PCI DWP Binder Ch4

Components, Systems,
& Connections

four

CHAPTER

C O M P O N E N T S ,

Components_ ____________ 4A
Precast Concrete Systems___4B

S Y S T E M S ,

&

C O N N E C T I O N S

Connections _____________ 4C

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

a

C O M P O N E N T S

CHAPTER FOUR

•

A

variety of components can be fabricated from precast concrete, meeting
a range of project needs. Listed here are the most common components that
precast concrete manufacturers produce and that designers incorporate into their
projects. Customized pieces, sizes, and shapes can be created in many cases to
meet specific programmatic needs.
The designer should consult with the local precaster early in the design phase to
determine what components will work most efficiently and to review specific sizes,
joint locations, and other details that can create cost effective options.

University Village, Chicago, Ill.;
Architect: FitzGerald Associates
Architects; Photo: The Spancrete
Group.
A total of 2101 components
were used consisting
of 1550 hollow-core planks,
226 precast inverted-T beams,
100 precast columns,
144 pieces of precast shear wall,
26 pieces of precast porches,
and 45 pieces of balcony beams.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-1

Beams
Beams are typically considered structural components and are made in one of
three key shapes:
• Rectangular
• Inverted Tee Beams
• L Beams
Beams are horizontal components that support deck members like double tees,
hollow-core, and solid slabs, and sometimes other beams.
They can be reinforced with either prestressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars. This will depend on the spans, loading conditions, and the producer’s
preferred production methods.
Casting process: Prestressed beams are typically pretensioned and cast in a
long-line set up similar to that used for double tees. Beams that are reinforced
with conventional reinforcing bars can be cast as individual components, in
shorter forms made specifically for the size of the beam. They are typically cast in
the same orientation as used in the final structure.
Typical sizes: Practically any size needed to satisfy structural requirements.
Typical depths: 16 to 40 in.
Typical widths: 12 to 24 in.
Typical span-to-depth ratios: 10 to 20.

Precast balconies alternate with porches along the
building façade to create a dynamic rhythm.

Finishes: Since beams are cast upright, the bottom, sides, and ledges are
cast against a form and will typically be provided with an “as cast” finish that
results in a smooth, hard finish. The top is troweled by the finishing crew and can
be smooth, roughened to simulate the finish of supported double tees (as in a
parking structure), or intentionally roughened to create a bond with cast-in-place
concrete that may be poured on top of it.

University Village, Chicago, Ill.; Architect: FitzGerald
Associates Architects; Photo: The Spancrete Group.

Resources:
Chapter 11.1.3, “Beam Design Equations and
Diagrams,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook,
Sixth Edition.
Chapter 4.0, “Structural Design,” MNL-129-98:
Precast Prestressed Concrete Parking Structures:
Recommended Practice for Design and
Construction.
Chapter 4.5.3, “Beams,” MNL-129-98: Precast
Prestressed Concrete Parking Structures: Recommended Practice for Design and Construction.

4A-2

Balcony beams were cast as one piece with the
cantilevered balcony slabs. The balconies are 12 ft by
6 ft in plan.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S
Column Covers
Column covers are usually a major focal point in a structure. These units may
be broad or barely wider than the column itself and run vertically up a structure.
They often conceal structural columns and may completely surround them at the
ground level.
They typically are supported by the structural column or the floor and are designed to transfer no vertical load other than their own weight. The vertical load
of each length of column-cover section is usually supported at one elevation and
tied back at the top and bottom to the floors for lateral load transfer and stability.
Casting process: Column covers typically are cast as single-story units,
although units that are two or more stories in height can be cast to minimize
erection costs and horizontal joints. They are cast in a horizontal position and
rotated to their final position at the jobsite by the erection crew.
Typical shapes: C or U shaped (matching halves cover a structural column).
Typical sizes: One story tall.
Finishes: The exterior three sides of the column cover can be finished in any
way desired similar to an architectural precast concrete panel.

Resources:
Chapter 7.2.1.2, “Column Covers and Mullions,”
MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 2, Section 2.4 “Precast Concrete Panels
Used as Cladding.” MNL-122-07: PCI Architectural
Precast Concrete Manual, Third Edition.
Chapter 4.2.4, “Design Considerations for
Non-Loadbearing Wall Panels,” MNL-122-07:
PCI Architectural Precast Concrete Manual, Third
Edition.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-3

Columns
Columns are typically used to support beams and spandrels in applications
such as parking structures and total-precast concrete structural systems of all
types. They typically are designed as multilevel components ranging from a
single story to six levels or more.
Casting process: They can be made in a long-line pretensioning facility and reinforced with prestressing strand or cast in individual forms with either prestressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars. They are cast in a horizontal position
and rotated to their final position at the jobsite by the erection crew.
Sizes and shapes can vary to satisfy both architectural and structural requirements.
Typical shapes: Square or rectangle.
Typical sizes: From 12 by 12 in. to 24 by 48 in.
Finishes: Since columns are cast in a horizontal position, three of the four sides
are created with a form. These finishes are very smooth and most often remain
“as cast” in the finished construction although they may have an architectural
finish and be exposed to view. The fourth side is typically troweled to match the
other three sides as closely as possible.

The Berry Events Center at Northern
Michigan University in Marquette, Mich.,
features insulated precast concrete wall
panels on its exterior and precast columns,
risers, and plank inside. The facility can host
a variety of activities, including concerts,
basketball games, and ice-hockey matches,
and is only the third site in America capable
of being used for U.S. Olympic speed
skating. Architect: Integrated Design.

Resources:
Chapter 4.9, “Compression Members,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.

4A-4

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S
Double Tees
Double tees are used primarily as deck floor and roof components for any type
of structure, including parking structures, office buildings, and industrial buildings. They are made either:
• Pretopped using a flange thickness of 4 in., which creates the wearing surface
in parking structures; or
• Field topped with a 2-in. flange, on which a cast-in-place concrete composite
topping of 2 to 4 in. is added in the field. For roof construction, there is
typically no need to add topping on the 2 in. flange.
Typical widths: 8, 10, 12, and 15 ft.
Typical depths: 24, 26, 28, 30, 32, and 34 in.
Typical span-to-depth ratios: Floors: 25 to 35 / Roofs: 35 to 40
Casting process: Double tees typically are cast in 300- to 500-ft-long
prestressing beds (forms) that are sub-divided into specific length tees for a
particular project. The general production method consists of:
• laying out forms
• s tressing the strand
The Enterprise IV project features double tees as flooring, which
create large, open floor plans that add flexibility for tenants.
Enterprise IV Facility, Shelton, Conn.; Architect: Kasper Group,
Inc.

• installing other embedded material and flange reinforcing
•m
 aking a pre-pour quality-control check
•p
 ouring and finishing the concrete
•a
 llowing about 12-16 hours of curing
•d
 etensioning (cutting) the strands at the ends of each piece
• s tripping from the form
•m
 aking a post-pour quality-control check
•m
 oving the tee to the storage area awaiting shipment to the site.
Finishes: Form side will generally be “as cast,” resulting in a smooth, hard finish.
This generally remains as is and is not painted, although it can be if desired. The
top-of-flange side will be smoothed for roof construction, left rough if it will receive
a field topping or broomed (either transversally or longitudinally), or circular swirlfinished if it will be used as the wearing surface in a parking structure.
Resources:
Chapter 2.4, “Stemmed Deck Members,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 4.5.1, “Stemmed Floor Members,” MNL-129-98: Precast Prestressed Concrete Parking Structures:
Recommended Practice for Design and Construction.
Chapter 4.6, “Pretopped Double Tees,” MNL-129-98: Precast Prestressed Concrete Parking Structures:
Recommended Practice for Design and Construction.

Columns and spandrels, as well as double tees, were part of the
precast concrete building system used at Baylor University.
Dutton Avenue Office and Parking Facility, Baylor University,
Waco, Tex.; Architect: Carl Walker Inc.

PCI Journal:
“New Mega Tee Passes Load Testing,” PCI Journal; March-April 1997, pp. 136-139.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-5

Hollow-core Slabs
Hollow-core slabs are used predominantly for floor and roof deck components
for various structures including multifamily housing, hotel and condominiums, office buildings, schools, and prisons.
Typical widths: 2, 4, and 8 ft; some precasters offer 10 and 12 ft widths.
Typical depths: 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, and 16 in.
Typical span-to-depth ratios: Floors: 30 to 40 / Roofs: 40 to 50
Casting process: Hollow-core slabs typically are cast using a long line method
with 300- to 500-ft-long prestressing beds in which a proprietary machine specific
to the brand, which extrudes the concrete and creates the voids by means of either
a rotating auger or by placement of aggregate filler that is later removed. One system produces the hollow-core pieces in 60-ft-long, self-stressing forms that circulate
through a series of production phases ending with cutting to specific lengths.
The general production method consists of:
• preparing the form
• pulling strands from abutment to abutment
• stressing the strands to proper tension
• installing embeds and material to form openings if they occur
• making a pre-pour quality-control check
• running the casting machine from end to end
• creating a 300- to 500-ft-long slab
• curing for 12 – 16 hours
• marking the lengths of specific pieces based on requirements for a particular
project
• saw-cutting the individual pieces to length
• stripping the pieces
• making a post-pour quality-control check
Hollow-core plank. Photo: The Spancrete Group.

4A-6

• moving the pieces to storage awaiting shipment to the site

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S
Finishes: Form side (bottom) is smooth as cast and typically remains that way
in the finished construction. It is usually an exposed-to-view surface and is often
painted. The top side is also usually smooth and can remain as such for direct
carpet applications. It also can be kept slightly rough to receive a composite castin-place structural topping of 2 to 3 in., as with double tees or gypsum topping.

Hollow-core plank. Photo: Molin Concrete Products Co.

Branded processes: Each producer of hollow-core slabs uses a trademarked
process that creates different shapes to form the voids within the pieces.
Information on the key types of hollow-core and the signature shapes produced
by each process can be found in Chapter 2 of the PCI Design Handbook 6th
Edition. In addition, several producers have websites that can provide more detailed information.
It is also recommended that you consult a local producer near to where the
proposed project is located (pci.org/find/manufacturer/).

Dy-Core ®

Dynaspan ®

Elematic ®

Flexicore ®

Roth ®

Span Deck ®

Spancrete ®

Ultra Span ®

Resources:
CD/IGS-4-01: Hollow-core CD-ROM.
Chapter 2.5, “Flat Deck Members,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
MK-8-87: Concrete Suggestions: Concrete Masonry Wall/Prestressed Concrete Hollow-core Floor Construction
for Multi-Family, Low-Rise Housing.
PCI Journal:
“Shear Strength of Hollow-Core Slabs,” PCI Journal; January-February 2006, pp. 110-115.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-7

Insulated Sandwich Wall Panels
Insulated sandwich wall panels can be strictly architectural, strictly structural, or a
combination of both. They can be placed in either a horizontal position, as in a multifamily-housing application, or in a vertical position, as on the exterior of a warehouse.
The difference between typical panels and insulated sandwich wall panels is
that the latter are cast with rigid insulation “sandwiched” between two layers of
concrete, called wythes. The insulation thickness can vary to create the desired
thermal insulating property (“R” value) for the wall.
The structural behavior is either:
• Composite, in which the wythes are connected using ties through the insulation.
The structural performance is then based on the full thickness of the panel; or
• Non-Composite, in which the wythes are connected using ties through the
insulation, which limits performance to the individual capacities of each wythe.
Whether the panel is composite or non-composite depends on the configuration
and material used for the ties.
Insulated sandwich wall panels can be designed to be loadbearing and
support floor and roof components. They make an ideal structural element for
this purpose, typically by casting a thicker interior wythe to provide the necessary
support. They also can be non-loadbearing to complete a façade.
Typical widths: 4 to 15 ft.
Typical heights: 8 to 50 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 5 to 12 in., including 1 to 3 in. of insulation,
more for applications in a cooling facility.
Madison Community Center, Dakota State University,
Madison, S.D.; Architect: DLR Group.

Resources:
Chapter 9.4, “Sandwich Panels,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 5, Section 5.3.8, “Precast Concrete
Sandwich Panels,” MNL-122-07: PCI Architectural
Precast Concrete Manual, Third Edition.
MK-14-98: Precast Concrete Wall Panels:
Sandwich Wall Panels (6 pp.).
PCI Journal:
“Analytical Investigation of Thermal Performance
of Precast Concrete Three-Wythe Sandwich Wall
Panels,” PCI Journal; July-August 2004, pp. 88-101.

4A-8

Casting process: The panels can be made in a long-line pretensioning facility
and reinforced with prestressing strand or cast in individual forms with either
prestressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars. They are cast in a horizontal
position, with one wythe of concrete poured, the insulation placed, and the second
layer poured. They are then rotated to their final position at the jobsite by the
erection crew.
Finishes: As with typical wall panels, the panels are cast in a flat orientation,
so the form side is typically the side that will be exposed to view in the final
construction. This face can be made with virtually any type of finish, as discussed
in Chapter 3A of this manual. The back face is typically troweled smooth or may
have a light broom finish. Typically, the interior does not need additional furring
and drywall to create the finished surface.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S
LiteWalls
Light or “lite” walls are shear walls used in parking structures cast with an opening
in their center to provide visual continuity and to allow daylight or artificial illumination to penetrate deeper into an interior. The components provide openness and
a feeling of security. These components should not be confused with “light wells,”
which are internal, open courtyards designed to provide daylight to the center of
parking structures and other buildings.
As with other types of shear walls, lite walls serve as the lateral force-resisting
systems in the structure. They act as cantilever beams, transferring lateral forces
acting parallel to the face of the wall, from the superstructure to the foundation.
Casting process: They are cast in individual forms with either prestressing
strand or conventional reinforcing bars. They are cast in a horizontal position and
rotated to their final position at the jobsite by the erection crew.
Sizes and shapes can vary to satisfy both architectural and structural requirements.
Typical shapes: Rectangular with rectangular openings to create openness.
Typical sizes: 12 to 16 in. in width greater than the stem-to-stem spacing
of the supported double tees.
Finishes: Lite walls are cast in a
horizontal position, with three of the
four sides created with a form. These
finishes are very smooth and most
often remain “as cast” in the finished
construction. The fourth side is typically troweled to match the other three
sides as closely as possible.

New Street Parking Garage, Staunton, Va.; Architect: Fraizier
Associates; Photo: Jason Hottel Photography.

Resources:
Chapter 1.2.2, “Parking Structures,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 3.5, “Shear Wall Systems,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 1.4.1.2.1, “Framing Systems,” MNL129-98: Precast Prestressed Concrete Parking
Structures: Recommended Practice for Design and
Construction.

Fifth & Lafayette Parking Structure, Royal Oak, Mich. The exterior façade combines 173 different shapes of brick clad lite walls. The lite
walls are used to replicate the appearance of windows.

PCI Journal:
“Recommended Practices and Procedures for the
Erection of Horizontal Litewalls with Pocketed or
Haunched Spandrels,” PCI Journal; May-June
2002, pp. 34-37.
“Recommended Practices and Procedures for
the Erection of Vertical Litewalls with Pockets and
Haunched Spandrels,” PCI Journal; May-June
2002, pp. 28-33.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-9

Modular Units
Precasters can produce modular precast concrete units that include a roof, floor,
front and back walls, and two side walls if desired. The modules’ key benefit, in
addition to the speed with which these “building blocks” can be erected on site,
comes from the precaster being able to outfit and finish the modules at the plant
so they arrive at the site nearly complete.
These units have been used for prison cells for many years, and their use is now
being expanded for school classrooms, hotel and motel rooms, and other applications where relatively small, repetitive rooms are needed on a rapid schedule.

The Joseph Quincy Upper School, Boston, Mass.;
Architect: Equus Design Group Architects.

Precast concrete modular classrooms lend an air of permanecy not found in typical trailer-type portable units, yet they retain the feel of
conventional classrooms.

Prison-cell modules are the predominant method used for constructing justice
facilities that include prisons and jails. These structures can be single- or multilevel structures as high as 10 to 12 stories.
The modules are cast as single- or multi-cell units with as many as four cells in
one monolithic component. The configuration typically includes the inmate cell
and a vertical “chase” between cells for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
accommodations.
The formwork may be proprietary and is made using steel with mechanisms for
adjustment and functioning to “strip” the module from the form.

A crane hoists one of the 30-ft modules into place on the
concrete foundation. The modules were delivered at night under
a police escort because of daytime congestion in the area.

4A-10

Typically, the interior exposed walls are epoxy painted, and the module is outfitted
with as much of the Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP) accommodations
as possible in the producer’s plant. Final fit up is done at the jobsite. Exterior walls
can be made with insulation similar to a sandwich wall panel and can receive virtually any kind of architectural treatment.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S

A crane lifts a 44,000 lb modular cell unit into place, forming the second level of one of the Medium Housing Buildings.
Miami Correctional Facility, Peru, Ind.; Architect: Schenkel
Shults Inc.; Associate Architect: Phillips Swager Associates.

Resources:
Chapter 1.2.3, “Justice Facilities,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 9.10.7, “Prison Cell Box Module,” MNL120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Ideas By Design, Vol. 1, No. 1, March 2000: Justice
Facilities (4 pp.).
MK-24-00: Concrete Cell Modules (4 pp.).
Ascent:
“Modular Precast Design Builds Prison In One
Year,” Ascent Winter 2002, pp. 26-28.

The cells arrived at the job site with furnishings, light and
plumbing fixtures, windows, and door frame.

Two converging wings of Special Housing under construction expose
the precast components of the building; stacked modular cells, hollowcore slab corridors, plenums, and insulated wall panels.

Casting process: Specialized steel formwork is used, with mechanisms that
adjust and “strip” the module from the form. These often are proprietary to the
manufacturer. The special forms allow all wall surfaces to be cast against a form.
When stripped from the form, the floor or roof surface is troweled to the desired
degree of smoothness, and the wall surfaces are typically prepped to fill surface
voids before painting.
Finishes: Typically, the interior walls of the inmate cells are sandblasted, any
surface voids are filled, and they are epoxy-painted before installation of items
mentioned above.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-11

Mullions
Mullions are thin, often-decorative pieces that fill open space in a building façade.
They are often isolated elements forming a long vertical line, requiring them to be
cast perfectly straight to avoid any visual deformities. To some degree, these
variations can be handled by precast concrete connections with adjustability.
Casting process: They can be made in a long-line pretensioning facility and
reinforced with prestressing strand or cast in individual forms with either
prestressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars. They are cast in a horizontal
position and rotated to their final position at the jobsite by the erection crew.
Sizes and shapes can vary to satisfy both architectural and structural requirements.
Typical shapes: Square or rectangle.
Typical sizes: One or more stories, subject to limitations imposed by weight or
hanging.
Finishes: Three of the four sides are created with a form, as they are cast in a
horizontal position. They can be finished in a variety of ways, depending on the
application and the architectural purpose.

Resources:
Chapter 7.2.1.2, “Column Covers and Mullions,”
MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 2, Section 2.4 “Precast Concrete Panels
Used as Cladding” MNL-122-07: PCI Architectural
Precast Concrete Manual, Third Edition.
Chapter 4, Section 4.2.4 “Design Considerations
for Non-Loadbearing Wall Panels,” MNL-122-07:
PCI Architectural Precast Concrete Manual, Third
Edition.

4A-12

Eagle Gate Plaza & Office Towers,
Salt Lake City, Utah; Architect:
Cooper Carlson Duy Ritchie, Inc.;
Photo: Rodriguez & Associates, LC.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S
Piles
Precast, prestressed concrete pilings are often the preferred choice for permanent, durable, and economical foundations, especially in marine or bridge
environments, due to their excellent adaptability and resistance to corrosion.
Piles can be spliced together to create longer piles. They are used primarily where
longer piles are required but transportation needs make the longer lengths more
difficult or costly to handle due to escort needs and the need for specialized rigs.

4500 precast concrete piles were driven into difficult soil
conditions to create the foundation for the 1.7 million square-ft
Boston Convention & Exhibition Center in South Boston, Mass.
Architect: HNTB and Rafael Vinoly Architects (a joint venture).

Typical sizes: 10 to 36 in. for building projects; larger for bridges.
Typical shapes: 18-in.-square (the most common), plus octagonal and round
(cylindrical) in sizes as needed. Larger sizes may have a void cast into them to
save on the volume of concrete.
Casting process: They are cast in a long-line pretensioning facility and reinforced with prestressing strand. They are cast in a horizontal position and rotated
to their final position at the jobsite by the erection crew.

Bath Iron Works Land Level Transfer Facility, Bath, Maine; Design-Builder: Clark Group.

Resources:
BM-20-04: Precast Prestressed Concrete Piles Manual, Chapter 20.
Chapter 2.3.10, “Piles,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 4.9.6, “Piles,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-13

Shear Walls
Shear walls act as vertical cantilever beams, transferring lateral forces acting
parallel to the face of the wall from the superstructure to the foundation. Typically,
there are two shear walls oriented to resist lateral loads along each principal axis
of the building. They should be designed as loadbearing panels.
Typical widths: 15 to 30 ft.
Typical heights: 10 to 30 ft depending on the width and transportation limitations.
Typical thicknesses: 8 to 16 in.

Starz Encore headquarters office and technology center for the
satellite broadcast company in Englewood, Colo.; Architect:
Barber Architecture.

Casting process: Shear walls typically are cast flat in an individual form and
reinforced with conventional reinforcing bars. They are cast in a horizontal position
and rotated to their final position at the jobsite by the erection crew.
Finishes: Since shear walls are cast in a flat orientation, one side is finished in
the form and the other side is manually finished. Typically, they receive the same
finish and a complementary style to the surrounding structure, especially in a
parking structure, where they will be visible.

4A-14

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S

Starz Encore headquarters all-precast structural system includes shear walls, loadbearing precast walls, double tees, and inverted tee
beams. The system is a common approach to design in the Rocky Mountain region.

Interior shear wall system. Lateral loads are transmitted by floor diaphragms to a
structural core of precast shear walls.

Resources:
Chapter 3.5, “Shear Wall Systems,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 4.3.2.3, “Shear Walls,” MNL-129-98:
Precast Prestressed Concrete Parking Structures:
Recommended Practice for Design and Construction.

Exterior shear wall system permits greater design flexibility because it eliminates the need for
a structural core. By combining gravity loadbearing function with lateral force resistance in general
makes this system more economical.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-15

Solid Slabs
Solid slabs are used as structural deck components similar to hollow-core slabs.
They can be made in a long-line pretensioning facility and reinforced with
prestressing strand or cast in individual forms with either prestressing strand or
conventional reinforcing bars. They are typically cast in the same position as used
in the structure.
Sizes can vary to satisfy the structural requirements.
Typical widths: 4 to 12 feet.
Typical spans: 8 to 30 feet.
Typical thicknesses: 4 to 12 in.
Finishes: The form side (bottom) is smooth as cast and typically will remain that
way in the finished construction. When it is an exposed surface, it can remain as
is or painted without additional treatment.
The top side is troweled to the desired degree of smoothness or may be
intentionally roughened to receive a cast-in-place concrete topping that will
act compositely and provide additional strength.

Velocity Multifamily Residental Condos,
Hoboken, N.J.;
Architect: Equus Design Group;
Photos: Oldcastle.

Resources:
Chapter 2.5, “Solid Flat Slab Load Tables,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.

4A-16

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S
Spandrels
Spandrels are essentially perimeter beams that extend both above and below
the floor and are used in a variety of applications, including structural support for
deck components in parking structures and cladding on office buildings. They are
typically made as:
• Loadbearing with a ledge, as in parking structures supporting double tees or
in office buildings supporting double tees or hollow-core slabs.
• Loadbearing with pockets, as in support for double tees, where the stem of the
double tee fits into a pocket cast into the thickness of the spandrel.
• Non-loadbearing as in cladding for any type structure, typically with curtain
wall or glazing.

To achieve maximum construction cost efficiency, the spandrel
beam at the exterior column line of the garage was designed as
a loadbearing structure, bumper guard, and architectural façade
together. Using 6 in. projecting bullnose shapes at the top and
bottom of the spandrel, in concert with curving arches of 1 in.
relief, the spandrel was conceived to grow almost treelike from
columns with arching haunches.
Mystic Transportation Center, Medford, Mass.; Architect: Thompson Design Associates.

Typical sizes: Any size required to satisfy structural requirements.
Typical heights: 5 to 8 ft.
Resources:
Chapter 7.2.1.1, “Spandrels,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 7.2.2.1, “Spandrels,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 4, Section 4.2.6, “Design Considerations
for Non-Loadbearing Spandrels,” MNL-122-07: PCI
Architectural Precast Concrete Manual, Third Edition.
Chapter 4, Section 4.2.7, “Design Considerations
for Loadbearing Spandrels,” MNL-122-07: PCI
Architectural Precast Concrete Manual, Third Edition.
Chapter 1.3, “Façade Treatments,” MNL-129-98:
Precast Prestressed Concrete Parking Structures:
Recommended Practice for Design and Construction.

Typical spans: 25 to 60 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 4 to 12 in., depending on the span and structural
requirements.
Casting process: Spandrels are cast flat with the side to have the most prominent
exposure being cast down to form the exposed surface. They can be reinforced
either with prestressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars. They can be cast
in a long-line pretensioning facility similar to double tees or in individual forms.
Finishes: The exposed face can be made with virtually any type of finish as discussed in Chapter 3A of this manual. The back face is typically troweled smooth
or may have a light broom finish.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-17

Raker Beams
Raker beams are angled, notched beams that support stadium riser units.
They are used universally in outdoor stadiums and arenas and in many indoor
arenas and performing-arts theaters.
Typical sizes: S
 izes can vary as required structurally and to match varying
riser sections that they support.
Typical widths: 16 to 24 in.

Casting process: Raker beams are cast either upside down, on their side, or
upright, depending on the manufacturer’s preference. Any casting position will
result in a favorable solution. Typically, three sides will have an “as cast” finish
that results in a smooth, hard finish. The fourth side is troweled by the finishing
crew to match the other sides as closely as possible.

Resources:
Chapter 1.2.5, “Stadiums/Arenas,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
CD/IGS-3-01: Stadiums CD-ROM.
Ideas By Design, Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2000: Stadium Projects (8 pp.).

4A-18

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S
Stadium Risers
Stadium risers are used to support seating in stadiums, arenas, theaters, and
other types of grandstands.
Typically, they are made as single, double, or triple risers with heights cast
to satisfy site lines in the venue. Specifying single, double, or triple risers will
depend on the layout and may be dictated by weights and crane access during
construction.
Typical spans: 8 to 50 ft.
Casting process: Risers are typically cast in self-stressing forms made for each
specific project, with up to three pieces being cast at one time, depending on the
individual lengths. The bottom and vertical sections of the riser are cast against
the form and typically will remain as cast in the final construction.
Finishes: The top (wearing surface) is typically troweled to the desired degree
of smoothness or made slightly roughened to create a non-slip surface.
Scott Stadium at the University of Virginia, Va.; Architect: Heery
International Inc.

Resources:
Chapter 4.2.5, “Bending of Asymmetrical Sections,”
MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Figure 4.2.5.1, “Typical Stadium Riser,” MNL-12004: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Table 8.3.6, “Single, Double and Triple Stadium
Riser Erection Tolerances,” MNL-120-04: PCI
Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
Chapter 9.7.8, “Stadium Seating,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
CD/IGS-3-01: Stadiums CD-ROM.
Ideas By Design, Vol. 1, No. 2, December 2000:
Stadium Projects (8 pp.).

Princeton University;
Architect: Rafael Vinoly Architects P.C.

The long slots between each seating row
in the precast concrete triple risers allow
daylight to stream into the concourse.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-19

Stairs
Precast concrete stairs are used in any application where a stair tower or individual steps are required. These modules can provide fast erection and durable
access in buildings or parking structures.
Typical thicknesses: 6 to 10 in.
Casting process: They are typically made as “open-Z” stair components, in
which the upper and lower landings are cast monolithically with the tread/riser
section. They can also be cast as shorter components, consisting of only the
tread/riser section, which is supported by separate landing components that span
transversely to the stair section.
Stair components are typically cast either “on edge” or “upside down.” The
format will depend on the size and the producer’s preferred production method.
Abrasive nosing pieces are often cast into the treads to create a non-slip surface.
Finishes: When cast on edge, the tread and bottom remain as cast and typically
will remain as such in the final construction. When they are cast upside down, the
bottom will be troweled to the desired degree of smoothness and typically will
remain exposed to view in the final construction.

Velocity Multifamily Residental Condos,
Hoboken, N.J.;
Architect: Equus Design Group;
Photos: Oldcastle.

Resources:
Table 8.3.8, “Stair Unit Erection Tolerances,” MNL120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.

4A-20

Stair run supported by precast concrete landing.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

C O M P O N E N T S
Wall Panels
Wall panels can be strictly architectural, strictly structural, or a combination
of both. They can be placed in either a horizontal position, as in a multifamilyhousing application or in a vertical position, as in the exterior of a warehouse. Wall
panels can be loadbearing and support floor and roof components or they can be
nonloadbearing to complete a façade.
Typical widths: 4 to 15 ft.
Typical heights: 10 to 50 ft.
Typical thicknesses: 4 to 12 in.
Casting process: Wall panels can be made in a long-line pretensioning facility
and reinforced with prestressing strand or cast in individual forms with either
prestressing strand or conventional reinforcing bars. They are cast in a horizontal
position and rotated to their final position at the jobsite by the erection crew.

Resources:
Chapter 7.2.1.4, “Wall Panels,” MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
MK-14-98: Precast Concrete Wall Panels:
Sandwich Wall Panels (6 pp.).
MK-15-98: Precast Concrete Wall Panels:
Warehouse/Distribution Centers (6 pp.).
MK-16-98: Precast Concrete Wall Panels:
Manufacturing Facilities (6 pp.).
MK-17-98: Precast Concrete Wall Panels:
High-Tech Facilities (6 pp.).
MK-18-98: Precast Concrete Wall Panels:
Food-Processing Facilities (6 pp.).
MK-19-98: Precast Concrete Wall Panels:
Retail Buildings (6 pp.).
MK-20-98: Precast Panels for Industrial Buildings
(6 pp.).
MNL-122-07: PCI Architectural Precast Concrete
Manual, Third Edition.
PCI Journal:
“Design Factors Influencing the Aesthetics of
Architectural Precast Concrete,” PCI Journal;
March-April 2001, pp. 44-61.
“Design of Rectangular Openings in Precast Walls
Under Combined Vertical and Lateral Loads,”
PCI Journal; March-April 2002, pp. 58-83.
“Design of Rectangular Openings in Precast
Walls Under Vertical Loads,” PCI Journal;
January-February 2002, pp. 50-67.

Finishes: Since wall panels are cast in a flat orientation, the form side is typically
the side that will be exposed to view in the final construction. This face can be
made with virtually any type of finish as discussed in Chapter 3A of this manual.
The back face is typically troweled smooth or may have a light broom finish.

Budweiser, Piedmont, S.C.;
Architect: Jerry W. Rives Jr. AIA; Photos: Reel Video & Stills Inc./Brian Erkens.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4A-21

b

CHAPTER FOUR

•

Precast Concrete Systems
T

he design of precast, prestressed concrete structures depends on the integration of the structural system as a whole, the connections, and the individual
components. Each aspect must consider the others as well as the functional
requirements imposed by the building use.
It is essential that design loads follow a load path from their point of origin to the
final support or foundation. Although not always required by code, it is desirable
to design the members and their connections to achieve a ductile, rather than a
brittle, failure mode.
In addition to resisting gravity loads, a principal consideration in building design
is the lateral force-resisting system. There are a variety of precast concrete designs that can be used to achieve these goals economically and effectively.
A qualified, registered structural engineer should be retained to provide structural engineering services for the final design.

Schematic of loadbearing precast concrete building.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4B-1

Shear Walls
Buildings that use shear walls as the lateral force-resisting system can be
designed to provide a safe, serviceable, and economical solution for wind and
earthquake resistance. Shear walls make up most common lateral force-resisting
systems in the precast, prestressed concrete industry. The excellent performance
of shear-wall buildings throughout the world that have been subjected to earthquakes and high winds can testify to their effectiveness.
Basic Principles
Shear walls act as vertical cantilever beams, transferring the lateral forces acting
parallel to the face of the wall, from the superstructure to the foundation. Shear
walls should be oriented to resist lateral loads applied to the building along both
of the structure’s principal axes.
Unsymmetrical Shear Walls
w

Eccentricity

F3

Ideally, there should be at least two shear walls oriented to resist lateral loads
along each principal axis. If only one shear wall is oriented along one principal
axis, two shear walls should be provided along the orthogonal axis to resist
diaphragm torsion. It also is acceptable to orient the three shear walls in any noncollinear position.
Shear walls should be designed as loadbearing panels whenever possible. The
increased dead load acting on the panel is an advantage because it increases
the panel’s resistance to uplift and overturning.

F1
Center of
Rigidity

Center of
Lateral Load
F3

The distribution of the total lateral force acting on a building to each individual
shear wall is influenced by four factors:
1. The supporting soil and footings.

(a) Frequently Occurs in Large
Buildings with Expansion Joints

2. The stiffness of the floor and roof diaphragms.
3. The relative flexural and shear stiffness of the shear walls and of
connections.
4. The eccentricity of the lateral loads to the center of rigidity of the shear walls.

w

Generally, #1 can be neglected when distributing shear forces among shear
walls.

F3
Eccentricity

F2
F1
Center of
Rigidity

F3

Center of
Lateral Load

(b) Frequently Occurs in Buildings
with Large Door Openings

4B-2

With regard to #2, if the depth-to-span ratio of a diaphragm is small, it will be
flexible and may deflect significantly when subjected to lateral loads. Flexible
diaphragms distribute shears to each shear wall in proportion to the tributary
width of diaphragm loading each shear wall.
If the diaphragm’s depth-to-span ratio is large and is adequately connected, the
diaphragm will be rigid and not deflect as significantly as a flexible diaphragm
when subjected to lateral loads. Rigid diaphragms distribute shears to each shear
wall in proportion to the shear wall’s relative stiffness. In precast concrete building design, it is common to assume that floor and roof diaphragms act as rigid
diaphragms (see Reference 1).

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Precast Concrete Designs
The design for precast concrete shear walls typically has followed principles
used for cast-in-place structures, with modifications made as appropriate for the
jointed nature of a precast concrete structural system. Design methods used to
achieve successful performance of precast shear-wall structures have been left
largely to the judgment of the structural engineer.
Observations of performance of structures in earthquakes show that where
adequate strength and stiffness were provided to limit interstory drift (lateral
displacement) to about 2% (relative to a point at the story below), the resulting
displacements and damage were within acceptable levels.
In regions of low and moderate seismic activity, bolted or welded connections
with small grout joints are generally used. In regions of high seismic activity,
connections to the foundation and connections between precast concrete walls
generally use details that emulate cast-in-place behavior and may include posttensioning (see Reference 2).
Design Guidelines
The steps in designing structures that have shear walls as the primary lateral
load-resisting elements include eight key steps that are carried out by the structural
engineer of record (EOR) or the precast concrete specialty engineer subject to
the EOR’s approval:
Evaluate the building function and applicable precast concrete frame. In a
warehouse-type structure, for instance, it is common to include the exterior walls
as part of the lateral force-resisting system. In parking structures, shear walls can
be located at stair and elevator towers, at the ends of ramped bays, at selected
locations on the perimeter of the structure, or at any combination of the above.
 evelop a preliminary design for the shear-wall system. This requires six
D
steps:
1. P
 rovide at least three non-collinear walls to ensure torsional as well as direct
lateral resistance.
2. D
 etermine if shear walls can also function as bearing walls, as overturning
often will be the governing criterion.
3. Arrange shear walls so they minimize restraint due to volume changes.
4. C
 onsider whether the shear walls could be individual full-height walls (vertical
joints only).
5. C
 onsider the practicality of transportation and erection when selecting the
size of wall panels.
6. B
 alance the design requirements of the shear walls with the design requirements of the associated diaphragms.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4B-3

Smaller of 12t
or 1/6 Height
from Level Under
Consideration
to Top of Wall

Rotation

Translation

Center of Rigidity

t

t

Center of
Rigidity
Shear Walls
(a)

Effective width of wall perpendicular to shear walls.

(b)

Translation and rotation of rigid diaphragms.

Determine the vertical and lateral loads. First determine the applicable vertical gravity loads, then use the appropriate seismic-design criteria to determine
the magnitude of lateral load for each floor and compare that with wind loading.
Create a preliminary load analysis. Determine the overturning moment, the
lateral in-plane shear, and the axial load at the base of each of the shear walls.
Select the appropriate shear wall. Review the preliminary choice and modify
the number, location, and dimensions as necessary to satisfy the requirements
at the base of each. It is economically preferable that the foundations not be
subjected to uplift.
Determine the final load analysis. Perform the final lateral-load and verticalload analyses to determine the design load for each shear wall, based on its final
location and dimensions.
Create the final shear-wall design. Design shear-wall reinforcement and connections for the associated diaphragms. If there is insufficient length of shear wall
available to accommodate the necessary number of shear connectors, consider
using an element in the plane of the diaphragm (drag strut) as an extension of the
shear wall to pick up additional connectors. Also, consider the added requirements necessary to satisfy the structural-integrity provisions of the code.

References:
1. Chapter 3.5.2, “Shear Wall Systems: Principles
of Shear Wall Buildings,” MNL-120-04: PCI
Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
2. Chapter 3.5.1, “Shear Wall Systems: Introduction,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook,
Sixth Edition.
3. “Chapter 3.5.4, “Design Guidelines for Shear
Wall Structures,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design
Handbook, Sixth Edition.

4B-4

Design the diaphragms. They should respond elastically to applied lateral
loads to prevent formation of plastic regions in any diaphragm. They need to be
designed as beams, provide the necessary tensile reinforcement for each chord,
and provide shear connectors or shear reinforcement using shear-friction methods.
Additional requirements needed to satisfy the structural-integrity provisions of the
code also should be considered. (For more details, see “Shear Walls” in Chapter
4A “Components” and Reference 3.)

Resources:
MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

LoadBearing Wall Panels
Often the most economical application of architectural precast concrete is as
a loadbearing component, which resists and transfers loads applied from other
components. These loadbearing members cannot be removed without affecting
the strength or stability of the building.
Concrete components normally used for cladding applications, such as solid-wall
panels, window walls, or spandrel panels, have an impressive structural capability.
With few modifications, many cladding panels can function as loadbearing members.
The reinforcement required to physically handle and erect a unit is often more
than necessary for in-service loads.
The slight increase in costs for loadbearing wall panels, due to reinforcement
and connection requirements, can be offset by the elimination of separate structural frames (beams and columns) for exterior walls or by a reduction of interior
shear walls. This savings is most apparent in buildings with a large ratio of wall-tofloor area. The increase in interior floor space gained by eliminating columns can
be substantial and, depending on the floor plan, flexibility of partition layout can
be improved.
To realize the full potential of these components with no sacrifice in aesthetic
advantages, the structural engineer should be involved from the initial-concept
stage. Considerations should include the load effects on member dimensions,
coordination of temporary bracing, connections, and erection sequencing.
Loadbearing panels can be supported by continuous footings, isolated piers,
grade beams, or transfer girders. The bearing-wall units can start at an upperfloor level with the lower floors framed with beams and columns.

The all-precast concrete structural system
includes double tees, inverted tee beams, shear
walls, and loadbearing precast walls. The system
is a common approach to design in the Rocky
Mountain region.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4B-5

Window

Window-wall panels also can be loadbearing if desired. Since these panels are
usually custom-made for specific projects, the designer can take advantage of the
self-contained columns and girders inherent in the cross section of these panels
by designing haunches to provide bearing for floors. Spandrels can also be made
into loadbearing components. (See Reference 1 for details on the previous section.)

Spandrel

Design Considerations

Cast-in-place topping

Most design considerations for non-loadbearing wall panels must also be considered in the analysis of loadbearing wall panels. The design and structural behavior of exterior architectural precast concrete bearing-wall panels is dependent
upon the panel shape and configuration, and they should consider the following:

Wt.

e

W
Precast
concrete
floor
Window

• Gravity loads and the transfer of these loads to the foundation. Vertical
(gravity) loads are parallel to the plane of the wall at an eccentricity influenced
by the geometry of the wall, location of the load, and manufacturing and erection tolerances.
•M
 agnitude and distribution of lateral loads, both wind and seismic, and the
means for resisting these loads using shear walls and floor diaphragms. Loads
in the horizontal direction may be both parallel to and perpendicular to the
plane of the wall. For typical precast concrete structures, improved redundancy and ductility are achieved by connecting members into a load path to the
lateral force-resisting system, which must be continuous to the foundation.

Window

•L
 ocation of joints to control volume-change movements due to concrete
creep, shrinkage, and seasonal temperature changes.
Spandrel
Wt.
Cast-in-place topping
W
Precast
concrete
floor

e

Window

Loadbearing spandrels.

•C
 onnection concepts and types of connections required to resist the various applied loads. In some cases, local practice may suggest one type of
connection over another, such as the use of bolts rather than welds. All connections need to be accessible and allow for tolerances and adjustment.
•T
 olerances required for the structure with regard to production and erection for both precast concrete units and connections, including tolerances for
interfacing of different materials.
•S
 pecific design requirements during the construction that may control
designs, such as site accessibility.
The design of exterior walls using loadbearing architectural panels follows typical engineering procedures. However, designers must recognize the role that is
played by precast concrete panel production and erection in the overall design
process. Similarly, usually accepted procedures and code requirements apply to
the design of an individual precast concrete panel and its connections.
In most cases, the gravity dead and live load conditions for most precast concrete
exterior bearing-wall structures will control the panel’s structural dimensions rather
than load combinations, which include lateral loads.
Panels may be designed to span horizontally between columns or vertically
between floors. The choice depends primarily on handling and erection requirements and the methods or details selected for making connections. When spanning horizontally, panels are designed as beams or, if they have frequent, regularly spaced window openings, they are designed as Vierendeel trusses. If a large

4B-6

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

portion of the panel contains window openings, it may be necessary to analyze it
as a rigid frame (see Reference 2).
Shapes and Finishes
In multistory buildings, the loadbearing wall panels can be several stories in
height up to the maximum transportable length, or they can be one-story high
and connect at every floor level. The architectural requirements generally govern
the design. The variety of shapes and surface finishes commonly associated with
cladding can be provided, if the structural and other technical requirements can
be satisfied.
By extending loadbearing panels vertically through several stories, complex
connection details are minimized and the economic advantages of loadbearing
wall panels are increased.
Architectural requirements normally dictate that building elevations have wall
panels of the same appearance. As a result, the wall panels receiving the greatest
gravity loads should be determined and panel units should be designed interchangeably with the same reinforcing in all panels. This allows any panel to be
installed at any point on the structure’s exterior, since the floor plan of a loadbearing panel building is usually the same on all stories, producing uniform loads on
the building perimeter.
In most cases, there is little need to be concerned with differential foundation
settlement. This is one of the most important advantages for high-rise, loadbearing panel structures where the bearing walls also serve as shear walls.

References:
1. Chapter 2, Section 2.6, “Loadbearing Wall
Panels or Spandrels,” PCI MNL-122-07:
Architectural Precast Concrete, Third Edition.
2. Chapter 4, Section 4.2.5, “Design Considerations
for Loadbearing Wall Panels,” PCI MNL-122-07:
Architectural Precast Concrete, Third Edition.

Resources:
MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
PCI MNL-122-07: Architectural Precast Concrete, Third Edition.

Moment-Resisting Building Frames
Moment-resisting frames are those in which a degree of rotational restraint is
provided between vertical components (usually columns) and horizontal components (usually beams and/or spandrels). This system then resists lateral loads
imposed on the structure.
Precast, prestressed concrete beams and deck members are usually more economical when they are designed and connected into a structure as simple-span
members. There are three reasons why this works most effectively:
1. Positive moment-resisting capacity is much easier and less expensive to
achieve with pretensioned members than negative-moment capacity at supports.
2. Connections that achieve continuity at the supports are usually complex.
Their cost is proportional to the complexity that makes moment-resistant
frames less attractive for designers.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4B-7

3. The restraint-to-volume changes that occur in rigid connections require
serious consideration in the design of moment-resisting connections.
It is desirable to design precast, prestressed concrete structures with connections that allow lateral movement and rotation and to design the structure to achieve
lateral stability through the use of floor and roof diaphragms and shear walls.
When moment connections between beams and columns are required to resist
lateral loads, it is desirable to make the moment connections after most of the
dead loads have been applied. This requires careful detailing, specification of
the construction process, and inspection. If such details are possible, the moment connections should be designed to resist only the negative moments from
live loads, additional dead loads imposed after construction, lateral loads, and
volume changes. They will thus be less costly (see Reference 1).
The ACI 318-05 Building Code defines
three categories of moment frames:
ordinary moment frames, intermediate
moment frames, and special moment
frames. Each type must comply with
certain sections of the code. It is recommended that a qualified structural
engineer with experience in designing
moment frame structures be consulted
early in the design stage.

All lateral forces are transferred to
a moment-resisting frame that ties
beams and columns together with rigid
connections. The need for shear walls
is eliminated.

Ordinary moment frames are the
easiest to create and require only
conventionally accepted detailing.
They need only comply with Chapters 1
through 18 of the code.

Intermediate moment frames must comply with sections 21.2.2.3 and 21.12
of ACI 318-05 in addition to the requirements for ordinary moment frames. These
provisions are relatively easy to satisfy using precast, prestressed concrete construction.
References:
1. Chapter 3.6, “Moment-Resisting Building
Frames,” MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook,
Sixth Edition.

Resources:
IBC-1-01: Impact of the Seismic Design Provisions
of the International Building Code, MNL-120-04:
PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
PCI Journal:
“Ductile Connections in Precast Concrete Moment
Resisting Frames,” PCI Journal, May-June 2006,
pp. 66-77.

Special moment frames for seismic design must comply with other sections of
Chapter 21 of the code. They will require more attention to detailing requirements,
making the system more costly.
It is possible to emulate a monolithic, cast-in-place, intermediate moment-frame
system with precast concrete components that meets all the requirements of ACI
code.
Recently introduced designs use existing precast concrete components and
technologies in new ways to create seismic-resistant systems that cannot be duplicated with other materials. The systems have been tested to satisfactory results
in the Precast Seismic Structural Systems (PRESSS) research program. For details
on these systems, see Chapter 3H, “Safety & Security: Earthquake Resistance.”

Hybrid Systems
4B-8

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Precast concrete components can be combined with other construction
materials, particularly steel or cast-in-place concrete, to create a “hybrid” system.
Examples include architectural precast concrete cladding supported on a structural steel or cast-in-place concrete frame as well as precast, prestressed double
tees or hollow-core used as the floor system on a parking garage where the main
structure is steel.
Whenever two materials are combined to create one structural system, the attributes of each material must be evaluated and addressed to ensure the proper
outcome. The appropriate steel and cast-in-place concrete standards should be
applied in all cases, and it must be remembered that the standards for each material do not apply to buildings of composite construction, such as with concrete
floor slabs supported by steel columns or with concrete-encased, structural-steel
members or fireproofed frames.
Structural-Steel Framing Supporting Architectural
Precast CONCRETE Cladding

Mariott Pewaukee West, Pewaukee, Wis.;
Architect: FRCH Design Worldwide;
Photo: The Spancrete Group Inc.

Structural-steel-framing tolerances should conform to standards issued by the
American Institute of Steel Construction. Precast concrete panels should follow
the steel frame as erected, because the allowable tolerances for steel-frame
structures make it impractical to maintain precast concrete panels in a true vertical plane in tall structures. The adjustments that would be required to make the
connections practical are not economically feasible.
A practical and economical solution is to specify the more stringent AISC
elevator-column erection tolerances for steel columns used in the building façade
that will receive the precast concrete panels.
A structural-steel-frame building presents different erection and connection considerations from a concrete-frame building. For example, structural-steel beams,
being relatively weak in torsion when compared to concrete, generally require the
load to be applied directly over the web or that the connection be capable of supporting the induced torsion. This in turn places a greater structural requirement
on the connection and creates difficulties during erection if any rolling behavior
occurs in the steel beam.
Observations in the field have shown that where precast concrete panels are
erected to a greater height on one side of a multistory, steel-framed building than
on the other, the steel framing will be pulled out of alignment. Precast concrete
panels should be erected at a relatively uniform rate around the perimeter of the
structure. If this does not happen, the designer of the structural frame should
determine the degree of imbalanced loading permitted (see Reference 1).
Structural-Steel Framing Supporting a Precast,

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4B-9

Prestressed CONCRETE Floor System
At times, it may be beneficial to create a structural-steel frame that supports
either double tees or hollow-core plank as the floor and roof system. This has
been used in parking structures, office buildings, and other applications. The
objective in all cases should be to utilize the positive attributes of each material
to its best advantage such as the resistance to corrosion of double tees used in
a parking garage.
As noted above, consideration must be given to the different standards governing the materials to be used.
Cast-In-Place Concrete Frames
Cast-in-place concrete frame tolerances are given in ACI 117, Standard
Tolerances for Concrete Construction and Materials, unless otherwise stated in
the specifications.
These tolerances are not realistic for tall buildings. In addition, greater variation
in heights between floors is more prevalent in cast-in-place concrete structures
than in other structural frames. This can affect the location or matching of the inserts in the precast concrete units with the cast-in connection devices. Tolerances
for cast-in-place concrete structures may have to be increased to reflect local
trade practices, the complexity of the structure, and climatic conditions.
It is recommended that precast concrete walls should follow concrete frames in
the same manner as for steel frames, if the details allow it and appearance is not
affected.

Meridian, Columbia, S.C.;
Architect: SWSC; Photo: ©2003 Brian C. Robbins,
Robbins Photography Inc.

Unless the cast-in-place structure is executed to above normal tolerances, the
width of joints must be designed to allow for a large tolerance. The actual joint
width may differ in each bay and will certainly require sealants with corresponding
flexibility. Joint widths may be adjusted to allow them to be equal at either end of
a panel, but equalizing the joints on either side of a column should not be done
unless panels can be adjusted horizontally after erection. The problems this can
cause are avoided where the cladding passes in front of the columns and the
jointing is between the panel edges (see Reference 2).

References:
1. Chapter 4, Section 4.6.3, “Erection Tolerances:
Structural Steel Framing,” PCI MNL-122-07:
Architectural Precast Concrete, Third Edition.
2. Chapter 4, Section 4.6.3, “Erection Tolerances:
Cast-In-Place Concrete Frame,” PCI MNL-12207: Architectural Precast Concrete, Third Edition.

4B-10

Resources:
MNL-120-04: PCI Design Handbook, Sixth Edition.
PCI MNL-122-07: Architectural Precast Concrete, Third Edition.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Total-Precast Concrete Systems
Total-precast concrete structures (TPS) provide all the benefits of precast construction, with added value as a result of integrating structural, architectural, and
other building systems. Architecture is combined with structure by integrating the
exterior façade into a loadbearing system. Vertical shaft construction combines
personnel and Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP) delivery systems
with structural systems and advances construction access vertically through the
project. MEP integration allows for the most efficient mechanical, electrical, and
plumbing systems to be utilized, while structural and architectural systems are
coordinated to accommodate necessary physical space requirements. Other peripheral systems such as windows, interior finishes, and embedded hardware are
readily integrated into what was previously raw, core-shell construction.
Designing and constructing a total-precast concrete system requires familiarity
with precast concrete design, fabrication, and delivery methods, so that maximum
value can be realized. For owners, TPS may require financial decisions earlier
than traditional program scheduling. Designers will be required to coordinate
many of the integrated systems at earlier stages than normal program scheduling.
Precast concrete manufacturers may be chosen at earlier stages of this process,
many times at or prior to contractor selection. Working through these challenges
effectively allows the owner to fully capture maximum value.
There are operational challenges that require advance planning. Size and
weight constraints play a significant role in the design and cost profile of the
precast concrete system components, making accurate and thorough operational
knowledge an important part of early project discussions.
NBSC Headquarters building, Greenville, S.C.;
Architect: Neal + Prince & Partners;
Photos: Metromont Corporation.

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4B-11

Scheduling
Owners should be encouraged to expedite procurement of the required precast
concrete knowledge and expertise, usually through a qualified producer who can
supply the project needs. This can be accomplished either through design-build
procurement or direct negotiation with a precast concrete supplier.
Traditionally, a design team might move through the schematic design (SD)/
design development (DD) phase of a project and into construction documents
(CD), without intensive consideration of system integration. With TPS, this integration begins shortly after the SD phase, if not immediately at the onset of design
schematics. With proper planning and the inclusion of experienced design
professionals, this process flows smoothly. Effort normally allotted to the CD and
construction administration (CA) phases of a project are significantly shifted to
the SD and DD phases, as functional systems and finishes are integrated into the
basic core/shell design. This allows both the contracting group and design team
to operate more effectively once construction commences, as the major core/shell
coordination is substantially complete and emanating from a sole source, the
precast concrete manufacturer/erector. Contractors and designers spend less effort coordinating conflicts and more time with forward planning of site and interior
finishes.
Architectural Design
To obtain the maximum benefit for the owners as finishes and systems are
integrated into TPS, the architect must understand simple challenges such as
size and weight of precast concrete components planned for the structure. Many
elements of the architect’s design palette are affected by these simple parameters
and therefore they should be understood early in the design process.
Exterior finishes, reveal patterns and panel shapes all require attention to panel
thickness and concrete cover. The structural support wall panels provide often require minimum panel thickness for proper detailing of floor or roof elements such
as hollow-core or double tees. These details must be combined to ensure the final
finish quality is of appropriate quality and acceptable appearance.
Window tolerances and detailing requires careful consideration of how openings
are sized, located, and coordinated with the reveal or rustication design required
on exterior surfaces. With careful detailing, site tolerances can be made more
liberal without negatively impacting the aesthetic design.
Panelization of the exterior façade defines joinery that can be manipulated within
these detailing constraints, to accomplish required aesthetics. Strangely enough,
mundane issues such as shipping and handling may become the
challenges that will require the most attention. For every project location, there
are weight and size constraints required for shipping that the local precaster
can identify and help coordinate. In addition, specific operational limitations that
are both plant- and site-driven, can sometimes influence panel weight and size
limitations.
Various patterns integrated into formwork. Nimitz-MacArthur Pacific
Command Center, Oahu, Hawaii; Architect: Wimberly Allison Tong & Goo
Design; Photos: Gary Hofheimer Photography.

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DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Structural Design
As architecture and building systems are integrated into the structural system,
the precast concrete design engineer is presented with new and varied challenges.
With proper team coordination and knowledgeable resources, the engineer can
create the necessary structural system while accounting for this integration.
Notches and setbacks are particularly challenging in any structural system. TPS
must carry the weight of the loadbearing façade when these design features are
required. Utilizing transfer beams, prestressing capabilities, and other panelization
techniques, these types of features can be effectively crafted into the final structural design.
Floor-to-floor height requirements for MEP systems are coordinated through design modification to the main girders, dapping of double-tee floor components, or
by providing pre-coordinated openings in the precast framing. While many openings can be readily field cut, it is advantageous and cost effective to incorporate
as much of this in the manufacturing process as possible.
Early coordination provides a good opportunity to combine foundation systems
into total-precast concrete systems, particularly when using grade beam/pier
foundations. Below-grade foundation wall systems and other foundation-related
systems can be readily integrated into the TPS, providing the contractor/owner
with added scheduling flexibility (see Reference 1).

Spring Union Free School
East Hampton, N.Y.

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References:
1. “Total Precast Systems’ Basic Building Blocks,”
Ascent, Summer 2005, pp. 22-25.

Resources:
Ascent:
“All-Precast Concrete Residences Benefits Developers, Homeowners,” Ascent, Summer 2002, pp. 28-30.
“All-Precast Design Garners Rave Reviews For Starz Encore,” Ascent, Winter 2003, pp. 16-22.
“All-Precast Parking Structure Creates Attractive Solution,” Ascent, Winter 2005, pp. 20-28.
“Auto Dealerships Sold on Precast Concrete Structures,” Ascent, Spring 2004, pp. 20-24.
“Bookends, Special Awards,” Ascent, Fall 2005, p. 22.
“Hopi Health Care Center, Building Awards,” Ascent, Fall 2001, pp. 48-49.
“Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine, Special Awards,” Ascent, Fall 2005, p. 24.
“Precast Helps Car Dealer Create ‘3-D’ Showroom,” Ascent, Spring 2003, pp. 28-30.
“The Shops at Willow Bend Parking Structures, Building Awards,” Ascent, Fall 2001, pp. 46-47.
“Stacking Precast Office, Parking Saves Space,” Ascent, Summer 2002, pp. 24-26.
“Team Perspective On Total-Precast Structures,” Ascent, Fall 2003, pp. 10-14.
“Total Precast Concrete Offers Multiple Benefits,” Ascent, Spring 2005, pp. 24-26,
“Total Precast Parking Features Brick Blend,” Ascent, Summer 2005, pp. 18-20.
“Total Precast Systems’ Basic Building Blocks,” Ascent, Summer 2005, pp. 22-25.
“Universities Exploit Precast For Mixed-Use Projects,” Ascent, Summer 2004, pp. 24-27.
“University of Georgia Carlton Street Parking Structure, Special Awards,” Ascent, Fall 2002, p. 10.
PCI Journal:
“All-Precast Concrete Design Delivers On-Time Opening for Florida’s LECOM Medical Students,” PCI Journal, January-February 2006, pp. 82-97.
“All-Precast Concrete Design for the Saratoga Street Parking & Office Structure for the University of Maryland,” PCI Journal, March-April 2004, pp. 34-47.
“All-Precast Concrete School of Architecture Creates Striking Identity for Florida International University,” PCI Journal, July-August 2004, pp. 58-71.
“Aurora Municipal Center’s Stunning Design Showcases the Possibilities of Precast Concrete Solutions,” PCI Journal, November-December 2004, pp. 80-93.
“Deerwood North Building 300, Jacksonville, Fla.,” PCI Journal, September-October 2004, pp. 136-139.
“Energy Park Corporate Center, St. Paul, Minnesota,” PCI Journal, March-April 2005, pp. 136-141.
“Hopi Health Center—An All-Precast Concrete Hospital in the Desert,” PCI Journal, July-August 2001, pp. 44-55.
“Precast Parking Structures Enhance the Shops at Willow Bend,” PCI Journal, September-October 2001, pp. 36-45.
“UGA’s Carlton Street Parking Facility Meets University Demands for Construction Speed and Aesthetics,” PCI Journal, November-December 2002, pp. 26-47.

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DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

c

CHAPTER FOUR

Connections

•

C

onnections are fundamental to all buildings and construction no matter what
material is used. The purpose of a connection is to transfer loads, restrain movement, and/or to provide stability to a component or an entire structure. As such,
the design of connections is one of the most important aspects in the design and
engineering of precast/prestressed concrete structures.
Many different connection details will result from the combination of the multitude
of sizes and shapes of precast concrete components and the variety of possible
support conditions. Individual precasters have developed connection details over
the years that suit their particular production and erection preferences and they
should be considered for a specific project early in the design stage. All connections should comply with applicable building codes and the final structural design
should be done by an engineer licensed in the location of the project. It is common
for the architect and engineer of record to show connection loads and locations
on the contract documents and allow the successful manufacturer’s engineering
department to provide the final design and details of the connections.
This section is intended to provide basic information that is important to understand
when designing a total-precast concrete structure or architectural cladding panels
supported by building frames of other materials such as steel or cast-in-place concrete.
Photo: ©PhotoDisc.

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Design Consideration
Precast concrete connections must meet a variety of design and performance
criteria and not all connections are required to meet the same criteria. The basic
criteria include:
Strength A connection must have the strength to avoid failure during its lifetime.
Ductility This is the ability of a connection to undergo relatively large deformations without failure. Ductility is achieved by designing the connection so that
steel devices used yield before a weld or the concrete around the connection.
Volume Change Accommodation Restraint of movement due to creep, shrinkage, and temperature change can cause large stresses in precast concrete
components and their connections. It is better to design the connection to allow
some movement, which will relieve the build-up of these stresses.
Durability When the connection is exposed to weather or used in a corrosive
environment, steel elements should be adequately covered by concrete, painted,
epoxy-coated, or galvanized. Stainless steel may also be used, however, the
added cost should be considered carefully.
Fire Resistance Connections, which could jeopardize the structure’s stability
if weakened by high temperatures from a fire, should be protected to the same
degree as the components that they connect.
Constructability The following reflects only some of the items that should be
considered when designing connections:
• Standardize connection types
• Avoid reinforcement and hardware congestion
• Avoid penetration of forms
• Reduce post-stripping work
• Consider clearances and tolerances of connection materials
• Avoid non-standard product and erection tolerances
• Plan for the shortest-possible crane hook-up time
• Provide for field adjustments
• Provide accessibility
• Determine if special inspection is required per the applicable code for the
material and the welding process
• Provide as direct a load path as possible for the transfer of the load
Aesthetics For connections that are exposed to view in the final structure, the
designer should incorporate a visually pleasing final product.
Seismic Requirements Structures and/or components that must be designed
for seismic loads may require special consideration. Consultation with a structural
engineer with experience in seismic design is recommended.
Tolerances The designer must realize that normal allowable fabrication, erection,
and interfacing tolerances preclude the possibility of a perfect fit in the field.

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DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Connection Materials
A wide variety of connection hardware and devices is used in the precast
concrete industry including:
Headed Concrete Anchors (studs) are round bars with an integral head. These
are typically welded to plates to provide anchorage to the plate.
Steel Shapes including wide flanges, structural tubes, channels, plates, and
angles.
Reinforcing Bars are typically welded to steel sections to provide anchorage to
the steel.
Reinforcing Bar Couplers are typically proprietary devices for connecting
reinforcing bars at a joint. Manufacturers of these devices can provide technical
information.
Deformed Bar Anchors are similar in configuration to deformed reinforcing bars
and are welded to steel shapes to provide anchorage similar to headed concrete
anchors.
Bolts and Threaded Connectors are used in many precast concrete connections.
Use of ASTM A36 or A307 bolts is typical. Use of high-strength ASTM A325 and
A490 is usually not required.
Specialty Inserts are available from many manufacturers of these devices. They
include standard threaded inserts, coil threaded inserts, and slotted inserts that
provide for tolerances and field adjustment.
Bearing Pads are used predominantly for structural applications to support
beams, double tees, and similar components. Use of random fiber oriented
bearing pads (ROF) is recommended.
Shims can be hard plastic or steel and are often used to provide adjustment
to align a precast concrete component for elevation or horizontal alignment.
For the proper use and design of these and other materials reference the
PCI Design Handbook 6th Edition (MNL 120-04) or the PCI Connections Manual
(MNL 138-08).

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4C-3

connection types

S T RU C T U R A L

Column Base Plate

Panel To Footing

Plate Anchorage

W/Reinforcing Bar
Anchorage
Each Plate

Anchor Bolt
Non-Shrink Grout
Min. 1"

PLAN
Plate Anchorage
Base PL - Same
size as column

PL w/HCAs

SECTION

Non-Shrink Grout
Min. 2"
Loose Plates

Alternate Detail
Shims
4" Min. SECTION

PLAN

Beam To Column With Corbel

8"
Min.

PL w/HCAs
W/Returns

1"

W/Reinforcing Bar Anchorage
Loose Plate
Beam
Bearing Pad

Column

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DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Spandrel To Column

2" Min.

Bearing Pad w/Hole, Typ.
Oversized Sleeve
Threaded Rod

Threaded Insert
Tackweld to PL
Spandrel
PL w/HCAs and Hole

Fill Pocket with NonShrink Grout or Adhere
Plastic Cover

Spandrel To Double Tee

PL Washer w/Hole
Bearing Pad

Column

Spandrel

PL w/HCAs

Loose PL

Panel To Panel Corner

w/Returns

PL
w/Reinforcing
Bar Anchorage

Panel w/Anchorage

/"

1 2

Double Tee

w/Returns
Loose PL

1"
(Typ.)

If grouted, a reverse
taper or keyway should
be placed around the
blockout to lock the patch
into the recess

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4C-5

connection types

C L A D D I N G

Panel Concrete Corbel Support

Panel Knife Edge Support

CL

1" Min.
Shim @ CL of
Beam if Steel
Beam is used

Reinforcing Bar Anchor
Welded to PL

Shims (steel or plastic)
Support

φVn

1" Min.

Bent Reinforcing Bar may be used
in thicker panels
Panel or
Spandrel

Bolted or Welded
Connection

Rebar (both
sides of plate)

Bolted or Welded Connection

Panel Steel Corbel Support
Optional Chamfer

CIP Curb to Hide
Connection or in Finish
Material of Wall
Panel Embed
w/Anchorage
1" Min.

Shim (steel or plastic)
Set @ CL Beam if Steel
Beam Is Used

Wide Flange Steel
Shape (or tube) Shop
Welded to Precast
For CIP structures, embed
plate with HCAs and
reinforcing bar anchorage
are recommended

Shims (steel or plastic)
set @ CL Beam if Steel
Beam Is Used
11/2" Recommended
Minimum Dimension

Panel Tie Back
Score Threads After Final Adjustment
Threaded Rod w/Nuts and Washers

Note: Orientation of slotted insert
and slot in angle can be
reversed if preferred.

Slotted Insert from Proprietary Manufacturer
∩

∠ w/Horizontal Slot

CIP or Steel Beam
Plate w/HCAs

4C-6

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Panel Adjustable Support

CL Bolt (Set at CL of Beam if
Steel Beam Is Used)

∩

Nut Tack Weld to∠

Bolted or Welded
Connection

Note: Orientation of slotted insert and slot in
angle can be reversed if preferred.

Tips For Successful Connection Design:
Do use bearing pads for support of beams, spandrels, double tees, and other
structural components.
Do consider deflection behavior of a member that is supporting a precast
component.
Do design for support using only 2 points.
Do provide at least four tie back connections for a cladding panel.
Do, if designing a cladding panel for seismic loads, use an in-plane seismic
connection close to the panel’s center of gravity.
Do account for eccentric loading and the effect it may have on the rotation of
supporting members, particularly if they are steel beams.
Do consider the horizontal forces resulting from an eccentrically loaded
component and the effect this has on the support.
Do provide points of support only at one level for multilevel cladding panels.
Resources:
PCI Design Handbook, 6th Edition
(MNL 120-04).
PCI Architectural Precast Manual, 3rd Edition
(MNL 122-07).
PCI Connections Manual, 2nd Edition
(MNL 123-88).
PCI Connections Manual for Precast and
Prestressed Concrete Construction, 1st Edition
(MNL 138-08).

Do design connections so that the component can “move” as a result of
temperature variations and volume changes.
Do Not design connections with the bearing locations welded at both (top and
bottom) ends of a prestressed concrete component. Making welded connections
at the tops of prestressed concrete components at both ends is typical.
Do consider the allowable tolerances of the precast concrete component and the
supporting structure.
Do consider intermediate connections of long spandrel panels to avoid bowing
due to temperature variations.

DESIGNING WITH PRECAST & PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

4C-7