International Relations by Mahagir

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Drafted, compiled and extracted by:

MAHAGIR  [email protected] www.facebook.com/mahagir.e.pakitan www.mahagir.multiply.com

 

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CONTENTS Chapter: 1

 

Introduction:

Chapter: 4

Evolution:

Imperialism, colonialism & neo-colonialism

Scope of International Relations:

 History:

Actors in International Relations:

A. The Economic Motive:

A: Nations

B.  political motives:

B. Leaders of Nations

C. ideological motives:

C. Sub state actors

D. reactive imperialism:

D. Transnational Actors

The effect of imperialism:

Evaluating the Influence of Actors:

Colonialism:

Chapter 2

Types of colonies: A. colonies of settlement B. colonies of exploitation:

The historical development of the state

C. contested settlement colonies:

The state in classical antiquity:

D. other types of colonies:

The modern state

History of colonies:

The state in modern political thought:

A. age of exploration (1450-1700)

Evolution of modern state system:

Spanish colonies

A. Sumerian city state (existed before 2500 B.C)

Portuguese colonies:

B. Greek city states

Dutch colonies:

C. Roman Empire:

English colonies: D. tr trea eaty ty of We West stph phal alia ia (1 (164 648) 8) an and d th thee  acknowledgement of other states;

French colonies: B. European merchant empires (1700-1815): C. imperialism of free trade:

E. Italian mercantile city states: F. Fre French nch rev revolu olutio tion n and dev develo elopme pment nt of   ideas of self determination:

A.

new imperialism (1870-1914): B. mandates and trusts: Motives for colonization:

Chapter 3 Nationalism Concepts of sovereignty:  National interest: History:

A. economic motives: A. religious and strategic motives:  Neocolonialism:

 

3 3. Kashmir issue: 4.  Non interference:

Chapter: 5 Elements of national power 

5. Implementation of UN charter:  promotion of world peace

 National power: Elements of national power: 1. geography: 2. Location: Climate:

6.  promotion of human rights:

Chapter: 8 Diplomacy

Topology: Population: Economic factors:

Chapter: 9 Intter In erna nattio iona nall

law aw::

natu na turre,

oriigi or gin n

and an d 

development

Military preparedness: Government organization:  National character:  National prestige:

Chapter: 10

 National morale: Economic aspects of international relations:

Chapter: 6 Balance of power 

Chapter: 11

Significance to international relations: Bala Ba lanc ncee of po powe werr is a do doct ctrrin inee of  

The

concept

of

war

equilibrium:

international relations:

and

peace

in 

concepts

in 

Historical perspective: Balance of power today: Protection of freedom and sovereignty 1. Better relations with super powers: 2. Cor Cordi dial al rel elat atiion onss wi witth Mu Musl sliim countries:

Chapter: 12   New

phenomenon

international relations

and

 

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Chapter: 1 Introduction: The discip discipli line ne that that studie studiess interac interactio tions ns betwee between n and among among states states and more broadly the workings of the international system as a whole.

BARRY BUZEN

St Stud udyy of the the rela relati tion onss of stat states es with with ea each ch othe otherr an and d with with in inte tern rnat atio iona nal  l  organization organiza tion and certain certain sub national entities entities (e.g. Bureaucracy Bureaucracy and political  political   parties)

International relations is the study and practice of political relationship among the worlds nations especially their interactions between non governmental groups, such as multinational corporations (companies that operate in more red cross or  the united nations (UN).

International relations is a broad and complex topic both for countries engaged in relationships with other nations and for observers trying to understand those int intera eracti ction. on. These These relati relations onship hipss are influe influenced nced by many many variab variables les.. They They are shaped by the primary participants in international relations, including national leader lea ders, s, other other politi politicia cian, n, and nongove nongovernm rnment ental al parti particip cipant antss such such as privat privatee citizens’ corporations and nongovernmental organizations. They are also affected   by domestic domestic political political events and nonpolitic nonpolitical al influence influence including including economics, economics, geography and culture. Despite all of these other influence the primary focus of  international relations is on the interactions between nations.

Evolution: Thee hi Th hist stor ory y of in inte tern rnat atio ional nal rela relati tion onss is of ofte ten n trac traced ed back back to th thee peac peacee of  Westphalia of 1648 where the modern state system was developed. Prior to this the European medieval organization of political authority was based on a vaguely hierarchical religious order. Westphalia instituted the legal concept of sovereignty which essentially meant that rulers or the legitimate sovereigns would recognize no internal equals within a defined territory and no external superiors as the ultimate authority with in the territory sovereign borders. Classical Greek and

 

5 roman authority at times resembled the Westphalian system but both lacks the notion of sovereignty.

Wesstp We tpha hali liaa

enco encour urag aged ed the rise of the in inde depe pend nden entt

na nattion sta tatte

th thee

institutionalization of diplomacy and armies. This particular European system was exported to the Americas, Africa and Asia via colonialism and the standards of  civili civ ilizat zation ion.. The contemp contempora orary ry intern internati ationa onall system system was finall finally y establ establish ished ed through thr ough decolo decoloniz nizati ation on during during the cold cold war. war. However However this come come what over  simplified simpl ified,, while the nation state state system system is considered considered modern modern many states have not incorporated the system and are termed pre modern. Further a handful of  states have moved beyond the nation state system and can be considers post modern. The ability of contemporary IR discourse to explain the relations of these different types of states id disputed. A level of analysis is a way of looking at the international system which includes the individual level the domestic nation state as a unit the international level of transnational and intergovernmental affairs and the global level.

IR theory however has a long tradition of drawing on the work of other social sciences. The use of capitalizations of the I and r in international relations aims to distinguish disti nguish the academic academic discipline discipline of internation international al relations relations aims to distingui distinguish sh th thee acade academi micc di disc scip ipli line ne of in inte tern rnat atio iona nall rela relati tions ons from from th thee pheno phenome mena na of  international relations. Many cite Thucydides history of Peloponnesian war as the inspiration for realist theory with Hobbes Lwviarhan and Machiavelli’s the prince  providing further elaboration. Similarly liberalism draws upon the work of Kant and Rousseau with the work of the former often being cited as the first elaboration of democratic democratic peace theory. theory. Though contemporary contemporary human rights rights is considerably considerably differ dif ferent ent than than the type type of rights rights envisi envisione oned d under under natura naturall law Franci Francisco sco de Vitori Vit oriahug ahugo o Groti Grotius us and john john Locke Locke offere offered d the fi first rst account accountss of univer universal sal entitlement to certain rights on the basis of common humanity. In the twentieth century in addition to contemporary theories of liberal internationalism Marxism has been a foundation of international relations.

Scope of international relations:

International relations is a branch of political science. It represents the study of  foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system includ inc luding ing the roles roles of states states inter inter governm government ental al organi organizat zation ionss (IGOs) (IGOs) non governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational corporations (MNCs). It is  both an academic academic and public public policy policy field and can be either either positive or normative normative as it both seeks to analyze as well as formulate the foreign policy of particular 

 

6 states. It can be conceived of either as a multidisciplinary field gathering together  the international aspects of politics economics, history, law and sociology or as a meta discipline discipline , focusing focusing on the systematic systematic structures structures and pattern of interaction interaction of the human species taken as a whole.

Apart from political science, IR draws upon such diverse fields as economics, history, histo ry, law, philosophy, philosophy, geography, geography, sociology, sociology, anthropolog anthropology, y, psychology psychology and cultural studies. It involves a diverse range of issues from globalization and its impactss on societies impact societies and state state sovereignty sovereignty to ecological ecological sustainabi sustainability lity nuclear    proliferat proliferation, ion, nationalis nationalism, m, economic economic development development terrorism terrorism.. Organized Organized crime, crime, human security, and human rights. The scope scope of intern internati ational onal rel relati ations ons has greatl greatly y expande expanded d in modern modern ti times mes.. Initially international relations were concerned only with the study of diplomatic history. It concentrated on the study of contemporary foreign affairs with a view to draw certain lessons. Later on emphasis began to be laid on the study of  int intern ernati ational onal law and intern internati ational onal relati relations ons began began to be studie studied d with with in the framework of international law. The field of the study of international relations was further widened with the establishment of the League of Nations after the First World War and the study of international organizations and institutions was also included with in its purview.

The scope of international relations in the post world war II period got further  widened dir to significant changes which tool place viz the emergence of USA and USSR as the superpowers; the of a large number of non European states in to th thee so soci ciet ety y of na nattion onss the da dang nger er of th ther ermo mo nu nucl clea earr war war in incr crea easi sing ng interdependence of states and rising expectations of people in the under developed world etc. greater emphasis began to be placed on scientific study of international relations, which led to development of new methodologies and introduction of  new theories in the study of international relations.

Actors in international relations:

Thee parti Th partici cipa pant ntss in in inte tern rnat atio ional nal rela relati tion onss of ofte ten n call called ed actor actorss ha have ve a grea greatt influence of the relationships between nations and on world affairs. The major   participants include the nations themselves, the leaders of those nations, sub state actors act ors (organ (organiza izatio tions ns operat operating ing in more more than than one countr country) y) and intern internati ational onal organizations.

A: nations

 

7 The nations themselves are the most important actors in international relations. A nation is territory with a defined border and a government that answers to no higher authority than its own. All or part of the population shares a group identity, often based on a combination of common ancestry, language or culture. In 1997 there were 186 recognized nations in the world. There also are a number of   political entities sometime thought of as nations. These include territories that function independently, such as Taiwan which is officially considered a province of china; colonies such as Martinique and nations that are not yet recognized such as Palestine. Also included in this list is Vatican City which does not fit into any of these categories.

 Nations vary in size and power from the United States with a $7 trillion economy and china with more than I1 billion people to nations with fewer the 100,000   people people,, such such as Andorra Andorra and Greenl Greenland. and. Size and power power are two impor importan tantt variab var iables les in determ determini ining ng a nation nation’s ’s rel relati ations onship hipss with with other other countr countries ies and its influence in international affairs. The handful of the most powerful nations that control cont rol most most of the worlds worlds militar military y and economi economics cs str strengt ength h are called called great great   powers powers.. The great great powers powers includ includee the United United States States,, Great Great Britai Britain, n, Russia Russia (formerly the Soviet Union) France, china, Germany and Japan. These powers are the most important actors in international relations.

B. leaders of nations

The most important individual actor with in a nation is the top leader of that country. The top leader is the person who example the top leader in great Britain is the prime minister who is the head of government and has the most political  power even though the king or queen of that country is considered the head of  state. The top leader I the United States is the president.

C. Su Sub b st state ate ac acto tors rs

Besides the top leader o f a nation, there are other groups and individuals within that nation that influence its international relationships. These domestic actors, called sub state actors including particular industries with distinct interests in fo fore reig ign n poli policy cy (suc (such h as th thee au auto tomo mobi bile le or to toba bacc cco o in indu dust stry ry)) an and d et ethn hnic ic constituencies with ties to foreign countries, as well as labor unions, cities and regions. All of these actors may be affected by international events differently from each other or the country where they operate. These groups can influence a nation’s foreign policy in several ways such as by lobbying political leaders,

 

8 donating money to political candidates or parties, or swaying public opinion on certain issues.

D. Transnational actors Organizations operating in more than one country are known as transnational actors. They often have specific interests in international issues that differ from those of any nation. Transnational actors include multinational corporations. They also include non governmental organization (NGOs) such as Planned Parenthood and the Roman Catholic Church, which promotes their interests with particular  nations that support their interests and come into conflict with those that show lack lac k of suppor support. t. Interg Intergove overnm rnment ental al organi organizati zations ons (IGOs) (IGOs) are groups groups whose whose members are national governments. Examples of intergovernmental organizations include the European Union (EU) and the Intel sat satellite consortium. They are usually usuall y created created to promote promote cooperation cooperation between different nations on a particular  particular  issue or in a particular geographic region. Nongovernmental organizations and intergovernmental organizations together are called international organizations.

Evaluating the influence of actors: Schol Sch olar arss of in inte tern rnat atio iona nall rela relati tion onss hav havee di divi vide ded d th thee vari variou ouss in infl flue uence ncess in international events in to different categories of levels of analysis. There are three widely widel y used levels of analysis: analysis: (1) individual actors (2) domestic domestic influences influences and (3) int inters erstat tatee influe influence nces. s. Some Some schola scholars rs also also study study a fourth fourth level level of analysi analysis, s, global influences. In the individual level of analysis scholars study the concerns perceptions and choices of the individual people involved great leaders, crazy leaders, activists or  individual citizens. For example if the assassin of Archduke Francis Ferdinand in 1914 had bungled the job World War 1 might not have broken out when it did. In the domestic level of analysis scholars look at how international relations is influe inf luence nced d by domest domestic ic actors actors,, includ including ing specia speciall intere interest st groups groups , politi political cal organizations and government agencies. Scholars study how different kinds of  societies and governments behave, such democracies versus dictatorships, they also look at the politics of ethnic conflict and nationalism, both of which can lead to international conflict and war. The domestic level of analysis is also called the state of societal level. In the interstate level of analysis, scholars focus on the interactions of states themselves, thems elves, without regard to their internal internal makeup or the particular particular individuals individuals who lead them. For realists this is the most important level because it looks at how a nation relative power compared with other nations affects its behavior. The interstate level of analysis is also called the international or systemic level of  analysis.

 

9 Some scholars also look at the global level of analysis. In this analysis scholars study how global tends and forces, such as technological change and the global environment enviro nment,, affect affect internatio international nal relation. relation. They also study how the lingering lingering affects of colonialism influence international relations.

 

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Chapter 2 State

State is generally a group of people inhabiting a specific territory and living according to a common legal and political authority; a body politic or nation. In this definition the term state includes government; in another usage the two terms are synonyms. A state is a political association with effective sovereignty over a geographic area. These may be nation states sub national states or multinational states. A state usually includes the set of institutions that claim the authority to make the rules that govern the exercise of coercive violence for the people of the society in that territory though its status as state often depends in part on being recognized by a number of other states as having internal and external sovereignty over it. In sociology the state is normally identified with these institutions in max Weber Web er influe influenti ntial al defini definiti tion on it is that that organi organizat zation ion that that succes successfu sfully lly claims claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force with in a given territory which may include the armed forces civil service or state bureaucracy courts and police. Usage; although the term often includes broadly all institutions of government or  rule ancient and modern the modern state system bears a number if characteristics that were first first in western western Europe beginning beginning in earnest earnest in the 15 th century when the term state also acquired its current meaning. Thus the word is often used in a strict sense to refer only to modern political systems. Within a federal system the term term sta state te also also refers refers to polit politica icall units units not comple completel tely y sovere sovereign ign themse themselve lvess

 

11 however these systems are subject to the authority of a constitution defining a federal union which is partially or co sovereign with them. Thus we find the states and territories of Australia and the states in the United States of America. In casual usage the terms country nation and state are often used as if they were synonymous but in a more strict usage they can be distinguished; 1,

country den eno otes a ge geogr ographi phical area.

2,

nation denotes a peopl plee who are believed to or dee deemed to share the

adjectives national and international also refer to matters pertaining to what are strictly states as in national capital international law. 3,

st stat atee refer referss to the the set set of gove govern rnin ing g insti institu tuti tion on that that has has sov sover erei eign gnty ty ove overr a

definite territory and population.

 The historical development of the state:

The earliest forms of the state emerged whenever it became possible to centralize   powe powerr in a dura durabl blee way. way. Agri Agricul cultu ture re and and wr writ itin ing g are are al almo most st ever every y wher wheree associated with this process. This in turn allowed and encouraged the emergence of a class of people who controlled and protected the agricultural stores and thus did not have to spend most of their time providing for their own subsistence. Some political philosophers believe the origins of the state lie ultimately in the tribal culture which developed with human sentence the template for which was the alleged primal alpha male micro societies of our earlier ancestors which were  based on the coercion of the weak by the strong. However anthropologists point out th that at exten extentt band band an and d tr trib ibee le leve vell soci societ etie iess are are notab notable le fo forr th thei eirr la lack ck of  centralized authority and that highly stratified societies i.e. states constitute a relatively recent break with the course of human history. The state in classical antiquity: The history of the state in the west usually begins with classical antiquity. During that period the state took a variety of forms none of them very much like the modern state. There were monarchies whose power (like that of the Egyptian  pharaoh) was based on the religious function of the king and his control of a centralized army. There were also large quasi bureaucratized empires like the Roman Empire which depended less on the religious function of the rule and more mo re in ef effe fect ctiv ivee mi mili lita tary ry and and le legal gal orga organi niza zati tion onss and and th thee cohes cohesio ion n of an aristocracy. Perhaps the most important political innovations of classical antiquity came from the Greek city states and the roman republic. The Greek city states before the 4 th century granted citizenship rights were combined with a directly democratic form of government that was to have a long afterlife in political though and history.

 

12 In contrast Rome developed from a monarchy in to a republic governed by senate dominated by the roman aristocracy. The roman political system contributed to the develop developmen mentt of law constit constituti utional onalism ism and to the distin distincti ction on between between the  private and the public spheres. Fr From om th thee fe feud udal al st stat atee to th thee mode modern rn st stat atee in th thee west west.. The The st stor ory y of th thee development of the specifically modern state is the west typically begins with the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. This led to the fragmentation of the imperial state in to the hands of private and decentralized lords whose political,  judicial and military production. In these conditions according to Marxists the economic unit of society corresponded exactly ex actly to the state on the local level. The state state syste system m of Europe Europe was an unstab unstable le configu configurat ration ion of suzera suzerains ins and anointed kings. A monarch formally at the head of a hierarchy of sovereigns was not an absolute power who could rule at will; instead relations between lords and monarch were mediated by varying degree of mutual dependence which was ensured by the absence of a centralized system of taxation. This reality ensured that each ruler needed to obtain the consent consent of each estate in the realm. This was not quite a state in the Weberian sense of the term since the king did not monopolize either the power of lawmaking (which was shared with the church) or  the means of violence (which were shared with the nobles). The formalization of the struggles over taxation between the monarch and other  elements of society (especially the nobility and the cities) gave rise to what is now called the Standestaat, or the state of estates characterized by parliaments in which key social groups negotiated with the king about legal and economic matters. These estates of the parliaments but sometimes lost out in their struggles with wit h the monarc monarch h leadin leading g to greate greaterr centra centraliz lizati ation on lawmak lawmaking ing and coerciv coercivee (c (chi hief efly ly mi mili lita tary ry)) power power in hi hiss hands hands.. Begi Beginn nnin ing g in th thee 15th centur century, y, this centralizing process gave rise to the absolutist ab solutist state.

 The modern state: The rise of the modern state as a public power constituti constituting ng the supreme political political author aut hority ity with in a define defined d territ territory ory is a define defined d territ territory ory is associ associate ated d with with Western Europe gradual institutional development beginning in earnest in the late 15th century culminating in the rise of absolutism and capitalism. As Europe dynastic states England under the Tudors, Spain under the Hapsburgs and France under the bourbons embarked on a variety of programs designed to increase centralized political and economic control, they increasingly exhibited many man y of the instit instituti utiona onall featur features es power power involv involved ed the deline delineati ation on of politi political cal  boundaries as European monarchs gradually defeated or co-opted other place of  the fragmented system of feudal rule with its often indistinct territorial claims large unitary states with extensive control over definite territories emerged. This

 

13  process gave rise to the highly centralized and increasingly bureaucratic forms of  absolu abs olute te monarc monarchic hical al rule rule of the 17th and 18th cent centuri uries, es, when the princi principal pal features of the contemporary state system took form including the introduction of  a standing army a central taxation system, diplomatic relations with permanent embassies and the development of state economic policy mercantilism. Cultur Cul tural al and nation national al homogen homogeniza izatio tion n figure figured d promin prominent ently ly in the rise rise of the modern mod ern state state syste system. m. Since Since the absolu absoluti tist st period period,, stated stated have have largel largely y been been organized on a national basis. The concept of a national state however is not synonymous with nation state. Even in the most ethnically homogeneous societies there is not always a complete correspondence between state and nation hence the active role often taken by the state to promote nationalism through emphasis on shared symbols and national identity. It is in this period that the term the state is first introduced into political discourse in more more or less less its current current meanin meaning. g. Althoug Although h Niccol Niccolo o Machia Machiavel velli li id often often credited with first using the term to refer to a territorial sovereign government in the modern sense in the prince published in 1532m it is nit until the time of the British thinkers Thomas Hobbes and john Locke and the French thinkers jean Bodin that the concept in its current meaning is fully developed. Today most western states more or less fit the influential definition of the state in max Weber’ Weber’ss politi politics cs as a vocati vocation. on. Accord According ing to Weber Weber the modern state monopolizes the means of legitimate physical violence over a definite territory or  their legitimacy may not be adequately described a rational legal. But they are still re reco cogni gnize zed d di dist stin inct ct fr from om fe feuda udall and and abso absolu luti tist st st stat ates es in th thee exte extent nt of th thei eir  r   bureaucratization and their reliance on nationalism as a Principe of legitimating. Since Weber an extensive literature on the processes by which the modern state emerged emerge d from the feudal state has been generated. Marxist scholars scholars for example assert that in the formation of modern states can be explained primarily in terms of the interests and struggles of social classes. Schol Sch olar arss work workin ing g in th thee broad broad Weber Weberia ian n trad tradit itio ion n by co cont ntra rast st have have of ofte ten n emphasized the institution building effects of war. For example Charles Tilly has ar argu gued ed th that at th thee reve revenue nue gath gather erin ing g im impe pera rati tives ves fo forc rced ed on nasce nascent nt st stat ates es by geopolitical competition and constant warfare were mostly responsible for the development of the centralized territorial bureaucracies that characterize modern states sta tes in Europe Europe.. States States that that were were able able to develo develop p centra centrali lized zed tax gather gathering ing  bureaucracies and to field mass armies survived into the modern era; states that were not able to do so did not.

 The state in modern political thought:

 

14 The rise of the modern state system was closely related to changes in political thought,, especially thought especially concerning the changin changing g understandi understanding ng of legitimate legitimate state  power. Early modern defenders of absolutism such as Thomas Hobbes and jean Bodin undermined the doctrine of the divine right of kings by arguing that the  power of kings should be justified by reference to the people. Hobbes in particular  went further and argued that political power should be justified with reference to the individual not just to the people understood collectively. Both Hobbes and Bodin thought they were defending the power of kings, not advocating democracy  but their argument about the nature of sovereignty were fiercely resisted by more traditional England who thought that such defenses ultimately opened the way to more democratic claims. These and other early thinkers introduced two important concepts in order to  justify sovereign power the idea of a state of nature and the idea of social contract. The first concept describes an imagined situation in which the state understood as a centralized coercive power does not exist and human beings have all their  natural rights and powers the second describes the conditions under which a voluntary agreement could take human beings out of the state of nature and into a state of civil society. Depending on what they understood human nature to be ad the natural rights they thought human beings had in that state, various writers were able to justify more or less extensive forms of the state as a remedy for the  problems of the state of nature. Thus for example Hobbes who described the state of nature as a war of every man against every man argued that sovereign power  should be almost absolute since that sovereign power should be almost absolute since almost all sovereign powers would be better than such a war whereas john Locke who understood the state of nature in more positive terms, thought that state power should be strictly limit limited. ed. Both of them nevertheless nevertheless understood understood the  powers of the state to be limited by what rational individuals would agree to in a hypothetical or actual social contract. The idea of the social social contract contract lent itself itself to more democratic democratic interpretation interpretationss than Hobbes or Locke would have wanted. Jean Jacques Rousseau for example argued that the only valid social contract would be one were individuals would be subject to laws that only themselves had made and assented to as in a small direct democracy. Today the tradition of social contract reasoning is alive in the work of   john Rawals and his intellectual heirs though I n a very abstract form. Rawls argued that rational individuals would only agree to social institutions specifying a set of inviolable basic liberties and a certain amount of redistribution to alleviate inequalities for the benefit of the worst off. Lockean state of nature reasoning by contr con tras astt is more more comm common on in th thee li libe bert rtar aria ian n tradi traditi tion on of poli politi tical cal th thou ought ght represented by the work of Robert Nozick. Nozick argued that given the natural rights that human beings would Havei in a state of nature the only state that could

 

15  be justified would be a minimal state whose sole functions would be to provide  protection and enclose agreements. Some contemporary thinkers such as Michel Foucault have argued that political theory needs to get away from the notion of the state we need to cut off the kings’ head. We need to cut off the king’s head. In political theory that has still to be done done.. By th this is he mean meantt th that at powe powerr in th thee mode modern rn wo worl rld d is much much more more decentralized and uses different instruments than power in the early modern era so that the notion of a sovereign centralized state is increasingly out of date.

Evolution of modern state system: The evolution of modern state system can be described in following stages.

A. Sumerian city state (existed before 2500 B.C)

The earliest known people of the Fertile Crescent were the Sumerians. About 4000 B.C they lived in southern Mesopotamia in a number of independent city states. Each consisted of a small city and its surrounding area. The rulers of these city states constantly warred with one another. Sumerian cities were often rectangular in shape surrounded by high wide walls. Inside the city gates were broad avenues used for religious processions or victory  parades. Trade brought riches to cities. Traders sailed along the rivers or risked the dangers of desert travel to carry goods to distant regions. Archaeologists have found goods from as far away as Egypt and India in the rubble of Sumerian cities. Summer included many independent city states. Rival cities often battled for  control cont rol of land land and water. water. For protecti protection, on, people people turned turned to courageo courageous us and resourceful war leaders. Over time these war leaders evolved into hereditary rulers. In each city states the ruler was responsible for maintaining the city walls and the irrigation systems. He led armies in war and enforced the laws. As government grew more complex he employed scribes to carry out functions such as collection taxes and keeping records. The ruler also had religious duties. He was seen as the chief servant of the gods and led ceremonies designed to please them. Each Sumerian city state had a distinct social hierarchy or system of ranks. The highest class included the ruling family leading officials and high priests. A small middle class was made up of merchants’ artisans and lesser priests and scribes. Like mist ancient peoples the Sumerians were polytheistic worshipping many gods.

B. Gr Greek eek cit city ys stat tates es

 

16

Initially many Greek city states seem to have been petty kingdoms there was often a city official’s carrying some residual ceremonial functions of the king (basileus) e.g. the archon Basileus in Athens. However by the archaic period and the first historical consciousness most had already become aristocratic oligarchies. It is unclear exactly how this change occurred. For instance in Athens the kingship had  been reduced to a hereditary life long chief magistracy archon by 1050 BC; by 753 BC this had become a decennial elected archonship and finally by 683 BC an annua ann uall lly y el elec ecte ted d ar arch chons onshi hip; p; and fi fina nall lly y by 683 683 BC an annua annuall lly y el elec ecte ted d archonship. Through each stage more power would have been transferred to the ar aris isto tocr crac acy y as a whol wholee an and d away away from from a si singl nglee in indi divi vidu dual al.. Inev Inevit itab ably ly th thee domination of politics and concomitant aggregation of wealth by small groups of  families was apt to cause social unrest in many poleis. In many cities a tyrant not in the modern modern sense of repressiv repressivee autocracies autocracies,, would at some point seize control and govern according to their own will often a populist agenda would help sustain government by a strongman was often the best solution. Athens fell under a tyranny in the second half of the 6 th century. When this tyranny was ended as a radical solution to prevent the aristocracy regaining power  the Atheni Athenians ans founded founded the world’ world’ss fi first rst democr democracy acy.. A citize citizen’s n’s assemb assembly ly the ecclesia for the discussion of city policy had existed since the reforms of draco in 621 BC; all citizens were permitted to attend after the reforms of solon early 6 th century but the poorest citizens could not address the assembly or run for office. With Wit h the establ establish ishmen mentt of the democr democracy acy the assemb assembly ly became became the de juru juru mechanism of government all citizens now had equal privileges in the foreigners living in Athens or slaves had no political rights at all. After the rise of the democracy in Athens other city states founded democracies. However many retained more traditional forms of government. As so often in other matters, Sparta was a notable exception to the rest of Greece ruled through the whole period by not one but two hereditary monarchs. This was a form of  diar diarchy chy.. The The ki king ngss of Sp Spar arta ta be belo longe nged d to th thee ag agia iads ds and and th thee eury eurypo pont ntid idss descendants respectively of eurysthenes and proclus. Both dynasty founders ere  believed to be twin sons of aristodemus a Heracles ruler. However the powers of  these kings ere trammeled by both council of elders the gerousia and magistrates specifically appointed to watch over the kings the ephods.

C. Ro Roma man n Em Empi pire re::

The Roman Empire is the phase of the ancient roman civilization characterized by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and the Mediterranean. Usually Roman Empire is the term used to describe the roman

 

17 state after the establishment of rule by emperors but is sometimes in non specialist contextss used more generally context generally to refer to the expansionary expansionary roman state state both after  and before the time of the first emperor, Augusts. The 500 years old roman re repu publ blic ic (509 (509 BC 1st cent century ury BC) which which preced precedes es it concept conceptual ually ly had been been weakened by the civil wars of the late republic. Several dates are commonly proposed to mark the transition from republic to empire including the date of Julius Caesar’s appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC) the victory of Caesar’s heir Octavian at the battle of actium (September 2,31 BC) and the roman senate’s granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus. (January 16, 27 BC). The Latin term imperium romanun Roman Empire probably the best known Latin expression where the word imperium denotes a territory indicates the part of the world under roman rule. Roman expansion began in the days of the republic but reache rea ched d its zenith zenith under under Empero Emperorr Trojan Trojan.. At this this territ territori orial al peak the Roman Roman Empire Emp ire contro controlle lled d approxi approximat mately ely 5,900,00 5,900,000 0 km2 (2,300, (2,300,000 000 sq. mi) of land land surface. Because of the empire vast extant and long endurance. Roman influence upon the language religion architecture philosophy law and government of nation around the world lasts to this day. In the late 3rd century ad Diocletian established the practice of dividing authority  between two emperors one in the western part of the empire and one in the east in order to better administer the vast territory. For the next century this practice continu cont inued ed with with occasi occasional onal period periodss in which which one empero emperorr ass assume umed d comple complete te control. However after the death of Theodosius I in 395, the teo halves ere   perman permanent ently ly divide divided. d. The Wester Western n Roman Roman Empire Empire collap collapsed sed in the late late fifth fifth centu cen tury ry as it itss te terr rrit itor ory y was was seiz seized ed by Germ German anic ic trib tribes es.. The The east east roma roman n of  Byzantine Empire endured until 1453 with the capture of Constantinople by the ottoman Turks. Therefore it is difficult to give an exact date when the Roman Empire ceased to exist but this permanent division In 395 ad.

 

D. tr treat eaty y of Wes Westph tphali alia a (16 (1648 48)) and the ack acknow nowled ledgem gement ent of  other states;

The term peace of Westphalia refer to the two peace treaties of Osnabruck and Munster signed on may 15 and October 24 of 1648 respectively which ended both the thirty years war in Germany and the eighty years war between Spain and the   Neth Nether erla lands nds.. The The tr trea eati ties es in invo volv lved ed th thee holy holy roma roman n emper emperor or Fe Ferd rdin inan and d III III

 

18 (Hapsburg) the kingdoms of Spain France and Sweden the Dutch republic and their respective allies among the princes of the Holy Roman Empire. The peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern diplomatic congress and in init itia iate ted d a ne new w order order in cent centra rall Euro Europe pe base based d on th thee conce concept pt of na nati tion onal al sovereignty. Until 1806 the regulation became part of the constitutional laws of  the Holy Roman Empire. The treaty of the Pyrenees signed in 1659 ended the war   between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord.

E. Itali Italian an m mercan ercantile tile city state states: s:

Thee It Th Ital alia ian n ci city ty st stat ates es were were a rema remark rkab able le polit politic ical al pheno phenome meno non n of smal smalll in inde depen pende dent nt st stat ates es in th thee nort northe hern rn Ital Italia ian n penin peninsu sula la betw betwee een n th thee te tent nth h and and fifteenth centuries. After the fall Roman Empire there was a strong continuity of  urban awareness in northern Italy which had virtually disappeared in the rest of  Europe. Some cities and their urban institutions had survived in Italy since the cark ages. Many of these towns were survivors of earlier Etruscan and roman towns which had existed with in the Roman Empire. The republican institutions of Rome had also survived. Some feudal lords existed with a servile labor force and huge tract of land but by 11th century many cities including Venice Milan Floren Flo rence ce and Genoa Genoa had become become large large tradin trading g metrop metropoli olises ses able able to conquer  conquer  independence from their formal sovereigns. In fact Italy between 12th an 13th centuries was vastly different from feudal Europe north of the Alps. The peninsula was a mélange of political and cultural elements rather than a unified state. Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel have argued the geography determined the history of the region. With in the Italian peninsula there is great physical diversity. Italy is cut into numerous small regions very difficult. The po plain however was an exception o teas the only large contiguous area and most city states which fell to invasion were located there. Those that survived longest were in the more rugged regions, such as Florence or Venice defended by her lagoon. Because an attack across the Alps was very difficult, German prince lings could not exert sustained control over their Italian vassal states and thus ital yeas substantially freed of German political interference. So no strong monarchies emerged as they did in the rest of Europe; instead there emerged the independent city states. While Whi le those those roman roman urban urban republ republica ican n sensib sensibili ilitie tiess persis persisted ted there there were were many many movements and changes afoot.

Italy first first felt the changes in Europe from the 11 th to the 13th centuries. Typically there was:

 

19 !.

A rise in population the population doubled in this period. (the demographic explosion)

2.

An eme emerg rgen ence ce of hug hugee citi cities es (in (in Ita Italy ly wer weree Veni Venice ce,, Flor Floren ence ce and and Mila Milan n with with over  over  100,000 inhabitants inhabitants by 13th century bur many others surpassed 50,000 as Genoa  bologna Verona).

3.

The rebuilding of the great cathedrals.

4.

Substantial mi migration fr from co country to to ci city in in It Italy th the ra rate of of urbanization reached 20% the most urbanized society in the world at that time.

5.

an agrarian revolution

6.

The development of commerce.

It is estimated that the per capita income of northern Italy nearly tripled from the 11th cent centur ury y to th thee 15th cent century ury.. This This was a highly highly mobil mobile, e, demogr demographi aphical cally ly expanding society, fueled by rapidly expanding renaissance commerce. By the 13th century northern & central Italy had become the most literate society in the world. More then one third of male population could read in the vernacular an unprecedented rate since the decline of the roman empire as could a small bur  significant proportion of women. During the 11th century in northern Italy a new political and social structure emerged the city state or commune. The civic culture which arose from this Arabs was remarkable. In mist places where communes arose e.g. Britain and Flanders they were absorbed by the monarchical state as it emerged. Almost uniquely they survived in northern and central Italy to become independent and powerful city-states. The break way from their feudal overlords by these communes occurred in the late 12 th century and 13th century during the investiture controversy between the pope and the emperor  Milan led the Lombard cities against the holy roman emperors and defeated them gaining independence barrels of legnano 1176 and Parma 1248 see Lombard league. Meanwhile Venice and Genoa were able to conquer their naval empires on the Mediterranean Sea. By the late 12th century a new and unique society had emerged rich mobile expanding with a mixed aristocracy interested in urban institutions and republican government. But many city states housed also a violent society based on family confraternity and brotherhood who mined their cohesion. By 1300 most of these these republ republics ics had become become prince princely ly states states domina dominated ted by signore. The exceptions ere Venice Florence Laucca and a few others which remained republics in the face of an increasingly monarchic Europe. During 14th century and 15th century the most powerful of these cities Milan Venice Florence were able to conquer 1454 peace of Lodi ended their struggle for  the hegemony in Italy and started the policy of balance of power.

 

20 At the beginning of 16 th century apart some minor city states like San Marino only Venic Ven icee was was able able to pres preser erve ve her her in indep depen ende dence nce and and to matc match h th thee Euro Europe pean an monarchies of France and Spain and the Ottoman Empire.

F. French revolution and development of ideas of se sellf  determination:

Justt as coloni Jus colonizat zation ion and coloni coloniali alism sm have have been been practi practiced ced through throughout out human human history political self determination has been cherished by people through history the ancient Mesopotamian and later Greek city states being early examples. Self determination is defined as free choice of one’s own acts without external compulsion and especially as the freedom of the people of a given territory to determined their own political status or independence from their current state. The latter is a complex concept with confliction definitions and legal determining which groups may legitimately claim the right to self determination. The revolt of the British colonists in North America has been defined as the first assertion of the right of national and democratic self determination because of the explicit invocation of natural law the natural rights of man and consent of and sovereignty by the people ideas inspired particularly by john Locke’s writings. Thomas Jefferson further promoted the notion that the will of the people was supreme especially through authorship of the declaration of independence which inspired Europeans throughout the 19th century. The French revolution also was motivated by and legitimatized ideas of self determination. Duri Du ring ng th thee earl early y 1800 1800ss most most of th thee nati nation onss of So Sout uth h Amer Americ icaa achi achiev eved ed indepen ind ependen dence ce from from Spain. Spain. The Ameri American can public public organi organized zed groups groups and even even congressional resolutions often supported such movements especially the Greek  war of independence (1821-29) and the demands of Hungarian revolutionaries in 1848 however such support never became official government policy. After the American civil war the United States government opposed self determination for  the West Indian islands of St. Thomas and St. John in 1868 the Hawaiian island in 1868. By the conclusion of the Spanish American war in 1899 the United States supported its annexation without the consent of the peoples the former Spanish colonies of Guam Puerto Rico and the Philippines; it retained “Quasisuzerainty” over Cuba. However since the early 1990s the legitimatization of the principle of national self  determination has led to an increase in the number of conflicts with in states as subgroups seek greater self determination and even full secession and as their  confl con flic ictt fo forr le lead ader ersh ship ip wi with th in group groupss and wi with th ot othe herr grou groups ps an and d wi with th th thee domin dom inan antt st stat atee becom becomee vi viol olen ent. t. The The in inte tern rnat atio iona nall reac reacti tion on to th thes esee new new movements has been uneven and often dictated more by politics than principle.

 

21 The year 2000 United Nations millennium declaration failed to deal with these new demands mentioning only the right to self determination of peoples which remain under colonial domination and foreign occupation.

 

22

Chapter 3 Nationalism

It is a term referring to a doctrine or political movement that holds a nation usually defined in terms of ethnicity or culture has the right to constitute an independent indepen dent and autonomous autonomous political community community based on a shared shared history history and common com mon destin destiny. y. Most Most nation nationali alist stss believ believee the border border of the state state should should be congruent with the borders of the nation (a nation state).  Nationalist efforts such as those propagated by fascist movements in the twentieth century centur y held the nationalis nationalistt concept that nationality nationality is the most important important aspect of ones identity while some of them have attempted to define the nation in terms of race or genetics. Some contemporary nationalist reject the racist chauvinism of  these groups and remain confident that national identity supersedes biological attachments to an ethnic group.   Nationalism has had an enormous influence on modern history in which the nation state has become the preferred form of societal organization however by no means universal. Historian uses the term nationalism to refer to this historical transi tra nsitio tion n and to the emerge emergence nce and predom predomina inance nce of nation nationali alist st ideolo ideology. gy.  Nationalism is closely associated with patriotism. Principles:  Nationalism is a form universalism when it makes universal claims about how the world wor ld should should be organi organized zed but it is parti particul culari aristi sticc with with regard regard to indivi individua duall nations. The combination of both is characteristic for the ideology for instance in these assertions:

 

23 1. In a nation nation state state the language language of of the nation nation should should be the officia officiall language language and all citizens should speak it and not a foreign language. 2. The offic official ial langua language ge of the United United Kingdom Kingdom should should be English English and all all British citizens should speak it.   The universalistic principle bring nationalism into conflict with competing forms of universalism the particularistic principle bring specific nationalist movements into conflict with rival nationalism for instance the Danish German tensions over  their reciprocal linguistic minorities. The starting point of nationalism is the existence of nations which it takes as a given. Nations are typically seen as a nation can be created artificially. Nationalist movements see themselves as the representative of an existing nationalism imply the reverse order that the nationalist movements created the sense of national identity and then a political unit corresponding to it or that an existing state  promoted a national identity for it self.  Nationalists see nations as an inclusive categorization of human beings assigning every individual to one specific nation. In fact nationalism sees most human activity as national character. Nations have national symbols a national culture a national music and national literature; national folklore a national mythology and in some cases a national religion. Individuals share national values and a national identity admire a national hero eat the national dish and play the national sport.   Nation Nationali alist st define define indivi individua duall nation nationss on the basis basis of certai certain n criter criteria ia which which distinguish one nation from another; and determine who is a member of each nation. These criteria typically include a shared language culture and or shared values val ues which which are predom predomina inantl ntly y repres represent ented ed within within a specif specific ic ethnic ethnic group. group.  National identity refers both to these defining criteria and to the shared heritage of  each group. Membership in a nation is usually involuntary and determined by  birth. Individual nationalisms vary in their degree of internal uniformity some are monoli mon olithi thicc and tolera tolerate te lit little tle varian variance ce from from the nation national al norms. norms. Academ Academic ic nation nat ionali alism sm theory theory emphas emphasize izess that that nation national al identi identity ty is contest contested ed reflec reflectin ting g differences in region class gender and language or dialect. A recent development is the idea of a national core culture in Germany the Leithultur which emphasizes a minimal set of non negotiable values this is primarily a strategy of cultural assimilation in response to immigration.  Nationalism has the strong territorial components with an inclusive categorization of territory corresponding to the categorization of individual. For each nation there is a territory which is uniquely associated with it the national homeland and together they account for most habitable land. This is reflected in the geopolitical claims of nationalism which seeks to order the world as a series of nation states each based on the national homeland of its respective nation. Territorial claims

 

24 characterize the politics of nationalist movements. Established nation states also makee an implic mak implicit it territ territori orial al claim claim to secure secure their their own continu continued ed existe existence nce sometimes it is specified in the national constitution. In the nationalist view each nation has a moral entitlement to a sovereign state this is usually taken as a given. The nation state is intended to guarantee the existence of a nation to preserve its distinct identity and to provide a territory where the national culture and ethos are dominant nationalism is also a philosophy of the state. It sees a nation state as a necessity for each nation secessionist national movements often complain about their second class status as a minority with in another nation. This specific view of the duties of the state influenced the introduction of national education systems ofte often n te teac achi hing ng a st stan anda dard rd curr curric icul ulum um nati nation onal al cult cultur ural al po poli licy cy and nati nation onal al language policy. In turn nation states appeal to a national cultural historical mythos to justify their existence and to confer political legitimacy acquiescence of  the population in the authority of the government.  Nationalist recognize that non national states exist and existed but do not see them as a legitimate form of state existed but do not see them as a legitimate form of  state. The struggles of early nationalist movements were often directed against such non national states specifically multi ethnic empires such as non national states specifically multi ethnic empires such as Austria Hungary and the ottoman empire emp ire.. Most Most multi multi ethnic ethnic empire empiress have have disappe disappeare ared d but some some secess secession ionist ist movements see Russia and china as comparable non national imperial states. At least one modern state is clearly not a nation state the Vatican City exists solely to  provide a sovereign territorial unit for the Roman Catholic Church. Some critics have maintained that unlike modern nationalism which is a creation of the 19th century nation state authentic nationalism as the Latin Natio would suggest must be based in some form of Genophilia and the sharing of ancestors.   Nation Nationali alism sm as ideolo ideology gy includ includes es ethica ethicall princi principle pless that that the moral moral duties duties of  in indi divi vidu dual alss to fe fell llow ow memb member erss of nati nation on overr overrid idee th thos osee to non memb member ers. s.   Nation Nationali alism sm claims claims that that nation national al loyalt loyalty y in case case of confli conflict ct overri overrides des local local loyalties and all other loyalties to family friends’ profession religion or class.

Concepts of sovereignty: Sovereignty is the exclusive right to have control over an area of governance   peo peopl plee or on ones esel elf. f. A so sove verrei eign gn is th thee su supr prem emee la lawm wmak akiing aut autho horrity ty.. Enlightenment philosopher jean Jacques Rousseau in book III chapter III of his 1762 treatise of the social contract argued the growth of the state giving the trustees of public authority more and means to abuse their power the more the government has to have force to contain the people the more force the sovereign should have in turn in order to contain the government with the understanding that the sovereign is a collective being (book II chapter I) resulting from the general

 

25 will of the people and that what any man whoever he may be orders on his own is mot a law (book II chapter VI) and furthermore predicated on the assumption that the people have an unbiased means by which to ascertain the general will. Thus the legal maxim there is no law without a sovereign. In this model national sovereignty is of an eternal origin such as nature or a god legitimizing the divine right of kings in absolute monarchies or a theocracy. A more formal distinction is whether the law is held to be sovereign which constitutes a true state of law the letter of the law if constitutionally correct is applicable and enforceable even when against the political will of the nation as long as not formally changed following following the constituti constitutional onal procedure. procedure. Strictly Strictly speaking any deviation from this principle constitutes a revolution or o r a coup d’etat regardless of the intentions. In constitutional and international law the concept also pertains to a government  possessing full control over its own affairs with in a territorial or geographical area or limit and in certain context to various organs possessing legal jurisdiction in their own chief rather than by mandate or under supervision. Determining whether a specific entity is sovereign is not an exact science but often a matter of  diplomatic dispute. While many purists regard the individual or an individual nation state as the sole seat of sovereignty in international law sovereignty is defined as the legitimate exercise of power and the interpretation of international law by a state dejure sovereignty is the ability in fact to do so which becomes of special concern upon the failure if the usual expectation that dejure and defacto sovereignty exist at the  place and time of concern and rest in the same organization. Foreign governments recognize the sovereignty of a state over o ver a territory or refuse to do so. For instance in theory both the peoples’ republic of china and the republic of  china considered themselves sovereign governments over the whole territory of  main land china and Taiwan. Though some foreign governments recognize the republic of china as the valid state most now recognize the people’s republic of  china. However defacto the peoples republic republic of china exercises exercises sovereign power  over mainland china but nor Taiwan while the republic of china exercises its effective administration only over Taiwan and some outlying islands bur not mainland china. Since ambassadors are only exchanged between sovereign high  parties the countries recognizing the People’s Republic often entertain defacto but not dejure dejure diplom diplomati aticc relati relations onship hipss with with Taiwan Taiwan by mainta maintaini ining ng office officess of  representation such as the American institute in Taiwan rather than embassies there. Sovereignty may be recognized even when the sovereign body possesses no territory or its territory is under partial or total occupation by another power. The Holy See was in this position between the annexation in 1870 of the Papal States

 

26  by Italy and the signing of the Lateran treaties in 1929 when it was recognized as sovereign by many mostly Roman Catholic states despite possessing no territory a situation resolved when the Lateran treaties granted the Holy See sovereignty over the Vatican City. The sovereign military order of Malta is likewise a non territorial body that claims to be a sovereign entity though it is not universally recognized as such. Similarly the governments in exile of many European states for instance Norway  Netherlands or Czechoslovakia during the Second World War were regarded as sovereign despite their territories being under foreign occupation their governance resumed as soon as the occupation had ended. The government of Kuwait was In a similar situation vis-à-vis the Iraqi occupation of its country during 1990-1991.

National interest: The national interest often referred to by the French term raison d etat is a country’s goal and ambitions whether economic, military, or cultural. The notion is an important one in international relations where pursuit of the national interest is the foundation of the realist school. The national interest of a state is multi faceted. Primary is the states survival and security also important is the pursuit of wealth and economic growth and power. Many states in modern times regard the preservation of the nations culture as of  great importance. On early human history history the national interest interest was usually usually viewed as secondary secondary to that of religion or morality. To engage in a war rulers needed to justify the action in these contexts. The first thinker to advocate for the primacy of the national interest is usually considered to be Niccolo Machiavelli. The practice is first seen as being employed by France in the thirty years war when it intervened on the  protestant side despite its own Catholicism to block the increasing power of the Holy Roman Empire. The notion of the national interest soon came to dominate European politics that became fiercely competitive over the next centuries. States could now openly embark on wars purely out of self interest. Mercantilism can be seen see n as the econom economic ic justi justific ficati ation on of the aggres aggressiv sivee pursui pursuitt of the nation national al interest. A foreign policy geared towards pursuing the national interest is the foundation of  the realist school of international relation. The realist school reached its greatest heights at the congress of Vienna with the practice of the balance of powers which amounted to balancing the national interest of several great and lesser powers. Metternich was celebrated as the principal artist and theoretician of this balancing   but he was simply doing a more or less clean copy of what his predecessor  kaunitz had already dome by reversing so many of the traditional Hapsburg

 

27 alliances and building international relations anew on the basis of national interest instead of religion of tradition. These notions became much criticized after the bloody debacle of the First World War and the concept of the balance of power was replaced with the idea of  collective security whereby all members of the League of Nations would consider  and attack upon one as an attack upon all. Thus deterring the use of violence forevermore. The League of Nations did not work partially because the United States refused to join and partially because in practice nations did not always find it in the national interest to deter each eac h other from the use of force. The events of World War II led to rebirth of realist and then neorealist thought as int intern ernati ational onal relati relations ons theori theorist stss re emphas emphasize ized d the role role of power power in global global governance. Many IR theorists blamed the weakness of league of nation for its idealism contrasted with realism and ineffectiveness at preventing war even as they blamed mercantilist beggar thy neighbor policies for the creation of fascist states in Germany and Italy. With hegemonic stability theory the concept of the US national interest was expanded to include the maintenance of open sea lanes and the maintenance and expansion of free trade. Today the concept of the national interest is often associated with political realists who wish to differentiate their policies from idealistic policies that seek either to inject morality into foreign policy or promote solutions that rely on multilateral institutions which might weaken the exists in every country over what is or is not in the national interest the term is as often invoked to justify isolationist and  pacifistic policies as to justify interventionist or warlike policies.

 

28

Chapter: 4 Imperialism,, colonialism & neo-colonialism Imperialism

Introduction: Imperialism practice by which powerful nations or people seek to extend and maintain or influence weaker nations or peoples. Scholars frequently use the term more mo re rest restri rict ctiv ivel ely: y: some some asso associ ciat atee im impe peri rial alis ism m sole solely ly wi with th th thee econo economi micc expansion of capitalist states other reserve it for European expansion after 1870. Although imperialism is similar in meaning to colonialism, and the two terms are someti som etimes mes used used interc interchang hangeab eably, ly, they they should should be disti distingui nguishe shed. d. Coloni Coloniali alism sm usually implies formal political control involving territorial annexation and loss of  soverei sove reignt gnty. y. Imperi Imperiali alism sm refers refers more more broadl broadly y to contro controll or influe influence nce that that is exercis exer cised ed either either formal formally ly or inform informall ally y direct directly ly or indire indirectl ctly, y, polit politica ically lly or  economically.

History: Imperialism dates from antiquity and throughout history it has taken many forms. In any given historical period certain forms tend to be more prevalent than others. In the ancient world imperialism manifested itself in a series of great empires that arose when one people usually usually representi representing ng a particular particular civilization civilization and religion religion attempted to dominate all other by creating a unified system of control. The empire of Alexander the great and the Roman Empire are silent examples. Early modern European imperialism (1400-1750) by contrast generally took the form of overseas colonial expansion. Rather than one state attempting to unify the world in this period many competing states established political control over  territories in south and southeast Asia and in the new world. Imperial systems were organized according to the doctrine of mercantilism each imperial state attempted to control the trade of its colonies in order to monopolize the ben benefits efits of  that trade.

 

29 In the mid 19th cen centu tury ry yet yet anot another her varia variant nt of im impe peri rial alis ism m appe appear ared ed th thee imperi imp eriali alism sm of free free trade. trade. The practi practice ce endure endured d in this this period period even even though though mercant mer cantili ilism sm and the pace of formal formal empire empire buildi building ng decline declined d signif significa icantl ntly. y. Europe Eur opean an especi especiall ally y Briti British sh power power and influe influence nce were were extend extended ed inform informall ally y mainly through diplomatic and economic means rather than formally through direct colonial rule. The imperialism of free trade however was short lived: by the end of the 19th century European powers were once again practicing imperialism in the form of overseas territorial annexation expanding into Africa Asia and the  pacific. Since the end of World War II when most of the formal empires were dissolved what might be called modern economic imperialism has come to predominate. Control Cont rol is exercis exercised ed inform informall ally y and less less overly overly.. The US for instan instance ce exerts exerts considerabl consid erablee influence influence over certain certain third world nations as a result result of its national national economic power and its dominance of certain international financial organizations such as the World Bank and the international monetary fund. Similarly European  powers have continued to affect significantly the politics and the economics of  their former colonies and they have consequently been accused of neocolonialism the exercise of effective sovereignty without the formality of colonial rule. Explanation of imperialism: Historically states have been motivated to pursue imperialism for a variety of  reasons which may be classified broadly as economic political and ideological theori the ories es of imperi imperiali alism sm break break down down simil similarl arly y accord according ing to which which motive motive or  motives are viewed as primary.

A.  The Economic Motive: economic explanation of imperialism are the most common proponents of this view hold that states are motivated to dominate others by the need to expand their  economies to acquire raw materials an additional sources of labor or to find outlets for surplus capital and markets for surplus goods. The prominent economic theories linking imperialism with capitalism are derived from those of Karl Marx Lenin for example explained the European expansion of the late 19 th centur century y as the inevitable outcome if the need for the European capitalist economies to export their the ir surplu surpluss capita capital. l. Simil Similarl arly y contemp contempora orary ry Marxis Marxists ts explain explain the postwa postwar  r  expansion of the US in to the third world in terms of economic imperatives.

B. pol politi itical cal mot motive ives: s: Alternatively some stress the political determinants of imperialism contending that states are motivated to expand primarily by the desire for power prestige security and diplomatic by advantages vis-à-vis other states. In this view late 19 th

 

30 century French imperialism was intended to restore Frances international prestige after its humiliating defeat in the Franco Prussian war. Similarly soviet expansion into Eastern Europe after 1945 can be understood in terms of security needs specifically the need to protect nation from another invasion across its western  border.

C. ide ideolo ologic gical al mo motiv tives: es: a third set explanations focuses on ideological or moral motives. According to this  perspective political cultural or religious beliefs force states in to imperialism as a missionary activity. Britain’s colonial empire was motivated at least in part by the idea that it was the white mans burden to civilize “backward” peoples. Germany’s expansion under Hitler was based in large measure on a belief in the inherent superiority of German national culture. The desire of the US to protect the free world and of the former Soviet Union to liberate the peoples of Eastern Europe and th thee th thir ird d worl world d ar aree al also so ex exam ampl ples es of im impe peri rial alis ism m driv driven en by mora morall and and ideological concerns.

D. react reactive ive impe imperial rialism: ism: Finally some explanations of imperialism focus not on the motives of powerful states but rather on the political circumstances in weaker states. The argument holds that powerful states may not intend to expand but may be forced to by instab ins tabili ility ty on the periph periphery ery;; new imper imperial ial action actionss result result from from pas pastt imperi imperial al commitments. The British conquest of India and the Russian colonization of  central Asia in the 19th century are classic examples of reactive imperialism.

 The effect of imperialism: Because imperialism is so often viewed as economically motivated discussion of  its effects also tend to revolve around economic issues. Disagreement arises  between those who believe that imperialism implies exploitation and those who   beli believe eve th that at im impe peri rial alis ism m im impl plie iess expl exploi oita tati tion on and and in resp respon onsi sibl blee fo forr the the underdevelopment and economic stagnation of the poor nations and those who argue those although the rich nations benefit from imperialism the poor nations also benefit at least in the long run. The truth has been difficult to ascertain for at least two reasons. 1. no consensus consensus has been been reached reached on the the meaning meaning of exploitatio exploitation n and 2. It is frequent frequently ly difficult difficult to to disentangle disentangle the domesti domesticc causes of povert poverty y from those that are possibly international. What is apparent is that the impact of imperialism is uneven: some poor nations have enjoyed greater economic benefits from contact with the rich than have others. India Brazil and other developing nations have even begun to compete

 

31 economically with their former colonial powers. Thus it is prudent to examine the economi econ omicc impact impact of imperi imperiali alism sm on a case case by case case basis. basis. The polit politica icall and   psyc psycho holo logi gica call ef effe fect ctss of im imper peria iali lism sm are are equa equall lly y di diff ffic icul ultt to dete determ rmin ine. e. Imperialism has proven both destructive and creative: for better or worse it has destroyed traditional institutions and ways of thinking and has replaced them with the habits and mentality of the western world.

Colonialism: Colonialism is the extension of a nation’s sovereignty over territory beyond its   bord border erss by th thee esta establ blis ishm hmen entt of ei eith ther er sett setter er colo coloni nies es or admi admini nist stra rati tive ve dependencies in which indigenous populations are directly ruled or displaced. Colonizing nations generally dominate the resources labor and markets of the colonial coloni al territory territory and may also impose impose socio socio cultural cultural religious and linguistic linguistic str struct ucture uress on the indige indigenous nous popula populatio tion. n. It is essent essential ially ly a syste system m of direst direst  political economic and cultural intervention and hegemony by a powerful country in a weaker one. Though the word colonialism is often used interchangeably with imperi imp eriali alism sm the latter latter is someti sometimes mes used used more more broadl broadly y as it covers covers contro controll exercised informally via influence as well as formal military control or economic leverage. The term colonialism may also be used to refer to an ideology or a set of beliefs used to legitimize or promote this system. Colonialism was often based on the ethnocentric belief that the morals and values of the colonizer were superior to those of the colonized some observers link such beliefs to racism and pseudo scientific theories dating from the 18 th to 19th centuries. In the western world this led to a form of proto social Darwinism that placed white people at the top of the animal ani mal kingdom kingdom,, natura naturally lly in charge charge of domina dominatin ting g non Europe European an aborigi aboriginal nal  populations. The historical phenomenon of colonialism is one that starches around the globe and across time including such disparate peoples as the Hittites the Incas and the Brit Britis ish h al alth thoug ough h th thee te term rm coloni colonial alis ism m is norm normal ally ly used used wi with th refe refere rence nce to discon dis contin tinuous uous Europea European n overse overseas as empire empiress rather rather than than contig contiguous uous land land based based empires European or otherwise. Land based empires are conventionally described by the term imperialism such as age of imperialism which includes colonialism as a sub topic but in the main refers to conquest and domination of nearby lesser geographic powers. Examples of land based empires include the Mongol empire a large empire stretching from the western pacific to Eastern Europe the empire of Alexander the great the Umayyad caliphate the Persian empire the roman empire the byzan tine empire. The Ottoman Empire was created across Mediterranean north Africa and into

 

32 south eastern Europe and existed during the time of European colonization of the other parts of the world. After the Portuguese Reconquista period when the kingdom of Portugal fought again aga inst st th thee Musl Muslim im domi domina nati tion on of Iber Iberia ia in th thee 12th an and d 13th centur centuries ies the Portuguese started to expand overseas. European colonialism began in 1415 with Portugal’s conquest of the Muslim port of Ceuta northern Africa. In the following decades Portugal braved the coast of Africa establishing trading posts ports and fortresses. Colonialism was led by Portuguese and Spanish exploration of the Americas and coasts of Africa the Middle East India and East Asia. The latter half  of the sixteenth century witnessed the expansion of the English colonial state throughout Ireland. Despite some earlier attempts, it was not until the 17th century that Britain, France and the Netherlands successfully established overseas empires outside in direct competition with Spain and Portugal and each other. In the 19 th century the British Empire grew to become the largest empire yet seen. The end of the 18 th and early 19th century saw the first era of decolonization when most of the European colonies the Americas gained their independence from their  respective metropolis. Spain and Portugal were irreversibly weakened after the loss of their new world colonies but Britain after the union of England and Scotland France and the Netherlands turned their attention to the old world coastal enclaves had already established. The German empire now republic created by most of Germany being united under Prussia omitting Austria and other ethnic territories in other parts of the world were also added to the tarns-oceanic or extraEuropean German colonial empire. Italy occupied Eritrea Somalia and Libya. During Abyssinia and in 1936 the Italian empire was created. The industrialization of the 19th century led to what has been termed the era of  new imperialism when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated the height of  th

which was the scramble for Africa. During the 20 century the overseas colonies of the losers of World War I were distributed amongst the victors as mandates but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization  began in earnest.

 Types of colonies: Colonialism and colonies one country’s domination of another country or people usuall usua lly y achiev achieved ed throug through h aggress aggressive ive often often milita military ry action actionss and the territ territory ory acquired in this manner. The terms colonialism and imperialism are sometimes used interchangeably bur scholars usually distinguish between the two reserving colonialism for instance where one country assumes political control over another  and using imperialism more broadly to refer to political or economic control exercised either formally or informally. This article will discuss both concepts and

 

33 how they have been practiced in different parts of the world. It will summarize coloni col onial al practi practices ces before before the 15th cent centur ury y an and d th then en fo focus cus in more more deta detail il in colonialism and imperialism during the last 500 years.

In the past 500 years there have been several types of colonies. The main ones were colonies of settlement colonies of exploitation and what might be called contested contes ted settlement settlement colonies. colonies. Most European powers established established more than one type of colony. The British Empire for instance included colonies of settlement (Virginia, Massachusetts, newsziland, New South Wales) colonies of exploitation (Niger (Ni geria, ia, Jamaic Jamaica, a, Mal Malaya aya)) a preexi preexisti sting ng empir empiree India India contes contested ted settle settlemen mentt coloni col onies es Keny Kenyaa and sphere spheress of influe influence nce Argent Argentina ina.. The French French empire empire also also included settlement colonies Algeria Québec exploitation colonies (Martinique, the French Congo) and a preexisting empire (Indochina).

A. col coloni onies es of se settl ttleme ement nt Colonies of settlement resulted when citizens of a foreign country the colonizing country migrated to and eventually took complete control of a new area. These areas came to be dominated dominated not only by foreign people but also by foreign crops and animals. The foreign colinizers ordinarily substituted their culture for the existing one. Settlers often excluded native inhabitants from their societies or killed many if  them in violent confrontations or by exposure to disease. In the Americas many  Native  Nati ve Americans Americans died from diseases diseases introduced introduced by European European diseases diseases to which they had no immunity. Colonies of settlement were located in temperate zones with climates similar to Europe’s. They are sometimes sometimes called neo Europe’s Europe’s or until recently recently white man’s countries countries examples of settlement colonies include English colonies in parts of the United States, Canada and Australia.

B. col coloni onies es of expl exploit oitati ation: on: Colonize of exploitation also knows as tropical dependencies did not attract large number num berss of perma permane nent nt Euro Europe pean an sett settle les. s. Euro Europea pean n went went to th thes esee colon colonie iess Euro Eu rope pean an sett settle lers rs.. Euro Europe pean an went went to th thes esee colon colonie iess prim primar aril ily y as pl plant anter ers, s, administrators, merchants or military officers. In exploitation colonies foreign   powers established political control if necessary using forces against colonies resistance resis tance bur they did not displace displace or kill native societies. societies. They also did not for  th thee most most part part in inte tent ntio ional nally ly dest destro roy y in indi dige genou nouss nati native ve cult cultur ures es.. Thus Thus th thee geographical circumstances and historical dynamics of exploitation colonies are  profoundly different from those of colonies of settlement.

 

34

C. conte contested sted settl settlemen ementt co coloni lonies: es: In a contested settlement colony a significant number of European settlers took up  permanent residence. They tended to develop their own government, independent of or even in defiance of the parent country. A contested settlement colony also formed its own cultural and political identity. Politically white citizens dominated native people. However the native population not only survived but increased. Native peoples managed to maintain some control over their lives although their political control was usua usuall lly y sl slig ight ht.. Fu Furt rther hermo more re th thei eirr la labor bor rema remain ined ed th thee ba back ckbon bonee of th thee economy. Eventually native people were able to successfully contested white control of the colony both the control by the colonizing country and control by the settlers. settl ers. Examples of contested contested settlement settlement colonies include include Algeria Algeria and southern southern Rhodesia both in Africa.

D. other types of c coloni olonies: es: There are several other types of colonialism and imperialism including preexisting empires were or had been powerful states that possessed a large population strong   political structures and sophisticated economy. India under English rule is an example. In internal colonialism one geographic area or ethnic group dominated another  within the same country. Examples of this kind of internal control include the economic domination of the American south by the north after the American civil war (1861-1865) or the influence of o f England over other areas of the British Isles. In spheres of influence or informal empires European interfered in the internal affairs of a state but stopped short of formal political annexation. During the 19 th century individual western nations declared so called spheres of influence over    parts of china. They even required that disputes involving Europeans in these areas of china had to be judged according to western law in western courts. During the 19th and early 20th centuries in areas ruled under the Ottoman Empire some western nations invested heavily in canals and rail roads and intervened  politically when they felt they needed to protect those investments. The concept of an informal empire is used to describe British or American relations with the former for mer Spanish Spanish coloni colonies es in south south and Centra Centrall Americ Americaa aft after er Latin Latin Americ American an independence in the early 19th century.

History of colonies:

Thee Gr Th Gree eeks ks and th thee Roma Romans ns both both had had colon colonie iess whic which h th they ey domi domina nate ted d by establishing military posts in conquered territory. The Greeks controlled most of  the islands in the eastern Mediterranean Mediterranean Sea and later the Romans controlled controlled the

 

35 whole area from Constantinople now Istanbul in turkey to Palestine and North Afri Africa ca to Gaul Gaul Fran France ce an and d Br Brit itai ain. n. The The Roma Romans ns deve develo lope ped d a th theo eory ry of  colonization they believed that a garrison military post must include women who could work in fields and bear children. The post could then become a settlement capable of supporting and reproducing itself. Century’s later English settlers put this theory in to practice in their colonies in Ireland and Virginia. The Vikings people from what is now Norway Sweden and Denmark established colonies in Greenland and Newfoundland but the settlements failed because the Viking Vik ingss were were unable unable to supply supply them. The Viking Vikingss were were more more succes successfu sfull in establishing colonies in parts of Europe including northern France Sicily England and Ireland eventually the people who settled in these areas were called Normans. From the 11th century to the 13 th century Christian Europeans launched military expedit expe dition ionss called called crusad crusades es aga agains instt the Musli Muslims ms in Palest Palestine ine.. The Europea Europeans ns wanted to recapture Jerusalem and other places to which Christian made religious   pilgr pilgrima images. ges. The crusad crusades es were were the fir first st milita military ry expe expedit dition ionss that that wester western n Christ Chr istian ianss under under look look far from home. home. They They also also marked marked the fir first st ti time me that that significan signi ficantt numbers numbers of European European Christians Christians carried their cultu culture re and religion religion  beyond Europe. In the steppe (grassy plains) regions of central Asian the Mongols created a vast empire during the 13th and early 14th centuries. The Mongol empire controlled the expanse to territory from the Ural Mountains in Russia across Asia to the Pacific Ocean. Every adult male was a mounted warrior and the Mongols were a nation of cavalry. The ottoman Turks were also originally a steppe people. They took  overr most ove most of North North Afri Africa ca th thee Middl Middlee Ea East st and and th thee Balk Balkan an Pe Peni nins nsul ula. a. The The Ottoman Empire founded in the late 13 th century was a significant world power  until the early 20th century. There were also militarily aggressive peoples in sub Saharan Africa and in the Americas. The Fulani in the western Sudan established a series kingdom in the 19th century and the Zulu dominated much a southern Africa during the early part of that century. In the Americas the Inca and Aztec people dominated large geographic areas when European arrived.

A. age of exploration (1450-1700) In the 15th century Europe was divided in to a number of emerging nation states that competed intensely with one another. This competition was one factor that drove these states to expand. In contrast during the same time period china was a strong unified power that possessed both the technology and the economic base for expansion but did not do so. China had conducted overseas voyages but decided to end them after a bitter debate at the imperial court in the early 15 th

 

36 century. In the contrast Europe was not a single entity and its various states competed fiercely for advantage over their neighbors. Each of the European states ventured beyond its borders at different times: first Portugal then Spain then the Netherlands England and France. Their attempts to expand overseas were linked very closely with their struggles for political and economic power. Trade was considered a form of war and trading station were called forts. The search for a variety of products to trade drove the Europeans explorations. The Portuguese began race to build a commercial empire in the early 15 th century  by exploring the coast of West Africa. There they established a trade in gold and slaves by the 16th century African slaves were common place throughout southern and Western Europe. Other trade items encouraged exploration of other areas. In the North Atlantic Ocean an enormously valuable trade in fish encouraged boats of all European nations to search for fishing grounds farther from Europe. Spices drew explorers around the tip of Africa to Southeast Asia. European refrigeration needs spices to preserve the meat they ate. By trading directly with the east Europeans could avoid costly customs duties or taxes charged by the rulers of  every country between Egypt and Europe for letting spice shipments pass through. Religi Rel igion on also also played played an import important ant role role in the increa increase se of explor explorati ation. on. Early Early modern European especially Catholics gave high priority to converting people with other beliefs. The Spaniards in particular incorporated religion as a vital part of their colonial movements and they sent many missionaries to the Americas as did the Portuguese. In early English and Dutch settlements chaplains primarily ministered to the settlers instead of converting the indigenous peoples. The British missionary movement did not develop significantly until about 1800 although some early settlers left England for the Americas so that they could be free to  practice their particular religious beliefs. For example Plymouth colony in what is now Massachusetts was founded in 1620 by the pilgrims a group of puritans who had been persecuted in England for their religious beliefs. A pivotal point in European expansion expansion occurred at the end of the 15 th century. In 1492 Italian navigator Christopher reach Asia by anew route. Basing his voyage on his calculation of earth’s size (an estimate that turned out to be wrong), Columbus reached the Caribbean islands off what would later be called north and South Sout h Americ America. a. On that that journe journey y as well well as others others that follow followed, ed, Col Columb umbus us claimed the areas and established outposts for Spain which financed his voyages. Although at first he insisted the area as part of Asia Columbus eventually realized that he was exploring what he called new world as yet unknown to Europeans. In late 1497 Portuguese navigator Vasco d agama rounded the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa and in the spring of 1498 became the first European to reach India by a sea route. Columbus’s and Da Gama’s explorations

 

37 helped spur vast movement towards exploration and European colonialism during the 16th century.

Spanish colonies: Within a few years Spanish conquistadors (conquerors) over whelmed the power  Aztec Inca empires in what are now Mexico and Peru. These conquistadors claimed the land for Spain and settlements were soon established. This was the  beginning of the Spanish empire which became the most powerful empire of its day. Individual Spanish settlers received large areas of land called Ecomiendas as well as the right to control the labor of the people who lived on the land. On these encomiendas the Spaniards raised cattle and sheep but the most important product of New Spain as the Spaniards called their claims in the Americas was silver. The indigenous people overseen by the Spaniards mined silver in the mountains of  Peru and in Mexico often at great risks that resulted in death. The silver that reached Spain helped finance that country’s trade with other European nations, and it fueled massive inflation in the price of goods that lasted until well after  1600 through out Europe. Much of the silver from the new world ended up in India and china. Europeans could not sell their goods in Asia because Asian manufactured goods particularly textil tex tiles, es, were more more advance advanced d than than those those of the Europeans Europeans.. For this reason reason Europeans used the gold and silver acquired from their colonies to pay for Asian spices, silk and cotton cloth.

Portuguese colonies: Meanwhile the Portuguese were starting settlements in Brazil. Like the Spaniards in other parts of the Americas they tool overland and forced the native population to work it. Also Portuguese explorers were establishing a very different sort of  commercial empire in the Indian Ocean. This system was based on trade and war  rather than on taking large amounts of land and dominating its people. At first the Portuguese had no competition the Chinese had called their fleets’ home: Indian and Arab ships did not carry guns and other European nations had not yet entered the field. BY the early 16th century the Portuguese had established a string of strategic bases including Hormuz at the tip of the Persian Gulf, Goa on the western coast of India and the straits of Moluccca the gateway between the Indian ocean and the china sea. From these bases the Portuguese could control and monitor the sea going trade of the entire region. Portuguese power however was entirely naval and they were unable to threaten the internal strength of land based empires. Moreover 

 

38 when larger European nation arrived in the area, Portuguese naval supremacy vanished.

Dutch colonies: By the early 17th century the Dutch had replaced the Portuguese as the primary European colonial power in Asia. They tool control of the Moluccas (now part of  the republic of Indonesia) and instituted a new sustem that would have great significance for areas in other parts of the world: the plantation system. The dutch   plantations in Indonesia were like Spanish encomiendas inthat they employed native labor. There were however important differences. Plantations were usually more compact and were dedicated to the production of a single cash crop a crop  produced primarily for market. The plantation was much like a modern factory it was an early and highly profitable form of industrial capitalism. On a plantation labor was a commodity a cost of o f producing a crop quickly became associated with the plantation system. The Dutch also colonized parts of North America. They based their claims on the explorations of Henry Hudson an English mariner employed by Dutch east India Company. In 1609 Hudson entered present day New York Bay and explored the river that now bears his name. During the next few years the Dutch dispatched several trading vessels to the region which they named new Netherlands. A few  permanent colonists began to arrive in 1624 when a trade outpost was built. The town was named New Amsterdam (now New York City) in 1626 and the first large wave of settlement there occurred the same year.

English colonies: England began exploration during the same period as the Dutch. In 1600 England granted a charter to the east India Company to establish overseas commercial and trade interests. The English government granted the company a monopoly of  English trade with the East Indies which the company eventually stretched to include the lucrative opium trade in china. Similar companies were established for  the trade with Africa Virginia and elsewhere in the Americas. English colonization in the Americas however remained almost unknown in the 16th century because England was at war with Spain. The first English colony in  North America was established on Roanole Island off the North American coast. Thiss colony Thi colony failed failed and the Englis English h did not attemp attemptt furthe furtherr explor explorati ation on and colonization in the Americas until 1604 after they made peace with Spain. During the 17th century the English established colonies in the Caribbean and North America that became the foundations of the British Empire. In the West Indies the English established sugar plantation and in 1655 they conquered the Spanish colony of Jamaica the first English colony taken by force. The English established a string of colonies along the eastern seaboard of North America.

 

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French colonies: The English faced competition in upper North America as the French colonized  parts of what is now Canada. In 1608 French explorer Samuel de Champlain founded the colony of Québec as a fur trading center strengthening French control of the St. Lawrence River. The French were also interested in converting the native peoples to Christianity and they used the fur trade to fund their missionary activities. Later in the century the French became interested in expansion. In 1673 explorer  Louis Joliet and Jesuit missionary Jacques Marquette reached the Mississippi river and traveled down it as far as the Arkansas River. In 1682 explorer René Robert cavalier Sueur de la sale led an expedition down the Mississippi to the gulf  of the Mexico claiming all the land drained by the river for Louis XIV king of  France and naming the region Louisiana. As the French gained more control in north America they developed a rivalry with England that would come to a head during the 18th century.

A. European merchant empires (1700-1815): The foundations of European sea based empires were laid during the 16 th and 17th centuries. By the 18th century these empires had become powerful. To understand these empires it is helpful break them up into regional networks or world systems. A world system is an area where different cultures are related through commercial and other interactions. The boundaries of a world system are not restricted to territory controlled by any one country. The Atlantic Ocean is an example of a world system as the Indian Ocean. For the Atlantic Ocean it is helpful to think of two fairly distinct but connected world systems. The north Atlantic system included Western Europe Russia the Balticc Scandi Balti Scandinav navia ia the abundan abundantt fishin fishing g areas areas near Newfound Newfoundlan land d and New England and what became Canada and the northern states of the United States. Its main products were timber fish and fur. The south Atlantic system included the Spanish colonies in south and Central America the Portuguese colony of Brazil the sugar sugar produc producing ing isl islands ands of the Caribb Caribbean ean West West Africa Africa and the southe southern rn colonies in North America. Its most prominent products were silver sugar tobacco African slaves and after 1880, cotton The north Atlantic world system relied heavily on the French, Dutch and English colonies in North America. By the beginning of the 18 th century conflicts between competing European powers had intensified in that area. Territories along north America eastern seaboard changed hands as the British gained control of Dutch areas and the French and British entered a series of wars. Following the French and Indian war great Britain gained control of Canada and all French territories

 

40 east of the Mississippi river. The British also gained Florida from Spain which had been an ally of France. The war determined that British rather than French ideas and institution would dominate North America. In the south Atlantic world system slavery was crucial as a source of labor. Millions of Native American people had died because they lacked immunity to diseases introduced to the area. Death rated reached as high as 80 to 90 percent of  the native population during the first century of contact with Europeans. Also relatively few Europeans migrated to the new world until the late 18 th century  providing few workers for new industries. The shortage of labor became particularly acute after the Europeans introduced the plantation plantation system system which became the main form of agricultura agriculturall production production in the south Atlantic system. The plantation system was particularly prominent in the sugar producing areas of the Caribbean islands and Brazil and in the southeastern colonies of mainland North America where cotton and tobacco were important. Around the world in the Indian Ocean world system British power was growing. By the beginning of the 18th century the powerful Mughal Empire centered in north India began decline. The English east India Company which had established a presence in India during the 1600s had a fort in Calcutta (now Kolkata). The compan com pany y used used th this is fo fort rt as abas abasee to gradu gradual ally ly ta take ke over over th thee entir entiree Indi Indian an subcontinent. The company accomplished this by hiring an Indian army overseen  by British officers which were paid for with taxes collected from Indians. This army arm y formed formed the main main Britis British h milita military ry weapon weapon in Asia Asia until until India India achieved achieved independence from Britain in 1947. In the Indian Ocean world system trade was primarily in spices silk and other  luxury goods. This trade had existed for thousands of years providing Asian countries with economies featuring large sophisticated markets credit industrial revolution of the late 18th century Europeans produced little that Asians wanted so they were able to participate in the Indian ocean world system only because they  possessed a great deal of silver from America. The industrial revolution the shift from fro m hand manufa manufactu cturin ring g large large scale scale factor factory y produc productio tion n allowed allowed Europea Europeans ns increase productivity of labor by about ten times. Consequently they were able to cut costs costs substa substanti ntial al while while mainta maintaini ining ng or even improv improving ing produc productt qualit quality. y. European had another huge advantage military power. More than any other people Europeans had made fighting a profession one that helped them expand their  commercial activities.

B. imperialism of free trade: During the mid 19th century Britain was the dominant economic and political  power in the world. Britain faced little competition from other European powers. Thee Fren Th French ch were were re recov cover erin ing g fr from om th thee Fr Frenc ench h revol revolut utio ion n (178 (17899-17 1799) 99) an and d

 

41  Napoleonic wars (1799-1815). The Dutch although still in control of Indonesia had declined in power and were not a serious threat. Left unchallenged on the seas the British were often able to extend their power through informal influence wi with thout out neces necessa sari rily ly asse assert rtin ing g fo form rmal al poli politi tical cal cont contro roll whic which h woul would d add add administrative and defensive costs and responsibilities. The push for informal influence became known as the imperialism of free trade. The British did not establish many formal colonies but they controlled other  nations in order to increase their economic power. In china for example British commercial expansion resulted in the opium wars (1839-1842, 1856-1860) when the Chinese illegally importing opium. Britain also gained a great deal of informal  power in Latin America after Spain’s colonies became independent between 1807 and 1824. Because Britain’s power and influence were so vast a popular saying was “the sun never sets on the British empire.”

C. new imperialism (1870-19 (1870-1914): 14): That lack of competition changed in the late 19 th century as European powers again became interested in expanding. This was particularly true of Germany which had become a united nation in 1871 (see German unification). Almost all the European powers vied with one another for colonies. This surging political rivalry drove new imperialism. Although European colonial expansion colonial expansion at the end of the 19th century was called new imperialism the motives of colonizers remained the same as in earlier periods. They usually sought economic advantages but these were hard to disentangle from political and strategic motives. The main differences in the era were the number of competing colonial powers and the parts of the world they chose to colonize. Almost all European powers participated and they sought colonies in Africa and in the pacific. In what is called the scramble for Africa European nations partitioned Africa at the Berlin West Africa conference (1884-1885). The Germans got southwestern Africa along with Tanganyika in east Africa. The Portuguese got Mozambique and Angola in southern Africa. Belgium took the Congo and France got Senegal the Camero Cameroon’ on’ss and severa severall other other coloni colonies es in the western western Sudan Sudan and centra centrall Africa. The British got the rest including Kenya and Uganda in east Africa the gold coast (new Ghana) and the territory that became Nigeria in West Africa. The British already controlled Egypt which they had occupied in 1882, as well as English speaking cape colony and natal on the southern tip of Africa. The British also dominated southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe and north northern ern Rhodesia (new Zambia) through the British South Africa Company under the leadership of Cecil Rhodes. The result was that almost every part of the African continent was a European colony.

 

42 In the pacific the British the French and the Germans faced competition both from the Americans who tool over Hawaii and the Philippines from the Spaniards and fr from om th thee Japa Japane nese se who who colo coloni nize zed d Kore Korea. a. The The Fr Fren ench ch to took ok Indo Indochi china na (now (now Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) and the Germans colonized eastern new guinea in the south pacific. In Asia the British strengthened their hold on Burma (now known as Myanmar) and Malaya. Although china was never formally colonized European powers established individual “spheres of influence.” When the Chinese rioted in shanghai and else where in 1900 in the boxer uprising western powers  put down the revolt and imposed a huge indemnity (a fine to cover the cost of  losses and damages) on the Chinese. Both Africa and the pacific were areas where trade investment and profits had all  been comparatively to low before the late 19th century. These were also areas wheree wester wher western n nation nationss with with their their advance advanced d milita military ry techno technolog logy y could could easil easily y conquer indigenous states. Imperial nations adopted the attitude that they should control these areas in order to protect what they viewed as weak peoples. In general the citizens of the more powerful nations supported this view especially  because with the exception of Japan’s control of Korea the power holders were white and their subjects were people of color.

D. mandates and trusts: The victors in World War I (1914-1918) particularly France and Britain took over  the colonial possessions of the losers Germany and the Ottoman Empire in Africa the pacific and the Middle East. They managed these called mandates as trustees underr direct unde direction ion of the league league of nation nation an int intern ernati ational onal allian alliance ce formed formed in response to world war I. mandated territories were supposed to be managed in the interest of the indigenous peoples as well as in the interests of the world at large. The indigenous peoples were though to be unable to stand by themselves to quote the League of Nations charter. The nation that served as the mandatory power had to submit annual reports to the permanent mandates commission of the league of  nation. After the war neither the Germans nor the ottomans were considered to be fit trustees. In general a mandate was a colony under another name. colonialism was not solely a European phenomenon in the 20 th century. During this time Japan was growing as a major imperial power. In the early 1940s Japan founded the greater East Asia co-prosperity sphere, claiming to unite Asian nation against agai nst wester western n domina dominati tion. on. In effect effect thi thiss act brought brought much of Asia Asia under  under  Japanes Jap anesee contro controll as part part of Japan’ Japan’ss polit political ical and economi economicc empire empire.. Japanes Japanesee conques conq uests ts of the Phili Philippi ppines nes Indone Indonesia sia Burma Burma Malaya Malaya and Indoch Indochina ina ended ended western colonial administration in these areas but Japan’s administration during Worl Wo rld d War War II (1939 (1939-1 -194 945) 5) was was more more seve severe re th than an th that at of th thee Euro Europea pean n of  American that it replaced. In Korea for example Japan imposed several measures

 

43 design des igned ed to assimi assimilat latee the Korean Korean popula populatio tion n includ including ing outlaw outlawing ing Korean Korean language and even Korean family names. Following world war II the united nation (UN) successor to the league of nations replaced the mandates commission with the trusteeship council and the areas that had been known as mandates became labeled as trusts under the old mandate commission the European powers had assumed that a mandate would remain dependent on the administering nation without ever becoming an independent nation. The charter for the trusteeship council however required the administering nation to set a target date for the trust’s independence. Several colonies such as India, Ceylon (now SRI LANKA) and Burma (now known as Myanmar began their struggle against remaining colonial control. After achieving independence and becoming members of the UN general assembly several former colonies led a campaign against colonialism pointing to the provisions of the trusteeship council charter. In this way trusteeship accelerated the movement toward decolonization throughout the world.

Motives for colonization: In general strong countries dominated weaker ones to promote their own national self interest out of economic religious cultural or other reasons. It has been said that the three primary motives for establishing colonies were gold, god and glory  but the main incentives were usually economic.

A. eco econom nomic ic mot motive ives: s: The colonizing country could control important markets for its exports (such as cotton products) and deny these markets to its competitors. Colonies were also import imp ortant ant as opportu opportunit nities ies for invest investmen ment. t. A country country often often also also increa increased sed its wealth by conquering another civilization and taking its riches or by exploiting the mineral wealth of another land. In the 16th century for example Spain became a rich rich and power powerfu full count country ry la larg rgel ely y by pl plun under derin ing g th thee rich riches es of exist existin ing g civilizations in the Americas and by seizing the area’s mineral wealth through mining. These practices were promoted by the policy of mercantilism that many European coloni col onial al powers powers adopted adopted.. Those Those who advocat advocated ed mercant mercantil ilism ism believ believed ed that that exports to foreign countries were preferable both to trade with in a country and to import imp ortss because because exports exports brought brought more more money money in to the country. country. They They also also  believed that the wealth of a nation depended primarily on the possession of gold and silver. Mercantilists assumed that the volume of world wealth and trade was relatively static so one country’s gain required another’s loss. According to this view a colonial possession should provide wealth to the country that controlled it. Colon Col onie iess were were not not supp suppos osed ed to comp compet etee wi with th th thee moth mother er co count untry ry’s ’s home home industries. Empires were closed systems designed to keep competitors out.

 

44 To implement mercantilist policy England passed legislation called the navigation acts that restricted its colonies to trading solely with the mother country. The acts also stipulated that goods imported or exported by English colonies in Africa Asia or America had to be shipped on vessels constructed by English shipbuilders and that at least three quarters of the ships crews had to be English. Some times such regulations back fired. During the French and Indian war (17541763) in North America the British parliament sought to increase revenues to pay the costs of defending the American colonies it used the navigation acts to levy heavier duties on the American colonies. American colonists felt oppressed by th thes esee ta taxe xess whic which h are are cons consid ider ered ed to be one one of th thee caus causes es of th thee Amer Americ ican an revolution (1775-1783). In the 18th century a reaction to mercantilism began and the philosophy free trade starte sta rted d to take take root root econom economist istss partic particula ularly rly Scotti Scottish sh economi economist st Adam smith smith argued against government regulation of the economy. Smith asserted that trade with a colony was no more profitable than with an independent country. He argued that political strategy might justify colonialism but economies could not. By the 19th century tree trade policies were prompting European nations to pursue informal empires or spheres of influence.

B. reli religious gious and st strateg rategic ic m motiv otives: es: European countries also wanted to spread their religious beliefs and eliminate other religions. Roman Catholic countries particularly Spain set out to convert non Christian Christian native peoples. Protestant Protestant countries countries also used religion as a motive motive for expansion. Beginning in the 19th century Britain’s missionary movements served as a significant reason for that country’s colonial efforts. The impact of the colonizers religion on native societies varied. In parts of West Africa and southern Africa very large proportions of the population converted to Christianity. In most  places the indigenous people combined the new religion with their existing beliefs and culture as in Central America where the Maya people merged their native  practices with Christianity. Ch ristianity. Sometimes colonies were important for strategic reasons for example the cape of  goof hope on the southern tip of Africa guarded European sailors southern route to Asia Asia also also some some countr countries ies occupi occupied ed coloni colonies es in order order to protec protectt previo previous us in inve vest stme ment nts. s. In Egyp Egyptt a nati nation onal alis istt upris uprisin ing g in 18 1882 82 th thre reat aten ened ed th thee ruli ruling ng Egyptian powers with whom Britain had an informal agreement regarding the Suez Canal of which the British government had purchased part ownership. When Britain saw its investments in and its control of the canal in jeopardy it occupied Egypt to control the situation. Some European colonizing powers justified their colonial activities on what they called humanitarian motives. In the 19 th century Britain cited the African slave

 

45 trade as a reason to increase its control over areas in Africa. Of course the British gad been leaders in the slave trade at its height in the previous century.

Neocolonialism:   Neocolonialism is a term used by post colonial critics of developed countries involvement in the developing world. One common argument among postcolonial intellectuals is that it is too simplistic to say that imperialism has ended and that this occurred when the European empires relinquished relinquished their colonies colonies during few decades after the Second World War. The use of the term neocolonialism is one such suc h manif manifest estati ation on of thi thiss ongoing ongoing nature nature of imper imperial ialism ism.. Yet it is in itself  itself  extremely contentious because it is multifaceted and loosely used is often used as a synonym for contemporary forms of imperialism and in a polemical way is used in reaction to any unjust and oppressive expression of western political power. Lyin Ly ing g under underne neat ath h al alll th thes esee va vari riou ouss mean meanin ings gs of neoc neocol olon onia iali lism sm is a ta taci citt understanding that colonialism should be seen as something more than the formal occupation and control of territories by a western metro pole. Hence while formal methods met hods of control control like like the implem implement entati ation on of admini administr strati ative ve str struct ucture uress the stationing of military forces and most importantly the incorporation of the natives as subjects of the metropolitan government neocolonialism suggests an indirect fo form rm of co cont ntro roll th thro roug ugh h econ econom omic ic and cu cult ltur ural al depe depende ndenc nce. e. In th this is case case neocolonialism describes the continued control of former colonies through ruling native elites compliant with neocolonial powers population that are exploited for  their labor and resources in order to feed an insatiable appetite for finished  physical or cultural commodities made by the metro pole. There is some theoretical consensus and development of neocolonialism as well. Scholars in postcolonial studies like Robert young bill Ashcroft Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin agree that in spite of the looseness of the term neocolonialism originated with Kwame Nkrumah Ghana’s first post independence president. Part of a burgeoning consciousness developing among post colonial elites in Africa  Nkrumah became aware that the gaining if independence and national sovereignty   by Af Afri rica can n st stat ates es were were purel purely y to toke ken n and in no subs substa tant ntia iall way way al alte tere red d th thee relationship between the colonial powers and the colonized state. In effect the fo form rmal al gr gran anti ting ng of in inde depe pend nden ence ce crea create ted d a more more Mani Manich chea ean n syst system em of  dependency and exploitation.  Neo colonialism is the worst form of imperialism for those who practice it mean  p pow ower er with withou outt re resp spon onsi sibi bili lity ty and and for for thos thosee who who su suff ffer er from from it mean meanss exploit expl oitati ation on without without redress. redress. In the days days of old fashio fashioned ned coloni coloniali alism sm the imperial power had at least explain and justify a home the actions it was taking  abroad. In the colony those who served the ruling imperia, power could at least 

 

46 look to its protection against any violent move by their opponents with now  colonialism neither is the case.

In particular Nkrumah makes the following points about neocolonialism in 1965: 1. It continues continues to to actively actively control control the affairs affairs of of the newly newly independent independent state. state. 2. In most most case casess neoc neocol olon onia iali lism sm is mani manife fest sted ed th thro roug ugh h econ econom omic ic an and d monetary measures. For example the neocolonial territories become the target markets for imports from the imperial centre(s). 3. Whil Whilee neoco neocolo loni nial alis ism m nay nay be a fo form rm of contin continui uing ng cont contro roll by state’ state’ss  previous formal colonial master these states may also become subjected to imperial power by new actors. These new actors include the united stated or may be international financial and monetary organizations. 4. Beca Becaus usee of th thee nu nucl clea earr pari parity ty betw betwee een n th thee supe superp rpow ower erss th thee co conf nfli lict ct  between the two takes place in the form of limited wars. Neocolonial territories are often the places where these limited wars are waged. 5. as the ruling ruling elites elites pay constant constant defere deference nce to the neocolon neocolonial ial master masterss the need needss of th thee po popul pulat atio ion n ar aree of ofte ten n ig ignor nored ed le leav avin ing g is issu sues es of li livi ving ng conditions like education, development and poverty unresolved. In more recent days there have been attempts to frame such reaction to new forms of colonialism as simply irrational antipathy towards the west as a type of resentment for the disparities between first world and third and also as a way wa y

of

expl explai aini ning ng

vi vict ctiimiza mizattio ion. n.

Howev owever er

Nkrum krumah ah’’s

vi view ewss

on

neocolo neoc olonial nialism ism cannot cannot be so easily easily explai explained ned becaus becausee they they more more firmly firmly elaborate historical and possibly deterministic structures on a larger scale. Particularly Nkrumah sought to develop the idea of imperialism advanced by Lenin in imperialism: the highest stage of capitalism. In this case it makes no sense to claim that imperialism sustains itself because if the continued lust for   power after power bur that there exists a higher logic driven on by capitalism and the never ending need if accumulation and production now sustained in a global scale. Nkrumah picks up on these Marxist themes by noting how capitalism and its problems like class conflict occurring at the metropolitan centers become transferred onto the peripheries.

Whi hille Nkr Nkrumah umah do does es no nott prov provid idee a sol olut utio ion n to ne neoc ocol olon oniial aliism in neoco neocolo loni nial alis ism: m: th thee la last st st stag agee of im impe peri rial alis ism m he make makess a numb number er ta taci citt suggestions including the need for pan African unity in making the task more difficult for neocolonialism. But it is a number of allusions to Marxism that  Nkrumah expose his views on neocolonialism as a potentially self defeating  project. In some sense this would come through post colonial resistance and revolt when neocolonialism reaches a culmination in the peripheries but more indirectly destabilizes the neocolonial centre that practices it.

 

47

Apart from Nkrumah the idea of neocolonialism has also been used in other  context. Robert young for instance sees neocolonialism as being advanced first through development and dependency theory and then through critical development theory. At issue in development and dependency theory is the difficulty for the third world states in escaping from the western notion of  development. Classification economic growth the ways economic output is measured and the progressive linear model of development have been so deeply entrenched that neo colonized stated have no other recourse but to be  part of that system. Subsequently dependency theorists depict a world made up of developmental inequities noting that metropolitan centers in seeking to   be be even even more more devel develop oped ed under under deve develo lop p th thee peri periphe pheri ries es th thro rough ugh trad tradee exploit expl oitati ation. on. More More recent recently ly cri criti tical cal develo developme pment nt theory theory goes beyond beyond its  predecessor because the notion of neocolonial actions in the periphery can not  be so easily explained especially with the economic successes of the Asia. In this regard development can no longer be theorized in purely economic terms  but has to incorporate other dimension like culture gender society and politics as well. In variations of critical development theory like post development theo theory ry young young asse assert rtss th that at th ther eree has has been been a move moveme ment nt to towa ward rdss popul popular  ar  development. This is the empowerment of usually non governmental civil actors to address fundamental human needs hence an emphasis in sustainable development self reliance and cultural pluralism and rights. A number of post devel develop opme ment nt th theor eoris ists ts have have ev even en advoc advocat ated ed deve develo lopm pmen entt outsi outside de th thee fr fram amew ewor ork k of th thee enli enligh ghte tenm nmen entt lo logi gicc and by so doing doing lo look ok to towar wards ds  postcolonial politics as the future direction development theory could take. It is at th this is junc junctu ture re th that at youn young g note notess th thee pote potent ntia iall conve converg rgenc encee betw betwee een n developmental theory and post colonialism.

 

48

  Chapter: 5

 

49 Elements of national power 

 National power: The concept of power in international relations is clouded with two fallacies. First it is often interpreted as military sense. Secondly it is assumed that the  power is measurable and quantifiable. The two fallacies are wrong power in international relations consists of many elements. Secondly it is very difficult to qua quanti ntify fy and measur measuree power power accura accuratel tely. y. The right right valuat valuation ion and true true  judgment regarding power are very difficult because so many intangibles are involv inv olved. ed. Prof. Prof. Willia William m Ebenst Ebenstein ein noted noted that that in the field field of int intern ernati ational onal relations the central problem of the strength of a nation is essentially national   powe powerr is more more th that at th thee sum sum of to tota tals ls of popul populat atio ion n raw raw mate materi rial alss and and qualitative factors. The alliance potential of a nation its civic devotion the flexibility of its institution its technical know how its capacity to endure   privations these are but a raw qualitative elements that determine the total strength of a nation.

Thus national power consists of several important elements described as a capabi cap abilit lity y of a nation nation only only highli highlight ghtss the state’ state’ss polit political ical power. power. Joseph Joseph Frankel underlines some factors that should be kept in mind for analyzing the elements if national power. First all power elements are relative to those possessed by other states. Secondly mere quantities do not reveal true picture. Third any single element  plays its role in the complex totality of national power and its importance can  be assed only against such background. Fourth capabilities may be used more or less efficiently. Fifth in the present era of rapid technological change the relative saliency of different elements is constantly changing. Sixth is comparing capabilities of different nations we must apply statistics and estimates strictly comparable in times.

Elements of national power: Different authors have divided elements of national power in different ways. E.H Carr divided it into three categories military power, economic power and  p pow ower er ov over er op opiini nion ons. s. Orga Organ n ski made ade a de deci cisi sion on be bettween ween na natu turral determinations of power. The national determinants (geography, resource and  populations) are concerned with people the physical environments in which they live and to which they must environments in which they live and to which they must adapt themselves. Social determinants deal with the way in which people of a nation organize themselves and the ways in which they change their environments. Morgenthau distinguishes between two groups of 

 

50 elements those which are relatively stable and those which are subject change. He refers to geography, population, natural resources, raw materials, industrial  preparedness, national character, national morality, the quality of society and government and the quality of leadership as elements of national power.

1. geography: Morgenthau describes geography as the most stable element of national power. Some thinkers belonging to the school of geography have attempted to explain foreign policies and foreign relations of nations in aims of their geographical settings. Three factors of geography are: 1. th thee siz sizee of of tthe he lan land d 2. location 3. its cl climate 4. its to topol pology The land area of a state is itself an element of power. Size affects the course of   both defensive and effective warfare. A large area increases nation’s power in two ways. First First a large land area can contain a large population population and a large supply supply of  natural resources. A large area may provide certain military advantages. Size also re rend nder erss it poss possib ible le to lo loca cate te vi vita tall el elem ement entss of in indu dust stry ry fa farr from from natio nation’ n’ss int intern ernati ational onal fronti frontiers ers.. Finall Finally y a large large area area diffi difficul cultt to conquer conquer and control control especially if it is heavily populated. Though size id important it is not always consistently correlated with power. Britain with small land area played a certain role in world politics for a long  period of time.

2. Location: The location of a state in the sense of spatial relationship to other areas and other  state affects a state’s economic and military power. Location often makes a state a land power or naval power. Location also figures in the diplomacy and strategy of  war. Certain regions of the world are inherently strategic. The small nations situ situat ated ed on th thee borde borders rs of a grea greatt nati nation on may may fi find nd th thei eirr powe powerr redu reduced ced in consequence. Again a powerful nation surrounded by small and weak nations may find its power increased by such location.

Climate: The climate is another geographic feature that influences national power. Climate has a direct eating on a health and energy of a people. Extreme heat or cold has unfavorable effect on energy, productive capacity and national strength. It is not a mere coincidence that the major center of power has flourished in the temperature zone.

 

51

Topology: Topology has a direct influence on national power. It determines the density of a population which a region can support. Again very high mountain ranger, ocean, wide rivers and desert may place barriers to political expansion. The existence of any natural barrier demarcating national frontier may enhance nation’s security. Topology has important bearing on a nation’s culture and economy.

Population: Population represents another significant element of national power. Both the quantitative components of population must be taken into account. It is obvious that a nation must have a population large enough for full utilization of its natural resources. Both super powers possess vast manpower. But large population can exert negative on national power as it is evident in many over populated populated developing developing nations. The population population growth in all those countries has exceeded the economic growth rate. Consequently population control is prime requisite for economic development.

Economic factors: The economic conditions of a nation are crucial determinant of nation power. Two economic elements can refer natural resources and industrial production.  Natural resources being a significant component of national power may be described as gifts f nature of utility. These include food industrial crops raw materials and minerals. A country being self sufficient in food production can more independently formulate and pursue its foreign policy than a country suffering from food scarcity. Food crisis is a source of permanent weakness. Same holds equally good in regard to raw materials necessary for industrial  production and for conduction war. The two super powers are nearly self  sufficient in the production of raw materials required for industrial production or enjoy access to the source of materials they do not own. ( I fact there is a surprising concentration of basic raw materials in the hands of a few nations.) Frankel enumerates three types of strategically significant raw material fuels (coal, oil, natural, gas and fissile materials) metals (iron, copper, chromium, mang ma ngan anes esee an and d ni nick ckel el,, baux bauxit ite, e, le lead ad,, zi zinc nc,, ti tin, n, ti tita tani nium um,, si silv lver er)) an and d agricultural produce.

Military preparedness: It is the milita military ry prepar preparedn edness ess that that gives gives act actual ual impor importan tance ce to geogra geography phy natura nat urall resour resources ces and indust industria riall capaci capacity ty in terms terms of nation national al power. power. The

 

52 correlation between national power and military preparedness is too obvious. Thee mi Th mili lita tary ry po powe werr of a nati nation on depe depends nds on te techn chnol ologi ogical cal in innov novat atio ion n leadership and the quantity and quality of the armed forces. Along with timely use of technological innovations the quality of military leadership has a vital bearing on national power. The proportion of national resources employed for military ends signifies the intensity of military effort. The comparison of actual military strength is highly technical. Government organization: The national power of any country is heavily dependent on quality of its government. The national power of a nation depends of efficient utilization of    potential elements of power. That depends to a great extent in quality of  government. The sudden change of government may bring change in the   power position of state. Hans Morgenthau notes that a good government always tries to maintain a distance between material and human resources that contribute to national power and it chooses that objectives and methods of  forting policies keeping in view the power available to support them. The government must also bring different elements of national power into balance with each other. The government must secure that approval and support of its   people for its foreign as well as domestic policies. It is nit enough for a government to marshal national public opinion in favor of its own policies. It must strive to gain support of public opinions of other countries in favor of its domestic and foreign policies. The power of a nation not only depends on the quality of diplomacy and armed force but also on the attractiveness of other  nations of the political particularly with regard to two super powers who represent two different political philosophy system of government way of life and compete with each other for gaining popular support of other nations in favor of its political favor political philos philosophi ophies es and social social and econom economic ic syste systems. ms. The quality if civil service is no less important.

 National character:   National character is an intangible element of national power. There in no denying the fact that stereotype views of national character may be highly misleading. But different nations tend to have their own mode of thinking and acting. Many nations have some distinct mental and moral qualities that make their national reality. The improvement of the quality of government is a  prime requisite for improving national morale.

 National prestige:

 

53 Joseph Frankel refers prestige as an element of national power. It helps the state to secure necessary social response from other. “Prestige is built upon the image formed formed by others of the state’s qualities.” qualities.” The qualities qualities enhancing international prestige change from time to time. Military strength, especially nucl nuclea earr power power and and econo economi micc power power is th thee basi basiss of nati nation onal al pres presti tige ge in international arena. A state upholding human rights and social justice enjoy greater international reputation. South Africa because of its apartheid policy has faced universal condemnation. The international strategic position of a state is also important in the measurement of national power. All the domestic el elem ement entss of powe powerr may may be mult multip ipli lied ed wi with th th thee outsi outside de suppo support rt.. Thus Thus international support acts a s a kind of multiplier to domestic support. No state not event the super powers are entirely self supporting. Each state depends upon military allies on friends in diplomacy and on foreign states for market and raw materials supply. Now both Soviet Union and USA compare with each other to secure friendship and good will of third world countries. South Africa Afr ica and Israel Israel feelin feeling g int intern ernati ational onal condemn condemnati ation on has suffer suffered ed loss loss of   power in global arena. There is no denying and excessive dependence on fore foreig ign n supp suppor ortt ma may y spel spelll dange danger. r. Yet in th thee pres present ent age age of in incr crea easi sing ng international value of such support must be calculated carefully.

 National morale:   National morale is more elusive less stable and yet important element of  nation nat ional al morale morale Morgen Morgentha thau u descri describes bes nation national al morale morale as the degree degree of  determination with which a nation morale as the degree of determination with which a nation lends support to its foreign policies. Frankel comments that’s “morale describes the extent to which the people support their leaders believe in th thee ri righ ghtn tnes esss of th thei eirr caus cause. e.”” It is depen dependen dentt on many many fa fact ctio ions ns and and circumstances as well as quality of national leadership. The national morale is  put to a test during national crisis especially during war. National morale is   big big.. When When th thee peopl peoplee cl clos osel ely y id iden enti tify fy th them emse selv lves es wi with th obje object ctiv ives es and activities of government. The national morale of a country torn by severe social and economic conflicts may be precarious state. Thus national unity and solidarity are essential ingredients for high national morale.

Chapter: 6 Balance of power 

Balance of power is the theory and policy of international relations that asserts that the most effective check on the power of a state is the power of other  states. In international relations the term state refers to a country with a

 

54 gover governm nmen entt and a popul populat atio ion. n. The The te term rm balan balance ce of power power refe refers rs to th thee distribution of power capabilities of rival states or alliances. For example the United States and the Soviet Union maintained equivalent arsenals of nuclear  weapons in the 1970s and 1980s which helped sustain a military balance of   power. Balance of power is the posture and policy of a nation or group of nations  protecting itself against another nation or group of nations by matching its   power against the power of the other side. States can pursue a policy of    balance of power in two ways by increasing their own power. As when engaging in an armament race or n the competitive acquisition of territory or   by adding to their own power that of other states as when embarking upon a  policy of alliances. Thee bala Th balanc ncee of powe powerr th theor eory y main mainta tain inss th that at when when one st stat atee or al alli lian ance ce increa inc reases ses its power power or applies applies it more more aggress aggressive ively ly threat threatene ened d states states will will increase their own power in response often by forming a counter balancing coalition. For example the rise of German power before and during words war  I (1914-1918) (1914-1918) and World World War II (1939-1945) (1939-1945) triggered triggered the formation formation of and antii German ant German coalit coalition ion consis consistin ting g of the Soviet Soviet Union Union Britai Britain n France France the United States and other countries.

Significance to international relations: As a policy valance of power suggests that states counter any threat to their  security by allying with other threatened states and by increasing their own military mili tary capabilities. capabilities. The policy policy of forming forming a geographicall geographically y based coalition of st stat ates es to su surr rrou ound nd an and d bl bloc ock k an ex expa pans nsio ioni nist st po powe werr is kn know own n as containment. For example the United States followed a containment policy towards the Soviet Union after World War II by building military alliance and  bases throughout Europe the Middle East and Asia. As a theory theory balance of power power predic predicts ts that rapid rapid changes in internati international onal   power and status especially attempts by one state to conquer a region will  provoke counterbalancing actions. For this reason the balancing process gelpf  to maintain the stability of relations between states. A balance of power system can function effectively in two different ways. First multiple states can form a valance of power when alliance are fluid that is when when th they ey ar aree easil easily y fo form rmed ed or brok broken en on th thee basi basiss of exped expedie ienc ncy y regardless of values, religion, history or form of government. Occasionally a single state plays a balancer role shifting its support to oppose whatever state or alliance is strongest. Britain played this role in Europe in the 18 th and 19th centur cen turies ies partic particula ularly rly in its relati relations ons with with France France,, Russia Russia,, and German Germany. y. Second two states can balance against each other by matching their increases

 

55 in military capability. In the cold war the Soviet Union and United States both expanded their nuclear arsenals to balance against each other. One weakness of the balance of power concept is the difficulty difficulty of measuring  power. Ultimately a state’s power derives from the size of its land mass,   population and its level of technology. But this potential power measured roughly by a states gross domestic product (GDP) translates imperfectly into military milita ry capabil capability ity.. The effect effective ive use of milita military ry force force depends depends on such such elements eleme nts as leadership, leadership, morale, geography and luck. Furthermore Furthermore leaders’ leaders’ misper mis percept ception ionss can seriou seriously sly distor distortt the calcul calculati ation on of power. power. During During the Viet Vietna nam m

War War

(1 (195 9599-19 1975 75))

fo forr

ex exam ampl plee

US

pres presid iden entt

co cons nsis iste tent ntly ly

underes unde restim timate ated d the str strengt ength h of the Vietna Vietnames mesee commun communist istss becaus becausee by conventional measures of power they were much weaker than the United States.

Balance of power is a doctrine of equilibrium:

In international relations a balance of power exists when there is parity or  stability between competing forces. As a tem in international law for a just equilibrium between the members of the family of nations it expresses the doctrine intended to prevent any one nation from becoming sufficiently strong so as to enable it to enforce e nforce its will upon the rest. Balance of power is a central concept in neorealist theory. Within a balance of   p pow ower er syst system em a st stat atee many many ch choo oose serr to en enga gage ge in ei eith ther er bala balanc ncin ing g or    ban bandw dwag agon on beha behavi vior or.. In a ti time me of war war th thee deci decisi sion on to bala balanc ncee or to  bandwagon may well determine the survival of the state. A doctrine of equilibrium: The basic principle involved in a balancing of political power as David Hume  pointed out in his essay on the balance of power is as old as history and was   perfe perfectl ctly y famil familiar iar to ancient ancient both both as politi political cal theori theorists sts and as practi practical cal statesmen. In its essence it is no more than a precept of commonsense born of  experience and the instinct of self preservation; for as Polybius very clearly  puts it. “Nor is such a principle to be despised nor should so great a power be allowed to any one as to make it impossible for you afterwards to dispute with him on equal terms, concerning your manifest rights.”

As Professor L. Oppenheim justly points out equilibrium between the various   powers which form the family of nations is in fact essential to the very existence of any international law. In the absence of any central authority the only sanction behind the code of rules established by custom or defined in

 

56 treaties known as international law is the capacity of the powers to hold each other in check. If this system fails nothing prevents any state sufficiently  powerful from ignoring the law and acting solely according to its convenience and its interests.

Historical perspective: Preserving the balance of power as a conscious Preserving conscious goal of forting policy though certainly known in the ancient world resurfaced in post medieval Europe among the Italian city states in the 15 th century. Francesco Sforza, duke of  Milan was the first ruler to actively pursue such a policy though historians have generally and incorrectly attributed the innovation to the Medici rulers of  Floren Flo rence ce whose whose praise praisess were were sung sung by the well well known known Floren Florentin tinee writer writerss  Niccolo Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini. Universalism which was the dominant direction of European international relations prior to the peace of Westphalia gave way to the doctrine of the  balance of power. The term gained significance after the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, where it was specifically mentioned. It was was no nott unti untill th thee begi beginn nnin ing g of th thee 17th cen centur tury y when the scienc sciencee of  international law assumed the discipline of structure in the hands of Grotius and his successors that the theory of the balance of power was formulated as a fundamental principle of diplomacy. In accordance with this new discipline the Europea European n states states formed formed a sort sort of federa federall commun community ity the fundam fundament ental al condition of which was the preservation of a balance of power i.e. such a disposition of things that no one state or potentate should be able absolutely to   predo predomin minate ate and prescr prescribe ibe laws laws to the rest. And since since all were equall equally y interested in this settlement it was held to be the interest the right and the duty of every power to interfere even by force of arms, when any of the conditions of this settlement were infringed upon or assailed by any other member of the community. This balance of power principle once formulated became an axiom upon the young Louis dc de Bourgogne. Frederick the great in his anti Machiavel  proclaimed the balance of power principle to the world. In 1806 Friedrich von Gentz re stated it with admirable clarity in fragments on the balance of power. The principle formed the basis of coalitions against Louis XIV and napoleon and the occasion or the excuse for most of the wars which Europe experienced   between the Peace of Westphalia 1648 and the congress of Vienna 1814 especially from the British vantage point. The term balance of power came into use to denote the power came into use to denote the power relationships in the European state system from the end of  the Napoleonic wars to world war I. within the European balance of power,

 

57 Great Britain played the role of the “balance” or “holder of the balance.” It was not permanently identified with the policies of nay European nation and it would throw its weight at one time on one side at another time on another side guided largely by one consideration the maintenance of the balance itself.  Naval supremacy and its virtual immunity from foreign invasion enabled great Britain to perform this function which made the European balance of power   both flexible and stable. The balance of power from the early 20th centur century y onward underwent drastic drastic changes that for all practical purposes destroyed the European power structure as it had existed since the end of the middle ages. Prior to the 20 th century the   polit political ical world was compos composed ed of a number number of separa separate te and indepe independen ndentt  balance of power systems such as the European the American the Chinese and the Indian. But World War I and its attendant political alignments triggered a  process that eventually culminated in the integration of most of the world’s nations into a single balance of power system. This integration began with the World War I alliance of Britain, France, Russia and the United States against Germany and Austria Hungary. The integration continued in World War II during which the fascist nations of Germany, Japan and Italy were opposed by a global alliance of the soviet union the United States Britain and china. World War II ended with the major weights in the balance of power having shifted from the traditional players in western and central Europe to just two non European ones the United States and the Soviet Union. The result was a  bipolar balance of power across the northern half of the globe that pitted the free market democracies of the west against the communist one party states of  Eastern Europe. More specifically the nations of Western Europe sided with the United States in the NATO military alliance, while the Soviet Union’s satellite allies in central and Eastern Europe became unified under soviet leadership in the Warsaw pact. Because the balance of power was now bipolar and because of the great disparity of power between the two superpowers and all other nations the European countries lost that freedom of movement that previously had made for a flexible system. Instead of a series of shifting and basically unpredictable alliances with and against each other the nations of Europe now clustered around the two superpowers and tended to transform themselves into two stable blocs. There were other decisive differences between the postwar balance of power  an and d it itss prede predece cess ssor or.. The The fe fear ar of mutu mutual al dest destru ruct ctio ion n in a gl glob obal al nucl nuclea ear  r  holocaust injected into the foreign policies of the United States and the Soviet Union a marked element of restraint. A direct military confrontation between the two superpowers and their allies on European soil was an almost certain

 

58 gateway to nuclear war and was therefore to be avoided at almost any cost. So instead direct confrontation was largely replaced by 1. a massive arms race whose lethal products were never used and 2. Political meddling or limited military interventions by the superpowers in various third world nations. During the greater part of the 19 th century the series of national upheavals which remodeled the map of Europe obscured the balance of power. Yet it underlay all the efforts of diplomacy to stay or to direct the elemental forces let loose by the French revolution. In the revolution’s aftermath, with the restor res torati ation on of compar comparati ative ve calm calm the princi principle ple once once more more emerge emerged d as the operative motive for the various political alliances of which the ostensible object was the preservation of peace. In the late 20th century some third world nations resisted the advances of the superpowers and maintained a nonaligned stance in international politics. The  breakaway  break away of china from soviet influence and its cultivation cultivation of a nonaligned nonaligned  but covertly anti soviet stance lent a further complexity to the bipolar balance of power. The most important shift in the balance of power began in 1989-90 howev however er when when th thee Sovie Soviett Unio Union n lo lost st contr control ol over over it itss east easter ern n Eu Euro rope pean an satellites and allowed non communist governments to come to power in those countries. The breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991made the concept of a European balance of power temporarily irrelevant since the government of  newly sovereign Russia embraced the political and economic forms favored  by the United United States States and Western Western Europe. Both Russia Russia and the United States retain retained ed their their nuclea nuclearr arsena arsenals ls however however so the balanc balancee of nuclear nuclear threat threat  between them remained potentially in force. From ancient times to world war II: Histor His torica icall exampl examples es of power power balanc balancing ing are found found throug throughout hout histor history y in various regions of the world leading some scholars to characterize balance of   power as a universal and timeless principle. During the period of the warring st stat ates es in china china (403 (403-2 -221 21 BC) BC) th thee devel developm opment ent of la larg rgee cohe cohesi sive ve st stat ates es accomp acc ompanie anied d the creati creation on of irriga irrigatio tion n syste systems, ms, bureauc bureaucrac racies ies and large large armies equipped with iron weapons. These Chinese states pursued power  through a constantly shifting network of alliances. In ancient Greece during the Peloponnesian war (431-404 BC), the rising power of Athens triggered the formation of a coalition of city states that felt threatened by Athenian power. The alliance led by Sparta succeeded in defeating Athens and resorting a  balance of power among Greek cities. In the 17th century the Hapsburg dynasty which ruled Austria and Spain threatened to dominate Europe. During the thirty years war (1618-1648) a coalition coali tion that included included Sweden England England France France and the Netherlands Netherlands defeated the rulers of the Hapsburg Empire. Early in the 19 th century French emperor 

 

59 napoleon I repeatedly made efforts to conquer large areas of Europe. A broad coalit coa lition ion a Europea European n states states includ including ing Britai Britain n Russia Russia Austri Austriaa and Pruss Prussia ia defeated France in a series of major battles that climaxed with napoleon’s defeat at the battle of waterloo in 1815. The classical European balance of power system emerged thereafter in an allian alliance ce known known as the concer concertt of Europe Europe organized organized in 1815 1815 by Austri Austrian an states sta tesman man Klemen Klemenss von Metter Metternic nich. h. This This loose loose allian alliance ce between between Britai Britain n Russia Austria Prussia and France ensured that a handful of great powers would coexist with none able to dominate the others. Under this system sand with Britain playing a balancer role peace largely prevailed in Europe during the 19th century. During world war II Germany’s rising power aggressive conquests and alliance with Italy and Japan triggered yet another coalition of  opposing states notably the capitalist democracies of Britain and the united states and the communist soviet union. In the nuclear age: The cold war standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union shaped the global balance of power after World War II. Although an actual war   between  betwe en these two superpowers superpowers never occurred occurred the balance balance of power process instead took the form of a massive arms race in which each superpower  respond res ponded ed by adding adding to their their milita military ry buildu buildup. p. The posses possessio sion n of large large arsenals of nuclear weapons by both the United States and the Soviet Union ensured that any potential war would prove disastrous for both. Because of the threatt to human survival posed by nuclear weapons military threa military strategists strategists often referred to the balance of power powe r as a balance of terror. During the cold war the US policy of containment encircled the Soviet Union with military and political alliances in Western Europe the Middle East and Southeast Asia. The major UD and soviet military interventions of the cold war in Korea Vietnam and Afghanistan took place in politically contested regions of the world where both superpowers jockeyed for influence. Small states sometimes benefited from the superpower competition. In the 1960s for  example relations soured between Cuba and the United States. At that time Cuba allied itself with the Soviet Union and received large economic and military subsidies. Balance of power today: The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the world’s sole superpower. Balance of power theory suggests that without the soviet threatt the United States as the dominant world power will face difficultie threa difficultiess in its relations relations with such states as china and the European European powers. For example example key countries such as china Russia France and Germany all opposed the United States invasion of Iraq in 2003 in diplomatic arenas such as the United

 

60   Natio Nations. ns. Yet thi thiss opposi oppositi tion on did not stop stop the United United States States from acting acting exposing the significant gap in military capability that now exists between the United States and the rest of the world. Small states that fear the United States are no longer able to join a counterbalancing coalition to protect their security. Instead many are developing nuclear weapons in an attempt to dramatically expand their military capability. For example North Korea claimed in 2003 that it was developing nuclear weapons to balance against US power. The changin changing g nature nature of power power in the contem contempor porary ary intern internati ational onal sy syste stem m furt furthe herr co comp mpli lica cate tess th thee oper operat atio ion n of th thee gl glob obal al bala balanc ncee of po powe wer. r. Glob Global aliz izat atio ion, n, th thee in inte tern rnet et,, weap weapon onss of mass mass dest destru ruct ctio ion n an and d ot othe her  r  technological developments have made it possible for small states and even non state groups to acquire significant power. These factors also dilute the relative relat ive importance importance of military military power. For example example after the terrorist terrorist attacks attacks of September 11, 2001, the united states assembled a broad coalition to invade Afghanistan using military force to topple the Taliban government gov ernment and end the Taliban’s support for Alqaeda terrorists. This application of military power  did not provoke a balancing coalition of other states but it also did not end the terrorist threat to the United States. In the future the balance of power many continue to operate among states engaged in prolonged disputes bur it is less applicable to conflicts involving terrorists and other non state groups group s

Chapter: 7 Foreign policy   Foreign policy: Foreign policy can be defined as relations between sovereign states. It is a reflec ref lectio tion n of domest domestic ic politi politicia cian n intera interacti ction on among among sovere sovereign ign states states.. It indicates the principles and preferences on which a country wants to establish relations with another country.   No country today can think of a life independent of other nations. Every co count untry ry has has to devel develop op re rela lati tion onss wi with th ot other her count countri ries es so as to meet meet it itss requir req uireme ements nts in econom economica icall indust industria riall and technol technologi ogical cal fields fields.. It is thus thus necessary for every country to formulate a sound foreign policy. Pakistan stage. It also has formulated her foreign policy keeping in mind its geography,  politics and economics. Pakistan’s foreign policy in light of QUAID-E-AZAM words The father of the nation QUAID-E-AZAM defined foreign policy towards other countries of the world in 1948as 194 8as follows: The vase of foreign policy id the friendship and good will for all the nations of  the world. We do not cherish aggressive designs against any country or nation.

 

61 We believe in the policy of honesty and fair play in national and international dealings and are prepared to make our utmost contribution to the promotion of   peace and prosperity among the nations of the world. Pakistan never be found lacking in extending its material and moral support to the oppressed and suppressed people of the world and in upholding the principles of the united nations charter. Basic goals of Pakistan's foreign policy The basic goals of paksitan’s forting policy are: 1. Mainte Maintenan nance ce of territ territori orial al integr integrity ity.. 2. Mainte Maintenan nance ce of its its politic political al indepe independe ndence. nce. 3. Accele Accelerat ration ion of social social and econom economic ic develop developmen ment. t. 4. Streng Strengthe thenin ning g its its place place on on the the globe. globe. 5. Keeping Keeping cordial cordial and friendly friendly relati relations ons with with all countries. countries. Guiding principles of paksitan’s foreign policy Following are the basic principles of Pakistan’s forting policy: 1. protec protectio tion n of freedo freedom m and sover sovereig eignty nty:: Pakistan came into being after great sacrifices of millions of Muslims like any other country it also considers with deep regard the need for preservation of its independence and does not allow any country to harm its freedom. Therefore the   principle of protection of independence and sovereignty is the corner stone of   paksitan’s foreign policy. 2. Better Better rela relati tions ons with with super super powe powers: rs: Pakistan has keen interested in keeping the congenial and better relations with all the big powers of the world as far as passive. But it also wants to keep itself away from the politics of super powers. Experience shows that involvement in the ideological and military conflicts between super powers has been always proved harmful for developing countries. 3. Cordia Cordiall relatio relations ns with with Muslim Muslim countr countries ies:: Pakistan has always tried to establish cordial and friendly relation with Muslim countries. It had regarded the problems of the Muslim world as its own problems and has always offered help and co-operation to solve them. It has always moved its concern against Israel, India and USSR capturing Palestine, Kashmir and Afghanistan Afghani stan respectively. respectively. It has shouldered high responsibi responsibiliti lities es and used its influe inf luence nce for safegu safeguard arding ing the rights rights of the Muslim Muslims. s. Pakist Pakistan an is also also active active member of the organization of Islamic conference. 4. Kash Kashm mir is issu sue: e: Pakistan in accordance with its foreign policy has been supporting the freedom struggle in Kashmir due to which Pakistan has been facing the enmity of India   persis persisten tently tly.. Pakist Pakistan an has been been suppor supporti ting ng the right right of self self determ determina inatio tion n for  Kashmiris and will continue to support.

 

62 5. Non Non int inter erfe fere renc nce: e: Pakistan has sought to establish normal and friendly relations with all countries especially acknowledge the principle of national sovereignty, nonuse of force, non interference in the internal affairs of states. 6. Implem Implement entati ation on of UN charter charter:: Paksitan’s policy is to act upon UN charter and to support all moves by the UN to implement it. Pakistan has been the member of UN since the year of its birth. 7. prom promot otio ion n of worl world d peac peace: e: Pakistan policy is to promote peace among nations. It has no aggressive designs against any country. Neither does it support any such action. Pakistan has always held that the international disputes should be settled through negotiations rather  than non battle field. 8. prom promot otio ion n of huma human n ri righ ghts ts:: Foreign policy of Pakistan is based on the principles that whatsoever human rights are condemned an effective voice must be raised in high tone. For instance Pakistan openly supported Afghanistan against Russian aggression. 9. no non n ali align gnm men entt: Pakistan follows the policy of non alignment i.e. to keep away from alignment with any big power bloc, and avoids taking sides any of them in the cold war. It has al also so gi given ven up it itss asso associ ciat atio ion n with with CENT CENTO O and and ha hass join joined ed non non al alig igned ned movement in 1979. 10. support for self determination and condemnation of racial discrimination: discrimination: Pakistan Pakist an is a staunch supporter of the right of self determination determination and has been in the fore front efforts to eliminate colonialism and racism. For instance it extended unconditional assistance to the course of liberation and self determination in Asia, Africa and Latin America. 11. regional regional cooperat cooperation: ion: IT has been Pakistan’s endeavor to establish peaceful and mutually beneficial relations with its neighboring countries. The country is firmly committed to the south Asian association for regional cooperation (SAARC) and economic regional coopera coop erati tion on (ECO) (ECO) and has contri contribut buted ed meanin meaningfu gfully lly to the establ establish ishmen ment, t, institutionalization, and progress of these associations. 12. nuclear nuclear non proliferat proliferation ion and disarmament disarmament:: Pakistan is deeply conscious of the fact that international peace and security can not be achieve achieved d and sustaine sustained d in the world with arm arms. s. Disarm Disarmame ament nt is the imperative condition for truly durable peace in the world. Pakistan has a vital stake in promotion of disarmament both in the nuclear and conventional fields. It is included in the principles of its foreign policy that a collective endeavor by counties at the regional level to promote disarmament and enhance security at the

 

63 lowest possible level of armaments its an indispensable result to their advocacy of  global disarmament. 13. member member of international international organizations organizations:: Pakistan Pakist an had become the member of the British British common wealth with the time of  its establishment. In addition it is the member of United Nation(UN), non aligned move mo veme ment nt (NAM (NAM), ), or orga gani nizat zatio ion n of Isla Islami micc conf confer eren ence ce (O (OIC IC), ), econo economi micc cooperation organization(ECO), south Asian association for regional cooperation (SAARC), association of south east Asian nations (ASEAN)and D-eight. Being a member of international organizations the objectives of Pakistan are to struggle fo forr worl world d peace peace,, to unify unify th thee Musl Muslim im coun countr trie iess an and d to prom promot otee regi regiona onall cooperation. 14. global economi economicc system: system: One of the basic principles of foreign policy of Pakistan is to establish a global economic system so that the developed countries could not exploit the developing world. Conclusion: The guiding principles of Pakistan’s foreign policy are rooted in the country’s Islamic ideology its rich cultural heritage and historical experience. As an Islamic and non aligned country, Pakistan supports Islamic causes and firmly upholds the above mentioned principles which hold out the promise of a just and equitable world order in which nations can lice in peace and security.

Factors determining the foreign policy of Pakistan: Some factors play important role to determine the foreign policy of country. Following are those important factors. 1. Pa Paki kist stan an’s ’s id ideol eolog ogy: y: Pakistan has an ideological basis. Pakistan was established with the sole objective of providing the south Asian Muslims with a homeland where the could live with dignity and honor. Thus the Pakistan ideology demands that Pakistan should establish friendly relations with all neighboring countries. 2. regi region onal al fac facto tors rs:: It is a natural factor that strategic importance of location of a country enhances its role in international economy and politics. For example Pakistan is the most important country of the region. Fall of the soviet empire brought about far  reaching changes in the world politics but even this change did not affect’s Pakistan’s position. 3. Isla Islami micc iden identi tity ty:: Islamic ideology is identity of Pakistan. As a part of global Muslim community Pakistan occupies a central place in the chain of Muslim countries stretching from Africa to Far East. QUAID-E-AZAM attached great importance to Pakistan’s

 

64 relations with the Muslim countries. On the other side all Muslim countries of the world, Arab and non Arab alike, look forward to Pakistan for guidance in their  cherished cause of establishing international Muslim brotherhood. 4. nati nation onal al bene benefi fits ts:: Foreign policy is determined considering national benefits. Pakistan also brings changes in its foreign policy according to its national benefits. LIAQUALT ALI KHAN’S KHAN ’S vi visi sitt in May May 19 1950, 50, cl clos osee rela relati tion onss wi with th west wester ern n co count untri ries es and membership of SEATO and CENTO reveal that Pakistan’s main concern was its security. Pakistan also became member of non aligned movement in September  1979 and mainta maintaine ined d good good relati relations ons with with all super super powers powers keeping keeping nation national al  benefits in its mind. 5. history: Histor His tory y of the nation nation contri contribut butes es muc much h in frami framing ng the foreig foreign n policy policy of the country. Similarly Pakistan’s relations with India are based on the history of sub continent. It is the history of Pakistan movement which proves India as our worst enemy. The general general public public thinks the same even though government policies policies are  being set to maintain good relations. 6. economy: Economicall Econom ically y independent independent countries are free to frame frame their foreign foreign policy. policy. They havee no pres hav pressu sure ress and bl black ack mail mailin ing g of supe superr power powers. s. On th thee ot other her hand hand economically weak countries are dictated by the USA to frame their foreign  policy. 7. co coun unty ty poli politi tics cs:: Forei For eign gn poli policy cy depe depends nds upon upon th thee poli policy cy of th thee ruli ruling ng part party y in democr democrat atic ic countries. Usually all political parties frame foreign policy of Pakistan keeping in view the interest of nation. 8. in inte tern rnat atio iona nall polit politic ics: s: These days this world has become global village. International politics, pacts, alliances, pressures, attitude of super powers are important factors of determining foreign policy.

Chapter: 8 Diplomacy

Diplomacy practices and institutions by which nations conduct their relations with one another.

Dipl Diplom omac acy y is th thee art art an and d prac practi tice ce of co cond nduc ucti ting ng nego negoti tiat atio ions ns betw betwee een n representatives of groups or states. It usually refers to international diplomacy, the

 

65 conduct cond uct of intern internati ational onal relati relations ons through through the interc intercess ession ion of profes professio sional nal diplomats with regard to issues of peace making, trade, war, economics and cultur cul ture. e. Intern Internati ational onal treati treaties es are usuall usually y negoti negotiate ated d by diplom diplomats ats prior prior to endorsement by national politicians. The word stems from the Greek word “diploma”, which literally means “folded in two”. In ancient Greece, a diploma was certificate certifying completion of a course of study typically folded in two. In the days of Roman Empire the word diploma was used to describe official travel documents, such as passports and   passes for imperial roads that were stamped on double metal plates. Later the meaning was extended to covert other official documents such as treaties with foreign tribes. In the 1700s the French called their body of officials attached to foreig for eign n legati legations ons the corps corps “diplo “diplomat matiqu ique”. e”. The word word “diplo “diplomac macy” y” was first first introduced into the English language by Edmund burke in 1796, based on the French word “diplomatie”. In an informal or social sense, diplomacy is the employment of tact to gain strategic advantage one set of tools being the phrasing of statements in a non confrontational or polite manner. Diplomats and diplomatic missions: A diplomat is some one involved in diplomacy; the collective term for a group of  dipl diplom omat atss fr from om a si sing ngle le count country ry who who are are resi reside dent nt in anot anothe herr count country ry is a diplomatic mission. Ambassador ids the most senior diplomatic rank; a diplomatic mission headed by an ambassador is known as an embassy. The collective body of  all diplomats of particular country is called that country’s diplomatic service. The collective body of all diplomats assigned to a particular country is the diplomatic corps.  Nature and purpose of diplomacy: Diplomacy id the established method of influencing the decisions and behavior of  foreign foreig n govern governmen ments ts and people peopless through through dialog dialogue, ue, negoti negotiati ation, on, and other  other  measures short of war or violence. Modern diplomatic practices are a product of  the post renaissance European state system. Historically diplomacy meant the conduct of official (usually bilateral) relations between sovereign states. By the 20th century, however the diplomatic practices pioneered in Europe had been adopted throughout the world, and diplomacy had expanded to cover summit meetin mee tings gs and other other intern internati ationa onall confere conference nces, s, parlia parliamen mentar tary y diplom diplomacy acy,, the int intern ernati ational onal activi activitie tiess of supran supranati ationa onall and sub nation national al entit entities ies,, unoffic unofficial ial diplomacy by non governmental elements and the work of international civil servants. The term diplomacy is derived via French from the ancient Greek “diploma” compos com posed ed of -diplo -diplo meaning meaning folded folded in two, two, and the suffix suffix –ma, meanin meaning g “an object”. The folded document conferred a privilege often a permit to travel on the

 

66   bearer and the term came to denote documents through which princes granted such favors. Later is applied to all solemn documents issued by chancelleries especially especi ally those containing containing agreements agreements between between sovereigns sovereigns.. Diplomacy Diplomacy later    became identified with international relations, and the direct tie to documents lapsed (except in diplomatics which is the science of authenticating old official docu docume ment nts) s).. In th thee 18th cent centur ury y th thee Fr Frenc ench h te term rm di dipl plom omat atee (dip (diplo loma matt or  diplomatist) came to refer to a person authorized to negotiate on behalf of a state.  Nature and purpose: Dipl Diplom omac acy y is of ofte ten n co conf nfus used ed with with fo fore reig ign n po poli licy cy bu butt th thee te term rmss are are not not synonymous. Diplomacy is the chief but not the only instrument of foreign policy which is set by political leaders, though diplomats (in addition to military and in inte tell llig igenc encee of offi fice cers rs)) may may advi advise se th them em.. Fo Fore reig ign n polic policy y esta establ blis ishes hes goal goals, s,  prescribes strategies and sets the broad tactics to be used in their accomplishment. It may employ secret agents, subversion, war or other forms of violence as well as diplomacy to achieve its objectives. Diplomacy is the principal substitute for the use of force or underhanded means in statecraft; it is how comprehensive national  power is applied to the peaceful adjustment of differences between states. It may  be coercive (i.e. backed by the threat to apply punitive measures or to use force)   but but is over overly ly nonvi nonviol olen ent. t. It Itss prim primar ary y to tool olss are are in inte tern rnat atio iona nall di dial alog ogue ue and and negotiation, primarily conducted by accredited envoys (a term derived from the French envoy meaning “meaning one who is sent”) and other political leaders. Unlike foreign policy which generally is enunciated publicly most diplomacy is conducted in confidence though both the fact that it is in progress and its results are almost always made public in contemporary international relations. The purpose of foreign policy is to further a state’s interests, which are derived which are derived from geography, history, economics and the distribution of  international power. Safeguarding national independence, security and integrityterrit territori orial, al, politi political cal,, econom economic ic and moral moral is viewed viewed as a country country’s ’s primar primary y obliga obl igati tion on follow followed ed preser preservin ving g a wide wide freedom freedom of action action for the state. state. The   political political leaders, traditiona traditionally lly of sovereign sovereign states, states, who devise foreign policy, policy,  pursue what they perceive to be the national interest, adjusting national policies to changes chan ges in extern external al condit condition ionss and techno technolog logy. y. Primar Primary y respons responsibi ibilit lity y for  supervising the execution of policy may lie with head of state or government, a cabinet or a nominally non governmental collective leadership the staff of the country’s leader, or a minister, who presides over the foreign ministry, directs  policy execution, supervises the ministry’s officials and instructs the country’s diplomats abroad. The purpose of diplomacy is to strengthen the state, nation, or organization it serves in relation to others by advancing the interests in its charge. To this end, diplomatic activity endeavors to maximize a group’s advantages without the risk 

 

67 and expe expens nsee of usin using g fo forc rcee an and d pref prefer erab ably ly wi with thou outt caus causin ing g rese resent ntme ment nt.. It habitually but not invariably strives to preserve peace’ diplomacy is strongly inclined towards negotiation to achieve agreements and resolve issues between stat states es.. Even Even in ti time mess of peac peace, e, di dipl plom omac acy y may may in invo volv lvee coerc coerciv ivee th thre reat atss of  economic or other punitive measure or demonstrations of the capability to impose unilateral solutions to disputes by the application of military power. However  diplomacy diplom acy normal normally ly seeks seeks to develo develop p goodwi goodwill ll toward toward the st state ate it repres represent entss nurtu nur turi ring ng rela relati tion onss wi with th fo fore reig ign n stat states es and and peopl peoples es th that at wi will ll ensu ensure re th thei eir  r  cooperation or failing that their neutrality. When diplomacy fails war may ensue’ however diplomacy is useful even during war. It conducts the passages from protest to menace, dialogue to negotiation, ult ultima imatum tum to repris reprisal al and war to peace peace and reconci reconcilia liatio tion n with with other other states states.. Diplomacy builds and tends the coalitions that deter or make war. It disrupts the alliances of enemies and sustains the passivity of potentially hostile powers. It contrives war’s termination and it forms strengthens and sustains the peace that follows conflict. Over the long term diplomacy strives to build an international order conducive to nonviolent resolution of disputes and expanded cooperation  between states. Diplomacy is the best means preserving peace which a society of sovereign nation nat ionss has offer offer but especi especiall ally y under under the condit condition ionss of contemp contempora orary ry world world  politics and of contemporary war, it is not good enough. It is only when nations have surrendered to a higher authority the means of destruction which modern technology has put in their hands destruction when they have given up their  sovereignty that international peace can be made as secure as domestic peace. Diplomacy can make peace more secure than it is today and the world state can make peace more secure than it would be it nations were to abide by the rules of  diplomacy. Yet as there can be no permanent peace without a world state there can be no permanent peace without a world state without the peace preserving and community building processes of diplomacy. For the world state to be more than a dim vision the accommodating processes of diplomacy mitigating and minimizing conflicts, must be revived. Whatever one’s conception of the ultimate state of  international affairs may be in the recognition of that need and in the demand that it be met all men of good will can join. Diplomats are the primary bur far from the only practitioners of diplomacy. They are specialists in caring messages and negotiating adjustments in relations and the resolu res olutio tion n of quarre quarrels ls betwee between n st state atess and people peoples. s. Their Their weapons weapons are words words  backed by the power of the state or organization they represent. Diplomats help leader lea derss to underst understand and the attitu attitudes des and action actionss of foreig foreigner nerss and to develo develop p strategies and tactics that will shape the behavior of foreigners, especially foreign governments. The wise use of diplomats is a key to successful foreign policy.

 

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Four tasks of diplomacy: Diplomacy is an element of national power. The importance of diplomacy for the   prese preserva rvati tion on of intern internati ationa onall peace peace is but a parti particula cularr aspect aspect of that that general general function. For a diplomacy that ends in war has failed in its primary objective: the  promotion of the national interest by peaceful means. This has always been so and is particularly so in view of the destructive potentialities of total war. Taken in its widest meaning, comprising the whole range of foreign policy, the task of diplomacy is fourfold: 1. Diplomacy Diplomacy must must determine determine its its objective objectivess in the light light of the the power actuall actually y and potentially available for the pursuit of these objectives. 2. Dipl Diplom omacy acy must must asse assess ss the obje object ctiv ives es of ot othe herr na nati tion onss and and th thee powe power  r  actually and potentially available for the pursuit of these objectives. 3. Diplom Diplomacy acy must determ determine ine to what extent extent these these differe different nt objec objectiv tives es are compatible with each other. 4. Diplomacy Diplomacy must must employ employ the means means suited suited to the pursuit pursuit of its its objectives. objectives. Failure in any one of these tasks may jeopardize the success of foreign policy and with it the peace of the world. A nation that sets itself goals which it has not the power to attain may have to face the risk of war on two counts. Such a nation is likely to dissipate its strength and not to be strong enough at all points of friction to deter a hostile nation from challenging it beyond endurance. The failure of its foreign policy may force the nation to retrace its steps and to redefine its objectives in view of its actual strength. Yet it is more likely that, under the pressure of an inflamed public opinion such a nation will go forward on the road toward an unattainable goal, strain all its resources to achieve it, and finally confounding the national interest with that goal seek in war the solution to a problem that cannot be solved by peaceful means. A nation will also invite war if its diplomacy wrongly assesses the objectives of  other nations and the power at their disposal. A nation that mistakes a policy of  the status quo will be the other nation’s policy entails. Its weakness will invite attack and may make war inevitable. A nation that mistake a policy of the status quo for a policy of imperialism will evoke through its disproportionate reaction the very danger of war which it is trying to avoid. For as A mistakes Bs policy imperialism, so B might mistake A’s defensive reaction for imperialism. Thus  both nations each intent upon forestalling imaginary aggression from the other  side, will rush to arms. Similarly the confusion of one type of imperialism with another may call for disproportionate reaction and thus evoke the risk of war. As for the assessment of the power of other nations, either to overrate to underrate it may be equally fatal to the cause ca use of peace. By overrating the power of B, A may

 

69   prefer to yield to B’s demands until finally A is forced to fight for its very existence under the most unfavorable conditions. By underrating the power of  B ,a may become become overco overconfi nfiden dentt in it itss assume assumed d superi superiori ority. ty. A may advanc advancee demands and impose conditions upon B which the latter is supposedly too weak  to resist. Unsuspecting B’s actual power of resistance, A may be faced with the alternative of either retreating or conceding defeat of advancing and risking war. A nation that seeks to pursue and intelligent and peaceful foreign policy cannot cease comparing its own objectives and the objectives of other nations in the light of their compatibility. If they are compatible no problem arises. If they are not compatible nation A must determine whether its objectives are so vital to itself  that they must be pursued despite that incompatibility with the objectives of B. if  it is found that A’s vital interests can be safeguarded without the attainment of  these objectives, they ought to be abandoned. On the other hand if A finds that these objectives are essential for its vital interests, a must then ask itself whether  B’s objectives, incompatible with its own are essential for B’s vital interests. If  the answer seems to be in the negative, A must try to induce B to abandon its objectives offering B equivalents not vital to A. in other words through diplomatic  bargaining the give and take of compromise a way must be sought by which the interests of A and B con be reconciled. Finally, if the incompatible objectives of A and B should prove to be vital to either side a way might still be sought in which the vital interests of A and B might be redefined, reconciled and their objectives thus made compatible with each other. Here however even provided that both sides pursue intelligent and  peaceful policies A and B are moving dangerously close to the brink of war. It is the final task of an intelligent diplomacy intent upon preserving peace to choose choo se the appropri appropriate ate means means for pursuing pursuing it itss object objective ives. s. The means means at the disposal of diplomacy are three: persuasion, compromise, and threat of force. No diplomacy relying only upon the threat of force can claim to be both intelligent and peacef peaceful. ul. No diplom diplomacy acy that that would would stake stake everyt everythin hing g on persua persuasio sion n and compromise deserves to be called intelligent. Rarely if ever in the conduct of the foreign policy of a great power is there justification for using only one method to the exclusion of the others. Generally the diplomatic representative of a great  power in order to be able to serve both the interests of his country and the interests of peace must at the same time use persuasion hold out the advantages of  a compromise and impress the other side with the military strength of his country. The art of diplomacy consists in putting the right emphasis at any particular  moment on each of these three means at its disposal. A diplomacy that has been succes suc cessfu sfull lly y discha discharge rged d in its other functi function on may well fail fail in advanci advancing ng the national interest and preserving peace if it stresses persuasion when the give and take of compromise is primarily required by the circumstances of the case. A

 

70 diplomacy that puts most of its eggs in the basket of compromise when the milita mil itary ry might might of the nation nation should should be predom predomina inantl ntly y displa displayed yed,, or str stress esses es military might when the political situation calls for persuasion and compromise, will like wise fail. History of diplomacy: As soon as people organized themselves into separate social groups the necessity of regularizing contacts with representatives of other groups became apparent. Event the earliest civilizations had rules for interaction. A. Ea Earl rly y develo developm pmen ent: t: The first civilization to develop an orderly system of diplomacy was ancient Greece. Ambassadors and special missions were sent from city to city to deliver  messages and warnings to transfer gifts and to plead the cases of their own people   before the rules of other city states. These diplomatic missions however were occasional and sporadic. With the decline of Greece and the rise of the Roman Empire the Greek system of  diplomacy disappeared. As Rome expanded its diplomacy served the purposes of  conquest and annexation. The Romans were not inclined to coexist with other  stat states es on th thee basi basiss of mutu mutual al in inte tere rest sts. s. Ro Rome me is issu sued ed comm command ands; s; it di did d not negotiate. For al almo most st a th thous ousand and year yearss af afte terr th thee fa fall ll of Rome Rome,, Euro Europea peans ns th thoug ought ht of  themselves not as member of separate nations but rather as members of smaller  groups vaguely bound to some feudal overlord. Although localities had relations from time to time, no record exists of any formal diplomatic practices during the middle ages. B. Renais Renaissan sance ce diplom diplomacy acy:: Modern diplomacy had its origins during the Italian renaissance. Early in the 15 th century a group of city states developed in Italy, but none could dominate the rest and all feared conquest by the others. The rulers of most of the city states gained their positions through force and cunning. Because they could not count on the loyalty of their subjects, these rulers hoped to maintain allegiance by seeking foreign conquest and treasure. They sought opportunities to increase their power  and expand their domain and were always concerned concerned about the balance balance of power  on the Italian peninsula. Although renaissance diplomacy was especially vicious and amoral the Italian city states developed a number of o f institutions and practices that still exist: 1. They introd introduced uced a system system of permanent permanent ambassad ambassadors ors who represented represented the interests of their stated by observing, reporting and negotiating. 2. Each state state created created a foreign foreign office office that evaluated evaluated the writt written en reports reports of the the ambassadors, sent instructions helped to formulate policies, and kept vast records.

 

71 3. Togeth Together er they develop developed ed an elabor elaborate ate system system of protocol protocol,, privil privileges eges and immuni imm unitie tiess for diplom diplomats ats.. Ambass Ambassado adors rs and their their staffs staffs were were grante granted d freedom of access, transit and exit at all times. Local laws could not be used to impede an ambassador in carrying out duties, but ambassadors could be held accountable if they actually committed crimes such as theft or murder. 4. The concept concept of extraterr extraterritori itoriality ality was was establis established. hed. Under this this principl principlee an embassy in any state stood on the soil of its own homeland and anyone or  any thing with in the embassy compound was subject only to the laws of  its own country. C. diplomacy diplomacy in in the European European state state syste system: m: The rise of nation states in 17 th century Europe led to the development of the concepts of national interest and the balance of power. The former concept meant that the diplomatic objectives of nations should be based on state interests and not on personal ambition, rivalries, sentiment, religious doctrine or prejudice. For  example gaining access to raw materials was in the national interest. The balance of power theory was based on a general interest in maintaining the state system by seeking an equilibrium power among the most powerful nations. That diplomacy could be used to pursue both sets of interests was soon apparent. Increasingly the  presence of the major powers became a staple in international politics. Although small countries might disappear as Poland did when w hen it was partitioned in the 18the century the great powers sought to manage their relations without threatening one anoth ano ther er’s ’s surv surviv ival al.. At th thee same same ti time me Euro Europe pean an di dipl plom omat atss were were beco becomi ming ng increasingly professional and learned. The seamier side diplomacy the bribing, lying and deceiving was gradually replaced by a code of expected and acceptable conduct. The Europea European n sy syste stem m of diplom diplomacy acy suffer suffered ed its first shock shock when when napole napoleon on attempted to conquer Europe in the early 19 th century. After napoleon’s defeat the European system was restored and no major wars occurred for the next hundred years. D. th thee new dip diplo loma macy cy:: in 1914 the countries of Europe were thrust into another violent confrontation. The carnage of World War I brought the European system of diplomacy into disrepute. US president Woodrow Wilson was the chief critic of the European diplomatic system and the proponent of a new type of open diplomacy and collective colle ctive security. security. Wilson’s Wilson’s primary targets were the theory and practice of the  balance of power, the distinction between great and small powers, the pursuit of  national interests, secret agreements and treaties and professional diplomats. In place of the old system Wilson offered a “new diplomacy” in his fourteen  points.  point s. Open covenants covenants would be drafted drafted in internation international al conferences conferences with great

 

72 and small countries participating on an equal basis. Peace would be maintained by making national boundaries coincide with ethnic boundaries. All members of the international community would pledge to fight for these boundaries against any nation nat ion that that used used force force to change change them. them. Countr Countries ies would would pursue pursue commun communit ity y interests instead of national interests and submit their disputes with each other to international arbitration for peaceful resolution. Many of Wilson’s ideas were incorporated in to the 1919 treaty of Versailles (see treat of Versailles) and the League of Nations. After the United States rejected the league and returned to a policy of isolationism, however, the European stated reverted to the balance of power system and the pursuit of national interests through professional diplomats. During world war II, the US president Franklin D. Roosevelt again sought to establish a new type of diplomacy, but he and the British prime minister Winston Churchill built the postwar international order on the basis of agreements with the soviet leader Joseph Stalin that conformed more to the old European system than to the new ideas embodied in the Atlantic charter and the united nations. Although the United Nations remains a symbol of what a new diplomatic system might be international politics since the end of World War II has adhered closely to the Euro Eu rope pean an model model and has has in par partt retu return rned ed to some some of th thee wors worstt aspe aspect ctss of  renaissance diplomacy.

Diplomatic machinery: The conduct of relations with other countries has three requirements: 1. An establi establishm shment ent in the home country country to formulat formulatee policy policy and instru instruct ct  personnel sent. 2. An establ establis ishm hmen entt ab abro road ad fr from om whic which h conta contact ct are made made in the fo fore reig ign n country. 3. And pers personn onnel el to to make make the syst system em work work.. Over the centur centuries ies these these three three requis requisite itess for diplom diplomacy acy became became increa increasin singly gly   professional and bureaucratic. By the 17th and 18th centuries domestic foreign affairs establishments were fairly well developed. In the 19th century corps of  diplom dip lomats ats increa increasin singly gly were were chosen chosen by compet competiti itive ve examin examinati ations ons.. Althoug Although h amba am bass ssad ador orss were were of ofte ten n sele select cted ed on a po poli liti tica call basi basiss th they ey fo foun und d hi high ghy y  professional staffs waiting for them at their embassies abroad and they dealt with other skilled staffs when they reported to their home offices. A. depart departments ments of foreign foreign affairs: affairs: Government agencies that deal with foreign affairs are usually called the ministry or department of foreign or external affairs. In the US foreign affairs if handled by the department of state. Such department is headed by the foreign secretary (or in the US by the secretary of state). In democracies the foreign secretary is always a

 

73   politi political cal appoin appointee tee who is select selected ed by the nation nation’s ’s leader leaders. s. Drawin Drawing g on the expertise with the department and its establishments abroad, the secretary advises the head of state on matters of foreign policy helps formulate and coordinate  policy and administers the agency over which he or she presides. At times the foreign secretary is also directly involved in negotiations with other nations. A small number of politically appointed undersecretaries and assistant secretaries aid in running the department. Departments of foreign affairs usually are divided into geographic and functional divisions. The former consists of bureaus for major geographic areas that are then   broken broken down down into into smalle smallerr divisi division on and ultima ultimatel tely y int into o countr country y desks. desks. Desks Desks officers are career diplomats who specialize in various aspects of the country to which they are assigned. Instructions to and reports from embassies abroad are handled first by the country desks. The functional division deals with problems or  issues that do no appropriately fall under the domain of any one country: trade, int intern ernati ational onal organi organizat zation ion,, human human right rights, s, intell intellige igence, nce, public public inform informati ation, on, int intern ernati ational onal law and passpo passports rts and visas. visas. Coordin Coordinati ation on of policy policy betwee between n geographic and functional divisions is a continually perplexing problem. Departments of foreign affairs also have an administrative section that is in charge of running the agency. This section deals with internal matters such as budget allocations, personnel recruitment and management, training and logistics. In an age of interdependence and total diplomacy foreign affairs departments must coordinate their activities with the foreign activities of other government agencies. Treasury departments for example increasingly involved in negotiations over trade and money. Agricultural departments are concerned with foreign trade and world food problems. problems. Defense establishments establishments are involved involved in supporting foreign governments abroad and training their armed forces. Intelligence agencies  provide head of state with alternate sources of information about other countries. In some cases a foreign minister has trouble merely keeping informed of all the activities the nation is engaged in abroad. B. fo fore reig ign n miss missio ions ns:: The embassy abroad or foreign mission is headed by an ambassador assisted by a career diplomat who serves as deputy or first secretary. The deputy secretary oversees and subordinates the work of the staff and assumes the responsibilities of  thee mi th miss ssio ion n as ch char arge ge d’ d’af affa fair ires es when when ev ever er th thee amba ambass ssad ador or is away away or  incapacitated or is between ambassadorial assignments. A mission is organized in to a series of functional sections that observe report and deal with with issues issues in their their respect respective ive areas. areas. Mist Mist missio missions ns contai contain n secti section on for   political affairs, economic and commercial affairs, information and culture affairs, consular affairs and administrative matters. In addition a mission usually includes a number of attaches from other government departments. Military, air and naval

 

74 attache attachess have tradit tradition ionall ally y been been assign assigned ed to fortin forting g missio missions ns but agricu agricultu ltural ral commercial labor and cultural attaches are becoming increasingly common. Missions Missi ons are staffed staffed largely b Foreign Foreign Service Service officers with the exception exception of the attaches who are drawn from their respective agencies back home. The secretaries and clerical staff come from a separate civil service corps. Citizens of the host country may be hired as translators or for non sensitive jobs. The activities of a diplomatic mission are extremely varied. They range from such serious tasks as negotiating issues of great political significance and reporting and commenting on important events in the foreign country to meeting with foreign students, arranging itineraries of exhibits about life in the home country and issuing visas. In addition to their diplomatic and political chores missions are also in charge of  the consular work of the home government. Consular operations are concerned with wit h the econom economic ic and commer commercia ciall relati relations ons betwee between n the nation nations; s; origin originall ally y diplomatic and consular chores were kept strictly separate because early theorists felt that national matters. Thus two separate services diplomatic and combined these two services and a single corps of professional civil servants serves in both areas. Consular work involves a variety of activities. Consuls issue birth, death and marriage certificates to citizens residing or traveling in the foreign country. Consular officers also regulate shipping, aid their country’s citizens when they travel on business or as tourists, and report on economic and business conditions abroad. Activities are often carried out in consulates located in major trading and commercial cities as well as in the capital city. C. th thee forei foreign gn serv servic ice: e: Today most nations staff their foreign services with career civil servants who are selected on the basis of competitive examinations. Until recent times however  Foreign Service personnel were political appointees often from noble or wealthy famili fam ilies es who could could afford afford the conside considerab rable le expense expense that that a lif lifee of diplom diplomati aticc activity entailed. In the 1850s Britain Britain and France instituted instituted competitive competitive examinatio examinations ns for posts in the diplomatic corps but low salaries restricted the number of persons who could afford to enter the service. In Britain all candidates had to guarantee a personal income of ₤ 400 for at least the first two years. The examinations employed by the Europe Eur opean an powers powers were were extrem extremely ely diffi difficul cultt requir requiring ing fl fluenc uency y in at least least two fo fore reig ign n la lang ngua uages ges.. Si Since nce Worl World d War War II sala salari ries es an and d al allo lowa wance ncess have have been been increased so that persons of all means may enter the diplomatic service. The spoils system dominated the US Foreign Service until 1924, when the Rogers act combined the consular and diplomatic service, established difficult completive exami exa minat natio ions ns fo forr en entr try y in into to th thee Fo Fore reig ign n Se Serv rvic icee and and in inst stit itut uted ed a sy syst stem em of    promotion on merit. Each year approximately 25,000 people take the Foreign

 

75 Service examination about 250, 1percent pass it and are accepted in the service. About 10,000 persons are in the Foreign Service some 2000 work in the US and 8000 serve in foreign countries or international organizations. Although career officers dominate the diplomatic corps, there is usually room for  somee non career som career person personnel nel.. In the united united stated stated for exampl examplee highly highly skilled skilled specialists may be recruited as Foreign Service reserve officers, although their  tenure may be limited to five or ten years. Many nations appoint distinguished distinguished citizens citizens who are not career officers officers to serve as ambassadors. American administrations have long used ambassadorships in lead leadin ing g count countri ries es as poli politi tica call rewa reward rds. s. Usua Usuall lly y howev however er ambas ambassa sador dorss are are disti dis tingui nguishe shed d men and women women fr from om busine business, ss, law, law, politi politics cs or aca academ demic ic lif life. e. Career Car eer office officers rs predom predomina inate te numeri numerical cally; ly; in the US about about two thirds thirds of all ambassadors are career diplomats. Diplomatic conventions: Thee modes Th modes and conve convent ntio ions ns of di dipl plom omac acy y are are hi highl ghly y st styl yliz ized ed and fo form rmal al.. Language always tends toward understatement and emotion charged words are taboo. The etiquette and manners of diplomatic meetings are carefully prescribed. The privileges and immunities of diplomats are found in conventions and treaties that have evolved over a long period. Whenever etiquette is breached a diplomatic rebuff occurs. Although this formality and ceremony has an air of make believe it server a practical purpose: it allows diplomats to deal with issues of war and  peace in a calm and unemotional manner. In the tense hours of crisis, a cool head tact and good humor are necessary. A. prot protoc ocol ol:: Detail Det ailed ed and univer universal sally ly accepte accepted d convent convention ionss exist exist concer concernin ning g most most of the formal ways in which countries interact. In the early days of the nation state sy syst stem em th thee depar departu ture re of an ambas ambassa sado dorr was was a cere ceremo moni nial al event event as was th thee ambass amb assado ador’s r’s recept reception ion by a head head of state. state. Becaus Becausee ambass ambassador adorss person personall ally y represent the heads of their governments the relations among ambassadors with in a country country have always always involved issues of prestige. Thus such details details as where an ambass amb assado adorr rode rode in a proces processio sion n or which which ambass ambassador ador enter entered ed a room room first first assumed great significance. Such issues plagued European courts until they were resolved at the congress of  Vienna in 1815 and the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818 and more recently at the Vienna meetings to draft a convention on diplomatic relations in 1961. as a result of these meetings diplomats were divided into three classes: 1. Ambass Ambassador adors, s, legates legates and papal nuncio nuncioss who are always always accred accredit ited ed to heads of state. 2. envoys, envoys, minister ministerss and other other persons persons accredite accredited d to heads of the state state and and 3. Charges Charges d affairs affairs who who are accredi accredited ted to minist ministers ers of foreign foreign affai affairs. rs.

 

76 Only members of the first class represent their nation’s leader. Precedence among representatives in a capital is now based on seniority with in its diplomatic corps. The most senior member of that corps is designated the doyen or dean. The doyen usuall usua lly y repres represent entss the entire entire diplom diplomati aticc corps corps at ceremo ceremonia niall functi functions ons and in matters of diplomatic privileges and immunities. The most concise digest of the   proto protocol col of the diplom diplomacy acy is the Vienna Vienna convent convention ion on diplom diplomati aticc relati relations ons,, consisting of 53 short articles completed under UN auspices. B. privil privilege egess and immu immunit nities ies:: From Fro m the earlie earliest st times, times, privil privilege eges, s, and courtes courtesies ies were were extend extended ed to visit visiting ing heralds and envoys. Currently the privileges and immunities of diplomats are highly developed and universally accepted. For centuries the territory on which a foreign mission stood was considered an island of sovereignty of the home state. Under the Vienna convention of 1961 this is no longer the case. The premises premises of missions missions are inviolable, inviolable, however and host states must accord full facilities to enable diplomatic missions to perform their  functions. Citizens of the host state may not enter a mission without the consent of it itss seni senior or of offi fici cial al.. Miss Missio ions ns are are im immu mune ne from from sear search ch,, requ requis isit itio ion n an and d atta attachm chmen entt and nati nation onss have have a spec specia iall duty duty to prot protec ectt any mi miss ssio ion n agai agains nstt in intr trus usio ion n or damag damage. e. This This lo long ng accep accepte ted d prin princi cipl plee was was vi viol olat ated ed in Iran Iran in  November 1979, when a group of Iranians invaded the US embassy and held some 50 staff members hostage for 14 months. Freee commun Fre communica icati tion on betwee between n the missio mission n and the host governm government ent must must be  permitted. Diplomatic couriers may not be detained and diplomatic bags may not   be opened or detained. Host government must also secure these rights against their own citizens if necessary. Diplomatic agents and their staffs are not liable to any form of arrest or detention; diplomats are immune from criminal laws and in most cases from civil and administrative jurisdictions well. They are exempt from all direct taxes in the host state. Immunity from the laws of a host state does not exempt diplomats from the laws and jurisdiction of their home states, however. Those Tho se who commit crimes are almost alm ost always always sent sent home home as person personaeae-nonnon-gra gratae tae.. Diplom Diplomats ats enjoyi enjoying ng their  their   privileges and immunities are duty bound to respect the laws and regulations of  the host state and to refrain from interfering in its internal affairs. In the event of war the host state must grant facilities to enable diplomats from  belligerent nations to leave the country. If diplomatic relations broken off with another nation the host state must still respect and protect the mission premises. When relations are broken of the countries in question usually entrust the custody of their missions and interest to some third party acceptable to both. C. langua language ge of diplom diplomacy acy::

 

77 Until the 17th century Latin was the language of diplomacy because it was the universal language of all educated Europeans. From the 17 th century on however, Fr Fren ench ch in incr crea easi sing ngly ly beca became me th thee la lang ngua uage ge of di dipl plom omac acy y beca becaus usee of th thee  preeminence  preem inence of France in Europe the precision precision of the language and its use as the country language throughout Europe. The US entry into World War I marked the rise of English as a second language of diplomacy. During the interwar period the records of the League of Nations were kept in English and French. After World War II the framers of the UN sought to create a five language system. Simultaneous translations of French, English, Russian, Spanish and Chinese take place at all meetings. Most UN documents however are published only in French, English and Spanish. When treaties or conventions are drafted the parties designate one language usually Fr Fren ench ch or Engl Englis ish h as th thee basi basiss fo forr an any y di disc scus ussi sion onss ab abou outt mean meanin ings gs or  interpretations. D. diplom diplomati aticc negotiat negotiation ions: s: Although negotiations have traditionally been left to professional diplomats, very important negotiations are increasingly being undertaken by specially selected envoys or foreign ministers and by heads of state. Recent examples of this trend were the shuttle diplomacy of the US secretary of state Henry Kissinger in the Middle East and president jimmy carter’s personal involvement in negotiating a  peace treaty between the Egyptian president Anwar-al-Sadat and the Israeli Prime Minister Menachem begin. Resident diplomats however still do almost all the day to day negotiating and interacting with leaders of others states. Thee prob Th proble lem m of deci decidi ding ng wi with th pract practic ices es and ta tact ctic icss are are most most ef effe fect ctiv ivee in negot neg otia iati ting ng is di diff ffic icul ult. t. The The Germ German an-Am -Amer eric ican an polit politic ical al scie scient ntis istt Hans Hans.. J Morgenthau is his book politics among nations (1948) perhaps best summed up ideal of modern diplomacy: 1. Diplomacy Diplomacy must be diveste divested d of its crusading crusading spiri spirit. t. 2. The object objective ivess of foreign foreign policy policy must be define defined d in terms terms of the nationa nationall interest and must supported with adequate power. 3. Dipl Diplom omacy acy must must lo look ok at th thee si situ tuat atio ion n from from the point point of view view of other  other  nation. 4. Nation Nationss must be willing willing to comprom compromise ise on all iss issues ues that that are not vital vital to them. 5. The armed armed forces forces are the the instrumen instrumentt of foreign foreign policy policy not its master master.. 6. The governmen governmentt is the leader leader of public opinion opinion not its slave. Diplomacy and espionage: Diplomacy is closely linked to espionage or gathering of intelligence. Embassies are bases for both diplomats and spies and some diplomats are essentially openly acknowledged spies. For instance the job of military attaches includes learning as

 

78 much as possible about the military of the nation to which they are assigned. They do not try to hide this role and as such are only invited to events allowed by their  hosts such as military parades or air shows. There are also deep cover spies operating in many embassies. These individuals are given fake positions at the emba em bass ssy y but but th thei eirr main main ta task sk is to il ille legal gally ly gath gather er in inte tell llig igen ence ce usua usuall lly y by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. For the most part spies operating out of embassies gather little intelligence themselves and their identities tend to be known by the opposition. If discovered these diplomats can be expelled from an embassy but for the most part counter intelligence agencies prefer to keep these agents in situ and under close monitoring. Thee in Th info form rmat atio ion n gathe gathere red d b spie spiess pl play ayss an in incr crea easi sing ngly ly im impo port rtan antt role role in diplom dip lomacy acy.. Arms Arms contro controll treati treaties es wou would ld be imposs impossibl iblee withou withoutt the power power of  reconnaissance satellites and agents to monitor compliance. Information gleaned from espionage is useful in almost all forms of diplomacy everything from trade agreements to border disputes.

Diplomatic resolutions of problems: Various processes and procedures have evolved over time for handling diplomatic issues and disputes. A. arbit arbitrat ration ion and media mediatio tions: ns:  Nations sometimes resort to international arbitration when faced with a specific questions or point of contention in need of resolution. For most of history there were no official or formal procedures for such proceedings. They were generally accepted to abide by general principles and protocols related to international law and justice. Some times times these took the form of formal formal arbitration arbitration and mediation. mediation. In such cases a commission of diplomats might be convened to hear all sides of an issue and to come some sort of ruling based on international law. In the modern era much of this work is often carried out by the international court of justice at The Hague or other formal commissions’ agencies and tribunals working under the United Nations. Below are some examples. B. co conf nfer eren ence ces: s: other oth er ti times mes resolu resolutio tions ns were were sought sought through through the conveni convening ng of int intern ernati ational onal confere conf erence nces. s. In such such cases cases there there are fewer ground ground rules, rules, and fewer fewer formal formal applications of international law. However participants are expected to guide themselves through principles of international fairness, logic and protocol. Some examples of these formal conferences are: A. Congre Congress ss of Vienna Vienna (1815) after after napoleon napoleon was defeated defeated there there were many diplomatic questions waiting to be resolved. This included the shape of the map of Europe, the disposition of political and nation nat ionali alist st claim claimss of variou variouss ethnic ethnic groups groups and nation nationali alitie tiess

 

79 wishing to have some political autonomy and the resolution of  various claims by various European powers. B. The congre congress ss of Berlin Berlin (June (June 13-july 13-july 13, 1878) 1878) was a meeting meeting of  the Europea European n great great powers powers and the Ottoma Ottoman n Empir Empire’s e’s leadin leading g statesmen in Berlin in 1878. in the wake of the Russo Turkish war  1877-78 the meeting’s aim was to reorganize conditions in the

C.

Balkans. Sometimes na nations co convene of official ne negotiation pr processes to to se settle an an is issue or or   dispute between several nations which are parties to a dispute. These are similar  to the conferences mentioned above as there are technically no established rules or procedures. However there are general principles and precedents which help define a course for such proceedings. Some examples are. A. Camp Camp Davi David d accor accord d conve convened ned in 1978 1978 by presid presiden entt jimm jimmy y cart carter er of th thee Unit United ed St Stat ates es at Camp Camp Davi David d to reac reach h an agreement between Prime Minister Mecheem begin of Israel and and pres presiide dent nt Anwa Anwarr Sada Sadatt of Egy Egypt pt.. Aft After week weekss of  negotiation agreement was reached and accords were signed later leading directly to the Israel Egypt peace treaty of 1979. B. Tr Trea eaty ty of Port Portsm smou outh th en enac acte ted d af afte terr Pr Pres esid iden entt Th Theo eodo dore re Rooseve Roos evelt lt brought brought togeth together er the delega delegates tes from from Rus Russia sia and Japan to settle the Russo Japanese war. Informal diplomacy: Informal diplomacy (sometimes called track II diplomacy) has been used for  centuries to communicate between powers. Most diplomats work to recruit figures in ot othe herr nati nations ons who mi migh ghtt be ab able le to gi give ve in info form rmal al acces accesss to a count country ry’s ’s leadership. In some situations such as between the United States and the people’s republic of china a large amount of diplomacy is done through semi formal channel chan nelss using using interl interlocu ocutor torss such such as academ academic ic member memberss of think think tanks. tanks. This This occurs in situations where governments wish to express intentions or to suggest methods of resolving a diplomatic situation but do not wish to express a formal  position. Track II diplomacy is a specific kind of informal diplomacy in which non official (acade (ac ademic mic schola scholars, rs, retire retired d civil civil and milita military ry offici officials als,, public public figure figures, s, social social activists) engage in dialogue with the aim of conflict resolution or confidence  building. Some times governments may fund such track II exchanges. Sometimes the exchanges may have no connection at all with governments or may even act in defiance of governments; such exchanges are called track III. Para Diplomacy:

 

80 Para diplomacy refers to the international relations conducted by sub national, region reg ional, al, local local or non central central govern governmen ments. ts. The most most ordina ordinary ry cas casee of Para Para diplomatic diplom atic relation relation refers refers to cooperation cooperation between between bordering bordering political political entities. entities. However interest of federal states, provinces regions etc., may extend over to different regions or to issues gathering local governments world wide. Some non central governments may be allowed to negotiate and enter into agreement with forting central states. Cultural diplomacy: Cultural diplomacy is a part of diplomacy. It alludes to governmental and non   professional actors in the making of diplomacy. In the frame of globalization, culture plays a major role in the definition of identity and in the relation between  people. Joseph Nye points out the importance of having a soft power besides a hard power. When classical diplomacy fails a better knowledge can help bridging the gap betwee between n differ different ent cultur cultures. es. Cultur Cultural al diplom diplomacy acy become becomess a subjec subjectt of  academic studies based on historical essays on the United States, Europe and the cold war.

Chapter: 9 International law: nature, origin and development

International law: International law is basically principles rules and standards that govern nations and other participants in international affairs in their relations with one another. International affairs in their relations with one another. International law is the law of the international community. Mostly international law consists of long stand standin ing g cust custom oms, s, prov provis isio ions ns agre agreed ed to in trea treati ties es and and gene genera rall lly y acce accept pted ed  principles of law recognized by nations. Some international law is also created by the rulings of international courts and organizations. The purpose of international law: The purposes of international law include resolution of problems of a regional or  global scope such as environmental environmental pollution or global warming. warming. Regulations Regulations of  areas outside the control of any one nation such as outer space or the high seas and adaptation of common rules for multinational multinational activities activities such as air transport transport or postal international relations when possible and resolve international tensions  peacefully when they develop to prevent needless suffering during wars and to improve the human condition during peacetime. Enforcement of international law: Enforcement of international law is often difficult because nations are sovereign in inde depen pende dent nt powe powers rs th that at may may put put th thei eirr own own in inte tere rest stss ahea ahead d of th thos osee of th thee international community. In addition the mechanisms of enforcement are young

 

81 and not well well develop developed. ed. Enforc Enforceme ement nt may be effect effective ively ly achieve achieved d however  however  through the actions of individual nation’s agencies or international organizations such as the United Nations UN and international courts. The United Nations security council can authorize economic sanctions restore international peace and security. International law began as a system governing the relations among sovereign stat states es and and st stat ates es have have al alwa ways ys been been th thee prim primar ary y le lega gall enti entiti ties es af affe fect cted ed by int intern ernati ational onal law. law. As the global global syste system m has become become more more comple complex x howeve however  r  international law has come to recognize and regulate international organization,   busine business, ss, non profit profit entiti entities es and indivi individual duals. s. The emerge emergence nce of int intern ernati ationa onall human rights law and more recently international criminal law reflects the fact that individuals today are direct subjects of international law in certain respects. Origin of international law: The need for rules of conduct between independent political entities developed along with the government in ancient ancient times. times. Early Early civilizati civilizations ons established established rules governing the conduct of hostilities the making and observance of treaties and the treatment of foreign traders’ travelers and diplomats. These rules were often based on ritual and custom. The oldest known treaty preserved in an inscription on a stone monument is a peace treaty between two city states of summer dating from about 2500 BC. The empires of the ancient Middle East concluded a concerning topics still debated today such as the extradition of fugitives and the creation of  military alliances. Later civilization further developed tenets of international law. Jewish law as set forth in the Old Testament in the book of Deuteronomy contains prescriptions for  the mitigation of warfare notable prohibition against the killing of women and children. The Greek city states had an elaborate treaty system governing many aspects of their mutual relations. In Asia the political units of ancient India and china during certain periods also developed and applied international law. Beginning with the era of the roman republic (509 to 27 BC) the Romans made significant contributions to the evolution of international law. They developed the idea of a Jus-Gentium a body of laws designed to govern the treatment of aliens non citizens subject to roman rule and the relations between roman citizens and aliens. They recognized in principle the duty of a nation to refrain from engaging in warfare without a just cause and originated the idea of a just war. Modern international law began to develop with the rise of national states in Europe after the 15th cen centur tury y when the basic basic ideas ideas of nation national al territ territory ory and   jurisdictions were established. In 1625 building on the work of previous legal writers the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius published his celebrated treatise de jure Belli ac Pacis on the law of war and peace. Grotius argued that existing customs

 

82 governing the relation between nations had the force of law and were binding unless contrary to natural justice or the law of nature natural law an immutable higher law governing all human conduct. Grotius’s influence on international affairs and t he settlement of wars was great and he is sometimes called the father  of modern international system as established by the peace of Westphalia (1648) a treaty that ended the thirty years war. Other scholars and statesmen further described and developed the basic rules of  international law; among them the dutch jurist cornelis van Bynkershoek and the swiss diplomat emmerich de vattel. Vattel’s book, le droit des gens (1758 law of  nations) greatly influrnced the framers of the constitutiohn of the united stats with its ideas of natural law governing the behavior of states. Over time scholars gave increasing emphasis to the ideas of state sovereignty so that by the end of the 19 th century the theorietical foundation of international law had shifted from natural law to a strictly consensual approach known as natural law to a strictly consensual approach approac h known as positivism positivism.. Positivism Positivism claims claims that each nation nation is bound only  by the international rules that it freely accepts to limit its otherwise unlimited freedom of action. The clash between positivists and adherents of natural law continues today. Conflicts is mos proounced over the issue of whether there are fundamental fundam ental higher norms of internatio international nal law a principle principle called jus cogens that sovereign states are obliged to respect. Modern international law: Modern international law stems from three main sources: treaties, customs and the gener gen eral ally ly acce accept pted ed prin princi cipl ples es of la law w deri derive ved d from from nati nation onal al le legal gal sy syst stem emss throughout the world. International organization plays an important role in the formation of international law. A. treat eatie ies: s: Tr Trea eati ties es are are wr writ itte ten n agre agreem emen ents ts betw betwee een n tw two o or more more sove sovere reig ign n st stat ates es.. Internatio Inter national nal organization organization may also be given the capacity to make treaties treaties either  either  with sovereign states or other international organizations. Treaties may be known  by other names for example: agreements, convention, protocol, pact and covenant  but the name chosen generally does not affect the legal status of the agreement. As long as the parties intend the text to be binding it is a treaty. Treaties may incorporate rules of custom or develop new n ew law. The present system of international law remains largely consensual and centered on the sovereign state. It is with in the discretion of each state to participate in the negotiation of or to sign or ratify any international treaty. Like wise each member 

 

83 stat statee of an in inte tern rnati ation onal al orga organi niza zati tion on such such as th thee UN is free free to rati ratify fy any any convention adopted by that organization. Treaty law thus is created by the express will of states. Treaties and conventions were until 20th century usually bilateral between two nations but some multilateral treaties resulted from international conferences held in the 19th century before permanent international organizations were created. Such conferences played an important part in the development of the international legal system. Noteworthy examples include the congress of Vienna which through its final act of 1815 reorganized Europe after the defeat of napoleon and also contributed to the body of international law. It established rules for diplomatic  procedure and the treatment of diplomatic envoys. On the urging of Britain it also included a general condemnation of the slave trade. The conference of Paris 1856 was convened to terminate the Crimean war. It also adopted the declaration of  maritime law that abolished privateering the use of private ships during war and the letters of marquee licenses given to private citizen to arm ships and attack  enemy merchants modernized the rights of neutrals during maritime war and required blockades to be effective. The declaration of Paris also initiated the  practice of allowing nations other than the original signatories to accede become a  party to an agreement. In 1864 a conference convened in Geneva Switzerland at the invitation of the Swiss Swi ss gover governm nment ent.. The The conf confer erenc encee appro approved ved a conve convent ntio ion n fo forr th thee prope proper  r  treatment of wounded soldiers on the battlefield and the protection of medical  personnel; many nations subsequently accede to this convention the first Geneva Convention. The peace conferences held in 1899 and 1907 in The Hague the  Netherlands resulted in a number of conventions designed to avoid or mitigate the rigor rigorss of war. war. The The 1899 1899 conf confer eren ence ce adopt adopted ed a co conve nvent ntio ion n fo forr th thee pacif pacific ic sett settle lemen mentt of in inte tern rnat atio ional nal di disp sput utes es whic which h crea create ted d th thee perm perman anen entt court court of  arbitration in The Hague to settle disputes between nations. B. cu cust stom omar ary y law: law: Customary international law is unwritten and derives from the actual practices of  nations over time. To be accepted as the actual practices of nation over time. To  be accepted as law the custom must be long standing. Widespread and practiced in a uniform and consistent way among nations. One example of customary international law is a nation’s right to use the high seas for fishing, navigation, over flight, and submarines. Treaties represent another source of customary law. Although treaties generally  bind only those countries that ratify them customs may be deduced from the rules

 

84 and statem statement entss contai contained ned in tr treat eaties ies.. These These new custom customss may be consid considere ered d   binding even on those states that did not sign and ratify the original treaty. Whether or not they are embodied in a written treaty, customs become part of  int intern ernati ational onal law because because of continu continued ed accept acceptance ance by the great great majori majority ty of  nations. Some customary international law has been codified in recent years. For example the Vienna convention on the law of treaties which was approved in 1969 and took effect on 1980 codified the customary law that treaties between sovereign states are binding on their signatories and must be followed in good faith. C. gene genera rall princ princip iple les: s: The phrase general principles of law appeared in the statute of the permanent court of international justice established in 1921 three years after the end of world war I (1914-1918). The court was directed to decide disputes broughy before it on the basis of existing treaty law and customary international law. Some of the iplomats and lawyers drafting the statute of the court feared however the disputes might arise over new international issues for which there would be no settled custom or applicable treaty. They decided and the nations voting for the statute agreed to add a third source of law “ general principles of law recognized by civilized nations.” To allow the court to draw upon widely recognized legal  principles in national law. In this way the court would not have to refuse to settle a dispute because of the absence of international law. General principles that have  been applied by the court and its successor the united nations international court of justice include the clean hands doctrine it is improper to accuse someone of  misconduct that the accuser has also engages in the principle that individuals should not be a judge in their own dispute and the principle of res judicata a case that is decided can not be tried again. D. inter internation national al courts courts and and organizat organizations: ions: Judicia Judi ciall decisi decisions ons render rendered ed by intern internati ational onal courts courts are impor importan tantt elemen elements ts in id iden enti tify fyin ing g and and co conf nfir irmi ming ng in inte tern rnat atio iona nall le lega gall rule rules. s. Th Thee most most im impor porta tant nt international courts are the UN international court of justice which mainly handles lega legall di disp sput utes es betwe between en natio nations ns and and th thee in inte tern rnat atio ional nal crim crimin inal al cour courtt whic which h   prose prosecut cutes es indivi individual dualss for genoci genocide de war crimes crimes and other other seriou seriouss crimes crimes of  international concern. Resolutions and decisions of the UN and other international or orga gani niza zati tions ons now al also so have have a grea greatt im impa pact ct on th thee vi view ewss and and prac practi tices ces of  sovereign states, sometimes leading to rapid formation of customary international law. law. St Stat ates es have have gi given ven a very very fe few w in inte tern rnat atio ional nal orga organi nizat zatio ions ns such such as th thee

 

85 Europe Eur opean an Union Union and the UN Securi Security ty Council Council the power power to enacts enacts direct directly ly  binding measures. The first international organizations emerged in the 19 th century. Technological advan adv ance cess such such as th thee te tele legr grap aph h and and th thee te tele leph phone one,, to toget gethe herr wi with th a rise rise in int intern ernati ational onal trade trade create created d a need need for perman permanent ent int intern ernati ationa onall insti institut tution ionss to regulate problems that exceeded national boundaries. The earliest organizations of  thi thiss type type were were specia specializ lized ed bodies bodies such such as the int intern ernati ational onal telegr telegraphi aphicc union union (1865) and the universal postal union (1874). Afte Afterr worl world d war war I, Euro Europe pean an co coun untr trie iess crea create ted d th thee le leag ague ue of nati nation onss an organization with a general mandate to maintain peace and prevent ear. The league’s covenant was part of the treaty of Versailles signed in 1919 to officially end the war. Pursuant to provisions in the covenant the permanent court of justice was established in 1921 as the world’s first international court. Its role was to decide international disputes that were voluntarily submitted to the court by the nations involved, and to issue advisory opinions s on disputes referred to it by the league. Although the court helped to develop international law its judges were hampered by the lack of universal agreement on many aspects of international law. The onset of World War II in 1939 proved the league of nation ineffective in  preventing  preve nting hostilities. hostilities. Equally unsuccessful unsuccessful was the pact of Paris also called the Kellogg Briand pact, a multilateral treaty renouncing the use of war that had been signed in 1928 and ultimately ratified by more than 60 nations including Germany and Japan. After World War II ended in 1945 the United Nations replaced the League of Nations and the international court of justice succeeded the permanent court of international justice. The United Nations charter created elaborate machinery for maintaining peace and security and for solving disputes among nations. It also specifically directed the general assembly to encourage the progressive development and codification of international law. To carry out this task the general assembly created two subsidiary subsi diary organs: the internatio international nal law commission commission (1947) and the commission commission on in inte tern rnat atio iona nall tr trad adee la law w (196 (1966) 6).. Over Over th thee ye year arss th thee in inte tern rnat atio iona nall la law w commission commi ssion has prepared prepared drafts drafts of treaties treaties codifying codifying and modernizing modernizing a number  of important topics of international law, including the law of the sea diplomatic relations consular relations law of treaties between nations, succession of states in respect to treaties, law of treaties between nations and international organizations immu im muni nity ty of st stat ates es fr from om th thee juri jurisd sdic icti tion on of ot othe herr st stat ates es an and d th thee la law w of  international fresh waters. The commission on international trade law drafts texts on laws concerning international commerce and economic development. Upon

 

86 acceptance by the general assembly drafts from the commissions usually are submitt subm itted ed to intern internati ational onal confere conference ncess called called by the UN for adoption adoption of the respective conventions. In some some in inst stan ance cess th thee UN has has orga organi nize zed d co conf nfer eren ence cess to di disc scus usss majo major  r  in inte tern rnat atio iona nall is issu sues es or to negot negotia iate te trea treati ties es wi with thou outt prio priorr propo proposa sall by th thee int intern ernati ational onal law commis commissio sion n the most most import important ant exampl examplee was the third third UN confe con fere renc ncee on th thee la law w of th thee sea, sea, whic which h te term rmin inat ated ed it itss work work in 1982. 1982. The The conference adopted a convention which came into force in 1994 governing all aspe aspect ctss of th thee peac peacef eful ul use use of th thee ocean oceanss in incl cludi uding ng te terr rrit itor oria iall bound boundar arie iess navigational rights and economic jurisdiction see freedom of the seas. Another  example is the 1992 UN conference of environment and development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and informally known as the earth summit. The conference  produced two major treaties the convention on biological diversity which seeks to  preserve the world’s biological diversity and promote the sustainable use of its components and the frame work convention on climate change which seeks to limit industrial emission of gases leading to global warming. Sometimes the UN convenes conv enes major major confer conferenc ences es to assess assess progre progress ss and proble problems ms concern concerning ing a specific specif ic topic without without adopting adopting a new agreement. agreement. Such conferences conferences have been held on human rights and on the status of women world wide. A landmark in the development of international law occurred in 1998 at a UN diplomatic conference in Rome, Italy when 120 centuries adopted a treaty to establ est ablish ish the world’ world’ss fir first st perman permanent ent intern internati ational onal crimin criminal al court. court. Off Offici iciall ally y established establ ished in 2002, the internation international al criminal criminal court ICC operates independently independently of the United Nations and has h as the power to initiate investigations and prosecutions of war criminals including those accused of genocide crimes against humanity and other serious crimes. Unlike previous war crimes tribunals such as those created in response to atrocities in former Yugoslavia and in Rwanda the ICC’s  jurisdiction is not limited to specific conflicts. International & national law: Ever Ev ery y natio nation n is expe expect cted ed to ob obey ey in inte tern rnat atio ional nal la law. w. Some Some nati nation onss make make international law automatically part of the law of their land. The US constitution designates ratified treaties along with the constitution itself and federal statutes the supreme law of the land (article VI) and empowers congress to define and   punish punish offence offencess against against the law of nation nationss (artic (article le I sec sectio tion n 8). Custom Customary ary international law is automatically incorporated in to the IS legal system as federal common or unwritten law.

 

87 In cases involving international law US state and federal courts presume that US law conforms to international law; such an attitude has been urged consistently by the supreme court of the United States. In some countries such as the United Kingdom treaties do not become effective in national law until they are enacted  by parliament. In other countries a treaty or customary international law is given constitutional status superior to national legislation. How a sovereign state adopts and applies applies internat internation ional al law is genera generally lly left to it itss discre discretio tion n so long long as it conforms to the law in the end. Whatever the constitution or legal system of a nation it cannot use its domestic law as an excuse to breach an international agreement or violate an international ru rule le.. This This was was made made cl clea earr duri during ng th thee war war crim crimes es tria trials ls held held in Nurn Nurnbe berg rg,, Germany, following World War II. The Nurnburg tribunals rejected the defense that certain acts such as the killing of prisoners of war were permitted under the domestic laws of Nazi Germany. The tribunals held that such laws were null and void because they contravened the generally valid rules of warfare. It also held th that at th thee in indi divi vidua duals ls resp respon onsi sibl blee fo forr is issu suin ing g and exec execut utin ing g such such la laws ws were were criminally responsible for grave breaches of international law. Today international human rights courts often declare national laws incompatible with international rules and may award compensation to those whose rights have been v violated. iolated. Scope of international law: The scope of international law is vast. Nearly every matter of legal regulation wi with th in a nati nation on ha hass some some in inte tern rnat atio iona nall count counter erpa part rt.. Over Over th thee la last st cent centur ury y advances in communications, technology, growth in global trade and travel and the advent of weapons of mass destruction have led to an enormous expansion in the range range of topics topics regula regulated ted by int intern ernati ationa onall law. law. In additio addition n to the classi classicc matters of diplomacy war and peace trade and territorial boundaries international law now covers matters as diverse as environmental protection human rights nuclear testing war crimes outer space child custody recognition of wills and testaments exchange of prisoners and protection of archeological sites and arts treasu tre asures res.. This This secti section on discus discusses ses severa severall major major areas areas of intern internati ational onal law, law, includ inc luding ing peace peace and securi security ty human human rights rights the enviro environme nment nt and the global global commons. A. peac peacee and sec secur urit ity: y: Among the central aims of the UN are the maintenance of peace and security and the suppression of acts of aggression. The principles of UN charter prohibit the use of force to settle disputes and bar intervention by a nation into the domestic affairs of another nation. The charter also expressly includes among its objectives

 

88 the maintenance of respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other  sources of international law. International law provides methods for the settlement of disputes by means other  than war. The UN charter directs disputants to engage in negotiation, conciliation, arbitration or recourse to the international court of justice. When conflicts do arise the UN Security Council may determine that there exists a threat to the peace or a  breach of the peace or that an act of aggression has been committed. The Security Council Coun cil may vote vote to deploy deploy UN peaceke peacekeepi eping ng forces forces milit military ary personn personnel el and civili civ ilians ans volunt volunteer eered ed by UN member member governm government entss to help help implem implement ent peace peace agreem agr eement entss monit monitor or ceasef ceasefire iress provid providee emerge emergency ncy relief relief and perfor perform m other  other  functions essential to maintain peace. Over time the decisions of the Security Council have created a body of law and policy on issues of peace and security includ inc luding ing the develop developmen mentt of int intern ernati ational onal crimin criminal al law to hold hold indivi individua duals ls accountable for the most serious illegal acts of violence. v iolence. B. hu huma man n rig right hts: s: since since worl world d war war II th thee in inte tern rnat atio ional nal comm commun unit ity y has has beco become me in incr crea easi sing ngly ly concerned with the protection of human rights. Although concern for human rights is expressed in the UN charter, the development of specific norms related to human rights began in 1948 with the passage of two nonbinding declaration: the American declaration of the rights and duties of man approved the organization of  American states and the universal declaration of human rights approved by the UN. The universal declaration of human rights described a variety of person’ to freedom fre edom from from sla slaver very y to freedo freedom m of consci conscience ence religi religion on opinio opinion n express expression ion association and assemble to freedom from arbitrary arrest to a fair and impartial trial: to privacy and to education. This document remains the cornerstone of  international human rights law and has been the basis of bills of rights in nearly 100 countries. Ot Othe herr im impor porta tant nt in inte tern rnat atio ional nal tr trea eati ties es rela relate ted d to huma human n righ rights ts in incl clude ude th thee convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide (1948); the international convention on the elimination of all forms of racial discrimination (1965); the UN covenant on civil and political rights (1966) and its companion the covenant on economic social and cultural rights (1966); the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (1979); the convention against torture and other cruel inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (1984) and the convention on the rights of child (1989). These treaties have been widely ratified the convention on the rights of the child for example has been accepted by every country in the world except the united states and Somalia. The treaties have been supplemented by three regional human rights agreements the

 

89 Euro Eu rope pean an conve convent ntio ion n fo forr th thee prot protec ecti tion on of human human righ rights ts and fu funda ndame ment ntal al freedom fre edomss (1950) (1950);; the Americ American an convent convention ion on human human right rightss (1969) (1969),, and the African charter on human and peoples rights. The regional agreements and many of the UN treaties allow individuals to bring petitions to regional or global human rightss organizatio right organizations ns for protection protection against against acts by their governments governments that violate violate their rights. C. th thee envi enviro ronm nment ent:: in the late 1960s concern either the state of the world’s environment emerged as an international issue. This occurred largely in response to several disastrous spills by oil tankers that brought attention to high pollution levels and the threats they pose to human health and biological diversity. The UN convene convened d it itss first first enviro environme nmenta ntall confer conferenc encee in 1972 in Stockho Stockholm, lm, Sweden from which emerged the declaration contains several legal principles that have become the foundation foundation for a vast network of internation international al agreements. agreements. The most importantly principle directs that each state has the sovereign rights to use its natural resource s but also has the corresponding duty to ensure that its activ act ivit itie iess do not caus causee harm harm outs outsid idee it itss bound boundar arie ies. s. Ot Other her prin princi cipl ples es li link  nk  environ envi ronmen mental tal protec protectio tion n with with human human rights rights and emphas emphasize ize the duty duty of each each  person to safeguard the environment. Many modern environmental agreements regula reg ulate te specif specific ic areas areas (t (the he Balti Balticc Sea, Sea, Antarc Antarctic tica), a), specif specific ic specie speciess whales whales migratory birds or specific hazards nuclear energy toxic wastes. In each case the legal leg al obliga obligatio tion n that that emerge emergess is to protec protectt and preser preserve ve compon component entss of the environment of foster sustainable development. D. th thee globa globall commo commons ns:: Large areas of the globe and beyond do not and legally can not belong to any nation most of the oceans and their resources Antarctica earth’s atmosphere outer  space and the moon and other natural objects in space. These areas are known collectively as the global commons. The absence of political sovereignty for these areas means that international regulation is required to avoid conflict over them and to prot protect ect th them em fr from om over overus use, e, pollu polluti tion on an and d ot othe herr harm harm.. Inte Intern rnat atio ional nal agreements for these areas are generally accepted as providing the legal frame work for all those who conduct activities in them. See aviation law; maritime law; freedom of the seas. E. ot othe herr is issu sues es:: International law has no fixed content. New threats that can not be addressed or  resolved by a single nation constantly call for new international responses. For 

 

90 example recent international agreements aim to combat terrorism the distribution of illicit drugs across national boundaries and the spread of infectious disease. The developments of new technologies such as the internet can also lead to the creation to new international legal frameworks. Chapter: 10 Economic aspects of international relations: Political economy: Political economy is the branch of social science that studies the relationships   betwee between n indivi individua duals ls and societ society y and betwee between n market marketss and the state, state, using using a diverse set of tools and methods drawn largely from economics, political secience and sociol sociology ogy.. The term term polit politica icall economy economy is derive derived d from from the greek greek polis polis meaning city or state and oikonomos meaning one who manages a household or  estate. Political economy thus can be understood as the study of how a country the  public’s household is managed or governed taking into account both political and economic factors. Economics and political economy: The relationship between political economy and the contemporary discipline of  economics is particularly interesting is part because both disciplines claim to be the descendan descendants ts of the ideas of smith smith Hume Hume and john Stuart Stuart mill. mill. Wherea Whereass  political economy which was rooted in moral philosophy was from the beginning very much a normative field of study economics sought become objective and value free. Indeed under the influence of Marshall economists endeavored to make their discipline like the 17 th century physics of sir Isaac Newton (16421727); formal precise and elegant and the foundation of a broader intellectual enterprise. With the publication in 1947 of foundations of economic analysis by Paul Samuel Samuel son, son, who brought brought comple complex x mathema mathematic tical al tools tools to the study of  economics the bifurcation of political economy and economics was complete. Mainstream political economy had evolved into economic science, leaving its  broader concerns far behind. The distinction between economics and political economy can be illustrated by their differing treatments of issues related to international trade. The economic analysis of tariff policies for example focuses on the impact of tariffs on the effici eff icient ent use of scare scare resour resources ces under under a variet variety y of compet competiti ition on severa severall small small suppl supplie iers rs monop monopol oly y one one suppl supplie ierr mono monosp spon ony y on buyer buyer and and ol olig igopo opoly ly fe few w suppliers. Different analytic frameworks examine the direct effects of tariffs as well as the effects on economic choices in related markets. Such a methodology is

 

91 generally mathematical and is based on the assumption that an actor’s economic   behavior is rational and is aimed at maximizing benefits for himself although ostensibly a value free exercise such economic analysis often implicitly assumes that policies that maximize the benefits accruing to economic actors are also  preferable from a social point of view. In contrast to the pure economic analysis of tariff policies, political economic analysis examines the social political and economic pressures an interest that affect aff ect tariff tariff polici policies es and how these these pre press ssure uress influe influence nce the politi political cal proces process, s, taki taking ng in into to accou account nt a rang rangee of soci social al prio priori riti ties es in inte tern rnat atio ional nal negot negotia iati ting ng envir env iron onme ment nts, s, devel develop opme ment nt,, st stra rate tegi gies es and and phil philos osoph ophic ical al pers perspec pecti tives ves.. In  particular  part icular political political economic analysis analysis might take into account how tariffs tariffs can be used as a strategy to influence the pattern of national economic growth neo colonialism coloni alism or biases biases in the global system system of international international trade that may favour  develop deve loped ed countr countries ies over over develop developing ing ones neo Marxis Marxistt analys analysis. is. Althoug Although h   political economy lacks a rigorous scientific method and an objective analytic framework its broad perspective affords a deeper understanding of the many aspects of tariff policy that are not purely economic in nature. International political economy: International political economy studies problems that arise from or are affected by th thee in inte tera ract ctio ion n of in inte tern rnat atio ional nal fr from om or are are af affe fect cted ed by th thee in inte tera ract ctio ion n of  international politics, international economics and different social systems (e.g. capitalism and socialism) and societal groups (e.g. farmers at the local level different ethnic groups in a country immigrants in a region such as the European union and the poor who exist transnationally in all countries). It explores a set of  related questions problematique that arise form issues such as international trade, international internation al trade, international international finance, finance, relations relations between between wealthier wealthier and poorer  countries the role of multinational corporations and the problems of hegemony the dominance either physical or cultural of one country over part or all the world along with the consequences of economic globalization. Internatio Inter national nal political political economy has a major role in determining determining internatio international nal relations. Analytic approaches to international political economy tend to vary with th thee prob proble lem m being being exam examin ined ed.. Issu Issues es can can be vi view ewed ed from from sever several al di diff ffer eren entt theore the oretic tical al perspe perspecti ctives ves,, includ including ing the mercant mercantili ilist, st, libera liberall and struct structura urali list st (Marxist or neo Marxist) perspectives. Mercantilists are closely related to realists focusing on competing interests and capabilities of nation states in a competitive struggle to achieve power and security. Liberals are optimistic about the ability of  humans and states to construct peaceful relations and world order. Economic liberals in particular would limit the role of o f the state in the eeconomy conomy in order to let

 

92 market forces decide political and social outcomes. Structuralist ideas are rooted din Marxist analysis and focus on how the dominant economic structures of  society affect (i.e. exploit) class interests and relations. Each of these perspectives is often applied to problems at several different levels of analysis that point to complex root causes of conflict traced to human nature (the individual level), national interests (the national level) and the structure of the international system which lacks a single sovereign to prevent war. For example analysis of U.S policy regarding migrants from Mexico must take into consideration pattern of trade and investment between the two countries and the domestic interests on both sides of  the border. Similarly domestic and international interests are linked by trade, finance, and other factors in the case of financial crises in developing countries such as Thailand and Argentina. The distinction between foreign and domestic  becomes as uncertain as the distinction between economics and politics in a world where foreign economic crises affect domestic political and economic interests through trade and financial linkages or through changes in security arrangements or migrant flows. Contemporary international political economy appeared as a subfield of the study of international relations during the era of cold war rivalry between the soviet union uni on and the on intern internati ational onal security security but later later came came to includ includee econom economic ic securi sec urity ty and the role role of market market actors actors includ including ing multin multinati ational onal corpor corporati ations, ons, international banks, cartels (e.g. OPEC) and international organizations (e.g. the IMF)) in nation IMF national al and intern internati ational onal securi security ty str strate ategie gies. s. Intern Internati ational onal politi political cal econo eco nomy my grew grew in im impo port rtanc ancee as a resu result lt of vari variou ouss dram dramat atic ic in inte tern rnat atio ional nal econo eco nomi micc event events, s, such such as th thee co coll llap apse se of th thee Bret Bretto tom m wood woodss in inte tern rnat atio ional nal monetary system in 1971 and the oil o il crisis of 1973-74. During the early period of the cold war political scientists emphasized the realist or power politics dimension of US soviet relation, while economists tended to focus on the Bretton woods system of the international economy that is the institution and rules that beginning in 1945 governed much of the international economy. During the Vietnam War, however a growing decrease in the value of  the US dollar and large deficits for the United States in its balance of trade and  payments weakened the ability of the united stats to conduct and pay for the war, which thereby undermined its relationship to its north Atlantic treaty organization allies. During the OPEC oil crisis the realist oriented US secretary of state henry A Kissinger found himself unable to understand the issues without the assistance of an economist. These events led to a search for a multidisciplinary approach or  outlook that borrowed different theories concepts and ideas from political science and international relations as well as from economics and sociology to explain a variety of complicated international problems and issues. It didi not so much

 

93 result in the development of a new school of political economy as emphasize the conti con tinu nued ed rele relevan vance ce of th thee ol olde derr more more in inte terg rgra rate ted d ty type pe of analy analysi siss whic which h explicitly sought to trace the connections between political and economic factors. Following the end of the cold war international political economy became focused on issues raised by economic globalization including the viability of the state in an increa increasin singly gly global globalize ized d int intern ernati ational onal economy economy the role role of multin multinati ationa onall corporations in generating conflict as well as growth in the new global econmomy and various problems related to equity justice and fairness (e.g. low wage rates in develop deve loping ing countri countries es and the depende dependency ncy of these these countri countries es on market marketss in wealthier countries). In the 1950s and 60s American economists development made popular the argument that after a period of tension disorder and even chaos with a developing country that had been exposed to the west the country world eventually take off and development would occur. In the late 196s and continuing int into o the 1990s 1990s many many develo developme pment nt expert expertss from from a str struct uctura urali list st point point of view view including many Marxists and neo Marxists posited a variety of explanations as to why many developing countries did not seem to develop or change much. For  example the German born economist andre gunder frank made popular idea that when developing countries connect to the west, they become underdeveloped. Social theorist and economist Immanuel wallerstein whose works have made a ladting impact on the study of the historical development of the world capitalist system argued that development does occur but only for a small number of  semiperipheral states and not for those peripheral states that reamin the providers of natural resources and raw materials to the developed industrial core states. Such themes were evident in the 1990s and the early 21 st century when a number  of politi political cally ly and econom economica ically lly powerf powerful ul and mostl mostly y wester western n multin multinati ational onal corporations were accused of exploiting women and children in unsanitary and unsafe working conditions in their factories in developing countries. These cases and other like them were seen by some structuralists as evidence of a race to the  bottom in which in order to attract investment by international businesses many deve develo lopi ping ng co coun untr trie iess rela relaxe xed d or el elim imin inat ated ed work worker er prot protec ecti tion on la laws ws an and d environmental standards. Main characteristics of the economy of Pakistan: Islamic republic of Pakistan is a developing country. The characteristics of the economy of Pakistan are almost the same of the economy of any developing country. The main characteristics of the economy of Pakistan are as follows. 1. burden burden of int intern ernati ational onal debt: debt:

 

94 Most of the developing countries are dependent on foreign economic assistance to meet the short fall in domestic savings and for quickening the pace of economic development as the year pass the amount of foreign loans increase. The liability of  debt servicing has increase manifold. In Pakistan P akistan debt service payments amount to 42 billion dollars in 2007 which is a heavy burden. 2. lo low w per per capi capita ta in inco come me:: Major the people living in developing countries are poverty ridden. Poverty is reflected in low per capita income. People live in unsanitary conditions. Services like health, education, expand very slowly. In short mostly the people in LDCs less developed developed countries are ill fed, ill clothed, ill hosed and ill educated. educated. People here are involved n misery go round. In Pakistan the per capita income at current market prices in rs.18320 in 1996-97,470 1996-97,47 0 dollars. 3. agricu agricultu lture re the the main main occupat occupation ion:: The developing countries two third or even more of the people e live in rural areas. Their main occupation is agriculture which is in a backward stage. The average land holding and the yield per acre is low. The peasants mostly live at a subsistence level. As far as Pakistan is concerned agriculture contributes 25% of  GDP. 4. du dual alis isti ticc econo economy my:: the economies of developing countries are characterized by dualism. Dualism refers ref ers to economi economicc and social division division in the economy. economy. For instance instance,, in the developing countries one is the market economy ad the other is the subsistence economy. Both the economies exist side by side. In and around the city there is a market economy which is well developed. Ultra modern facilities of life are avail ava ilabl ablee here. here. But But in ru rura rall ar area eass th thee econ econom omy y is prim primit itiv ivee backw backwar ard d and and agricultura agricu lturall oriented oriented similarl similarly y industria industriall sector uses capital capital intensive intensive techniques techniques and produces variety of capital goods. The rural sector produces commodities mainly with traditional techniques. The standard of living of the people living in market economy is high but that of their brothers living in subsistence sector is low. The dualistic nature of the economy is not conductive to healthy economic  progress. 5. under under utili utilizat zation ion of natu natural ral reso resourc urces: es: An import important ant charact characteri eristi sticc of the develop developing ing countr countries ies is that that their their natura naturall resources either main un-utilized or under utilized or mis-utilized. Most of the countries are rich in resources but they remain unutilized or under utilized due to

 

95 lack capital, primitive techniques of production, limited size of the market and sluggish nature of the people. 6. high high rates rates of populat population ion growth growth:: Almost all the developing countries are having a high population growth rate and a declining death. The development made with low per capita incomes and low rates of capital formation here is swallowed up by increased population. As a result there is no or very slow improved in the living standards of the people. In Pakistan the rate of increase in populations estimated about 2.77% per annum. This high growth rate is offsetting all achievements of developments. 7. Unempl Unemploym oyment ent and disgu disguise ised d unemplo unemployme yment: nt: Another Anot her notabl notablee featur featuree of develop developing ing countr countries ies is vast vast unemplo unemployme yment nt and disg disgui uise sed d un unem empl ploy oyme ment nt bo both th in th thee rura rurall an and d in th thee urba urban n area areas. s. The The unemployment in increasing with the spread of education and urbanization. 8. lo low w leve levell of pro produ duct ctiv ivit ity: y: In developing countries people are economically backward. The main causes of   backwardness are low labor efficiency, immobility of labor due to joint family system cultural and psychological factors leading to low level of productivity. 9. lack lack of ente enterpr rprise ise and initia initiati tive: ve: the less developed countries LDCs lack dynamic leadership. The enterprise and initiative of entrepreneurs is hampered due to multiple factors such as small size of the market market lack lack of capital capital lack lack of infras infrastru tructu ctural ral facil faciliti ities, es, technol technologi ogical cal  backwardness etc. 10. deficiency deficiency of capita capital: l: deficiency of capital is another common sign in all the developing countries of the word. The capital deficiency is mainly due to: 1. lo low w per per capi capita ta in inco come me.. 2. lo low w rat ratee of of ssav avin ing. g. 3. lo low w rat ratee of in inve vest stme ment nt.. 4. in inequ equal alit itie iess of weal wealth th.. 5. adoption adoption of consumption consumption pattern pattern of advanced advanced countrie countries. s. 6. higher higher level level expend expenditu iture re on consum consumpti ption on etc. etc.

 

96 11. backward backward state of technology technology:: Al Alll th thee devel develop opin ing g count countri ries es ar aree in th thee ba backw ckwar ard d st stat atee of te tech chnol nolog ogy. y. The The technological backwardness is due higher cost of production despite low money wages, deficiency of capital, predominance of unskilled and untrained workers, dualism and misallocation of resources etc. these are the major hurdles in the spread of techniques in the LDC’s. 12. low capital capital formation formation:: the underdeveloped countries are capital poor economies. These countries are not only capital deficient but the current rate of capital formation is also vary low. The low level of capital formation is due to both the weakness of  i.

inducement to invest and to

ii.

low pr propensi nsity an and ca capacity to to sa save.

13. dependence dependence on export of primary primary products: products: The LDC’s are still relying on the 19 th century pattern of external trade. They are mainly producing and exporting primary commodities to the developed countries and importing finished goods and machinery from them. 14. influence influence of feudal feudal lords: lords: in Pakistan like many other developing countries the poor are under the hard grip of feudal lords an d tribal heads. It is in the interest of the feudal lords that the  poor should remain poor. 15. low self esteem esteem and limited limited freedom: the under developed countries are mostly influenced from external influence and dominance. They have limited freedom of choice in trade technology education etc. the people in these countries have low esteem. They are used by others for  their own ends.

 

97

Chapter: 11 The concept of war and peace in international relations :

War: War, in international law is an armed conflict between two or more governments or states. When such conflicts assume global proportion they are known as world wars. War between different parts or factions of the same nation is called civil war. War is in the popular sense a conflict among political group involving hostilities of considerable duration and magnitude. In the usage of social science certain qualifications are added. Sociologists usually apply the term to such conflicts only if they are initiated and conducted in accordance with socially recognized forms. They treat war as an institution recognized in custom or in law. Military writers usual usually ly conf confin inee th thee te term rm to ho host stil ilit itie iess in whic which h th thee conte contendi nding ng group groupss are are suffic suf ficien iently tly equal power power to render render the outcom outcomee uncert uncertain ain for a ti time. me. Armed Armed conflicts of powerful states with primaitve peoples are usually called pacifications mi mili lita tary ry ex expe pedi diti tion onss or ex expl plor orat atio ions ns;; with with smal smalll st stat ates es th they ey are are call called ed interventions or reprisals; and with internal groups rebellions or insurrections. Such incidents if the resisitance is sufficiently strong or protracted may achieve a magnitude that entitles them to the name war. A rebellion is not legally considered a war to entitle the armed forces of the rebels to the rights and privileges of belligerents the government they serve must be organized so as to be in a position to meet duties resting on belligerents that is they must have the power to maintain maintain law and order within the regions regions occupied  by them and to carry on war on a large scale by b y land sea or air.

 

98 International hostilities sometimes continue for long periods of time without being acknowledged as wars. The Korean war was regarded by the US government as a  police action. Conflicts or wars in which major powers purposely refrain from employing all their armed strength ore often known as limited wars. Short of    peace, such limited wars are now recognized as a preferable alternative to the specter of nuclear war. International wars are generally terminated by treaty and civil wars by a peace  proclamation. The usages customs and treaties of nations have formed a system of  laws of war. In all ages war has been important topic of analysis. In the latter part of the 20 th century in aftermath of two world’s wars and in the shadow of nuclear biological and chemical holocaust more has been written on the subject than ever before. The various schools of theorists are generally aware of the profound influence they can exercise upon life and their writings usually include a strong normative elem elemen entt for when when acce accept pted ed by po polliti tici cian anss the heir ir id idea eass can can ass assume ume the characteristics of self fulfilling prophecies. The analys analysis is of war may be divide divided d int into o severa severall categor categories ies.. Philos Philosophi ophical cal,,   poli politi tical cal,,

econo economi mic, c, te tech chnol nologi ogical cal,,

le legal gal,,

soci sociol olog ogic ical al and and psyc psycho holo logi gica call

approaches are frequently distinguished. These distinctions indicate the varying focuses of indicate the varying focuses of interest and the different analytical categories employed by the theoretician but most of the actual theories are mixed  because war is an extremely complex social phenomenon that cannot be explained  by any single factor or through any single approach.

Evolution of theories of war: Reflec Ref lectin ting g changes changes in the intern internati ational onal system system theori theories es of war have passed passed through throug h several several phases in the course of the past three centuries. centuries. After the ending of the wars of religion about the middle of the 17 th century wars were fought for  the interests of individual sovereign and were limited both in their objectives and in their scope. The art of maneuver became decisive and analysis of war was couched accordingly in terms of strategies. The situation changed fundamentally with the outbreak of the French revolution, which increased the size of forces from small professional to large conscript armies and broadened the objectives of  war to the ideals of the revolution ideals that appealed to the masses who were subject subj ect to conscri conscripti ption. on. In the rel relati ative ve order order of post post Napoleo Napoleonic nic Europe Europe the mainstream of theory returned to the idea of war as a rational limited instrument of national policy. This approach was best articulated by the Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz in his famous classic on war (1832-37).

 

99 World War I which was total in character because it resulted in the mobilization of entire population and economies for a prolonged period of time did not fir into the Clausewitzian pattern of limited conflict and it led to a renewal of other  theories. These no longer regarded war as a rational instrument of state policy. The theorists held that war in its modern total form if still conceived as a national state instrument should be undertaken only if the most vital interests of the state touching upon its very survival are concerned. Otherwise warfare serves broad ideologies and not the more narrowly defined interests of a sovereign or a nation. Like the religious wars of the 17th century war becomes part of grand designs such as the rising of the proletariat in communist eschatology or the Nazi doctrine of a master race. Some theoreticians have gone even further denying war any rational character  whatsoever. To them war is a calamity and a social disaster, whether it is afflicted  by one nation upon another or conceived of as affliction humanity as a whole. The idea is not new in the aftermath of the Napoleonic wars it was articulated for  example by Tolstoy in the concluding chapter of war and peace (1865-69). In the second half of the 20th cen centur tury y it gained gained new currency currency in peace peace resear research ch a contemporary form of theorizing that combines analysis of the origins of warfare wi with th a st stro rong ng norma normati tive ve el elem ement ent ai aimi ming ng at it itss prev prevent entio ion. n. Peace Peace rese resear arch ch concent conc entrat rates es on two areas: areas: the analysis analysis of the int intern ernati ational onal syste system m and the empirical study of the phenomenon of war. World War II and the subsequent evolution of weapons of mass destruction made the task of understanding the nature of war even more urgent. On the one hand war has become an intractable social phenomenon the elimination of which seems to be an essential precondition for the survival of mankind. On the other hand the use of war as an instrument of policy in calculated in an unprecedented manner by the nuclear nuclear superp superpowe owers rs the United United States States and the Soviet Union. Union. War also remains a stark but rational instrumentality in certain more limited conflicts such as those between Israel and the Arab nations. Thinking about war is consequently   becoming increasingly more differentiated because it has to answer questions related to very different types of conflict. Clausewitz cogently defines war as a rational instrument of foreign policy an act of vi viol olenc encee in inte tend nded ed to compe compell our our oppon opponen entt to fu fulf lfil illl our our wi will ll.. Mode Modern rn defini def initio tions ns of war such such as armed armed confli conflict ct between between politi political cal units units general generally ly disregarded disre garded the narrow narrow legalisti legalisticc definitio definitions ns characteris characteristic tic of the 19th century which whi ch limite limited d the concept concept to formal formally ly declare declared d war between between states states.. Such a definition includes civil wars but at the same time excludes such phenomena as insurrections, banditry or piracy. Finally war is generally understood to embrace

 

100 only armed conflicts on a fairly large scale usually excluding conflicts in which fewer than 50,000 combatants are involved.

 The causes of war: War arises because of the changing relations of numerous variables technological,   psyc psychi hic, c, soci social al,, and and in inte tell llec ectua tual. l. Ther Theree is no si singl nglee caus causee of war. war. Peace Peace is equilibrium among many forces. Change in any particular force trend movement or policy may at one time make for war but under other conditions a similar  change may make for peace. A state may at one time promote peace by armament at another time by disarmament at one time by insistence on its rights at another  time time by spir spirit it conc concil ilia iati tion on.. To esti estima mate te th thee prob probab abil ilit ity y of war at any any ti time me involves, therefore an appraisal of the effect of current changes upon the complex of inter group relationships throughout the world. Wright 1965:1284 For war to occur between two states they must have some contact and salience, some awareness of each other. They must also have some opposing interests, something to fight about and capabilities to fight.

1. dis distur turbed bed ba balan lance ce of p powe ower: r: There can be no security without balance of power.

Henry Kissinger  Bala Ba lanc ncee of po powe werr is th thee st stab abil ilit ity y of polit politic ical al sy syst stem em in a parti particu cula larr area area.. Disturbance is balance of power is one of the objective or cause of war. To show strength of any state to her rivalry can lead to war. For example the balance of power was disturbed after the disintegration of Russia.  Now USA is the only super power left and is supposed to be the leader of the world.

2. nat nation ional al an and d se separ parati atism: sm:  Nationalism is the emotional feelings that exist in nation and separatism in the final stage of nationalism i.e. formation or independence of a state. These two factors greatly affect people’s life and this is one of the main causes of war. For example in the 1930’s Hitler based many of his claims on the right of  Germans Germa ns to li live ve to toge geth ther er in one st stat ate. e. The The wars wars in Kore Koreaa th thee mi middl ddlee east east,, Bangladesh and Cyprus had strong national components.

 

101

3. com commun munica icatio tion n fai failur lure: e: Lack of communication between rival groups may lead to war. This usually happens when none of the states compromises for a talk. By this tension increases to its peak and chances of war become more visible. visible. If this stat statee just solves their   problem through communication other than war rare of mankind can be saved from war’s destruction. For example USA and USSR the tension between these two super powers reached to height but was solved by opening hot line services through out the two states.

4. mili military tary indus industrial trial compl complex: ex: these complexes become threat to their own government as well their rivals. They  become threat to their own government by selling it to their rivals on that amount which its own state is not willing to give. They just want to have a market for  their products.

5. hu huma man n na natu ture re:: it drives to live, to propagate and to dominate are common to all men. The causes of war are to be found in human nature. The problem is aggression that is that human beings fight after all animals do too. The problem is that human  beings gift to the death. They kill their own species and most animals do not. It is not our lacto of humanity bur our lack of Animality that causes our troubles.

6. trou troubl blem emake akers rs:: Power groups, merchant of death, wicked states are trouble makers. Throughout recorded human history initiators of war were individuals and groups who held powers. Theodore Abel That specific individual and power groups which are the main cause of this approach is Adolph Hitler, entitled one his chapter, “Hitler’s war, 1939”in the 1930’s.. many in the manufacturers 1930’s manufacturers were responsibl responsiblee for US participati participations ons in the world war I. they were responsible for US participations in the world war I. they were popularly known as the merchants of death and sometimes the trouble maker  is identified as an entire state.

7. lo loss ss o off c con ontr trol ol::

 

102 according to this approach operation which has been carried out with the fair  calcul cal culati ation on but due to untowa untoward rd and unfavor unfavorabl ablee circum circumsta stance ncess things things start start running against which causes loss of control over the situation. For example America sent its forces to Vietnam for capture the Vietnam but with the time they loss control and were defeated.

8. mi misp sper erce cept ptio ion: n: The misperception between two states is to be favored in the cause of war. If a state is overestimated about his power and underestimated about the power of the rival state the war could start. In my point of view Kargil war is an example of misperception.

9. po poli liti tical cal iiss ssue ues: s: due to some political issues war could be started because sometimes government diverts attention from serious political issues to international border to save his own government. For example Clinton did missile attack on Iraq to divert the attention of government from Monica’s issues.

10.

armed forces:

If you want peace, prepare for war. States may engage in arms reasons that have little do with the objective of   preventing war but unfortunately it is difficult to answer the question. Do arms races make war less or more likely? One scholar claims that of 84 wards ending between 1820 and 1929 only 10 were   preceded by arms race. This suggests that arm races are not the only cause of  wards. war ds. On the other other hand hand on invest investiga igatio tion n of seriou seriouss intern internati ationa onall disput disputed ed  between major powers from 1815 to 1965 found that in 28 cases where disputes was accomplished by an arms race, war resulted 23 times in 71 cases where only 3 times. This research suggests that arms races are more likely to promote war  than likely to promote war than inhabit it.

 Types of war: There seven types of wars which are as follows:

1. tot otal al wa warr:

 

103 Modern war is called the total war. War today is not limited only to armed forces,  but the total population of the state is affected. According to Prof Morgenthau the modern war is a total war is in the sense of being: A. War of of total total popu populat lation ions. s. B. War by total total popul populati ations ons.. C. War again against st total total popul populati ations ons.. D. War for total total stakes stakes.. Modern war is a war of total population in the sense that is emotionally emotionally involves involves the total total popula populatio tion n and they they identi identify fy themse themselve lvess fully fully in its emotions emotions and convictions with the war of its nation. It is war by total populations because it mobilized total populations and the participations of the populations and the  participations of the populations in the war is correspondingly enlarged. Not only ablee bodied abl bodied men are conscr conscript ipted ed but in totali totalitar tarian ian countr countries ies women’ women’ss and children as well. All the productive forces and the entire manpower of the nation are put to the purposes to war. Every section of the population in whatever   positions it is placed has to make its contributions to war efforts. The government can also acquire the private property by law for the war purposes. Total war is also war against total population, because every body is prospective victim of the war.. The older war older disti distinct nction ion betwee between n the combat combatants ants and non combat combatants ants has disappeared. The modern war in snot aimed at destroying the enemy’s armed forces alone but also attacking the civilian population and this destroying the nations will the resist. Every body by some way or the other is affected by the war. Total war is also fought for total stakes. Older wards were fought only for limited purpose and limited objectives.

2. unl unlimi imited ted n nucl uclear ear war war::  Nuclear war may be both limited and unlimited. The purpose of the unlimited war  is to inflic inflictt utmost utmost loses loses on the enemy. enemy. Beside Besidess milit military ary instal installat lation ions, s, civil civil  populations and non military installations are also made the target of attack. The  purpose of the war is direct towards the complete disruption of the civilian life of  the enemy nation. It aims at infliction maximum of the loses in the minimum of  the time so that the nations will to resist is destroyed and the enemy nation yields without prolonging the war further.

3. li limit mited ed nuc nucle lear ar w war: ar:

 

104 The purpose of the limited nuclear war is only to destroy the military power of the enemy by means of nuclear weapon. The military installations along are made the target of attack and not the civilian population and the non military installation. But it becom becomes es di diff ffic icul ultt to di dist stin ingu guis ish h betw betwee een n mi mili lita tary ry an and d non non mi mili lita tary ry installations, during the actual operation. Any limited nuclear war can therefore turn into unlimited nuclear war.

4. li limi mite ted d wa war: r: The purpose to the limited war is to inflict calculated loses on the enemy. It has limit purpose and is confined to limited objectives. Limited war is possible only if  the war is kept confined to the conventional weapons. Incase of the use of nuclear  weapons the loses caused to the enemy can not be kept. In practice however it is difficult to draw a dividing line whether or not a particular war is a limited war.

5. pr pree-em empt ptiv ive e war war:: If in the anticipation of an attack by the enemy the other party without being attacked takes itself the initiative of war the war is called as pre emptive war. The  purpose of such war is to deprive the enemy of such gains which it could have in the event of attacking first. It aims to frustrate the war intentions of the enemy. Israel waged a pre emptive war against Egypt in 1967.

6. gu guer eril illa la wa war: r: guerilla war is an armed conflict which is carried out by the persons who do not form part of an organized army due to inadequacy of military power and w weapons, eapons, guerillas conduct there warfare in the secret manner and avoid open battles. They adopt hit and run tactics and when they themselves are attacked the retreat.

7. civi civill wa war: r: a civil war is a war with in a state between two or more groups. In such a war one of the groups is the lawful government of the country and another group consists of those who try to wrest power from the legitimate government. A situation under which a large part of the population of a country stands in revolt against the legitimate government can also be called a civil war.

Control of war: The international environment with in which states and the people with in them operate opera te is rega regard rded ed by many many th theo eori rist stss as th thee majo majorr fa fact ctor or dete determ rmin inin ing g th thee occurrence and the nature of wars. War remains possible as long as individual states seek to ensure self preservation and to promoters their individual interests

 

105 and tin the absence of a reliable international agency to control the actors of other  states rely on their own efforts. It is no accident threat reforms of the international system sys tem figure figure promin prominent ently ly in many many prescr prescript iption ionss for the preven preventio tion n of war. war. Whereas the reform of human propensities or of the state is bound to be a long drawn out affair, if it is at all possible relatively straightforward partial reforms of  the international system may produce significant restraints upon resorting to war, and a thorough reform could make war impossible. Some theorists , being more optimistic about the nature of states concentrate upon the removal of the fear and suspicion of other states which is characteristic of the  present as well as of all historical political systems; others restraints upon the  behavior of states. The underlying reasoning of both parties is gen generally erally similar. If  individual states in competitive situation are governed by a short term conception of their interests’ acute conflicts between them will occur and will show a strong tendency to escalate. Thus one state erects a tariff barrier to protect its industry against the competition of a trade partner, and the partner retaliates the retaliatory interaction being repeated until the two countries find themselves in a trade war. Armaments races show a similar tendency to escalate particularly so in an age of  rapid technological technological change. The economic economic and the scientifi scientificc efforts efforts necessary to avoid falling behind rivals in the invention and development of rapidly improving weapons of mass destruction have already reached unprecedented heights. And yet neither trade wars nor arms races necessarily end in violent conflict there seem to be operating some restraining and inhibiting factors that prevent an autom aut omat atic ic esca escala lati tion on.. Much Much of th thee th theo eory ry of war war co conc ncer erns ns it itse self lf wi with th th thee identification, improvement, and development of these restraining factors.

Diplomacy: The outcome of starkly competitive behavior leading to wars is clearly against the interests of states and it is rational for them to seek more desirable outcomes. If  compet com petiti itive ve behavio behaviorr is dangero dangerous us theori theorists sts seek seek for altern alternati ative ve methods methods of  cooperative behavior that world not jeopardize the interests of the state through exposing it to the possible less cooperative behavior of others. Some theorists concentrate upon improving the rationality of the decision making of individual states through a better understanding of the international environment though eliminating misperception and irrational fears and through making clear the full  possible costs of engaging in war and the full destructiveness of an all out war,  possible in our age. The rel relati ative ve paucit paucity y of wars wars and their their limite limited d nature nature throug throughout hout the centur century y following the Napoleonic wars (1815-1914) have stirred great theoretical interest

 

106 in the nature of the balance of power system of that period that is in the process  by which the power of competing groups of states tended toward a condition of  equilibrium. Contribution to the successful operation of the balance of power  sy syst stem em of 19th cent centur ury y were were rela relati tive vely ly sl slow ow te tech chno nolo logi gica call ch chang angee grea greatt dive divers rsio iona nary ry oppor opportu tuni niti ties es fo forr in indu dust stri rial al and and colo coloni nial al expan expansi sion on an and d th thee ideological and cultural homogeneity of Europe. Pursuit of a balance of power is a wary of conducting foreign policy that is perhaps less prone to war than other  types of policy because, instead of indiscriminately increasing their power, states increase it only moderately so as not to provoke others and instead of joining the strongest they join the weaker side in order to ensure balance. States in a balance of power system must however be ready to abide by constrainers upon their   behavior in order to ensure stability of the system. The application to international relations of a branch of mathematics game theory thatt analyz tha analyzes es the strategy strategy of confli conflict ct sit situat uation ionss has provided provided a new tool of  analysis. In state interaction as in any game situation one side’s strategy generally depends upon that side’s expectations of the other side’s strategy. If all sides in a game are to maximize their chances of a satisfactory outcome, it is necessary that some rational rules of behavior be conceptualized and agreed upon and this idea of a set of rational rules can be applied to cooperating states in the international system. Game theorists distinguish antagonistic situation called zero sum games in which one state’s gain can be only at the expense of another states because the  payoff is fixed. Even then a mutually acceptable distribution of gains can be rationally reached on the basis of the minimax principle the party in a position of  advantage satisfies itself with the minimum acceptable gain because it realizes that the other parties in a position of disadvantage wouold yield on the basis of its distribution even more to its detriment. In other situations called non zero sum games, the payoff is not constant but can be increased by a cooperative approach the gain of one participant is not at the cost of another. The contestants however  have to agree about the distribution of the gain which is the product of their  cooperation. The theory of games is the foundation of theories of bargaining that analyze the  behavior  behavi or of individual states in interaction interaction.. Diplomacy Diplomacy based upon such theories theories is less likely to lead to war. Policymakers pursuing such strategies will conduct conflicts of the zero sum type so that war is avoided. More than that with some skill such situations introducing additional benefits accruing from cooperation in other interactions and also more generally by eliminating the likelihood of war  and consequently by reducing the costs of preparing for one.

Regional integration:

 

107 Because wars within states have been eliminated through the establishment of  suitable political structures such as central governments that hold a monopoly of  coerciv coer civee power power many many theori theories es conc concent entrat ratee upon upon the establ establish ishment ment of parall parallel el structures with in the international context. Regional integration cooperation in economi econ omicc social social and polit politica icall affair affairss and for example example with with in the Europe European an economicc community economi community did the establishment establishment of security security communities communities such as the north Atlantic treaty organization have made much greater advances than attempts at the reform of the entire global intentional system. Because conflicts among neighbors tend to be frequent regional integration is an important advance toward reducing the incidence of war. Even if it were to  become generally successful however regional integration would simply shift the  problem of war to a different level there would be fewer possibilities of war    because because intraregio intraregional nal conflicts conflicts would be contained contained but interregio interregional nal conflicts conflicts could still give rise to wars of much greater scope and severity. The phenomenon of war must therefore be analyzed at the universal level.

International law: Some of the most influential thinking about war and the international system has come from specialists in international law. All of them postulate that there exists an international society of states that accepts the binding force of some norms of  international behavior. These norms are referred to as international law, although they differ fundamentally from municipal law because no sovereign exists who can enforce them. Most international lawyers realistically accept that international law is conseq consequen uently tly among rather rather than than above above st stats ats.. If is accord according ing to legal legal doctrine binding on states but unenforceable. International law concerns itself largely with two aspects of war: its legality and its regulation. For the regulation of warfare, see war law of. As far as the legality of war is concerned, there has arisen in the 20 th century a general consensus among states, expressed in several international treaties, including the covenant of  the league of nations, the Kellogg-Briand pact of 1928 and the charter of the united nations that resort to armed force, except in certain circumstances, such as self defense is illegal. Such a legalistic approach to the prevention of war however  remain rem ainss futil futilee in the absence absence of a means means of enforc enforceme ement. nt. The enforc enforceme ement nt  provisions of the covenant of the League of Nations and those of the United  Nations charter which entail the application of military and economic sanctions have never been applied successfully, owing to political disagreement among the major powers. This underlines the fact that legal norms to be effective norms to  be effective must reflect an underlying political reality.

 

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 The United Nations: The United Nations is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. The several approaches to peace outlined in its charter and developed in its practice are based upon and clearly reflect the cumulative development of the relevant theories of war. Dr Draw awin ing g heav heavil ily y up upon on th thee exper experie ienc ncee of th thee le leagu aguee of nati nation ons, s, th thee ch char arte ter  r  develops three interrelated approaches; first pacific settlement of disputes which would leave nations with nothing to fight about; second collective security which would confront aggressors with too much to fight against and third disarmament which would deprive them of anything substantial with which to fight.

Pacific settlement of disputes: Is based based upon the assump assumptio tion n that that war is primar primarily ily a techni technique que for settlin settling g  purposes,  purpos es, such as allaying fears and seeking seeking status. status. Further assumptions assumptions are that war frequently comes about because of the unawareness of decision makers of the  possibility of settling disputes peacefully to the mutual advantages of both sides unawareness due to mere ignorance, pride, lack of imagination or selfish and cy cyni nica call le lead ader ersh ship ip.. It is thu huss the prev preven enttion of war wars by de devi vissin ing g an and d institutionalizing alternative, peaceful techniques for the settlement of disputes and by persuading the states to use them. The scope of this approach is limited for states are notoriously reluctant to abide  by impartial findings on matters they regard as being of vital importance. Hence what the procedures really offer is a means of slowing down the progression of a dispute toward war, giving reason a chance to prevail.

Collective security: Is an approach to peace involving an agreement by which states agree to take collective action against any state defined as an aggressor. Leaving aside the  problems of settling disputes or enforcing law or satisfying justice, it concentrates upon forest forestall alling ing violen violence ce by bringi bringing ng to bear bear an overwh overwhelm elming ingly ly superi superior  or  international force against any aggressor. Although collective security in some what different forms played a prominent part in the League of Nations covenant and is embodied in the United Nations charter it has completely failed in both cases. Failing an international government capable of ultimately determining the issu issues es nati nation onss have have not mana managed ged to agree agree on an unequ unequiv ivoc ocal al defi defini niti tion on of  aggression have not in practice accepted the principle that aggression must be acted against independently of the identity of the perpetrator, and therefore have not established the international collective security force envisaged in the charter.

 

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Disarmament: Disarmament and limitation of armaments are based upon the theory that states are inclined to strive for dominance in arms over any potential rivals and that this leads to arms races that tend to end in war. The major besetting sin of this theory is that it often tends to confuse cause with effect. Although arms races develop momentum moment um of their their own they they are themse themselve lvess the result result of politi political cal tensio tensions ns leading to war. In short it is the tension that causes war, not the arms races. To hold otherwise is to mistake a symptom for a cause. Hence, reducing the levels of  armame arm aments nts does not necess necessari arily ly reduce reduce these these tensio tensions ns furthe furthermo rmore re it is the in inst stab abil ilit ity y of st stra rate tegi gicc bala balance ncess ra rath ther er th than an th thei eirr le leve vell th that at le lead adss to war; war; agreements about disarmament of limitation of armaments may easily disturb the existing precarious balance and therefore be actually conducive to war. As these major approaches to peace envisaged in its charter have not proved very fruitful the United Nations has developed two new procedures aiming at the limitation of wars. First preventive diplomacy largely comprising the diplomatic initiatives of the secretary general and the stationing initiatives stationing of peacekeeping forces has serv served ed to conta contain in lo loca call confl conflic icts ts an and d to preve prevent nt escal escalat atio ion n espe especi cial ally ly th thee involv inv olveme ement nt of the super super powers powers.. Second Second althou although gh the genera generall assemb assembly ly’s ’s recommendations have no legal binding force, they have become increasingly influe inf luenti ntial, al, for by the mid 1970’s 1970’s the assemb assembly ly was becomi becoming ng an import important ant agency for what has been called the collective legitimization of state policies. Resort to war becomes more costly when a state is faced with the prospects of a collective condemnation. This new restraint upon war does not however act upon conflicts that the assembly may favorably regard as wars of colonial liberation.  Nor could the assembly’s disapproval be relied upon to deter states from waging ear in pursuit o fan interest they deemed to be truly vital.

World government: Both the shortcomings and the limited practicability of all the approaches to the elimination of war through the reform of the international system have driven many thinkers to accept the idea that war can only be abolished by a full scale world wor ld gover governm nmen ent. t. No mi midw dway ay solu soluti tion on betwe between en th thee rela relati tive ve anar anarchy chy of  independent individual states and a world government with the full paraphernalia of legislative powers and of an overwhelming military force would provide a sufficiently stable international framework for the nations to feel that wars would not break out and thus stop them from behavior that is often conducive to wars. In an age faced with the danger of a war escalating into a general extermination of  mankind, the central importance of preserving peace is obvious and is generally

 

110 accepted. But here the thinkers divide. Some press on from this analysis to the lo logi gical cal concl conclus usio ion n th that at ma manki nkind nd must must and and th ther eref efor oree wi will ll esta establ blis ish h a worl world d government and they advance ideas how best to proceed in this direction. Others regard the world government as completely utopian, no matter how logical and desirable it may be. Yet in terms of actual policies the adherents of the two schools do not agree that the complex phenomenon of war represents a potential calamity of such a magnitude that all theorists must endeavor to understand it and to apply their understanding to prevention and mitigation of war with all the means at their disposal.

 

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Chapter: 12 New phenomenon and concepts in international relations

General assembly: The only body in which all UN members are represented the general assembly exercises deliberative supervisory financial and elective functions relating to any matter within the scope of the UN charter. Its primary role however, is to discuss issu issues es an and d make make reco recomm mmen endat datio ions ns,, th thou ough gh it has no power power to enfo enforc rcee it itss resolu res olutio tions ns or to compel compel state state action action.. Other Other functi functions ons includ includee admit admittin ting g new memb me mber ers; s; sele select ctin ing g memb member erss of th thee econo economi micc and soci social al counc council il th thee non   perm perman anen entt memb member erss of th thee Se Secu curi rity ty Counc Council il an and d th thee trus truste tees eshi hip p coun counci cil; l; supervi supe rvisin sing g the activi activitie tiess of the other other UN organs organs from from which which the assemb assembly ly receives repots; and participating in the election of judges to the international court of justice and the selection of the secretary general. Decisions usually are reached by a simple majority vote. On important questions however such as the admission of new members’ budgetary matters, and peace and security issues a two thirds majority is required. The assembly convenes annually and in special sessions electing a new president each year from among five regional groups of states. At the beginning of each regular session the assembly also holds a general debate in which all members may participate and raise any issue of international concern. Most work however  is delegated to six main committees:

 

112 1. Disarm Disarmame ament nt and intern internati ational onal secur securit ity. y. 2. Ec Econ onom omic ic and and fi fina nanci ncial al.. 3. Social Social,, humani humanitar tarian ian and and cultu cultural ral.. 4. Specia Speciall polit political ical and decol decoloni onizat zation ion.. 5. Admini Administr strati ative ve and budgeta budgetary. ry. 6. Legal. The general assembly has debated issues that other organs of the UN have either  overlooked or avoided including decolonization the independence of Namibia, aparthe apar theid id in South South Africa Africa,, terror terrorism ism and the aids epidem epidemic. ic. The number number of  resolutions passed by the assembly each year has climbed to more than 350 and many resolutions are adopted without opposition. Nevertheless there have been sharp disagreements among members on several issues such as those relating to the cold war, the Arab Israeli drawn public attention to major issues, thereby forcin for cing g member member governm government entss to develop develop posit position ionss on them them and it deal with important global problems. Thee la Th larg rgee si size ze of th thee asse assemb mbly ly an and d th thee di diver versi sity ty of th thee is issu sues es it di disc scus usse sess contributed to the emergence of regionally based voting blocs in the 1960’s. During the cold war the Soviet Union and the countries of Eastern Europe formed on e of the most cohesive blocs and another bloc comprised the United States and its western allies. The admission of new countries of the southern hemisphere in thee 19 th 1960 60’s ’s an and d 70’s 70’s an and d th thee di diss ssip ipat atio ion n of co cold ld war war te tens nsio ions ns af afte terr 19 1989 89 contributed to formation of blocs based on north south economic issues i.e. issues of disagr disagreem eement ent betwee between n the more more prospe prosperou rouss indust industria rializ lized ed countr countries ies of the northern hemispheres and the poorer less industrialized developing countries of  the southern hemisphere. Other issues have been incorporated into the north south divi divide de in incl clud udin ing g nort northe hern rn econo economi micc and and poli politi tical cal domi domina nati tion on econ econom omic ic development the proliferation of nuclear weapons and support for Israel.

Security Council: The un charter charter assign assignss to the securi security ty counci councill primar primary y respon responsib sibil ility ity for the maintenance of international peace and security. The Security Council originally consisted of 11 members five permanent and six non permanent elected by the gener gen eral al asse assemb mbly ly fo forr tw two o year year te term rms. s. Fr From om th thee begi beginni nning, ng, non perma permane nent nt members of the Security Council were elected to give representation to certain regions or groups of states. As membership increased however this practice ran into difficulty. An amendment to the un charter in 1965 increased the council’s

 

113 memb me mber ersh ship ip to 15 in incl clud udin ing g th thee orig origin inal al five five perm perman anen entt memb member erss pl plus us 10 nonpermanent members. Among the permanent members the people’s republic of  china replaced the republic of china (Taiwan) in 1971, and the Russian federation succeeded the Soviet Union in 1991. After the unification of Germany debate over the council’s composition again arose and Germany, India and Japan each applied for permanent council seats. Thee non Th non perm perman anen entt memb member erss are are ch chos osen en to achi achiev evee eq equi uita tabl blee regi region onal al repres rep resent entati ation on five five member memberss coming coming from from Afr Africa ica or Asia Asia one from from Eas Easter tern n Europe two from Latin America and two from Western Europe or other areas. Five of the 10 permanent members are elected each year by the general assembly for two year terms and five retire each year. The presidency is held by each member in rotation for a period of one month. Each Security Council member is entitles to one vote. On all procedural matters the definition definition of which is sometimes sometimes in dispute dispute decision decision by the council are made  by an affirmative vote of any nine of its members. Substantive matters such as the investiga invest igatio tion n of a disput disputee or the applic applicati ation on of sancti sanctions ons also also requir requiree nine nine affirmative votes, including those of the five permanent members holding veto  power. In practice however a permanent member may abstain without impairing th thee valid validit ity y of th thee decis decisio ion. n. A vote vote on whet whether her a matt matter er is proc procedu edura rall or  substan subs tanti tive ve is itself itself a substan substanti tive ve questi question. on. Becaus Becausee the Securit Security y Council Council is required to function continuously each member is represented at all times at the UN’S headquarters in New York City. Any countries even if it is not a member of the UN ay bring a dispute to which It is a party to the attention of the security council. When there is a complaint the council coun cil first first explore exploress the possib possibil ility ity of a peacefu peacefull resolu resoluti tion. on. Intern Internati ational onal   peacekeeping forces may be authorized to keep warring parties apart pending further negotiations. If the council finds that there is a real threat to the peace a  breach of the peace or an act of aggression as defined by article 39 of the un charterr it may call upon un members charte members to apply diplomatic diplomatic or economic economic sanctions. If these methods prove inadequate the UN charter allows the Security Council to take military action against the offending country. During the cold war continual disagreement agreement between the united states and the soviet soviet union union couple coupled d with with the veto veto power power of the securi security ty counci council’s l’s  permanent members made the security council an ineffective institution. Since the late 1980’s however the council’s power the prestige have grown. Between 1987 and 2000 it authorized more peacekeeping operations than at any previous time. The use of the veto veto has decline declined d dramat dramatica ically lly though though disagr disagreem eement entss among among  permanent members of the Security Council most notable in 2003 over the use of 

 

114 mili milita tary ry fo forc rcee agai agains nstt Ir Iraq aq have have occas occasio iona nall lly y under undermi mine ned d th thee counc council il’s ’s effectiveness. To achieve consensus comparatively informal meetings are held in   priv privat atee among among th thee co counc uncil il’s ’s perma permane nent nt memb member erss a prac practi tice ce th that at has has be been en criticized by nonpermanent members of the Security Se curity Council. In addition to several standing and ad hoc committees the work of the council is facilitated by the military staff, committee, sanctions committees for each of the countries under sanctions, peacekeeping forces committees and an international tribunals committee.

Secretariat: The secretary general the principal administrative officer of the united nation is elec electe ted d fo forr a fi five ve year year rene renewa wabl blee te term rm by a tw two o th thir irds ds vote vote of th thee gener general al assembly and by the recommendation of the Security Council and the approval of  its permanent members. Secretaries general usually have come from small neutral countries. The organs entrust to the secretariat he also oversees the preparation of  the UN’S budget. The secretary general has important political functions, being charg cha rged ed wit wit h brin bringi ging ng befo before re th thee organ organiz izat atio ion n any any matt matter er th that at th thre reat atens ens intentional peace and security. Both the chief spokesperson for the UN and the UN’S most visible and authoritative figure in world affairs the secretary general often serves as a high level negotiator. Attesting to the importance of the post two secretaries general has been awarded the noble prize of peace: dag hmmarskjold in 1961 and Kofi Annan, co recipient with the un in 2001. The secretariat influences the work of the united nations to a much greater degree than indicated in the un charter. It is responsible for preparing numerous reports, studi studies es and and in inves vesti tiga gati tion onss in ad addi diti tion on to th thee majo majorr ta task skss of tran transl slat atin ing, g, interpreting, providing services for large numbers of meetings and other work. Under the charter the staff is to be recruited mainly on the basis of merit through there has been a conscious effort to recruit individuals from different geographic regions. Some members of the secretariat are engaged on permanent contracts but others serve on temporary assignment from their national governments. In both cases cas es th they ey must must ta take ke an oath oath of lo loya yalt lty y to th thee Unit United ed Nati Nation onss and and are are not  permitted to receive instructions from member government. The influence of the secretariat can be attributed to the fact that the some 9000 people on its staff are  permanent experts and international civil servants rather than political appointees of member states.

The secretariat secretariat is based in New York, Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi Nairobi Kenya and other  locals. It has been criticized frequently for poor administrative practices though it

 

115 has made made persis persisten tentt effort effortss to increa increase se the effici efficiency ency of its organi organizat zation ion and administration>> subsidiary organs. The United United Nation Nationss networ network k also also includ includes es subsid subsidiar iary y organs organs create created d by the general assembly and autonomous specialized agencies. The subsidiary organs report to the general assembly or ECOSOC or both. Some of these organs are funded directly by the UN others are financed by the voluntary contributions of  gover gov ernm nment entss or priv privat atee ci citi tize zens ns.. In addi additi tion on ECOS ECOSOC OC has has co cons nsul ulta tati tive ve relationships with NGO’S operating in economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related fields. Ngo’s have played an increasingly important role in the work of the peacekeeping refugee issues and human rights.

Organization and administration>> specialized agencies The specialized agencies report annually to ECOSOC and often cooperate with echo ech o th thee ra rand nd wi with th vari various ous UN orga organs ns.. Howe Howeve verr th they ey al also so have have th thei eirr own own  principles, goals and rules which at times may conflict with those of other UN organs and agencies. The specialized agencies are autonomous insofar as they control their own budgets and have their own boards of directors who appoint agency heads independently independently of the general assembly or secretary secretary general. Major  specialized agencies and related organs of the UN include the international labor  organization. ILO, the food and agriculture organization of the United Nations FAO the United  Nations educational, scientific and cultural organization UNESCO and the world health organization WHO. Two of the most powerful specialized agencies, which also are the most independent with respect UN decision making are the world’s  bank and the intentional monetary fund IMF. The United Nations along with its specialized agencies is often referred to collectively as the United Nations system.

Economic and social council: Economic and social council ECOSOC one of the six principal organs of the United Uni ted Nation Nationss compos composed ed of repres represent entati atives ves of 54 countri countries. es. Each Each year year 18 members are elected by the un general assembly for 3 years terms. ECOSOC’S early activities were directed toward providing aid to war ravaged countries of  Europe and Asia. Today the problems of developing nations are its major conc concern. ern. The council carries out studies on international economic, social, humanitarian, cultural, educational and related matters an d coordinates the activities of the UN’S specialized agencies in these areas. ECOSOC operates mainly through its various standing committee’s functional commissions and regional commissions.

 

116 The decisions reached at council meetings, where each member has one vote and a simple majority rules are sent as recommendations to the general assembly. Designed to be the UN’S main venue for the discussion of international economic and social issues the economic and social council ECOSOC directs and coordinates the economic social humanitarian and cultural activities of the UN and its specialized agencies. Established by the UN charter EOSOC is empowered to recommend international action on economic and social issues  promote universal respect for human rights and work for global cooperation on health, health, educati education on and cultur cultural al and relate related d areas. areas. ECOSOC ECOSOC conduct conductss studie stu dies; s; formul formulate atess resolu resolutio tions, ns, recomm recommend endati ations ons and convent convention ionss for  consideration by the general assembly and coordinates the activities of various un programs and specialized agencies. agenc ies. Most of ECOSOC’S work is performed in fu func ncti tiona onall co comm mmis issi sion onss on to topi pics cs such such as huma human n righ rights ts,, narco narcoti tics cs,,  population, social development, statistics, the status of women and science and technology the council also oversee regional commission for Europe Asia and the pacific western Asia Latin America and Africa. The si The six x fu func ncti tion onal al comm commis issi sion onss deal deal wi with th probl problem emss rela relati ting ng to soci social al development, human rights the status of women narcotic drugs population d national and international statistics. There are also five standing committees and assorted expert bodies that deal with such matters as natural resources development of science and technology and crime prevention. Five regional commissions are currently in operation within the council. They are modeled after the parent body and reflect the geographic diversity of  resour res ources ces and needs. needs. Each one is headed by an execut executive ive secret secretary ary.. The economic commission for Europe headquartered in Geneva has 42 members and and th thee econ econom omiic and and soc ocia iall co com mmiss missiion for Asi Asia and and th thee pa paci cifi ficc headquartered in Bangkok has 45 full members and 8 associate members; both were established 1947. The economic commission for Latin America and the Caribbean with 41 full members and 6 associate members was set up in 1948 in Sa Sant ntia iago, go, Chil Chile. e. In 1958 1958 th thee econ econom omic ic comm commis issi sion on fo forr Af Afri rica ca was was established at Addis Ababa Ethiopia it has 52 participating member nations and 2 associate members. The economic commission for western Asia with 13 member mem berss was organized organized in 1973 in Beirut Beirut Lebanon Lebanon it itss headqua headquarte rters rs was subsequently moved to Baghdad Iraq, because of the war in Lebanon. A regi region onal al co comm mmis issi sion on may may make make reco recomm mmen enda dati tion onss to an any y memb member  er  government but can act only with the consent of that government. Regional coopera coop eratio tion n has sti stimul mulate ated d progre progress ss in agricu agricult lture ure,, indust industry ry,, educati education, on, housing, electric power, trade, transportation and environmental protection issues.

 

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 Trusteeship council: The trusteeship council was designed to supervise the government of trust terr territ itor orie iess and to le lead ad th them em to self self gover governm nmen entt or in inde depe pende ndenc nce. e. The The trusteeship system like the mandate system under the leaguer of nations, was establ est ablish ished ed on the premis premisee that that coloni colonial al territ territori ories es taken taken from from countr countries ies defeated in war should not be annexed by the victorious powers bur should be administered by a trust country under international supervision until their  future fut ure status status was determ determine ined. d. Unlike Unlike the mandat mandatee syste system m the trust trustees eeship hip system sys tem invite invited d petit petition ionss from from trust trust terri territor tories ies on their their indepe independen ndence ce and required periodic international missions to the territories. 1945 only 12 league of nations mandates remained: Nauru, New Guinea, Ruanda Urundi, Togo land and Cameroon Cameroon (French (French administer administered) ed) Togo land and Cameroon Cameroon (British (British administrated) the pacific islands (Caroline, Marshall and Marianas) Western Samoa, south West Africa, Tanganyika and Palestine. All these mandates  became trust territories except south West Africa now Namibia, which South Africa refused to enter into the trusteeship system. The trusteeship council which met once each year consisted of states administering trust territories,   permanent member s of the security council that did not administer trust territ territori ories es and other other un member member select selected ed by the general general assembly assembly.. Each Each member had one voter and decisions were taken by a simple majority of those  present. With the independence of Palau the last remaining trust territory in 1994 the council council termi terminat nated ed its operation operations. s. No longer longer requir required ed to meet meet annually the council may meet on the decision of its president or on a request  by a majority o fits members, by the general assembly or by the Security Council. Since 1994 new role for the council have been proposed including admini adm iniste sterin ring g the global global common commonss (e.g. (e.g. the seabed seabed and outer outer space) space) and serving as a forum for minority and indigenous peoples.

International court of justice:

International court of justice also known as world court principal judicial organ of the United Nations UN. It was created in 1945 under the un charter  as the successor to the permanent court of international justice under the league of nations. The court functions in accordance with its won statute, which forms an integral part of the un charter. The tasks of the court are to decide legal cases between nations and to provide advisory opinions to the UN and its agencies on questions of international law. Neither private individuals nor international organizations may bring cases before the court. The curt has its headquarters in The Hague, the Netherlands.

 

118 All members of the UN are automatically parties to the court’s statute. A nation that is not a un member may become a party to the stature or use the court if it accepts conditions set by the un and agrees to contribute the expenses of the court.

Activities: Disputes may be brought before the court in two ways. The first is by a special agreement between the parties in which they consent to submit the matter to the court. The second is by a unilateral application by one party in the dispute; this can occur for example if the applicant believes that its adversary is obliged by the terms of a particular treaty to accept the jurisdiction of the court in case of a dispute. Alternatively, nations that parties to the statute may declare in a chance their  automatic acceptance of the courts jurisdiction for certain or all types of legal disputes. This declaration is known as accepting compulsory jurisdiction. If  the parties to a dispute have filed such declarations and if the dispute between them falls with in the bounds of the declaration then either party may bring the case case befor beforee th thee cour court. t. In 1985 1985 Unit United ed St Stat ates es Pres Presid ident ent Ronal Ronald d Reag Reagan an formally with drew the long standing un declaration accepting the compulsory  jurisdiction of the court. The United States remains a party to the statute however and continues to participate in cases submitted by special agreement or brought pursuant to a treaty to which it is a party. The court renders judgments by applying international law as derived from treati tre aties, es, wide wide spread spread practi practices ces accept accepted ed as law custom customss and the general general  principle is of law found in the major legal systems of the world. The court may ma y al also so refe referr to past past judi judici cial al decis decisio ions ns and th thee wr writ itin ings gs of expe expert rtss in international law. The judgment of the court which must contain the reasons for the decision is final and binding and no appeal may be made. The UN Security Council is empowered to take measurers to enforce the decisions of  the escort if the parties to the dispute fail to enforce it themselves. The Se Secur curit ity y Counc Council il has has neve neverr been been aske asked d to enfo enforc rcee a judgm judgment ent howe howeve ver  r   because states generally comply either judgments although not always quickly or wholeheartedly. Thee cour Th courtt gi give vess advis advisor ory y opin opinio ions ns on le legal gal ques questi tion onss to th thee un ge gene nera rall assembly the security council and other un organs and specialized agencies that have been authorized by the general assembly to ask for such opinions or  whose constitutions so permit. An example is the judgment of the court in 1962 1962 th that at peace peaceke keepi eping ng expen expense sess in th thee repub republi licc of th thee Cong Congo o now now th thee Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Middle East constitutes expenses of the organization to be paid by member states as apportioned by the general assembly.

 

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 The judges: The court has 15 judges each elected by an absolute majority of the security council and the general assembly voting independently of each other .the   jjudg udges es ar aree el elec ecte ted d fo forr ni nine ne year yearss and may may be reel reelec ecte ted d no tw two o may may be nationals of the same country. A judge may be removed from the court only  by unanimous vote of the other judges. They do not represent their countries   but are elected on the basis of their knowledge of international law. The composition of the court is supposed at all times to reflect the main forms of  civilization and the principal legal systems of the world. In any dispute if no  judge is of the nationality of a party the case, that counts may choose a judge to sit on the case. Nine judges constitute a quorum the minimum number  necessary to decide a case and question before the court are decided by a majority of judges present. The court elects its own officers and appoints it registrar and other officials.

Specialized agencies: The specialized agencies report annually to ECOSOC and often cooperate with each other and with various UN organs. However they also have their  own principles goals and rules which at times may conflict with those of other  un organs and agencies. The specialized agencies are autonomous insofar as they control their own budgets and have their own board of directors who appoint appo int agency agency heads heads indepe independen ndently tly of the general general assemb assembly ly or sec secret retary ary general. genera l. Major specialized specialized agencies are related related organs of the UN include the intentional labor organization ILO. The food and agriculture organization of  the United Nations FAO the United Nations educational scientific and cultural organization and the world health organization UNESCO. Two of the most   power powerful ful specia specializ lized ed agenci agencies es which which also also are the most most indepen independen dentt with with respect to un decision making are world bank and the international monetary fund. fun d. The United United Nation Nationss along along either either its specia specializ lized ed agenci agencies es if ifss often often referred to collectively as the United Nations system.

United nation as a peace maker organization: United Uni ted nation nation is an intern internati ational onal organi organizat zation ion establ establish ished ed on Octobe Octoberr 24, 1945. 1945. The The Unit United ed Natio Nations ns was was th thee seco second nd mult multip ipur urpos posee in inte tern rnati ation onal al organizatio organi zation n established established in the 20th century that was worldwide in scope and membership. Its processor the League of Nations was created by the treaty of  Versailles in 1919 and disbanded in 1946. Headquartered in New York City, the UN also also languag languagee are Arabic Arabic,, Chines Chinese, e, Englis English, h, French French,, Russia Russian n and Spanish.

According to its charter the un aims:

 

120 To save succeeding generation from the scourge of war the reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights to establish conditions under which justice and resp respect ect fo forr th thee oblig obligat atio ions ns ar aris isin ing g from from trea treati ties es an and d ot othe herr sour source cess of  international law can be maintain and to promote social progress and better  standards of life in larger freedom. However the main function of the united nation is to preserve international  peace and security. Chapter 6 of the charter provides for the pacific settlement of disputes, through the intervention of the Security Council by means such as negoti nego tiati ation, on, mediat mediation ion,, arbit arbitrat ration ion,, and judici judicial al decisi decisions ons.. The Securit Security y Council may investigate any dispute or situation to determine whether it is likely lik ely to endange endangerr intern internati ational onal peace and securi security ty.. At any stage of the disputer the council may recommend appropriate procedures or methods of  adjustment and if the parties fail to settle the dispute by peaceful means the council may recommend terms of settlement. The goal of collective security whereby aggression against one member is met with resistance by all underlies chapter 7 of the charter, which grants the secu securi rity ty coun counci cill th thee power power to orde orderr coerc coerciv ivee meas measur ures es rang rangin ing g from from diplomatic, economic, and military sanctions to the use of armed force in cases where attempts at a peaceful settlement have failed. Such measures were seldom applied during the cold war, however because tension between the United Uni ted States States and the Soviet Soviet Union Union prevent prevented ed the Securit Security y Council Council from from agreeing on the instigators of aggression. Instead actions to maintain peace and security often took the form of preventive diplomacy and often took the form of preventive diplomacy and peacekeeping. In the post cold war period ap appe peal alss to th thee UN fo forr peac peacek ekee eepi ping ng an and d rela relate ted d acti activi viti ties es in incr crea ease sed d dram dramat atic ical ally ly and and new th thre reat atss to in inte tern rnat atio ional nal peace peace and and secu securi rity ty were were confronted, including aids and international terrorism.   Notwithstanding the primary role of the Security Council, the UN charter   provides for the participation of the general assemble and non member states in security issues. Any state whether it is a member of the UN or or not may  bring any dispute or situation that endangers international peace and security to the attention of the Security Council or the general assembly. The charter  author aut horize ized d the genera generall assemb assembly ly to discus discusss any questi questions ons relati relating ng to the maintenance of intentional peace and security and to make recommendation with regard to any such questions to the state or states concerned or to the Security Council or to both. This authorization is restricted by the provision that while the security council is exercising in respect of any in respect of any dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the present charter the general assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless the security council so requests. By the uniting for 

 

121  peace resolution of November 1950, however the general assembly granted to itself the power to deal with threats to the peace if the Security Council fails to act after a veto by a permanent member. Although these provisions grant the general assembly a broad secondary role the Security Council ca n make decisions that bind all members, whereas the general assembly can make only recommendations.

Peacekeeping, peacemaking and peace building: International armed forces were first used in 1948 to observe cease fires in Kashmir and Palestine. Although not specifically mentioned in the un charter, the use of such forces as a buffer between warring parties pending troop withdrawals and negotiations a practice known as peacekeeping missions have taken taken many many fo form rms, s, th thou ough gh th they ey have have in commo common n th thee fa fact ct th that at th they ey are are design des igned ed to be peacef peaceful, ul, that that they they involv involvee milita military ry troops troops from from severa severall countries and that the troops serve under the authority of the un security council. In 1988 the un peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel prize for   peace. During the cold war, so-called first generation or classic peacekeeping was used in conflicts in the Middle East and Africa and in conflicts stemming from decolonization in Asia. Between in 1948 and 1988 the UN undertook 13  peacekeeping missions involving generally lightly armed troops from neutral countries other than the permanent members of the Security Council most often Canada, Sweden, Norway, Finland, India, Ireland, and Italy. Troops in these missions the so called value helmets were allowed to use force only in self defense. The missions were given and enjoyed the consent of the parties to th thee conf confli lict ct an and d th thee suppo support rt of th thee Se Secur curit ity y Counc Council il and and th thee troo troop p contributing countries. With the end ot the cold war the challenges of peacekeeping became more complex. In order to respond to situations in which internal order had broken do down wn an and d th thee ci civi vili lian an po popu pula lati tion on was was suff suffer erin ing, g, seco second nd gene genera rati tion on  p pea eacek cekee eepi ping ng was was deve develo lope ped d to achi achiev evee mult multip iple le poli politi tical cal and and soci social al obje object ctive ives. s.

Un Unli like ke

fi firs rstt

gener generat atio ion n

peace peaceke keep epin ing, g,

seco second nd

gener generat atio ion n

 peacekeeping often involves civilian’s experts and relief specialists as well as soldiers. Another difference between second generation and first generation  p pea eacek cekee eepi ping ng is th that at sold soldie iers rs in some some seco second nd gener generat atio ion n mi miss ssio ions ns are are authorized to employ force for reasons other than self defense. Because the goalss of second goal second genera generatio tion n peacek peacekeepi eeping ng can be variab variable le and diffic difficult ult to definee however much controversy defin controversy has accompanied the use of troops in such missions.

 

122 In the 1990’s second generation peacekeeping missions were undertaken in Cambodia (1992-93), the former Yugoslavia (1992-95), Somalia (1992-95) and elsewh elsewhere ere and includ included ed troops troops from from the perman permanent ent member memberss of the security council as well as form the developed and developing world (e.g. Austra Aus tralia lia,, Pakista Pakistan, n, Ghana, Ghana, Nigeri Nigeria, a, Fiji, Fiji, India) India).. In the former former Yugosl Yugoslav av  province of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the security council created safe areas to  protect the predominantly bosniac (Bosnian Muslim) population from Serbian attacks attac ks and un troops were authorized authorized defend the areas with force. force. In each of  these cades the un reacted to threats to peace and security with in states sometimes taking sides in domestic disputes and thus jeopardizing its own neutrality. Between 1988 and 2000 more than 30 peacekeeping efforts were author aut horize ized, d, troops troops repres represent enting ing 77 countr countries ies were were deploy deployed ed on missi missions ons thro through ughou outt th thee worl world. d. In th thee fi firs rstt year yearss of th thee 21st cen centur tury y annual annual un expenditures on peacekeeping operations exceeded $2 billion. In the addition to traditional peacekeeping and preventive diplomacy in the  post cold war ere the functions of the un forces were expanded considerably to include peacemaking and peace building. For example since 1990 UN forces have supervised elections in many parts of the world, including Nicaragua, Eritr Eri trean ean and Cambod Cambodia: ia: encoura encouraged ged peace peace negoti negotiati ations ons in EI Sal Salvado vador, r, Angola and western shares; and distributed food in Somalia. The presence of  un troops in Yugoslavia during the violent and protracted disintegration of  that that coun countr try y re rene newe wed d di disc scus ussi sion on about about th thee role role of un troo troops ps in refu refuge geee rese resett ttle leme ment nt.. In 1992 1992 th thee un crea create ted d th thee depar departm tmen entt of peac peaceke ekeepi eping ng operati oper ations ons DPKO DPKO which which provid provides es admini administe stered red and techni technical cal suppor supportt for    pol polit itica icall and and huma humani nita tari rian an mi miss ssio ions ns and and coord coordin inat ates es al alll mi mine ne cl clea eari ring ng activities conducted under un auspices. The UN’S peacekeeping, peacemaking, and peace building activities have suffered from serious logistical and financial difficulties. As more missions are are unde undert rtak aken en th thee cost costss and and con contr trov over ersi sies es asso associ ciat ated ed wi with th reim reimbu burs rses es countries for the use of equipment these payments have been limited because of the failure of many member states to pay their un dues.

Sanctions and military action: By subscribing to the charter all members undertake to place at the disposal of  the Security Council armed forces and facilities for military sanctions against aggress aggr essors ors or distur disturber berss of the peace. peace. During During the cold cold war, war, howeve howeverr no agreements agreem ents to give this measure effect were concluded. concluded. Following Following the end of  the cold war the possibility of creating permanent un u n forces was revived.

 

123 During the cold war the provisions of chapter 7 of the un charter were invoked only twice with the support of all for permanent security. Council members against southern Rhodesia in 1966 and against south Africa in 1977. after  fighting broke out between north and south Korea in June 1950, the united states obtained a security council resolution authorizing the use of force to support its ally, south Korea and turn back north Korean forces. Because the soviet union was at the time boycotting the security council over its refusal to seat the people’s republic of china, there was no veto of the US measure. As a result a us led multinational fore fought under the un banner until a cease fire was reached on July 27, 1953. The security council again voted to use un armed forces to repel an aggressor  following the august 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq. After condemning the aggression and imposing economic sanctions on Iraq, the council authorized member states to use all necessary means to restore peace and security to Kuwait. The resulting Persian gulf war lasted six weeks, until Iraq agreed to comply with un resolutions and withdraw from Kuwait. The un continued to monitor Iraq’s compliance with its resolutions, which included the demand that Iraq eliminated its weapons of mass destruction. In accordance with this resolution the Security Council established a UN special mission UNSCOM to inspect ins pect and verify verify Iraq’s Iraq’s implem implement entati ation on of cease cease fir firee terms. terms. The United United States however continued to bomb Iraqi weapons installation from time to timee citing tim citing Iraqi Iraqi violat violation ionss of no fly zones in the northern northern and southe southern rn regions of the country the targeting of us military aircraft by aircraft by Iraqi radar and the obstruction of inspection efforts undertaken by UNSCOM. The preponderant role of the united states in initiating and commanding un actions actio ns in Korea in 1950 and the Persian Persian gulf in 1990-91 1990-91 prompted prompted debate over whether the requirement requirementss and spirit of collective collective security security could ever be achieved apart form the interests of the most powerful countries and without us control. The continued US bombing of Iraq subsequent to the gulf war  create cre ated d furthe furtherr contro controver versy sy about about whethe whetherr the raids raids were were justif justified ied under  under  withdraw her tribesmen. But Pakistan held that the accession of Kashmir had  been brought about by force. The government requested the security council to arrange a ceasefire and asked both the tribesmen and the Indian troops to withdraw so that a free and impartial plebiscite could be held to ascertain the wishes of the people of Kashmir.

Indo-Pakistan war 1948 and United Nations Na tions involvement: While the Kashmir issue was still on the table the Indian troops launched a

full scale attack and drove the tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border.

 

124 Pakistan rushed her regular troops into Kashmir and a full scale war with India ensued. She took control of the Azad Kashmir army but the security council on august 13, 1948, called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of plebiscite under united nations supervisions. Both the Indian and Pakistani governments accepted the resolution. In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949 the ceasefire line was demarcated. Pakistan’s side of Kashmir consisted of some  parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas of western Kashmir, Gilgit and a great chunk of Ladakh territory territory near the Chinese border in the north India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh territory near the Ti Tibe bett bord border er.. The The cease cease fi fire re has has rema remain ined ed in ex exis iste tence nce si since nce 1949. 1949. no   plebiscite has been held and thus the Kashmir issue still remains disputed unresolved.

 The 1965 war: In April 1965, a lash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the Rann of Kutch, a sparsely inhabited region along the south western indo Pakistani  border. When the Indians withdrew, Pakistan claimed victory. Later full scale hostil hos tiliti ities es eru erupte pted d in Septem September ber 1965, 1965, when when India India allege alleged d that that insurg insurgent entss trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating in India controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased three weeks later, following mediation efforts by the un and interested countries. In January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met in Tashkent, USSR and agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir  and their other differences.

 The 1971 war: Indo Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil war erupted in Pakistan army arm y against against east east Pakista Pakistanis nis demandi demanding ng autono autonomy my and indepen independen dence. ce. In December India invaded East Pakistan in support of the east Pakistani people. The Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than 90,000   becam becamee Indian Indian prisone prisoners rs of war. war. East East Pakist Pakistan an became became the indepen independen dentt country of Bangladesh on 6th December 1971 indo Pakistan conflict, president zu zulf lfiq iqar ar al alii Bhutt Bhutto o and Indi Indian an prim primee mi mini nist ster er in indi dira ra Gandh Gandhii met met in th thee mountain town of shimla, India, in July 1972. They agreed to aline of control in Kashmir resulting from the December 17, 1971 ceasefire and endorsed the  principle of settlement of bilateral disputes through peaceful means.

Indian troops and siachen glacier 1984:

 

125 In Indi dia’ a’ss nucle nuclear ar te test st in 1974 1974 gener generat ated ed grea greatt uncer uncerta tain inty ty in Pa Paki kist stan an an and d is generally acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan’s nuclear weapons development program. In 1983 the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists in their respective countries, i.e. shikhs in India’s Punjab Punj ab state state and sidhis sidhis in Pakist Pakistan’ an’ss sindh sindh provin province. ce. In Apr April il 1984 tensio tensions ns erupted after troops were deployed to the siachen glacier, a high altitude desolate ceasefire agreement (Karachi agreement) signed by Pakistan and India in 1949. Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became prime ministering November  1984 and after a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985, president zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack attack each each other’ other’ss nuclear nuclear facil faciliti ities. es. In ear early ly 1986 the Indian Indian and Pakista Pakistani ni governments governm ents began high level talks to resolve resolve the siachen glacier border dispute and to improve trade.

Kashmir insurgency 1990: Bilate Bil ateral ral tensio tensions ns increa increased sed in early early 1990, 1990, when when Kashmi Kashmiri ri milita militants nts began began a campaig campa ign n of vi viol olenc encee again against st Indi Indian an gover governm nmen entt autho authori rity ty in Jamm Jammu u and and Kashmir. Subsequent high level bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between India Ind ia and Pakist Pakistan, an, but relati relations ons worsen worsened ed again again after after the destru destructi ction on of the ayodhyaa mosque ayodhy mosque by Hindu extremist extremistss in December December 1992 and terrorist terrorist bombings in Bombay in March 1993. Talks and terrorist terrorist between between the foreign secretaries secretaries of   both countries in January 1994 resulted in deadlock.

Diplomatic push 1996-97: In the last last severa severall years years the indo indo Pakista Pakistani ni relati relations onship hip has veered veered sharpl sharply y  between rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz sharif moved to resume official dialog with India. A number of  meetings at the foreign secretary and prime ministerial level took place with   positive atmospherics but little concrete progress. In a speech at the UN the Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz sharif offered to open talks on a non aggression  pact with India proposing that both nations strike a deal to restrain their nuclear  and missile capabilities.

Effects on 9/11 on Kashmir: If the world and the United States changed after September 11 the center of that change is the region where Pakistan is located. When it came to begin the war  against terrorism Pakistan did not hesitate to do whatever it takes to fight against terrorism. United States of America appreciated the efforts of Pakistan which did not please India. So India blamed Pakistan based groups for the December 13,

 

126 2001 attack on the Indian parliament. In reply general pervez mushrraf’ s speech of January 12, 2002 which even India’s hawkish home minister lal Krishna advani termed four days later as path breaking India was caught on the back foot.

National Kashmir committee: It is in this context that Pakistan launched a new political initiative on Kashmir to reaffirm reaff irm its ling standing policy of suppor supporting ting the right of self determination determination for  th thee peopl peoplee of Kash Kashmi mirr th that at is ensh enshri rine ned d in Indi India. a. Mush Mushar arra raff anno announc uncee th thee format for mation ion of a nation national al Kashmi Kashmirr commit committee tee headed headed by a vetera veteran n Kashmi Kashmiri ri   politi politicia cian n and its charter charter made made clear clear the purpos purposes es behind behind the initia initiati tive. ve. The challenge before the government is to promote confidence among the people in Pakistan and Kashmir regarding Pakistan’s efforts to project the Kashmir cause as a popular and indigenous struggle internationally. Having addressed international concerns regarding terrorism and extremism in mush mu shrr rraf af’s ’s Janu Januar ary y 12 spee speech ch th thee unit united ed st stat ates es in now more more rece recept ptiv ivee to Pakistan’s plea and ins anxious to see a dialogue on al the issues of Kashmir.

Peace in south Asia and the Kashmir dispute: Pakistan believes that the establishment of durable peace in south Asia hinges on the resolution of the Kashmir dispute in light of the Security Council resolutions and the wishes of Kashmiri people. On March 17, 2004 Prime Minister Mir  zafarullah khan jamali said the Kashmir dispute remains the core issue between India and Pakistan. The two south Asian nations have fought three wars, two of  which were over the disputed Kashmir region. In January this year the two leaderships made a decision to open the dialogue process in a bid to resolve all disputes between the two sides.

 The dialogue process: Pakistan always showed seriousness and sincerity towards resolution of the core issue of Kashmir by adopting several confidence building measures CBMs. World community time and again has advised India to decrease the number of its forces in occupied Kashmir and release illegally detained Kashmiri leadership. India never hesitated from leveling baseless allegation against Pakistan of infiltration and also did not stop massive human rights violation in Kashmir. The need is to initiate vigorous efforts from both sides in resolving the Kashmir issue. The basic import imp ortant ant disput disputee between between the two countr countries ies is Kashmi Kashmirr issue issue and with with its resolution all the other outstanding issues would be settled very easily. Prime Minister Mir zafarullah khan jamali said the Kashmir dispute should be resolved

 

127 according to the united nation s resolutions and with active participation of the Kashmiris.

 Year 2005 toad to peace: The prime minister said that there were many difficulties on the road to peace but emphasized the need to take measures to promote mutual trust and fund new avenues for a peaceful resolution of the lingering Kashmir dispute. The first formal visit of a faction of the separatist all parties hurriayat conference APHC and the jammu and Kashmir liberation front JKLF to Pakistan occupied Kashmir  PoK and subseq subsequent uently ly though though unsanc unsanctio tioned ned by Indian Indian author authorit ities ies to Pakista Pakistan n  between June 2-16, 2005 was thus projected as a major event and development on the process of solving the Kashmir issue. Indeed the visit strongly reiterated the fact that the APHC contends to be a faithful Pakistani proxy. After his meeting with wit h the presid president ent mushar musharaf, af, mirqai mirqaizz umar umar farooq farooq declare declared d that, that, “we want Kashmir to be divided on geographical grounds we don’t want Kashmir to lose its identity we support his his president musharraf approach.” During their meeting with with   president musharraf the APHC leaders once again were assured full political diplomatic and moral support. This tour has been helpful in understanding the viewpoint of Kashmiri leaders. Their quest for a free hand to decide their future is valid. They have been living under brutal Indian occupation since 1948. Despite promised justice by the UN 57 years ago, they have been denied their right of self determination. It was in fact the denial denial of justi justice ce and unabate unabated d Indian Indian state state terror terrorism ism perpet perpetrat rated ed agains againstt Kashmir. The recent visit of the APHC leader s was a significant development which can be termed as a milestone in the process of resolving the core disputer of Kashmir   between Pakistan and India peacefully. We wish both the governments to show courage boldness and flexibility in settling the issue.

Multinational cooperation: Multinational cooperation is any corporation that is registered and operated in more than one country at a time. Generally the corporation has its headquarters in one count country ry and and oper operat ates es whol wholly ly or part partia iall lly y owned owned subs subsid idia iari ries es in ot othe her  r  countries. Its subsidiaries report to the corporation’s central headquarters. Multinational Corporation MNCs sometimes called transnational corporation or  Intern Int ernati ational onal Corpor Corporati ation, on, busine business ss that that produc produces es or distri distribut butes es produc products ts or 

 

128 services in one or more foreign countries by establishing a branch or affiliate there. A branch is a part of a company that is located in another country. An affiliate is a company partially or entirely owned by another company. MNCs engage in foreign direct investment FDI that is investment in one country by citizens of another. Sometimes such investment involves acquiring an existing co comp mpan any. y. In ot othe herr case casess MNCs MNCs unde undert rtak akee what what is kn know own n as gree green n fi fiel eld d investment by creating new facilities or activities. In economic economic terms a firm advantages advantages in establish establishing ing a multinati multinational onal corporation corporation include both vertical and horizontal economies of scale (i.e. reduction in cost that result from and expanded level of output and a consolidation of management) and increa inc reased sed market market share. share. Althoug Although h cultur cultural al barrie barriers rs can create create unpredi unpredicta ctable ble obstacles as companies establish offices and production plants around the world a form’s technical expertise, experiences personnel and proven strategies usually can be tr tran ansf sfer erre red d fo form rm co coun untr try y to count country ry.. Cr Crit itic icss of th thee mult multin inat atio ional nal corporation usually view it as an economic and often political means of foreign domina dom inatio tion. n. Develo Developin ping g countri countries es with with a narrow narrow range range of exports exports (often (often of   primary goods) as their economic base are particularly vulnerable to economic exploitation. Monopolistic practices, human right abuses, and disruption of more tr trad adit itio ional nal mean meanss of econ econom omic ic grow growth th are are among among th thee risk riskss th that at fa face ce host host countries. Before world war II (1939-1945), most MNCs established foreign operations to secure sources of raw materials and developing countries were the largest recants of world wide FDI. After World War II the foreign activities of large corporations increased significantly. In the 1950s and 1960s large numbers of United States corporations began investing in Europe mainly in manufacturing. Investment in other nations by European and Japanese businesses soon followed. During the 1980s and 1990s investment in the service sector by MNCs rose considerably. These postwar changes in the nature of MNCs investment have changed where MNCs operate. Before World War II the share of FDI going into developing countries was around 60 percent. In the 1970s and 1980s it dropped to around 25  percent. By the mod 1990s it had risen to about 40 percent due to improving economic conditions in some developing countries. Most MNCs are very large corporations based in developed countries. About half  of the 600 largest MNCs have headquarters in the United States; about a sixth is  based in Japan and about a tenth is in the United Kingdom. In the 1980s and 1990s a decreasing number of smaller corporations expanded their production activities abroad. Similarly and increasing number of MNCs now originate form the newly newly indust industri riali alized zed develo developin ping g areas, areas, includ including ing Hong Hong Kong Kong and South South

 

129 Korea. These developments have been aided by technological improvements in transportation, communications and production processes. The tremendous growth and spread of MNCs has sparked controversy. Some  people believe that MNCs contribute to unemployment in the country where they are based by hiring foreign workers for overseas branches or affiliate. Some  people also believe MNCs exploit the people and resources of other countries. However others argue that MNCs create more jobs than they eliminate and what MNCs bring capital and technology to areas that need it.

Pollution: Pollution is contamination of earth’s environment with materials that interfere with human health, the quality of life or the natural functioning of ecosystems (living organisms and their physical surroundings). Although some environmental  pollution is a result of natural causes such as volcanic eruptions most is caused by human activities. There are two main categories of polluting materials, or pollutants. Biodegradable   pollut pollutant antss are materi materials als such such as sewage sewage that that rapidl rapidly y decomp decompose ose by natura naturall  processes. These pollutants become a problem when added to the environment faster than they can decompose. Non degradable pollutants are materials that either don’t decompose or decompose slowly in the natural environment. Once contamination occurs it is difficult or impossible to remove these pollutants from the environment.   Non degradab degradable le compoun compounds ds such such as dichlo dichlorod rodiph iphenyl enyltri trichl chloro oroeth ethane ane (DDT), (DDT), dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and radioactive materials can reach dangerous levels of accumulation as they are passed up the food chain in the   bodi bodies es of progr progres essi sive vely ly la larg rger er an anim imal als. s. Fo Forr exam exampl ple, e, mole molecu cule less of to toxi xicc compounds may collect on the surface of aquatic plants without doing much damage to the plants. A small fish that grazes on these plants accumulates a high concentration of the toxin. Larger fish or other carnivores that eat the small fish wi will ll accum accumula ulate te even even grea greatt poss possib ibly ly li life fe th thre reat ateni ening ng co conce ncent ntra rati tions ons of th thee compound. This process is known as bioaccumulation.

Impacts of pollution:

Because humans are at the top of the food chain, they are particularly vulnerable to the effect of non degradable pollutants. This was clearly illustrated in the 1950s and 1960s when residents living near mina Mata bay, Japan developed nervous

 

130 disorders, tremors and paralysis in a mysterious epidemic. More then 400 people died before authorities discovered that a local industry had released mercury into mina Mata bay. This highly toxic element accumulated in the bodies of local fish and eventually in bodies of people who consumed the fish. More recently research has revealed that many chemical pollutants such as DDT and PCBs mimic sex hormones and interfere with the human body’s reproductive and developmental functions. These substances are known as endocrine disrupters. Pollution also has a dramatic effect on natural resources. Ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, coral reefs and rivers perform many important services for  earth’s environment. They enhance water and air quality; provide habitat for   plants and animals and provide food and medicines. Any or all of these ecosystem function s may be impaired or destroyed by pollution. Moreover, because of the comple com plex x relati relations onship hipss among among the many many types types of organi organisms sms and ecosyst ecosystems ems,, environmental contamination may have far reaching consequences that are not immediately obvious or that are difficult to predict. For instance, scientists can only speculate on some of the potential impacts of the depletion of the ozone layer, the protective layer in the atmosphere that shields earth from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. Another major effect of pollution is the tremendous cost of pollution cleanup and   preve preventi ntion. on. The global global effort effort to contro controll emissi emissions ons of carbon carbon dioxid dioxide, e, a gas  produced from the combustion of fossil fuel such as coal or oil, or o other organic materials like wood, is one such example. The cost of maintaining annual national carbon dioxide gross domestic product for developed countries. In addition to its effects on the economy, health and natur natural al resources, resources, pollution pollution has social implications. Research has shown that low income populations and minorities do not receive the same protection from environmental contamination as do higher income communities. Toxic waste incinerators, chemical plants and solid waste dumps are often located in low income communities because of a lack  of organized, informed community involvement in municipal decision making  processes.

 Types of pollution: Pollut Pol lution ion exists exists in many many forms forms and affect affectss many many differ different ent aspect aspectss of earth’ earth’ss envir env iron onme ment nt.. Po Poin intt sour source ce poll pollut utio ion n come comess from from speci specifi fic, c, lo loca cali lized zed and and identifiable sources such as sewage pipelines or industrial smokestacks. Non-

 

131   point sources pollution comes from dispersed or uncontained sources such as contaminated water runoff from urban areas or automobile emissions. The effects of these pollutants may be immediate or delayed. Primary effects of   pollution occur immediately after contamination occurs, such as the death of  marine plants and wildlife after an oil spool at sea. Secondary effects may be delayed delay ed or may may persi persist st in th thee envir environ onme ment nt in into to th thee fu futu ture re.. Pe Perh rhap apss going going unnoticed for many years. DDT,, a non DDT non de degr grad adab able le compou compound nd seld seldom om poiso poisons ns bi bird rdss im imme medi diat atel ely y bu butt gradually accumulates in their bodies. Birds with high concentrations of this  pesticide lay thin shelled eggs that fail to hatch or produce deformed offspring. These secondary effects, publicized by Rachel Carson in her 1962 book, silent spring threatened the survival of species such as the bald eagle and peregrine falcon and aroused public concern over the hidden effects of non degradable chemical compounds.

A. ai airr p pol ollu luti tion: on: Human contamination of earth’s atmosphere can take many forms and has existed since humans first began to use fire for agriculture, heating, and cooking. During the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, however, air pollution  became a major problem. As early as 1661 British author and founding member  of the Britis British h royal royal societ society y john john Evelyn Evelyn reported reported of London London in his treatise treatise fumifugium, “…… the weary traveler, at many miles distance, sooner smells, than sees the city to which he repairs. This is that pernicious smoke which full yes all her glory, super inducing a sooty crust of fur upon all that its lights……” Urban air pollution is commonly known as smog. The dark London smog that Evelyn wrote of is generally a smoky mixture of carbon monoxide and organic compounds from incomplete combustion (burning) of fossil fuels such as coal, and sulfur dioxide from imputities in the fuels. As the smog ages and reacts with oxygen, organic and sulfuric acids condense as droplets, increasing the haze. Smog developed into a major health hazard by the 20 th century. In 1948, 19  people died and thousand were sickened by smog in the small us steel mill town of Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1952, about 4,000 Londoners died of its effects. A second type of smog, photochemical smog, began reducing air quality over  large cities cities like loss Angeles in the 1930s. this smog is caused by combustion combustion in car,, truck car truck and airpla airplane ne engines engines,, which which produc producee nitrog nitrogen en oxides oxides and releas releasee hy hydr drog ogen en fr from om unbur unburne ned d fu fuel els. s. Su Sunl nlig ight ht caus causes es th thee ni nitr trog ogen en oxid oxides es an and d hydrocarbons to combine and turn oxygen into ozone, a chemical agent that

 

132 attacks rubber, oxidized into materials that condense and form a visible, pungent haze. Eventually most pollutants are washed out of the air by rain, snow, fog or mist but only after traveling large distances,, sometimes across continents. As pollutants  build up in the atmosphere, sulfur and nitrogen oxides are converted into acids that mix with rain. This acid rain falls in lakes and on forests, where it can lead to the death death of fi fish sh and plants plants,, and damage damage entire entire ecosyst ecosystems ems.. Eventu Eventuall ally y the contaminated lakes and forests may become lifeless. Regions that are downwind of heavily industrialized areas, such as Europe and the eastern united states and Canada are the hardest hit by acid rain. Acid rain can also affect human health and man made objects; it is slowly dissolving historic stone statues and building facades in London, Athens and Rome. One of the greatest challenges caused by air pollution is global warming an increase in earth’s temperature due to the buildup of certain atmospheric gases such as carbon dioxide. With the heavy use of fossil fuels in the 20 th century atmospheric concentration atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide have risen risen dramaticall dramatically. y. Carbon dioxide and other gases, known as green hose gases, reduce the escape of heat form the planet without blocking radiation coming from the sun. Because of this green house effect, average global temperatures are expected to rise 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees (2.5 to 10.4 Fahrenheit degrees) by the year 2100. although this trend appears to be a small change the increase would make the earth warmer than it has been in the last 125,000 years, possibly changing climate patterns, affecting crop production, disrupting wild life distributions and raising the sea level. Ai Airr pollu polluti tion on can al also so dama damage ge th thee upper upper at atmo mosp sphe heri ricc regi region on known known as th thee stratospher strat osphere. e. Excessive Excessive production production of chlorine chlorine containing containing compounds compounds such as chloro chl oroflu fluoro orocar carbons bons CFCs (compo (compounds unds former formerly ly used used in refri refriger gerato ators, rs, air  conditioners and in the manufacture of polystyrene products) has depleted the stratospheric ozone layer, creating a hole above Antarctica that lasts for several rays has damaged aquatic and terrestrial wild life and threatens human health in high latitude regions of the northern and southern hemispheres.

B. wa wate terr pol pollu luti tion: on: The demand for fresh water rises continuously as the world’s population grows. From 1940 to 1990 with drawls of fresh water Form Rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and other sources increased fourfold. Of the water consumed in the United States in 1995, 39 percent was used for irrigation, 39 percent was used of electric power  generation and 12 percent was used for other utilities; industry and mining used 7  percent and the rest was used for agricultural livestock and commercial purposes.

 

133 Sewage, Sewa ge, indust industria riall wastes wastes,, and agricu agricultu ltural ral chemica chemicals ls such such as fertil fertilize izers rs and  pesticides are the main causes of water pollution. The us environmental protection agency EPA reports that about 37 percent of the country’s lakes and estuaries and 36 perc percen entt of it itss ri river verss are are to too o poll pollut uted ed fo forr basi basicc used used such such as fi fish shin ing g or  swimming during all or part of the year. In developing nations, more than 95  percent of urban sewage is discharged untreated into rivers and bays creating a major human health hazard. Water runoff a non point source of pollution carries fertilizing chemicals such as  phosphates  phosph ates and nitrates nitrates from agricultural agricultural fields fields and yards into lakes, steams and rivers. These combine with the phosphates and nitrates form sewage to speed the growth of algae, a type of plantlike organism. The water body may then become choked with decaying algae, which severely depletes the oxygen supply. This  process called eutrophication can cause the death of fish and other aquatic life. Can cause of death of fish and other aquatic life. Agricultural runoff may be to  blame for the growth of a toxic form of algae called pfiesteria piscicida, which was responsible for killing large amounts of fish in bodies of water from the Delaware bay to the gulf of Mexico in the late 1990s. Runoff also carries toxic  pesticides and urban and industrial wastes into lakes and streams. Erosion the wearing away of topsoil by wind and rain also contributes to water   pollution. Soil and silt (a fine sediment) washed from logged hillsides, plowed fields or construction sites can clog water ways and kill aquatic vegetation. Even small amounts of silt can eliminate desirable fish species. For example when logging removes the protective plant cover form hillsides, rain may wash soil and silt into streams covering the gravel beds that trout or salmon use of spawning. The marine fisheries supported by ocean ecosystems are an essential source of   protein, particularly for people in developing countries. Yet pollution in coastal   bays, bays, estuar estuaries ies and wetlan wetlands ds threat threatens ens fi fish sh stocks stocks already already deplet depleted ed by over  fishing. In 1989, 26,000 barrels of oil spilled form the soil tanker Exxon Valdez into Alaska’s Prince William Sound a pristine and rich fishing ground. In 1999 there were 8,539 reported spills in and around us waters involving 4.4 billion liters (1.2 billion gallons) of oil.

C. so soil il po poll llut utio ion: n: Soil is a mixture of mineral plant and animal materials that forms during a long  process that may take thousands of years. It is necessary for most plant growth and is essential for all agricultural production. Soil pollution is a buildup of toxic chemical chem ical compoun compounds, ds, salts, salts, pathoge pathogens ns (disea (disease se causin causing g organi organisms sms), ), or radio radio active materials that can affect plant and animal life.

 

134 Unhealthy soil management methods have seriously degraded soil quality caused soil pollution and enhances erosion. Treating the soil with chemical fertilizers,  pesticides and fungicides interferes with the natural processes occurring with in th thee soil soil and dest destro roys ys usef useful ul organ organis isms ms such such as bact bacter eria ia,, fu fung ngii an and d ot othe her  r  microorganisms. For instance, strawberry farmers in California fumigate the soil with wit h methyl methyl bromi bromide de to destro destroy y organi organisms sms that that may harm harm young young str strawb awberr erry y  plants. This process indiscriminately kills even beneficial microorganisms and leaves the soil sterile and dependent upon fertilizer to support plant growth. This result in heavy fertilizer use and increases polluted runoff into lakes and streams. Improper irrigation practices in areas with poorly drained soil may result in salt deposits that inhibit plant growth and may lead to crop failure. In 2000 B.C the ancient Sumerian Mesopotamia depended in thriving agriculture. By 1500 B.C these cities had collapsed largely because of crop failure due to high soil salinity. The same soil pollution pollution problem exists today in the Indus valley in Pakistan, Pakistan, the  Nile valley in Egypt, and the Imperial Valley in California.

D. so soli lid d wa wast ste: e: Solid wastes are unwanted solid materials such as garbage, paper, plastics and other synthetic materials, and wood. Billions of tons of solid waste are thrown out annually. The United States alone produces about 200 millions metric tons of  municipal solid waste each year. A typical American generates and average of 2 kg (4 lb) of solid waste each day. Cities in economically developed countries   produc producee far more more solid solid waste waste per capita capita than than those those in develo developin ping g countri countries. es. Moreover, waster from developed countries typically contains a high percentage of sy synt nthe heti ticc mate materi rial alss th that at ta take ke lo longe ngerr to decom decompos posee th than an th thee prim primar aril ily y  biodegradable waste materials of developing countries. Areas where wastes are buries, called landfills are the cheapest and most common dispos dis posal al method methodss for solid solid wastes wastes word word wide. wide. But landfi landfill llss quickl quickly y become become overfilled and may contaminate air, soil, and water. Incineration or burning of  waste reduces the volume of solid waste but produces dense ashen wastes (some of which which become become airbor airborne) ne) that that often often contai contain n dangero dangerous us concent concentrat ration ionss of  hazardous materials such as heavy metals and toxic compounds. Composting, using natural biological processes to speed the decomposition of organic garbage and produce producess a materi material al that that can be used used as a natura naturall ferti fertiliz lizer. er. Recycling Recycling,, extracting and reusing certain waste materials, has become and important part of  municipal solid waste strategies in developed countries. According to EPA, more than one fourth of the municipal solid waste produces in the United States I s now recycled recyc led or composted. Recycling Recycling also plays a significan significant, t, informal role in solid

waste management for many Asian countries such as India, where organized

 

135 waste pickers comb streets and dumps for items such as plastics which they use or  resell. Expanding recycling programs world wide can help reduce solid waste pollution  but the key to solving severe solid waste problems lies in reducing the amount of  waste generated. Waste prevention or source reduction such as altering the way  products are designed or manufactured to make them easier to reuse, reduces the high costs associated with environmental pollution.

E. haz hazar ardo dous us w was aste te:: Hazardous wastes are solid, liquid or gas waste that may be deadly or harmful to  people or the environment and tend to be persistent or non degradable in nature. Such wastes include toxic chemicals and flammable or radioactive substances, including industrial wastes from chemical plants or nuclear reactors, agricultural wastes such as pesticides and fertilizers, medical wastes, and household ho usehold hazardous wastes such as toxic paints and solvents. About 400 millions metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United States alone produces about 250 millions metric tons- 70 percent from the chemi che mical cal in indu dust stry ry.. The The use, use, st stor orag age, e, tran transp spor orta tati tion on,, and and di disp spos osal al of th thes esee substances pose serious environmental and health risks. Even brief exposure to some of these materials can cause cancer, birth defects, nervous system, disorders and deaths. Large scale releases of hazardous materials may cause thousands of  deaths and contaminate air, water and soil for many years. The world’s worst nuclear reactor accident tool place near Chernobyl, Ukraine in 1986. the accident killed at least 31 people, forced the evacuation and relocation of more than 200,000 more and sent a plume of radioactive material into the atmosphere that contaminated areas as for way as Norway and the united kingdom. Until the mina Mata bay contamination was discovered in Japan in the 1960s and 1970s most hazardous wastes were legally dumped in solid waste landfills, buried or dumped into lakes, rivers and oceans. Legal regulations now restrict how such material s may be used or disposed, but such laws are difficult to enforce and often contested by industry. It is not uncommon for industrial firms in shipments of solid and hazardous wastes, a practice that has become known as the waste trade. Moreover cleaning up the careless dumping of the mid 20th century is costing billions of dollars and progressing very slowly, if at all. The United States has an estimated 217,000 hazardous waste dumps that need immediate action. Cleaning them up could take more than 30 years and cost $187 billions.

 

136 Hazardo Haza rdous us wastes wastes of parti particul cular ar concer concern n are the radioa radioacti ctive ve wastes wastes form form the nuclear power and weapons industries. To date there is no safe method for   permanent disposal of old fuel elements form nuclear reactors. Most are kept in storage facilities at the original reactor sites where they were generated. with the end of the cold war, nuclear warheads that are decommissioned, or no longer in use also pose storage and disposal problems.

F. no nois ise e po poll llut utio ion: n: Unwanted sound or noise such as that produces by air planes, traffic or industrial machinery is considered a form of pollution. Noise pollution is at its worst in densely populated areas. It can cause hearing loss, stress, high blood pressure, sleep loss, distraction and lost productivity. Sounds are produce by objects that vibrate at a rate that the ear4 can detect. This rate is called frequency and is meas me asur ured ed in hertz hertz or vi vibr brat atio ions ns per per seco second. nd. Most Most humans humans can hear hear soun sounds ds  between 20 and 20,000 hertz, while dogs can hear high pitched sounds up to 50,000 hertz. While high frequency sounds tends to be more hazardous and more annoying to hearing than low frequency sounds most noise pollution damage is related to the intensity of the sound or the amount of energy it has. Measured in decibels noise intensity can range form zero the quietest sound the human ear can detect to over 160 decibels, Conversation takes place at around 40 decibels a subway train is about 80 decibels and a rock concert is from 80 to 100 decibels. The intensity of nearby jet taking off is about 100 decibels. The threshold for pain tissue damage and potential hearing loss in human is 120 decibels. Long lasting, high intensity sounds are the most damaging to hearing the produce the most stress in humans. Soluti Sol utions ons to noise noise pollut pollution ion includ includee adding adding insula insulatio tion n and sound sound proofi proofing ng to doors, walls, and ceiling; using ear protection, particularly in industrial working areas; planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution; and zoning urban urb an areas areas to mainta maintain in a separa separatio tion n between between reside residenti ntial al areas areas and zones zones of  excessive noise.

History: Much of what we know of ancient civilizations comes from the wastes they left  behind. Refuse such as animal skeletons and implements from Stone Age cave dwellings in Europe, china and the Middle East helps reveal hunting techniques, diet, clothing, tool usage and the use of fire for by archaeologists in coastal areas of north America reveal information about the shellfish diet and eating habits of  native Americans who lived more than 10,000 years ago.

 

137 As humans developed new technologies, the magnitude and severity of pollution increased. increa sed. Many historian historianss speculate speculate that the extensive use of lead plumbing plumbing for  drinking water in Rome caused chronic lead poisoning in those who could afford such plumbing. The mining and smelting or ores that accompanied the transition from the Stone Age to the metal age resulted in piles of mining wastes that spread  potentially toxic elements such as mercury, copper, lead and nickel throughout the environment. Evidence of pollution during the early industrial revolution is widespread. Sample of hair from historical figures such as Newton and napoleon show the presence of  toxic elements such as antimony and mercury. By the 1800s certain trades were associated with characteristic occupational diseases; chimney sweeps contracted cancer of the scrotum the external sac of skin enclosing the testes, of reproductive glands form hydrocarbons in chimney soot; hatters became disoriented, or mad form for m nerve nerve destro destroyin ying g mercur mercury y salts salts used used to treat treat felt felt fabric fabric and bootbla bootblacks cks suffered liver damage form boot polish solvents. By the 21 st century, pollution had evolved form a mainly localized problem to one of global consequences in which  pollutants not only persisted in the environment, but changed atmospheric and climatic conditions. The mina Mata bay disaster d isaster was the first major indication that human would need to pay more attention to their waste products and waste dispos dis posal al practi practices ces,, in partic particula ularr hazard hazardous ous waste waste dispos disposal. al. In the years years that that followed, many more instances of neglect or carelessness resulted in dangerous levels of contamination. In 1976 an explosion at chemical factory in sereso, Italy, released relea sed clouds of toxic dioxin into the area, exposing hundreds of residents and killing thousands of animals that ate exposed food. In 1978 if was discovered that the love canal housing development in New York State was built on a former  chemical waste dump. The development was declared uninhabitable. The world’s worst industrial accident occurred in Bhopal, India in 1984. a deadly gas leaked from American chemical plant, killing more than 3800 people and injuring more than 200,000. The 1986 Chernoby Chernobyll nuclea nuclearr reacto reactorr accident accident demons demonstra trated ted the danger dangerous ous contamination effects of large, uncontained disasters. In an unprecedented action,  pollution was used as a military tactic in 1991 during the confliction the Persian Gulf. The Iraqi military internationally released as much as 1 billion liters (336 million gallons) of crude oil into the Persian Gulf and set fire to more than 700 oil wells, sending thick, black smoke into the atmosphere overt the Middle East.

 

138

Controlling pollution: Because of the many environmental tragedies of the mid 20 th centur century y many nations instituted comprehensive regulations designed to repair the past damage of uncontrolled pollution and prevent future environmental contamination. In the United States, the clean air 1970 and its amendments significantly reduced certain types of air pollution such as sulfur dioxide emission. The clean water act 1977 and safe drinking water act 1974 regulated pollution discharges and set water  quality qual ity standa standards rds.. The toxic toxic substa substance ncess control control act 1976 and the resour resources ces conservation and recovery act 1976 provided for the testing g and control of toxic and hazardous wastes. In 1980 congress passed the comprehensive environmental response, compensation and liability act CERCLA also known as superfund, to  provide funds to cleanup the most severely contaminated hazardous waste sites. These and several other federal and state laws helped limit uncontrolled pollution  but progress has been slow and many severe contamination problems remain due to lack of funds for cleanup and enforcement. International agreements have also played a role in reducing global pollution. The Mont Mo ntré réal al pr prot otoc ocol ol on subs substa tanc nces es th that at depl deplet etee th thee ozon ozonee laye layerr 1987 1987 set set international target dates of reducing the manufacture and emission of chemicals, such as cfcs, known to deplete the ozone layer. The Basel convention on the control of Tran boundary movements of hazardous wasted and their disposal 1989 serv serves es as a fr fram amewo ework rk fo forr th thee in inte tern rnat atio iona nall regu regula lati tion on of hazar hazardou douss wast wastee transport and disposal. Since 1992 representatives from more than 160 nations have met regularly to discuss methods to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. In 1997 the Kyoto protocol was devised, calling for industrialized countries to reduce their gas emissions by 2012 an average 5 percent below 1990 levels. The Kyoto protocol went into force in February 2005 with more than 130 countries having ratified it. Under the administration of President George W. Bush, however the United States a major   producer of greenhouse gases, refused to submit the treaty for ratification. In 2006 the global carbon project reported that carbon dioxide emissions were increasing at an annual rate of 2.5 percent in the first five years of the 21 st century compared with an annual increase of 1 percent in the 1990s. Regulations and legislations have led to considerable progress in cleaning up some air and water pollution in developed countries. Vehicles in 21 st century emit fewer nitrogen oxides than those in the 1970s did; power plants now burn low sulfur fuels; industrial stacks have scrubbers to reduce emissions; and lead has  been removed from gasoline. Developing countries however continue to struggle

with pollution control because they lack clean technologies and desperately need

 

139 to improve economic strength, often at the cost of environmental quality. The  problem is compounded by developing countries attracting foreign investments and in indus dustr try y by of offe feri ring ng ch chea eaper per la labo bor, r, chea cheape perr raw raw mate materi rial als, s, and fe fewe wer  r  environmental restrictions. The maquiladoras, assemble plants along the Mexican side of Mexico us border, provide jobs and industry of Mexico but are generally owned by non Mexican corporations attracted to low wage labor and including the Rio Grande, Is one of the most heavily disaster and increased poverty, developing countries will require aid and technology form outside nations and corporations, community participation in developments initiatives and strong environmental regulations.   Nong Nongove overn rnme ment ntal al ci citi tize zen n grou groups ps have have fo form rmed ed at th thee lo loca cal, l, na nati tion onal al and and int intern ernati ational onal level level to combat combat pollut pollution ion proble problems ms world world wide. wide. Many Many of these these organi org anizat zation ionss provid providee inform informati ation on and suppor supportt for people people or organi organizat zation ionss traditionally not involved in the decision making process. The pesticide action network provides technical information about the effects of pesticides on farm worker wor kers. s. The citize citizen’s n’s cleari clearing ng house house of or hazardo hazardous us waste, waste, establ establish ished ed by veterans of love canal controversy provides support for communities targeted for  hazardous waste installations. A well organized, grassroots, environmental justice move mo veme ment nt has aris arisen en to advoc advocat atee

equi equita tabl blee

envi enviro ronm nment ental al prot protec ecti tions ons..

Greenpeace is and activist organization that focuses international attention on industries indust ries and governments governments known to contaminate contaminate land, sea, or atmosphere with toxic tox ic or solid solid wastes wastes.. “Frien “Friends ds of the Earth Intern Internati ational onal”” is a federa federatio tion n of  international organizations that fight environmental pollution around the world.

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