Models of Teacher Education

 

Report to the American Council on Education Presidents’ Task Force on Teacher Education

Models of Teacher Education  by Dale P. P. Scannell Professor, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis

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mong the most important characteristics influencing the level of teacher education program effectiveness ef fectiveness are the informed and intellectual support of the institution’s institution’s central administration administratio n and an explicit commitment by the president to the importance of the teacher education mission and its quality. Thus, the recommendations of the ACE Presidents’ Task  Force on Teacher Education will have a major influence on the quality of university-based teacher education as we enter a new millennium. This paper on models for teacher education was commissioned to provide background for presidents on the various approaches that have been taken to prepare beginning teachers and to stimulate discussion discussion of the challenges and opportunities of different strategies that might be adopted by colleges and universities. To To achieve that goal, this paper contains discussions of the structural models of teacher education that are being and have been used by institutions, as well as the scant research on their relative effectiveness. Additional topics that may help to stimulate discussion among members of the ACE Task Force are presented, such as conceptual variations among  teacher education programs, factors that appear to be common among programs that are highly  respected, and current trends in state licensure of teachers and program approval.

Structural Models: Programs with Candidates Admitted as Undergraduates  Four-Y  Four -Year ear Baccalaureate Programs. The most prevalent model for teacher education programs is the four-year fouryear program that culminates with a baccalaureate baccalaureate degree. Some of these programs, primarily  in elementary elementar y education, allow candidates to major in education, while others— Models of Teacher Education

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predominantly in secondary education—require the major to be in an arts and sciences discipline. Some elementary education programs require a major in an arts and sciences field, or a broad-field major that combines study in related fields, such as science and mathematics. Lower division enrollments in four-year four-year programs characteristically emphasize general education requirements and the candidate’s proposed teaching field. Admission to teacher education courses generally begins with coursework coursework in the t he junior year, and some institutions have another formal admission process for student teaching that occurs in the senior year. Formal admission to student teaching is intended to identify students who would not meet graduation requirements even  with successful student teaching teaching and to provide protection protection for children in the student teaching sites. Health and criminal history checks may be part of this admission process. The requirement for an arts and sciences major is intended to ensure an academic rigor that  some believe is absent when the candidate’s candidate’s major is in education. Critics of this approach will observe that a traditional arts and sciences major does not ensure the most appropriate courses for the prospective teacher; for example, most majors in English will not include coursework coursework in children’ss literature, which many believe is needed by elementary and middle school language arts dren’ teachers. Critics also note the difficulty in providing early and sufficient field experiences prior to student teaching. It should be noted that some institutions that describe their model as a four-year baccalaureate baccalaureate program readily acknowledge that most, if not all, students have difficulty meeting all requirements in the typical 120 or 128 hours. Many students in such programs will enroll in several summer sessions and/or have some semesters with enrollments of 18 or 19 hours, and take as many as 135 hours to qualify for both the degree and a recommendation recommendation for a teaching license.  Five-Year Integrated Programs. The five-year integrated teacher education program is supported by   Five-Y several reform-oriented organizations, but it is not common or popular among most higher education institutions. Advocates Advocates for the five-year program assert that five years of study is required to provide adequate adequate general education, appropriate depth and breadth in the teaching field(s), adequate pedagogy, pedagogy, and field experiences, exper iences, including student teaching. Opponents base their case on several arguments--that arguments--that a majority of students cannot afford a fifth year before producing income, that the five years is untenable given the low salaries for teachers, and/or that programs cured of  redundancy and based on solid research can be accommodated accommodated within the traditional four years.  Various  Various coursewor coursework k arrangements can be found in five-year programs, but in general the additional year of study is spread about equally across arts and sciences, primarily pr imarily in teaching fields, and pedagogy.. The programs pedagogy prog rams also include more fieldwork embedded in many or all of tthe he education courses, and some include more extensive student teaching. Diagrams providing a graphic representation of the distribution of coursework in traditional four- and five-year programs are included in Appendix A (AACTE, 1983).

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Structural Models: Programs with Candidates Admitted at the Graduate Level During a period per iod of teacher shortages and concern over perceived inadeq inadequacies uacies among the K-12 teaching force, some institutions institutions initiated master of arts iin n teaching (MAT) programs as a way to attract bright college and university graduates into the field of teaching and to provide them with a  rigorous preparation for the job. In the t he 1950s, MATs MATs were supported by private pr ivate funds for scholarships, and during the 1960s, some institut institutions ions developed MAT programs as part of NDEA graduate fellowship programs. The original concept for the MAT was a two-year post-baccalaureate post-baccalaureate program for graduates g raduates from arts and sciences programs (Powell, 1980). Based on a 48-hour requirement, the program was about equally divided between a content field—such as English or history—and pedagogy. When the original funding expired and new funding for scholarships was not forthcoming, the enrollments in MAT programs soon dwindled, and in many institutions the program was dropped. In recent years, teacher education programs at the graduate g raduate level have reappeared, often targeted on career-changers career-changers and early retirees from the military or business and industry. Some institutions have initiated the fifth-year program prog ram for recent graduates who did not choose education as their undergraduate majors. These programs differ from the t he traditional master’s degree in education because they are initial licensure li censure programs and do not build on a foundation created created during the  baccalaureate program. In addition, they are not programs that focus on inquiry as a way of increas baccalaureate ing knowledge in a field, and they are not designed to help students become better researchers or consumers of the research done by others. Most fifth-year programs are in reality more than just one academic year in duration. Commonly,, these programs Commonly prog rams require two summer sessions and the intervening year, in which the first  summer involves some work in arts and sciences and an introductio introduction n to teaching and schooling. The academic year includes coursework coursework in pedagogy and the teaching field and a heavy dose of exper experiience in schools, culminating in student teaching. The final summer session includes seminars in  which school experiences are the center of the discussions, and some students students will take additional  work in their teaching field. Most of these programs result in the award of a master’s degree, sometimes called an MAT, and a recommendation for the teaching license.  Alternative Structural Models Although the programs for career changers represent approaches that are alternatives to a traditional program and are designed to recognize candidates’ prior education and experience, they are not in the mainstream of programs that are referred to as “alternative.” Most writers and policy  makers reserve this term for programs that are initiated outside the traditional path and that in some cases are conducted with little or no higher education involvement—and then only when requested by the program sponsor. The most common sponsors for alternative programs have been state agencies, such as state boards of education, and local school districts, such as the Los Angeles Unified School District.

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Teach for America (TFA) is a well-known alternative program. It was designed to attract recent  graduates of liberal arts ar ts programs to teaching in disadvantaged rural and urban schools for short  periods of time. The preparation for TFA TFA participants is a summer program prog ram before employment,  which varies from three to eight weeks depending on the level of funding for a given year. Several factors make the TFA program unique: Its sources of funding are mostly private foundations; the initiator is an individual, not a state agency or a school district; and its specific goal is to recruit tthe he  best and brightest into the program. Alternative teacher education programs often are created in response to a shortage of teachers from traditional programs, but more often they result from dissatisfac dissatisfaction tion with the quality of graduates of traditional programs. The approach in general is to provide a short, intense introduction to schools and schooling during the summer prior to employment, to place the candidate with an experienced teacher who serves ser ves as a mentor during the first semester or year of a candidate’s candidate’s employment, and to provide some in-service professional coursework during that first year of teaching. Some alternative programs require that candidates meet all licensure standards by some established deadline. These approaches could be described as apprenticeships or on-the-job training. Alternative programs differ in terms of admission requirements. Most have some criterion that  defines knowledge of the content to be taught, t aught, such as scores on a PRAXIS content area test. Most  alternative programs emphasize content knowledge, with less attention paid to pedagogy, knowledge of human growth and development, learning theory, or motivation (Darling-Hammond, (Darling-Hammond, 1990). Other alternatives to traditional campus-based teacher education take the form of site-based or “grow-your-own” “grow-yourown” approaches. One example is a program conducted in Montgomery County, Maryland, in the late 1980s as a way of increasing the diversity of the teaching force. Minority paraprofessionals professiona ls in the Montgomery County schools were recruited into a two-year program. Although all participants enrolled in a core of courses, various activities were planned for individuals based on their background and experience, as well as the needs identified by teams of university and county  instructors. This is an example of an alternative program in which all coursework and experiences  were approved approved by a higher education institution, but the instruction was provided provided on site, and personnel from both the schools and higher education institutions collaborated on the instruction and mentoring.  With the increasing use of technology for distance education, additional additional site-based programs  will likely emerge in response to teacher shortages in certain content fields or in certain geographical areas. However, most alternative approaches to teacher preparation and licensing share a weakness: inadequate attention to content-specific pedagogy, pedagogy, an element of widely recognized importance in the effectiveness of teachers. Another important program that should be covered is the T Teacher eacher Corps, enacted as part of  the Higher Education Act of 1965. Although its initial purpose was to ensure jobs for returning  Peace Corps volunteers, the program also responded to the shortage short age of teachers during the t he 1960s. The program included incentives for individuals to teach in areas with high concentrations of lowincome families. Candidates were employed in schools and completed courses to earn a baccalaure-

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ate degree, if needed, and to satisfy licensure requirements. The program also provided incentive funding to higher education institutio institutions ns to broaden teacher education programs, and in the t he 1970s,  when the teacher shortage turned into a teacher surplus, the Teacher Corps focus turned turned to the professional development of practicing teachers (Earley and Schneider, 1996). The legacy for Teacher Teacher Corps includes the t he contribution it made to encourage collaboration  between schools and higher higher education institutions, institutions, well in advance of what is now regarded to be a  hallmark of good teacher education. Teacher Teacher Corps also can be credited with stimulating higher education institutions institutions to consider the desirability of of offering fering multiple options for students who want  to become teacher candidates.

Conceptual Variations in Teacher Education Programs  Variety  Variety among teacher education programs unders underscores cores the lack of a definitive knowledge base on  which to construct programs for the preparation preparation of teachers. In the previous section of this paper  we considered structural structural variations with differences in the amount of coursework o offered ffered and required of prospective teachers and with widely divergent sequences of learning experiences. The inevitable conclusion is that there is no known best way to prepare teachers. This fact was recognized by the American Association for Colleges of Teacher Education (AACTE) committee that developed the concept paper on national accreditation in the early 1980s, (AACTE)  which led to the reform of the National Council for Accreditation Accreditation of Teacher Teacher Education Education (NCATE) and to the current system. That paper identified characteristics that logically are related to the quality of programs: 1.

Institutions should have a concept about what a good teacher is and should have designed a program to educate such a person. The program should be based on research and accepted practice.

2.

Candidates accepted into teacher education should possess characteristics predictive of  success in the program and in teaching.

3.

Institutions should have good relationships with schools to ensure the opportunity for candidates to observe and work with teachers who are good role models.

4.

Faculty should be knowledgeable about their content area and tthe Faculty he nature of schools, and they should be assisted in their efforts to stay current with scholarship in teaching and schooling.

5.

Teacher education should be well managed and should have adequate resources to meet  its goals.

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The system did not specify one concept of a good teacher or one way to prepare such a person. The system did call on institutions to engage in accepted ways to develop a conceptual framewor framework  k  and to design programs that were consistent with that framewor f ramework k (Scannell et al., 1983). Just as there are structural variations among teacher education programs, there are also conceptual variations. In a recent review of institutional reports submitted to NCAT NCATE, E, Wisniewski (1999) identified the following themes for initial teacher education programs:

• • • • • •

Creative planner, effective practitioner, and critical thinker. Reflective practice, facilitator of change, scholarly inquiry. inquir y. Teacher as organizer of the learning environment. Teachers as learners and leaders. Teacher as decision maker. Professional Professio nal educators as reflective practitioners.

 Wisniewski notes that the pervasive themes include reflective practice, decision making, making, and inquiry. Although institutions differ in the conceptual framework, or theme, for their programs, there is remarkable similarity among the courses and experiences found in different programs, and the literature cited in support of conceptual frameworks overlaps dramatically. dramatically. However, However, institutions have reported that the existence of a theme for the teacher education program is helpful in communicating to students what the program is designed to achieve and to communicate communicate similarly with school-based school-bas ed colleagues about the experiences in schools that would contribute to and support tthe he professionall growth professiona g rowth of candidates.

Research on the Effectiveness of Teacher Education Programs Research delving into the relative effectiveness of various four-year models of teacher education is extremely thin, but five-year programs have been contrasted with four four-year -year programs, and the effects of alternative alter native programs have been compared compared to more traditional approaches. However, However, questions about which types of programs produce teachers who are best at causing their students to learn lear n have hardly been addressed, let alone answered. This situation will undoubtedly change as institutions and state agencies respond to recent federal mandates requiring annual reporting on candidate success on teacher exams and measures of achievement for students taught by recent  graduates. As noted above, there is a substantial body of literature on the effects of five-year teacher education programs. The findings of these studies support the following comparisons of five-year with four-year programs:

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1.

The candidates attracted to five-year programs are better qualified, as measured by traditional factors.

2.

A higher percent of graduates g raduates of five-year programs actually enter teaching.

3.

A higher percent of graduates g raduates from five-year five-year programs persist as teachers; conversely, the dropout rate from teaching is lower for five-year program graduates.

4.

Graduates from five-year five-year programs are more committed to the welfare of children and to the profession of teaching.

5.

Similarly,, graduates Similarly g raduates of five-year programs are more satisfied with teaching as a career.

6.

Graduates from five-year programs are more highly recruited.

7.

There is emerging evidence that students of teachers who graduated g raduated from five-year five-year programs achieve more in their studies. In one study, interns in five-year programs had as positive an effect on learning as did highly experienced, exper ienced, well-regarded teachers (Andr (Andrew, ew, 1990; Andrew and Schwab, 1993; Schwab, 1989; NCTAF, 1995).

A fairly substantial body of literature l iterature also exists on the impact of alternative programs. In a  recent chapter titled “A Case for University-Based Teacher Education,” Darling-Hammond (1998) observes: Reviews of research over the past 30 years summarizing hundreds of studies have concluded that, even with the shortcomings of current teacher education and licensing, fully prepared and certified teachers are better rated and more successful with students than teachers without this preparation. This generalization seems to apply across various academic areas and is particularly evident   when the learning is measured on higher-order tasks. Later in the chapter, Darling-Hammond comments on “teachers” who were allowed into classrooms without formal training or through “quick alternate routes.” Recruits tend to be dissatisfied with their training; they have greater difficulties planning curriculum, teaching, managing the classroom, classroo m, and diagnosing students’ students’ learning lear ning needs.… Most  important, their students learn less, especially in areas like reading, writing, and mathematics.

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Darling-Hammond notes that less Darling-Hammond l ess prepared teachers have particular dif difficulty ficulty in classroom management and observes: Since the novel tasks required for problem-solving are more difficult to manage than the routine tasks t asks associated with rote learning, lack of knowledge about how to manage an active, inquiry-oriented classroom can lead teachers to turn to passive tactics that “dumb down” the curriculum.… The evidence against alternative programs seems to be definitive, and the case for improved university-based teacher education education seems to be strong.

Characteristics of Effective T Teacher eacher Education Programs As noted above, research focused on identifying what makes a teacher education program effective is relatively thin. Two major problems have limited this type of research: the criterion problem and a  design problem regarding causation. On the one hand, teacher education scholars have in the main rejected paper-and-pencil tests as a sufficient or even appropriate measure of student learning, and other measures of student accomplishment have been difficult to obtain. Even if this problem could  be resolved, resolved, demonstrating demonstrating or or finding causation causation of of factors faces faces major major challenges in terms terms of research research design. How does one show that the amount of field experience in a teacher education program is a  factor in determining how much students learn when taught by a program’s graduates? One approach to researching questions about what makes a teacher education program effective was a series of case studies of programs in a variety of different settings in midwestern institutions. The study by Howey and Zimpher was reported in a chapter of the 1992 Handbook of    Research on Teacher Teacher Education: Education: They have also generated a list of conditions and practices practices that  appear to contribute to coherent or effective preservice preser vice programs. Examples include a clear conception of teaching/schooling, teaching/schooling, use of  student cohorts, high expectations, curriculum articulation, and adequate life space (Feiman-Nemser, 1992). In another series of case studies by Snyder and Darling-Hammond, soon to be published by  AACTE, AACT E, characteristics that were common to seven highly regarded teacher education programs included: 1.

A concept of good teaching is apparent in courses and field experiences. The concept is consistent across courses and student student experiences; it has a cohesive presence in the program.

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2.

Theory is taught in the context of practice. Theory includes growth and development, learning theory, theor y, and pedagogical content knowledge. knowledge.

3.

Extended field experiences are articulated ar ticulated and sequenced with theory. “Extended” refers to at least 30 weeks; the field experiences are designed to enhance what is studied in college classes and to provide candidates with the opportunity to apply and/or to see theory  theor y 

4.

in action. A well-defined, accepted standard of practice is used to guide coursework and clinical experiences and to evaluate them.

5.

School/university partnerships are based on shared beliefs. The cooperating classroom School/university teachers have the disposition and ability to extend and build on what the t he programs have presented to candidates.

6.

Assessment is comprehensive and bonded to instruction, and results of assessment are used to ensure that candidates’ learning is applied to real situations. Assessment Assessment data are collected from case studies, performance evaluation, and the use of portfolios (personal communication from Jon Snyder, 1999; also mentioned in Doing in Doing What Matters Most, 1997).

The studies on factors that determine program effectiveness seem to warrant the conclusion that content and process are more important than the structural str uctural characteristics characteristics of teacher education programs. The importance of pedagogical content know knowledge ledge and the union of theory to practice is found in a wide variety of institutional types and prog program ram structures.

 Trends in Licensure, Program Approval, and Continuing Professional Development  Major changes in licensure and program approval are being discussed among state agencies that  have jurisdiction over these activities. These changes have serious implications for institutions. The current processes are based primarily on courses and credit hours. When an institution’ institution’ss programs have been approved by the state, graduates g raduates who are recommend recommended ed by the institution and who meet   whatever test requirements requirements the state has set are awarded a license to teach in that state. Please note that testing requirements were instituted by legislation because of a lack of confidence in the t he quality  of candidates recommended for licensure by teacher education programs. One of the major forces in the reforms of licensure and prog program ram approval is the Interstate New  Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). More than 30 states are involved in the  work being led by INTASC. INTASC. This organization, spon sponsored sored by the Council of Chief State School Officers, began in 1986 with the goal of seeking a common framework framework and principles for the t he licensure of beginning teachers. A list of the ten principles, sometimes referred to as standards, is included as Appendix B of this report.

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An important attribute of these t hese proposed standards…is that they  are performance-based; that is, they describe what teachers should know and be able to do rather than listing courses that teachers should take in order to be awarded a license.…This approach should clarify what the criteria cr iteria are for assessment and licensing, placing more emphasis on the abilities teachers develop than the hours they spend in i n classes. Ultimately, performance-based licensing standards should enable states to permit g reater innovatio innovation n and diversity in how teacher education programs operate by  assessing their outcomes rather than their inputs or procedures (INTASC, 1992). The INTASC principles are related to the principles pr inciples and standards of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS). But whereas NBPTS has created standards and processes for identifying accomplished experienced teachers, INTASC principles and related assessment systems are pitched at a level appropriate for beginning teachers. There are several very important  implications for higher education education deriving from the t he work of these two highly respected organizations. First, many states are now conceptualizing licensure systems that reflect a continuum of professional development for teachers—extending from admission into teacher education programs, through a formal induction program, and continuing through the career of the teacher. There is an important role for higher education across this continuum, but other potential providers, such as proprietary organizations, organizations, have already taken steps to enter what is seen as a potentially profitable market. Traditional Traditional masters programs in education are not widely seen as capable of providing  appropriate professional development for teachers who seek professional growth to become more effective as teachers. A second important implication derives from the assessment approach that is being stimulated  by the work of INTASC INTASC and NBPTS. Although INTASC INTASC identifies identifies knowledge—of content content and how to teach it—as an essential characteristic of aspiring and in-service in-ser vice teachers, demonstration demonstration of effective ef fective use of knowledge is also seen as essential. This has stimulated attention to and work on performance assessment. Licensing agencies—state departments of education, and professional standards  boards—are  boards—a re changing from focusing focusing on courses and credit hours as the basis for licensing and pro pro-gram approval to an approach that requires teacher education units to provide evidence that candidates can teach effectively. Although this change in approach has some implications for basic teacher education programs, an even more important implication is the potential impact on gradug raduate enrollments. When re-licensure is based on professional growth related to standards of effective and exemplary performance, institutions must be prepared to show that their traditional graduate programs contribute to that growth. g rowth. If programs for teachers cannot demonstrate such a contribution, teachers will look to other providers, which could include for-profit for-profit businesses and various professionall organizations and teacher unions. professiona

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A third implication of the INTASC/NBPTS INTASC/NBPTS programs derives from the emphasis they both place on content-specific pedagogy. pedagogy. Although some teaching skills appear to be generic, applying to the teaching of most subjects, research by Shulman in the 1980s showed showed the critical need for pedagogy specific to a given subject, which he called pedagogical content knowledge (Shulman, 1986). Thus, prospective teachers need more than a solid grounding in their teaching field; they also need to know how children learn a given the subject and how to address the problems children have in mastering common concepts and using them. The problem facing institutions is how to provide a   blend of knowledge and how to teach teach it. Traditional bound boundaries aries between content departments and teacher education may need modification. modification.

University/School Univ ersity/School Relationships Although it has been referenced at several preceding points, the importance import ance of university/school university/school relationships deserves special attention. Whether the relationships are referred to as professional development schools (PDSs), partnerships, or just plain collaboration, relationships between higher education institutions and schools have an important impact on teacher education units and, more generally, on the entire institution. Close ties between the two levels have been recommended recently by the Holmes Group (1986) and Goodlad (1990) (1990) and earlier by B.O. Smith (1980). PDSs have been conceptualized as sites where schools and higher education institutions cooperate on topics of mutual interest—identified interest—identified and addressed cooperatively and funded jointly. The most common topics addressed in PDSs are early field experiences, student teaching, professional professional development activities for faculty of both the school and higher education institution, curriculum development, and, less commonly, joint inquiry activities. As noted earlier, K-12/higher educat education ion collaboration based on shared beliefs is one characteristic of programs widely believed to be outstanding. Teacher education programs rely heavily on schools to provide sites for field exper experiences iences that  are articulated with formal coursework and for student teaching supervised by a classroom teacher. teacher. Identified as critical to the quality of the program is the ability of the school-based participants to extend the philosophical tenets of the program to experiences provided in tthe he “real world.” world.” Modeling is accepted as a powerful intervention, inter vention, and, thus, cooperating teachers should be exemplars of what the teacher education program stresses in formal instruction. instr uction. Inconsistency Inconsistency among the facets of a teacher education program is frustrating fr ustrating to candidates and decr decreases eases the impact of  teacher preparation. Collaboration with K-12 K-12 schools has its price for higher education, both financial and personal. Faculty who spend time in school sites have less time for the more traditional activities associated with the professoriate, and many feel at a disadvantage in meeting expectations of their institution’s reward system. The type of scholarship that comes from involvement with schools is not  always recognized, and if it is, it i t is sometimes given less weight than more traditional research.

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Other costs are related to faculty travel, honoraria, equipment, and supplies. It is likely that institutions that have been most successful in developing true collaboration collaboration with the schools have found the need for adjustments in faculty load, reward systems, and budgeting.

 A Footnote The ACE Task Force is one of many activities underway that is concerned with improving the quality  of university-based teacher education and the effectiveness ef fectiveness of teachers who enter the classroom. classroom. Raising standards is commonly believed to result in a reduced supply. Even though there is some research that shows higher standards attract more well-qualified people into the field, making  teacher education programs and licensure standards more rigorous most likely will reduce the supply of graduates g raduates from traditional traditional programs. Higher education could help to moderate that problem by increasing recruitment efforts and  by offering incentives to attract more potential teachers. teachers. In addition, institutions institutions could initiate programs to attract nontraditional nontraditional candidates such as career changers. This approach has been successful in not only attracting more candidates, candidates, but also in attracting a more representative group of  students in terms of gender, culture, and race. Some institutions have retained their existing program and added one for nontraditional students. Recent publications have suggested that the nation will need 2 million new teachers in the next ten years. Serious shortages already exist in some states and in urban and rural areas. The history of prior teacher shortages shows that policy makers have a tendency to react to shortages by  allowing non-prepared people to teach on emergency or alternative licenses. Rather than t han ignore the exacerbation of the problem when standards are raised, higher education could contribute to increasing supply through the methods noted above.

Summary  The material presented in this t his paper justifies a number of conclusions—some conclusions—some with trepidation and others with strong conviction—that members of the ACE Task Force might consider as they prepare recommendations recommenda tions to include in their report. 1.

There is no one best format for teacher education programs. Conversely Conversely,, programs regarded to be outstanding vary in structural and conceptual formats.

2.

Factors identified through research to be common to effective programs and those identiFactors fied through rational analyses could lead to the following description of an effective teacher education program: The program is conducted by faculty and school-based colleagues who have similar  visions about the nature of effective teaching and how how people can be prepared for such teaching; teacher education and arts and sciences faculty have developed an ef effective fective way  to combine their contributions; the program has the support of the central administration on its campus and of school leaders in the t he communities it serves; students are admit-

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ted through a careful process that takes into consideration a variety of candidate characcharacteristics, and, once admitted, the candidates are inducted into a community of teachers and learners; program elements are tightly articulated and practice is tightly coupled to theory; and assessment is comprehensive, comprehensive, is based on the t he standards that drive the program, is an integral part of instruction, and is used to guide candidates as well as to sup3.

port final decisions about licensure recommendations. recommendations. Teacher education is increasingly being conceptualized as an initial step in a professional professional development continuum that is tied to increasing expectations over time and that continues through the career of the t he teacher, all of which is tied to standards and assessments of  effectiveness.

4.

Increasing standards will have an effect ef fect on teacher supply. To help address the short shortage age problem, an institution may have one model for preparing traditional undergraduates and another to serve the needs of career changers.

5.

Higher education policies regarding faculty load, reward systems, and budget policies have an impact on the quality of teacher education programs.

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References Teacher Education. Education. W AACTE. 1983. Educating 1983. Educating a Profession: Extended Programs for Teacher  Washington, ashington, DC. Andrew, Michael D. 1990. “The Differences Between Graduates of Four-Year and Five-Year Teacher Teacher Education 41 (2): 45-51. Preparation Programs.” Journal Programs.” Journal of Teacher Andrew, Michael D., and Richard L. Schwab. 1993. “An Outcome Assessment of Graduates of  Eleven Teacher Teacher Education Programs.” Programs.” Paper presented at the t he Annual Meeting of the American Educationall Research Association, Educationa Association, Atlanta, Georgia. Darling-Hammond, L. 1990. “Teaching and Knowledge: Policy Issues Posed by Alternative Programs for Teachers.” Peabody Teachers.” Peabody Journal of Education 67 (3): 123-154. Darling-Hammond, L. 1998. “The Case for University-Based Teacher Education.” In Robert Roth (ed.), Teacher Education in the University. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Feiman-Nemser, Sharon. 1990. “Teacher Preparation: Structural and Conceptual Alternatives.” In  Handbook of Research on Teacher Teacher Education. New York: Macmillan. 212 W.R.  W.R. Houston (ed.), (ed.), Handbook 233. Goodlad, John I. 1987. Linking 1987. Linking Schools and Universities, Symbiotic Relationship. Occasional Paper No. 1. Seattle: Center for Educational Renewal. Holmes Group. 1990. Tomorrow’s Schools: Principles for the Design of Professional Development   Schools. East Lansing, Michigan. Howey, Ken. 1996. “Designing Coherent and Effective Teacher Education Programs.” In John Teacher Education, Second Edition. New York: Sikula (ed.), Handbook (ed.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Macmillan. 143-170. Education: Inquiry into the Howey, Ken, and Nancy Zimpher. 1989. Profiles 1989. Profiles of Preservice Teacher Education:  Nature of Programs. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC). 1992. Model 1992.  Model Standards for   Beginning Teacher Teacher Licensing and Development: A Resource for State Dialogue. Dialogue. W  Washington, ashington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. 1989. What Teachers Should Know and Be  Able to Do. Detroit. Teacher Education National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. 1995. Extended 1995. Extended Teacher  Programs: A Review of the Literature. National Commission on Teaching and America’s Future. 1997. Doing 1997. Doing What Matters Most:  Investing in Quality Teaching. Teaching. New York. Powell, A. 1980. The Uncertain Profession: Harvard and the Search for Educational Authority. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. System. Washington, Scannell, Dale, et al. 1983. A 1983. A Proposed Accreditation System. W ashington, DC: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.

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Study. Paper presented at  Schwab, Richard L. 1989. Stress 1989. Stress and the Intern Teacher: An Exploratory Study. the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Association, San Francisco. Pedagogy. W Smith, B.O. 1980. Design 1980. Design for a School of Pedagogy.  Washington, ashington, DC: U.S. Department of  Education. Shulman, Lee. 1987. “Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform.” Harvard  Reform.”  Harvard   Educational Review 57: 1-22. Snyder, John, and Linda Darling-Hammond. 1999. Personal communication.

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 Appendix A   Distribution of Coursework in Traditional Traditional Four-Y Four-Year ear and Five-Year Five-Year Programs

 T  Typical ypical Four-Ye Four-Year ar Teacher Teacher Education Program* B.A. Clinical Component

General Education

Teaching Field(s) Content

Ye a r 1

Ye a r 2

Professional Studies

Ye a r 3

Ye a r 4

*The proportions of time reflected in the components are to be interpreted as approximate proportions.

Five-Year Program (B.A. plus master’s) M.A.

B.A. Professional Component General Education

Yea r 1

Teaching Field(s) Content

Ye a r 2

Clinical Component Professional Studies

Yea r 3

Yea r 4

Yea r 5

Source: AACTE, 1983.

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 Appendix B  Interstate New Teacher Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) Principles Principle Princip le #1:

Principle Princip le #2:

The teacher teacher unders understand tand the central central concept concepts, s, tools tools of inquiry, inquiry, and the structu structures res of  the discipline(s) he or she teaches and can create learning exper experiences iences that make these aspects of subject matter meaningful for students. The teacher teacher unders understands tands how how childr children en learn and and develop, develop, and and can provid providee learning  learning  opportunities that support their intellectual, social, and personal development.

Principle Princip le #3:

The teacher teacher unders understands tands how how studen students ts differ differ in their appro approache achess to learning learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.

Principle Princip le #4:

The teacher teacher unders understands tands and and uses a variety variety of instructio instructional nal strategi strategies es to encourag encouragee students’’ development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills. students

Principle Princip le #5:

The teacher teacher uses uses an understan understanding ding of individu individual al and group group motivatio motivation n and beha behavior vior to create a learning lear ning environment that encourages positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

Principle Princip le #6:

The teacher teacher uses uses knowledg knowledgee of effective effective verbal, verbal, nonverb nonverbal, al, and media media communic communicaation techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.

Principle Princip le #7: #7:

The teacher teacher plans plans instructio instruction n based upon upon knowledg knowledgee of subject subject matter matter,, the commucommunity, and curriculum goals.

Principle Princip le #8:

The teacher teacher unders understands tands and and uses formal formal and and informal informal assessm assessment ent strategi strategies es to evaluate and ensure the continuous intellectual, social, and physical development of the learner. lear ner.

Principle Princip le #9:

The teacher teacher is a reflective reflective practi practition tioner er who conti continually nually evalua evaluates tes the effects effects of  of  his/her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow g row professionally.

Principle #10: The teacher fosters fosters relationships relationships with school school colleagues, colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students’ learning and well-being.

Source: INTASC, 1992.

Models of Teacher Education

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Models of Teacher Education

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American Council on Education