligraphy. Interiors are very simple, highlighting minimal and natural decoration. Traditional
Japanese interiors, as well as modern, incorporate mainly natural materials including fine woods, bamboo,
silk, rice straw mats, and paper shoji screens. Natural materials are used to keep simplicity in the space that
connects to nature. Natural color schemes are used and neutral palettes including black, white, off-white,
gray, and brown.[39]
Media popularization
Main article: Interior design magazine
Interior design has become the subject of television shows. In the United Kingdom (UK), popular interior
design and decorating programs include 60 Minute Makeover (ITV), Changing Rooms (BBC) and Selling
Houses (Channel 4). Famous interior designers whose work is featured in these programs include Linda
Barker and Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. In the United States, the TLC Network aired a popular program
calledTrading Spaces, a show based on the UK program Changing Rooms. In Canada, popular shows
include Divine Design with Candice Olsen and Design Inc., featuring Sarah Richardson. In addition,
both Home & Garden Television (HGTV) and the Discovery Home networks also televise many programs
about interior design and decorating, featuring the works of a variety of interior designers, decorators and
home improvement experts in a myriad of projects.
Fictional interior decorators include the Sugarbaker sisters on Designing Women and Grace Adler on Will &
Grace. There is also another show called Home MADE. There are two teams and two houses and whoever
has the designed and made the worst room, according to the judges, is eliminated. Another show on
the Style Network, hosted by Niecy Nash, is Clean House where they re-do messy homes into themed
rooms that the clients would like. Other shows include Design on a Dime, Designed to Sell and The
Decorating Adventures of Ambrose Price. The show called Design Star has become more popular through
the 5 seasons that have already aired. The winners of this show end up getting their own TV shows, of
which are Color Splash hosted by David Bromstad, Myles of Style hosted by Kim Myles, Paint-Over! hosted
by Jennifer Bertrand,The Antonio Treatment hosted by Antonio Ballatore, and finally Secrets from a
Stylist hosted by Emily Henderson. Bravo (US TV channel) also has a variety of shows that explore the
lives of interior designers. These include Flipping Out, which explores the life of Jeff Lewis and his team of
designers; Million Dollar Decorators explores the lives of interior designers Nathan Turner, Jeffrey Alan
Marks, Mary McDonald, Kathryn Ireland, and Martyn Lawrence Bullard.
Interior design has also become the subject of radio shows. In the U.S., popular interior design & lifestyle
shows include "Martha Stewart Living" and "Living Large" featuring Karen Mills. Famous interior designers
whose work is featured on these programs include Bunny Williams, Barbara Barry, and Kathy Ireland,
among others.
Many interior design magazines exist to offer advice regarding color palette, furniture, art, and other
elements that fall under the umbrella of interior design. These magazine often focus on related subjects to
draw a more specific audience. For instance, architecture as a primary aspect of Dwell (magazine),
while Veranda (magazine) is well known as a luxury living magazine. Lonny Magazine and the newly
relaunched, Domino Magazine, cater to a young, hip, metropolitan audience, and emphasize accessibility
and a Do-It-Yourself (DIY) approach to interior design.
Interior design examples
Hotel San Domenico in Taormina
Villa del Balbianello
Apothecary room
Lenno Villa
A salong
Bar in Rotterdam
Balboa Bay Club
Springer- Hochhaus
designer is someone who coordinates and manages such projects. Interior design is a multifaceted profession that
includes conceptual development, communicating with the stakeholders of a project and the management and
execution of the design.
History
In the past, interiors were put together instinctively as a part of the process of building.[2] The profession of interior
design has been a consequence of the development of society and the complex architecture that has resulted from
the development of industrial processes. The pursuit of effective use of space, user well-being and functional design
has contributed to the development of the contemporary interior design profession.[3]
In ancient India, architects used to work as interior designers. This can be seen from the references of Vishwakarma
the architect - one of the gods in Indian mythology. Additionally, the sculptures depicting ancient texts and events are
seen in palaces built in 17th century India.
Throughout the 17th and 18th century, and into the early 19th Century, interior decoration was the concern of the
homemaker or, an employed upholsterer or craftsman who would advise on the artistic style for an interior space.
Architects would also employ craftsmen or artisans to complete interior design for their buildings.
Commercial interior design & management
In the mid- to late-19th century, interior design services expanded greatly, as the middle class in industrial countries
grew in size and prosperity and began to desire the domestic trappings of wealth to cement their new status.
Large furniture firms began to branch out into general interior design and management, offering full house furnishings
in a variety of styles. This business model flourished from the mid-century to 1914, when this role was increasingly
usurped by independent, often amateur, designers. This paved the way for the emergence of the professional interior
design in the mid-20th century.[4]
Illustrated catalog of the James Shoolbred Company, published in 1876.
In the 1850s and 1860s, upholsterers began to expand their business remits. They framed their business more
broadly and in artistic terms and began to advertise their furnishings to the public. To meet the growing demand for
contract interior work on projects such as offices, hotels, and public buildings, these businesses became much larger
and more complex, employing builders, joiners, plasterers, textile designers, artists, and furniture designers, as well
as engineers and technicians to fulfil the job. Firms began to publish and circulate catalogs with prints for different
lavish styles to attract the attention of expanding middle classes.[4]
As department stores increased in number and size, retail spaces within shops were furnished in different styles as
examples for customers. One particularly effective advertising tool was to set up model rooms at national and
international exhibitions in showrooms for the public to see. Some of the pioneering firms in this regard were Waring
& Gillow, James Shoolbred, Mintons and Holland & Sons. These traditional high-quality furniture making firms began
to play an important role as advisers to unsure middle class customers on taste and style, and began taking out
contracts to design and furnish the interiors of many important buildings in Britain.[5]
This type of firm emerged in America after the Civil War. The Herter Brothers, founded by two German emigre
brothers, began as an upholstery warehouse and became one of the first firms of furniture makers and interior
decorators. With their own design office and cabinet-making and upholstery workshops, Herter Brothers were
prepared to accomplish every aspect of interior furnishing including decorative paneling and mantels, wall and ceiling
decoration, patterned floors and carpets and draperies.[6]
Illustration from The Grammar of Ornament (1856), by interior designer Owen Jones.
A pivotal figure in popularizing theories of interior design to the middle class was the architect Owen Jones, one of the
most influential design theorists of the nineteenth century.[7] Jones first project was his most important - in 1851 he
was responsible for not only the decoration of Joseph Paxton’s gigantic Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition, but
also for the arrangement of the exhibits within. He chose a controversial palette of red, yellow and blue for the interior
ironwork and, despite initial negative publicity in the newspapers, was eventually unveiled by Queen Victoria to much
critical acclaim. His most significant work was The Grammar of Ornament (1856),[8] in which Jones formulated 37 key
principles of interior design and decoration.
Jones was employed by some of the leading interior design firms of the day; in the 1860s he worked in collaboration
with the London firm Jackson & Graham to produce furniture and other fittings for high-profile clients including art
collector Alfred Morrison and the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail Pasha.
In 1882 the London Directory of the Post Office listed 80 interior decorators. Some of the most distinguished
companies of the period were Crace, Waring & Gillow and Holland & Sons; famous decorators employed by these
firms, included Thomas Edward Collcutt, Edward William Godwin, Charles Barry, Gottfried Semper and George
Edmund Street.[9]
Transition to professional interior design
This interior was designed by John Dibblee Crace, President of the Institute of British Decorators, established in 1899.
By the turn of the 20th century, amateur advisors and publications were increasingly challenging the monopoly that
the large retail companies had on interior design. English feminist author Mary Haweis wrote a series of widely read
essays in the 1880s in which she derided the eagerness with which aspiring middle-class people furnished their
houses according to the rigid models offered to them by the retailers.[10] She advocated the individual adoption of a
particular style, tailor made to the individual needs and preferences of the customer:
One of my strongest convictions, and one of the first canons of good taste, is that our houses, like the fish’s
shell and the bird’s nest, ought to represent our individual taste and habits.
The move towards decoration as a separate artistic profession unrelated to the manufacturers and retailers,
received an impetus with the 1899 formation of the Institute of British Decorators; with John Dibblee Crace as its
president it represented almost 200 decorators around the country.[11] By 1915, the London Directory listed 127
individuals trading as interior decorators, of which 10 were women. Rhoda and Agnes Garrett were the first
women to train professionally as home decorators in 1874. The importance of their work on design was regarded
at the time as on a par with that of William Morris. In 1876, their work - Suggestions for House Decoration in
Painting, Woodwork and Furniture - spread their ideas on artistic interior design to a wide middle-class audience.
[12]
By 1900, the situation was described by The Illustrated Carpenter and Builder:
Until recently when a man wanted to furnish he would visit all the dealers and select piece by piece of
furniture ....Today he sends for a dealer in art furnishings and fittings who surveys all the rooms in the house
and he brings his artistic mind to bear on the subject.[13]
In America, Candace Wheeler was one of the first woman interior designers and helped encourage a new
style of American design. She was instrumental in the development of art courses for women in a number of
major American cities and was considered a national authority on home decoration. An important influence
on the new profession was The Decoration of Houses, a manual of interior design written by Edith
Wharton with architect Ogden Codman in 1897 in America. In the book, the authors denounced Victorianstyle interior decoration and interior design, especially those rooms that were decorated with heavy window
curtains, Victorian bric-a-brac and overstuffed furniture. They argued that such rooms emphasized
upholstery at the expense of proper space planning and architectural design and were, therefore,
uncomfortable and rarely used.The book is considered a seminal work and its success led to the
emergence of professional decorators working in the manner advocated by its authors, most notably Elsie
de Wolfe.[14]
Elsie de Wolfe, taken from The House in Good Taste, 1913.
Elsie De Wolfe was one of the first female interior designers. Rejecting the Victorian style she grew up with,
she chose a more vibrant scheme, along with more comfortable furniture in the home. Her designs were
light, with fresh colors and delicate Chinoiserie furnishings, as opposed to the Victorian preference of heavy,
red drapes and upholstery, dark wood and intensely patterned wallpapers. Her designs were also more
practical;[15] she eliminated the clutter that occupied the Victorian home, enabling people to entertain more
guests comfortably. In 1905, de Wolfe was commissioned for the interior design of the Colony
Club on Madison Avenue; its interiors garnered her recognition almost over night.[16][17] She compiled her
ideas into her widely read 1913 book, The House in Good Taste.[18]
In England, Syrie Maugham became a legendary interior designer credited with designing the first all-white
room. Starting her career in the early 1910s, her international reputation soon grew; she later expanded her
business to New York and Chicago.[19] Born during the Victorian Era, a time characterized by dark colors and
small spaces, she instead designed rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and
mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white
vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases,
upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of
graduated glass balls, and wreaths.[20]
Expansion
The interior design profession became more established after World War II. From the 1950s onwards
spending on the home increased. Interior design courses were established, requiring the publication of
textbooks and reference sources. Historical accounts of interior designers and firms distinct from the
decorative arts specialists were made available. Organisations to regulate education, qualifications,
standards and practices, etc. were established for the profession.[18]
Interior design was previously seen as playing a secondary role to architecture. It also has many
connections to other design disciplines, involving the work of architects, industrial designers, engineers,
builders, craftsmen, etc. For these reasons the government of interior design standards and qualifications
was often incorporated into other professional organisations that involved design.[18] Organisations such as
the Chartered Society of Designers, established in the UK in 1986, and the American Designers Institute,
founded in 1938, were established as organisations that governed various areas of design.
It was not until later that specific representation for the interior design profession was developed. The US
National Society of Interior Designers was established in 1957, while in the UK the Interior Decorators and
Designers Association was established in 1966. Across Europe, other organisations such as The Finnish
Association of Interior Architects (1949) were being established and in 1994 the International Interior Design
Association was founded.[18]
Ellen Mazur Thomson, author of Origins of Graphic Design in America (1997), determined that professional
status is achieved through education, self-imposed standards and professional gate-keeping organizations.
[18]
Having achieved this, interior design became an accepted profession.
Interior decorators and interior designers
Interior design in a restaurant
An interior designer is a designer who designs interior spaces. The profession of interior design is not
clearly defined and projects undertaken by an interior designer vary widely. Terms such as decorator and
designer are often used interchangeably. However, there is a distinction between the terms that relates to
the scope of work performed, the level of education achieved, and often, professional accreditation as an
interior designer.
Interior designer
Interior Designer implies that there is more of an emphasis on Planning, Functional design and effective use
of space involved in this profession, as compared to interior decorating. An interior designer can undertake
projects that include arranging the basic layout of spaces within a building as well as projects that require
an understanding of technical issues such as acoustics, lighting, temperature, etc.[2] Although an interior
designer may create the layout of a space, they may not alter load-bearing walls without having their
designs stamped for approval by an architect. Interior Designers often work directly with architectural firms.
An interior designer may wish to specialize in a particular type of interior design in order to develop
technical knowledge specific to that area. Types of interior design include residential design, commercial
design, hospitality design, healthcare design, universal design, exhibition design, spatial branding, etc. The
profession of Interior Design is relatively new, constantly evolving, and often confusing to the public. It is an
art form that is consistently changing and evolving. Not only is it an art, but it also relies on research from
many fields to provide a well-trained designer's understanding of how people are influenced by their
environments. NCIDQ, the board for Interior Design qualifications, defines the profession in the best way:
Specialties
The interior of a private residence
An electric wire reel reused like a center table in a Rio de Janeiro decoration fair.
Residential
Residential design is the design of the interior of private residences. As this type design is very specific for
individual situations, the needs and wants of the individual are paramount in this area of interior design. The
interior designer may work on the project from the initial planning stage or may work on the remodelling of
an existing structure. It is often a very involved process that takes months to fine tune and create a space
with the vision of the client.[21] Fine examples of contemporary designers include Kelly Hoppen and David
Collins who in keeping with current trends have both a strong media presence and successful independent
business.
Commercial
Commercial design encompasses a wide range of sub specialties.
Retail: includes malls and shopping centres, department stores, specialty stores, visual merchandising
and showrooms.
Visual and Spatial Branding: The use of space as a media to express the Corporate Brand
Corporate: office design for any kind of business such as banks
Healthcare: the design of hospitals, assisted living facilities, medical offices, dentist offices, psychiatric
facilities, laboratories, medical specialist facilities
Hospitality and Recreation: includes hotels, motels, resorts, cafes, bars, casinos, nightclubs, theatres,
music halls, opera houses, restaurants, gyms, health clubs and spas, etc.
Institutional: government offices, financial institutions (banks and credit unions), schools and
universities, religious facilities, etc.
Industrial facilities: manufacturing and training facilities as well as import and export facilities.[21]
Teaching in a private institute that offer classes of Interior Design
Self-Employment
Employment in private sector firms
Other
Other areas of specialisation include amusement and theme park design, museum and exhibition design,
event design (including ceremonies, parties, conventions and concerts), theatre and performance design,
stage and set design, production design for film and television. Beyond those, interior designers, particularly
those with graduate education, can specialize in healthcare design, gerontological design, educational
facility design, and other areas that require specialized knowledge. Some university programs offer
graduate studies in theses and other areas. For example, both Cornell University and University of Florida
offer interior design graduate programs in environment and behavior studies. Within this at University of
Florida, students may choose a specific focus such as retirement community design (under Dr. Nichole
Campbell) co-housing (Dr. Maruja Torres) or theft prevention by design (Prof. Candy Carmel-Gilfilen)
(Campbell, 2012, Personal Communication).
Profession
Education
Main article: Interior design education
There are various paths that one can take to become a professional interior designer. All of these paths
involve some form of training. Working with a successful professional designer is an informal method of
training and has previously been the most common method of education. In many states, however, this path
alone cannot lead to licensing as a professional interior designer. Training through an institution such as a
college, art or design school or university is a more formal route to professional practice.
A formal education program, particularly one accredited by or developed with a professional organisation of
interior designers, can provide training that meets a minimum standard of excellence and therefore gives a
student an education of a high standard. There are also university graduate and Ph.d. programs available
for those seeking further training in a specific design specialization (I.e. gerontological design or healthcare
design) or those wishing to teach interior design at the university level.
Working conditions
There are a wide range of working conditions and employment opportunities within interior design. Large
and tiny corporations often hire interior designers as employees on regular working hours. Designers for
smaller firms usually work on a contract or per-job basis. Self-employed designers, which make up 26% of
interior designers,[22] usually work the most hours. Interior designers often work under stress to meet
deadlines, stay on budget, and meet clients' needs.
In some cases, licensed professionals review the work and sign it before submitting the design for approval
by clients or construction permisioning. The need for licensed review and signature varies by locality,
relevant legislation, and scope of work. Their work can involve significant travel to visit different locations,
however with technology development, the process of contacting clients and communicating design
alternatives has become easier and requires less travel.[23] They also renovate a space to satisfy the specific
taste for a client.
Styles
Art Deco
Terracotta Art Decosunburst design above front doors of the Eastern Columbia Building in Los Angeles; built 1930.
The Art Deco style began in Europe in the early years of the 20th century, with the waning of Art Nouveau.
The term "Art Deco" was taken from the Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels
Modernes, a world’s fair held in Paris in 1925.[24] Art Deco rejected many traditional classical influences in
favour of more streamlined geometric forms and metallic color. The Art Deco style influenced all areas of
design, especially interior design, because it was the first style of interior decoration to spotlight new
technologies and materials.[25]
Art Deco style is mainly based on geometric shapes, streamlining and clean lines.[26][27] The style offered a
sharp, cool look of mechanized living utterly at odds with anything that came before.[28]
Art Deco rejected traditional materials of decoration and interior design, opting instead to use more unusual
materials such as chrome, glass, stainless steel, shiny fabrics, mirrors,aluminium, lacquer, inlaid
wood, sharkskin, and zebra skin.[25] The use of harder, metallic materials was chosen to celebrate the
machine age. These materials reflected the dawning modern age that was ushered in after the end of
the First World War. The innovative combinations of these materials created contrasts that were very
popular at the time - for example the mixing together of highly polished wood and black lacquer with satin
and furs.[29] The barber shop in the Austin Reed store in London was designed by P. J. Westwood. It was
soon regarded as the trendiest barber shop in Britain due to its use of metallic materials.[28]
The color themes of Art Deco consisted of metallic color, neutral color, bright color and, black and white. In
interior design, cool metallic colors including silver, gold, metallic blue, charcoal grey and platinum tended to
predominate.[26][30] Serge Chermayeff, a Russian-born British designer made extensive use of cool metallic
colors and luxurious surfaces in his room schemes. His 1930 showroom design for a British dressmaking
firm had a silver-grey background and black mirrored-glass wall panels.[28][31]
Black and white was also a very popular color scheme during the 1920s and 1930s. Black and white
checkerboard tiles, floors and wallpapers were very trendy at the time.[32] As the style developed, bright
vibrant colors became popular as well.[33]
Art Deco Furnishings and lighting fixtures had a glossy, luxurious appearance with the use of inlaid wood
and reflective finishes. The furniture pieces often had curved edges, geometric shapes and clean lines.[24]
[28]
Art Deco lighting fixtures tended to make use of stacked geometric patterns.[34]
Arab Materials
“Majlis painting”, also called nagash painting is the decoration of the majlis or front parlor of traditional
Arabic homes in the Asir province of Saudi Arabia and adjoining parts of Yemen These wall paintings,
anarabesque form of mural or fresco, show various geometric designs in bright colors: “Called 'nagash' in
Arabic, the wall paintings were a mark of pride for a woman in her house.” [35]
The geometric designs and heavy lines seem to be adapted from the area’s textile and weaving patterns.
“In contrast with the sobriety of architecture and decoration in the rest of Arabia, exuberant color and
ornamentation characterize those of 'Asir. The painting extends into the house over the walls and doors, up
the staircases, and onto the furniture itself. When a house is being painted, women from the community
help each other finish the job. The building then displays their shared taste and knowledge. Mothers pass
these on to their daughters. This artwork is based on a geometry of straight lines and suggests the patterns
common to textile weaving, with solid bands of different colors. Certain motifs reappear, such as the
triangular mihrab or 'niche' and the palmette. In the past, paint was produced from mineral and
vegetablepigments. Cloves and alfalfa yielded green. Blue came from the indigo plant. Red came
from pomegranates and a certain mud. Paintbrushes were created from the tough hair found in a goat's tail.
Today, however, women use modern manufactured paint to create new looks, which have become an
indicator of social and economic change.”[36]
Women in the Asir province often complete the decoration and painting of the house interior. “You could tell
a family’s wealth by the paintings,” Um Abdullah says: “If they didn’t have much money, the wife could only
paint the motholath,” the basic straight, simple lines, in patterns of three to six repetitions in red, green,
yellow and brown.” When women did not want to paint the walls themselves, they could barter with other
women who would do the work. Several Saudi women have become famous as majlis painters, such
as Fatima Abou Gahas.[35]
The interior walls of the home are brightly painted by the women, who work in defined patterns with lines,
triangles, squares, diagonals and tree-like patterns. “Some of the large triangles represent mountains.
Zigzag lines stand for water and also for lightning. Small triangles, especially when the widest area is at the
top, are found in pre-Islamic representations of female figures. That the small triangles found in the wall
paintings in ‘Asir are called banat may be a cultural remnant of a long-forgotten past.” [35]
"Courtyards and upper pillared porticoes are principal features of the best Nadjdi architecture, in addition to
the fine incised plaster wood (jiss) and painted window shutters, which decorate the reception rooms. Good
examples of plasterwork can often be seen in the gaping ruins of torn-down buildings- the effect is light,
delicate and airy. It is usually around the majlis, around the coffee hearth and along the walls above where
guests sat on rugs, against cushions. Doughty wondered if this "parquetting of jis", this "gypsum fretwork...
all adorning and unenclosed" originated from India. However, the Najd fretwork seems very different from
that seen in the Eastern Province and Oman, which are linked to Indian traditions, and rather resembles
the motifs and patterns found in ancient Mesopotamia. The rosette, the star, the triangle and the stepped
pinnacle pattern of dadoes are all ancient patterns, and can be found all over the Middle East of
antiquity. Al-Qassim Province seems to be the home of this art, and there it is normally worked in hard
white plaster(though what you see is usually begrimed by the smoke of the coffee hearth). In Riyadh,
examples can be seen in unadorned clay."[37]
Japanese materials
Japanese design is based strongly on craftsmanship, beauty, elaboration, and delicacy. The design of
interiors is very simple but made with attention to detail and intricacy. This sense of intricacy and simplicity
in Japanese designs is still valued in modern Japan as it was in traditional Japan.
Japanese interior design is very efficient in the use of resources. Traditional and modern Japanese interiors
have been flexible in use and designed mostly with natural materials. The spaces are used as
multifunctional rooms. The rooms can be opened to create more space for an occasion or more private and
closed-off by pulling closed paper screens called shoji. A large portion of Japanese interior walls are often
made of shoji screens that can be pushed opened to join two rooms together, and then close them allowing
more privacy. The shoji screens are made of paper attached in thin wooden frames that roll away on a track
when they are pushed opened. Another large importance of the shoji screen besides privacy and seclusion
is that they allow light through. This is an important aspect to Japanese design. Paper translucent walls
allow light to be diffused through the space and create light shadows and patterns. Another way to connect
rooms in Japan’s interiors is through Sliding panels made of wood and paper, like the shoji screens, or
cloth. These panels are called Fusuma and are used as an entire wall. They are traditionally hand painted.
[38]
Tatami mats are rice straw floor mats often used as the actual floor in Japan’s interiors; although in modern
Japan, there usually are only one or two tatami rooms. A Tokonoma is often present in traditional, as well as
modern Japanese living rooms. This determines the focus of the room and displays Japanese art; usually a
painting or calligraphy. Interiors are very simple, highlighting minimal and natural decoration. Traditional
Japanese interiors, as well as modern, incorporate mainly natural materials including fine woods, bamboo,
silk, rice straw mats, and paper shoji screens. Natural materials are used to keep simplicity in the space that
connects to nature. Natural color schemes are used and neutral palettes including black, white, off-white,
gray, and brown.[39]
Media popularization
Main article: Interior design magazine
Interior design has become the subject of television shows. In the United Kingdom (UK), popular interior
design and decorating programs include 60 Minute Makeover (ITV), Changing Rooms (BBC) and Selling
Houses (Channel 4). Famous interior designers whose work is featured in these programs include Linda
Barker and Laurence Llewelyn-Bowen. In the United States, the TLC Network aired a popular program
calledTrading Spaces, a show based on the UK program Changing Rooms. In Canada, popular shows
include Divine Design with Candice Olsen and Design Inc., featuring Sarah Richardson. In addition,
both Home & Garden Television (HGTV) and the Discovery Home networks also televise many programs
about interior design and decorating, featuring the works of a variety of interior designers, decorators and
home improvement experts in a myriad of projects.
Fictional interior decorators include the Sugarbaker sisters on Designing Women and Grace Adler on Will &
Grace. There is also another show called Home MADE. There are two teams and two houses and whoever
has the designed and made the worst room, according to the judges, is eliminated. Another show on
the Style Network, hosted by Niecy Nash, is Clean House where they re-do messy homes into themed
rooms that the clients would like. Other shows include Design on a Dime, Designed to Sell and The
Decorating Adventures of Ambrose Price. The show called Design Star has become more popular through
the 5 seasons that have already aired. The winners of this show end up getting their own TV shows, of
which are Color Splash hosted by David Bromstad, Myles of Style hosted by Kim Myles, Paint-Over! hosted
by Jennifer Bertrand,The Antonio Treatment hosted by Antonio Ballatore, and finally Secrets from a
Stylist hosted by Emily Henderson. Bravo (US TV channel) also has a variety of shows that explore the
lives of interior designers. These include Flipping Out, which explores the life of Jeff Lewis and his team of
designers; Million Dollar Decorators explores the lives of interior designers Nathan Turner, Jeffrey Alan
Marks, Mary McDonald, Kathryn Ireland, and Martyn Lawrence Bullard.
Interior design has also become the subject of radio shows. In the U.S., popular interior design & lifestyle
shows include "Martha Stewart Living" and "Living Large" featuring Karen Mills. Famous interior designers
whose work is featured on these programs include Bunny Williams, Barbara Barry, and Kathy Ireland,
among others.
Many interior design magazines exist to offer advice regarding color palette, furniture, art, and other
elements that fall under the umbrella of interior design. These magazine often focus on related subjects to
draw a more specific audience. For instance, architecture as a primary aspect of Dwell (magazine),
while Veranda (magazine) is well known as a luxury living magazine. Lonny Magazine and the newly
relaunched, Domino Magazine, cater to a young, hip, metropolitan audience, and emphasize accessibility
and a Do-It-Yourself (DIY) approach to interior design.
Interior design examples
Hotel San Domenico in Taormina
Villa del Balbianello
Apothecary room
Lenno Villa
A salong
Bar in Rotterdam
Balboa Bay Club
Springer- Hochhaus
