Polypropylene
Content
Polypropylene
1
Polypropylene
Polypropylene
Identifiers
CAS number
9003-07-0
[1]
Properties
Molecular formula
(C3H6)n
Density
0.855 g/cm3, amorphous
0.946 g/cm3, crystalline
Melting point
130–171 °C (266–340 °F)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C (77 °F), 100 kPa)
(verify)
[2]
(what is:
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Infobox references
Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic polymer used in a wide variety of applications
including packaging and labeling, textiles (e.g., ropes, thermal underwear and carpets), stationery, plastic parts and
reusable containers of various types, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer
banknotes. An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many
chemical solvents, bases and acids.
In 2008, the global market for polypropylene had a volume of 45.1 million metric tons, which led to a turnover of
about $65 billion (~ €47.4 billion).
Chemical and physical properties
Most commercial polypropylene is isotactic and has an intermediate
level of crystallinity between that of low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Polypropylene is normally
tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This
allows polypropylene to be used as an engineering plastic, competing
with materials such as ABS. Polypropylene is reasonably economical,
and can be made translucent when uncolored but is not as readily made
transparent as polystyrene, acrylic, or certain other plastics. It is often
opaque or colored using pigments. Polypropylene has good resistance
Micrograph of polypropylene
to fatigue. The melting point of polypropylene occurs at a range, so a
melting point is determined by finding the highest temperature of a
differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a melting point of 171 °C (340 °F). Commercial
isotactic PP has a melting point that ranges from 160 to 166 °C (320 to 331 °F), depending on atactic material and
crystallinity. Syndiotactic PP with a crystallinity of 30% has a melting point of 130 °C (266 °F). The melt flow rate
(MFR) or melt flow index (MFI) is a measure of molecular weight of polypropylene. The measure helps to
Polypropylene
2
determine how easily the molten raw material will flow during processing. Polypropylene with higher MFR will fill
the plastic mold more easily during the injection or blow-molding production process. As the melt flow increases,
however, some physical properties, like impact strength, will decrease. There are three general types of
polypropylene: homopolymer, random copolymer, and block copolymer. The comonomer is typically used with
ethylene. Ethylene-propylene rubber or EPDM added to polypropylene homopolymer increases its low temperature
impact strength. Randomly polymerized ethylene monomer added to polypropylene homopolymer decreases the
polymer crystallinity and makes the polymer more transparent.
Degradation
Polypropylene is liable to chain degradation from exposure to heat and UV radiation such as that present in sunlight.
Oxidation usually occurs at the tertiary carbon atom present in every repeat unit. A free radical is formed here, and
then reacts further with oxygen, followed by chain scission to yield aldehydes and carboxylic acids. In external
applications, it shows up as a network of fine cracks and crazes that become deeper and more severe with time of
exposure. For external applications, UV-absorbing additives must be used. Carbon black also provides some
protection from UV attack. The polymer can also be oxidized at high temperatures, a common problem during
molding operations. Anti-oxidants are normally added to prevent polymer degradation. Microbial communities
isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading polypropylene.
History
Propylene was first polymerized to a crystalline isotactic polymer by Giulio Natta as well as by the German chemist
Karl Rehn in March 1954. This pioneering discovery led to large-scale commercial production of isotactic
polypropylene by the Italian firm Montecatini from 1957 onwards.[3] Syndiotactic polypropylene was also first
synthesized by Natta and his coworkers.
Polypropylene is the second most important plastic with revenues expected to exceed US$145 billion by 2019. The
demand for this material was growing at a rate of 4.4% per year between 2004 and 2012.[4]
Synthesis
Short segments of polypropylene, showing examples of isotactic (above) and syndiotactic
(below) tacticity.
An important concept in understanding
the link between the structure of
polypropylene and its properties is
tacticity. The relative orientation of
each methyl group (CH
3 in the figure) relative to the methyl
groups in neighboring monomer units
has a strong effect on the polymer's
ability to form crystals.
A Ziegler-Natta catalyst is able to restrict linking of monomer molecules to a specific regular orientation, either
isotactic, when all methyl groups are positioned at the same side with respect to the backbone of the polymer chain,
or syndiotactic, when the positions of the methyl groups alternate. Commercially available isotactic polypropylene is
made with two types of Ziegler-Natta catalysts. The first group of the catalysts encompasses solid (mostly supported)
catalysts and certain types of soluble metallocene catalysts. Such isotactic macromolecules coil into a helical shape;
these helices then line up next to one another to form the crystals that give commercial isotactic polypropylene many
of its desirable properties.
Polypropylene
Another type of metallocene catalysts produce syndiotactic
polypropylene. These macromolecules also coil into helices (of a
different type) and form crystalline materials.
When the methyl groups in a polypropylene chain exhibit no preferred
orientation, the polymers are called atactic. Atactic polypropylene is an
amorphous rubbery material. It can be produced commercially either
with a special type of supported Ziegler-Natta catalyst or with some
metallocene catalysts.
Modern supported Ziegler-Natta catalysts developed for the
polymerization of propylene and other 1-alkenes to isotactic polymers
usually use TiCl
A ball-and-stick model of syndiotactic
4 as an active ingredient and MgCl
polypropylene.
[5]
2 as a support.
The catalysts also contain organic modifiers, either
aromatic acid esters and diesters or ethers. These catalysts are activated
with special cocatalysts containing an organoaluminum compound such as Al(C2H5)3 and the second type of a
modifier. The catalysts are differentiated depending on the procedure used for fashioning catalyst particles from
MgCl2 and depending on the type of organic modifiers employed during catalyst preparation and use in
polymerization reactions. Two most important technological characteristics of all the supported catalysts are high
productivity and a high fraction of the crystalline isotactic polymer they produce at 70–80 °C under standard
polymerization conditions. Commercial synthesis of isotactic polypropylene is usually carried out either in the
medium of liquid propylene or in gas-phase reactors.
Commercial synthesis of syndiotactic polypropylene is carried out with the use of a special class of metallocene
catalysts. They employ bridged bis-metallocene complexes of the type bridge-(Cp1)(Cp2)ZrCl2 where the first Cp
ligand is the cyclopentadienyl group, the second Cp ligand is the fluorenyl group, and the bridge between the two Cp
ligands is -CH2-CH2-, >SiMe2, or >SiPh2.[6] These complexes are converted to polymerization catalysts by
activating them with a special organoaluminum cocatalyst, methylaluminoxane (MAO).[7]
Industrial processes
Traditionally, three manufacturing process are the most representative ways to produce polypropylene.
Hydrocarbon slurry or suspension: Uses a liquid inert hydrocarbon diluent in the reactor to facilitate transfer of
propylene to the catalyst, the removal of heat from the system, the deactivation/removal of the catalyst as well as
dissolving the atactic polymer. The range of grades that could be produced was very limited. (The technology has
fallen into disuse).
Bulk (or bulk slurry): Uses liquid propylene instead of liquid inert hydrocarbon diluent. The polymer does not
dissolve into a diluent, but rather rides on the liquid propylene. The formed polymer is withdrawn and any unreacted
monomer is flashed off.
Gas phase: Uses gaseous propylene in contact with the solid catalyst, resulting in a fluidized-bed medium.
3
Polypropylene
Manufacturing
Melt processing of polypropylene can be achieved via extrusion and molding. Common extrusion methods include
production of melt-blown and spun-bond fibers to form long rolls for future conversion into a wide range of useful
products, such as face masks, filters, diapers and wipes.
The most common shaping technique is injection molding, which is used for parts such as cups, cutlery, vials, caps,
containers, housewares, and automotive parts such as batteries. The related techniques of blow molding and
injection-stretch blow molding are also used, which involve both extrusion and molding.
The large number of end-use applications for polypropylene are often possible because of the ability to tailor grades
with specific molecular properties and additives during its manufacture. For example, antistatic additives can be
added to help polypropylene surfaces resist dust and dirt. Many physical finishing techniques can also be used on
polypropylene, such as machining. Surface treatments can be applied to polypropylene parts in order to promote
adhesion of printing ink and paints.
Biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP)
When polypropylene film is extruded and stretched in both the machine direction and across machine direction it is
called biaxially oriented polypropylene. Biaxial orientation increases strength and clarity.[8] BOPP is widely used as
a packaging material for packaging products such as snack foods, fresh produce and confectionery. It is easy to coat,
print and laminate to give the required appearance and properties for use as a packaging material. This process is
normally called converting. It is normally produced in large rolls which are slit on slitting machines into smaller rolls
for use on packaging machines.
Development trends
With the increase in the level of performance required for polypropylene quality in recent years, a variety of ideas
and contrivances have been integrated into the production process for polypropylene.[9]
There are roughly two directions for the specific methods. One is improvement of uniformity of the polymer
particles produced using a circulation type reactor, and the other is improvement in the uniformity among polymer
particles produced by using a reactor with a narrow retention time distribution.
4
Polypropylene
5
Applications
As polypropylene is resistant to fatigue, most plastic living hinges,
such as those on flip-top bottles, are made from this material.
However, it is important to ensure that chain molecules are oriented
across the hinge to maximise strength.
Very thin sheets of polypropylene are used as a dielectric within
certain high-performance pulse and low-loss RF capacitors.
Polypropylene is used in the manufacturing piping systems; both ones
concerned with high-purity and ones designed for strength and rigidity
(e.g. those intended for use in potable plumbing, hydronic heating and
cooling, and reclaimed water).[10] This material is often chosen for its
resistance to corrosion and chemical leaching, its resilience against
most forms of physical damage, including impact and freezing, its
environmental benefits, and its ability to be joined by heat fusion rather
than gluing.[11][12][13]
Polypropylene lid of a Tic Tacs box, with a living
hinge and the resin identification code under its
flap
Many plastic items for medical or laboratory use can be made from
polypropylene because it can withstand the heat in an autoclave. Its heat
resistance also enables it to be used as the manufacturing material of
consumer-grade kettles[citation needed]. Food containers made from it will not melt
in the dishwasher, and do not melt during industrial hot filling processes. For this
reason, most plastic tubs for dairy products are polypropylene sealed with
aluminum foil (both heat-resistant materials). After the product has cooled, the
tubs are often given lids made of a less heat-resistant material, such as LDPE or
polystyrene. Such containers provide a good hands-on example of the difference
in modulus, since the rubbery (softer, more flexible) feeling of LDPE with
respect to polypropylene of the same thickness is readily apparent. Rugged,
translucent, reusable plastic containers made in a wide variety of shapes and
sizes for consumers from various companies such as Rubbermaid and Sterilite
A polypropylene chair
are commonly made of polypropylene, although the lids are often made of
somewhat more flexible LDPE so they can snap on to the container to close it.
Polypropylene can also be made into disposable bottles to contain liquid, powdered, or similar consumer products,
although HDPE and polyethylene terephthalate are commonly also used to make bottles. Plastic pails, car batteries,
wastebaskets, pharmacy prescription bottles, cooler containers, dishes and pitchers are often made of polypropylene
or HDPE, both of which commonly have rather similar appearance, feel, and properties at ambient temperature.
A common application for polypropylene is as biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP). These BOPP sheets are
used to make a wide variety of materials including clear bags. When polypropylene is biaxially oriented, it becomes
crystal clear and serves as an excellent packaging material for artistic and retail products.
Polypropylene, highly colorfast, is widely used in manufacturing carpets, rugs and mats to be used at home.[14]
Polypropylene is widely used in ropes, distinctive because they are light enough to float in water.[15] For equal mass
and construction, polypropylene rope is similar in strength to polyester rope. Polypropylene costs less than most
Polypropylene
other synthetic fibers.
Polypropylene is also used as an alternative to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as insulation for electrical cables for LSZH
cable in low-ventilation environments, primarily tunnels. This is because it emits less smoke and no toxic halogens,
which may lead to production of acid in high-temperature conditions.
Polypropylene is also used in particular roofing membranes as the waterproofing top layer of single-ply systems as
opposed to modified-bit systems.
Polypropylene is most commonly used for plastic moldings, wherein it is injected into a mold while molten, forming
complex shapes at relatively low cost and high volume; examples include bottle tops, bottles, and fittings.
It can also be produced in sheet form, widely used for the production of stationery folders, packaging, and storage
boxes. The wide color range, durability, low cost, and resistance to dirt make it ideal as a protective cover for papers
and other materials. It is used in Rubik's Cube stickers because of these characteristics.
The availability of sheet polypropylene has provided an opportunity for the use of the material by designers. The
light-weight, durable, and colorful plastic makes an ideal medium for the creation of light shades, and a number of
designs have been developed using interlocking sections to create elaborate designs.
Polypropylene sheets are a popular choice for trading card collectors; these come with pockets (nine for
standard-size cards) for the cards to be inserted and are used to protect their condition and are meant to be stored in a
binder.
Expanded polypropylene (EPP) is a foam form of polypropylene. EPP has very good impact characteristics due to its
low stiffness; this allows EPP to resume its shape after impacts. EPP is extensively used in model aircraft and other
radio controlled vehicles by hobbyists. This is mainly due to its ability to absorb impacts, making this an ideal
material for RC aircraft for beginners and amateurs.
Polypropylene is used in the manufacture of loudspeaker drive units. Its use was pioneered by engineers at the BBC
and the patent rights subsequently purchased by Mission Electronics for use in their Mission Freedom Loudspeaker
and Mission 737 Renaissance loudspeaker.
Polypropylene fibres are used as a concrete additive to increase strength and reduce cracking and spalling.
Polypropylene is used in polypropylene drums.
Clothing
Polypropylene is a major polymer used in nonwovens, with over 50% used[citation needed] for diapers or sanitary
products where it is treated to absorb water (hydrophilic) rather than naturally repelling water (hydrophobic). Other
interesting non-woven uses include filters for air, gas, and liquids in which the fibers can be formed into sheets or
webs that can be pleated to form cartridges or layers that filter in various efficiencies in the 0.5 to 30 micrometre
range. Such applications could be seen in the house as water filters or air-conditioning-type filters. The high surface
area and naturally oleophilic polypropylene nonwovens are ideal absorbers of oil spills with the familiar floating
barriers near oil spills on rivers.
Polypropylene, or 'polypro', has been used for the fabrication of cold-weather base layers, such as long-sleeve shirts
or long underwear. Polypropylene is also used in warm-weather clothing, which transports sweat away from the skin.
More recently, polyester has replaced polypropylene in these applications in the U.S. military, such as in the
ECWCS.[16] Although polypropylene clothes are not easily flammable, they can melt, which may result in severe
burns if the service member is involved in an explosion or fire of any kind.[17] Polypropylene undergarments are
known for retaining body odors which are then difficult to remove. The current generation of polyester does not have
this disadvantage.[18]
Thanks to its specific weight, polypropylene yarn is the lightest fibre of all synthetic and natural fibers. Producers
gain economic and ecological advantages when producing fabrics and clothes out of polypropylene yarn. Final users
gain more comfort because the garments are lighter. This enables them to give better performance during their
6
Polypropylene
activities and gives them the freedom of movement. For example, If they hike, they have less weight to carry.
Polypropylene yarn has very good insulation properties. Its water absorption is almost nil. Fabric made of
polypropylene yarn transports humidity to the outside or to another absorbent layer from where it gradually
evaporates.
The material has recently been introduced into the fashion industry through the work of designers such as Anoush
Waddington, who have developed specialized techniques to create jewelry and wearable items from polypropylene.
Medical
Its most common medical use is in the synthetic, nonabsorbable suture Prolene, manufactured by Ethicon Inc.
Polypropylene has been used in hernia and pelvic organ prolapse repair operations to protect the body from new
hernias in the same location. A small patch of the material is placed over the spot of the hernia, below the skin, and
is painless and rarely, if ever, rejected by the body. However, a polypropylene mesh will erode over the uncertain
period from days to years. Therefore, the FDA has issued several warnings on the use of polypropylene mesh
medical kits for certain applications in pelvic organ prolapse, specifically when introduced in close proximity to the
vaginal wall due to a continued increase in number of mesh erosions reported by patients over the past few years.[19]
Most recently, on 3 January 2012, the FDA ordered 35 manufacturers of these mesh products to study the side
effects of these devices.
EPP toy aircraft
Since 2001, expanded polypropylene (EPP) foams have been gaining in popularity and in application as a structural
material in hobbyist radio control model aircraft. Unlike expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) which is friable and
breaks easily on impact, EPP foam is able to absorb kinetic impacts very well without breaking, retains its original
shape, and exhibits memory form characteristics which allow it to return to its original shape in a short amount of
time. In consequence, a radio-control model whose wings and fuselage are constructed from EPP foam is extremely
resilient, and able to absorb impacts that would result in complete destruction of models made from lighter
traditional materials, such as balsa or even EPS foams. EPP models, when covered with inexpensive fibreglass
impregnated self-adhesive tapes, often exhibit much increased mechanical strength, in conjunction with a lightness
and surface finish that rival those of models of the aforementioned types. EPP is also chemically highly inert,
permitting the use of a wide variety of different adhesives. EPP can be heat molded, and surfaces can be easily
finished with the use of cutting tools and abrasive papers. The principal areas of model making in which EPP has
found great acceptance are the fields of:
• Wind-driven slope soarers
• Indoor electric powered profile electric models
• Hand launched gliders for small children
In the field of slope soaring, EPP has found greatest favour and use, as it permits the construction of radio-controlled
model gliders of great strength and maneuverability. In consequence, the disciplines of slope combat (the active
process of friendly competitors attempting to knock each other's planes out of the air by direct contact) and slope
pylon racing have become commonplace, in direct consequence of the strength characteristics of the material EPP.
7
Polypropylene
Recycling
Polypropylene is recyclable and has the number "5" as its resin identification code:[20]
Repairing
Many objects are made with polypropylene precisely because it is resilient and resistant to most solvents and glues.
Also, there are very few glues available specifically for gluing PP. However, solid PP objects not subject to undue
flexing can be satisfactorily joined with a two part epoxy glue or using hot-glue guns. Preparation is important and it
is often helpful to roughen the surface with a file, emery paper or other abrasive material to provide better anchorage
for the glue. Also it is recommended to clean with mineral spirits or similar alcohol prior to gluing to remove any
oils or other contamination. Some experimentation may be required. There are also some industrial glues available
for PP, but these can be difficult to find, especially in a retail store.[citation needed]
PP can be melted using a speed welding technique. With speed welding, the plastic welder, similar to a soldering
iron in appearance and wattage, is fitted with a feed tube for the plastic weld rod. The speed tip heats the rod and the
substrate, while at the same time it presses the molten weld rod into position. A bead of softened plastic is laid into
the joint, and the parts and weld rod fuse. With polypropylene, the melted welding rod must be "mixed" with the
semi-melted base material being fabricated or repaired. A speed tip "gun" is essentially a soldering iron with a broad,
flat tip that can be used to melt the weld joint and filler material to create a bond.
Health concerns
In 2008, researchers in Canada asserted that quaternary ammonium biocides and oleamide were leaking out of
certain polypropylene labware, affecting experimental results.[21] As polypropylene is used in a wide number of food
containers such as those for yogurt, Health Canada media spokesman Paul Duchesne, said the department will be
reviewing the findings to determine whether steps are needed to protect consumers.[22]
The Environmental Working Group classifies PP as of low to moderate hazard.[23] PP is dope-dyed, no water is used
of its dyeing in comparison for example with cotton.[24]
References
[1] http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=9003-07-0
[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Special:ComparePages& rev1=477171874& page2=Polypropylene
[3] This week 50 years ago (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg19426014. 900-this-week-50-years-ago. html) in New Scientist 28 April
2007, p. 15
[4] Market Study: Polypropylene – 2nd edition (UC-4205) (http:/ / www. ceresana. com/ en/ market-studies/ plastics/ polypropylene). Ceresana
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[5] Moore, E. P. (1996) Polypropylene Handbook. Polymerization, Characterization, Properties, Processing, Applications, Hanser Publishers:
New York, ISBN 1569902089
[6] Benedikt, G. M. and Goodall, B. L. (eds.) (1998) Metallocene Catalyzed Polymers, ChemTech Publishing: Toronto. ISBN
978-1-884207-59-4.
[7] Sinn, H.; Kaminsky, W. and Höker, H. (eds.) (1995) Alumoxanes, Macromol. Symp. 97, Huttig & Wepf: Heidelberg.
[8] Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene Films (http:/ / www. granwell. com/ bopp/ ). Granwell. Retrieved: 2012-05-31.
[9] Sato, Hideki and Ogawa, Hiroyuki (2009) Review on Development of Polypropylene Manufacturing Process (http:/ / www. sumitomo-chem.
co. jp/ english/ rd/ report/ theses/ docs/ 20090201_6jw. pdf), Sumitomo Kagaku.
[10] ASTM Standard F2389, 2007, "Standard Specification for Pressure-rated Polypropylene (PP) Piping Systems", ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2007, , www.astm.org.
[11] Green pipe helps miners remove the black (http:/ / contractormag. com/ news/ green-pipe-mine-2345) Contractor Magazine, 10 January
2010
[12] Contractor Retrofits His Business (http:/ / www. achrnews. com/ Articles/ Feature_Article/
BNP_GUID_9-5-2006_A_10000000000000690490). the News/ 2 November 2009.
8
Polypropylene
[13] What to do when the piping replacement needs a replacement? (http:/ / www. esmagazine. com/ Articles/ Case_In_Point/
BNP_GUID_9-5-2006_A_10000000000000691766) Engineered Systems. 1 November 2009.
[14] Rug fibers (http:/ / www. fibersource. com/ f-tutor/ olefin. htm). Fibersource.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-31.
[15] Braided Polypropylene Rope is Inexpensive and it Floats (http:/ / www. contractorsrope. com/ braided-polypropylene-rope. html).
contractorrope.com. Retrieved on 2013-02-28.
[16] Generation III Extended Cold Weather Clothing System (ECWCS) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081217143906/ http:/ / peosoldier.
army. mil/ factsheets/ SEQ_CIE_ECWCS. pdf). PM Soldier Equipment. October 2008
[17] USAF Flying Magazine. Safety. Nov. 2002 (http:/ / permanent. access. gpo. gov/ lps11992/ 2002/ fsmnov02. pdf). access.gpo.gov
[18] Ellis, David. Get Real: The true story of performance next to skin fabrics (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20100602092559/ http:/ / www.
outdoorsnz. org. nz/ cms_show_download. php?id=168). outdoorsnz.org.nz
[19] FDA Public Health Notification: Serious Complications Associated with Transvaginal Placement of Surgical Mesh in Repair of Pelvic
Organ Prolapse and Stress Urinary Incontinence (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ MedicalDevices/ Safety/ AlertsandNotices/
PublicHealthNotifications/ ucm061976. htm), FDA, 20 October 2008
[20] Plastics recycling information sheet (http:/ / www. wasteonline. org. uk/ resources/ InformationSheets/ Plastics. htm), Waste Online
[21] Plastic additives leach into medical experiments, research shows (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news145545554. html), Physorg.com, 10
November 2008
[22] Scientific tests skewed by leaching plastics (http:/ / www. canada. com/ chilliwacktimes/ story.
html?id=be27d48b-ef01-4e78-b2bf-c108801884c2), November 6, 2008.
[23] POLYPROPYLENE || Skin Deep® Cosmetics Database | Environmental Working Group (http:/ / www. cosmeticdatabase. com/ ingredient.
php?ingred06=705094). Cosmeticdatabase.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-31.
[24] Chapagain, A.K. et al. (September 2005) The water footprint of cotton consumption (http:/ / www. waterfootprint. org/ Reports/ Report18.
pdf). UNESCO-IHE Delft. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 18. waterfootprint.org
External links
• Chain structure of Polypropylene (http://www.pslc.ws/mactest/pp.htm)
• Polypropylene on Plastipedia (http://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/polymers/pp.aspx)
9
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
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AgentPeppermint, Ahoerstemeier, Ajraddatz, Akawhite, Alan Liefting, Albmont, Alex Rio Brazil, Alex.muller, Alphamuchi, Alynna Kasmira, AmolKoldhekar, Ank329, Ankerman101,
Antandrus, Appeltree1, Astronautics, AxelBoldt, Bartledan, Bass747, Beetstra, BenFrantzDale, Bentogoa, Bert Hickman, Bert63, Best name, Bigfoamcow, Biiillyboy, Biopresto, Bishop610,
Blackboxxx, Bluemere2, Bmk, Boing! said Zebedee, Bonbonbub6, Borgx, Bpeps, BrentN, Brianhe, Brijeshhsejirb, Brzydalski, Btball, CLW, Capnned, Casty, Cbritland, CensoredScribe, Charles
Brooking, ChaseAm, Chasingsol, Chem-awb, ChemGardener, ChemNerd, Chimpex, Chris Bainbridge, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, Christian75, Clarince63, ClockworkSoul, Cmgoogin,
CoolMike, Cornerstp, Courcelles, CrazyChemGuy, Cwcltd, DMacks, DVD R W, DanMatan, Dana boomer, DanielBeaver, Daniele Pugliesi, Dave3457, David Gale, Deepshark5, DennyColt,
DerHexer, Dforest, Doctorfluffy, Dougher, Dr guywalker, Drphilharmonic, Dudecon, Duk, Dynalab, EchoBravo, Edgar181, Eldudus, Electron9, Elemented9, Elkman, Enquire, Enviroboy, Eric
Kvaalen, Excirial, Exhilaration157, Fehrgo, Fezmeistr, Fibonacci, Finlay McWalter, Flat Out, Flewis, Foobar, Fraggle81, Frpcad, Fæ, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Giraffedata, Glenn, GoShow,
Gobeirne, Gregh, Grunt, Gwizi, Gökhan, Götz, H Padleckas, Hadal, HappyCamper, Hgilbert, Hgrosser, Hignatz, Hopkapi, Horkana, Hroðulf, I80and, IP9191, Ilmari Karonen, Imoen, Infrangible,
Ionutzmovie, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, Jabbsworth, Jamieswihart, Jauerback, Jawaharcompany, Jcw69, Jerryscuba, Jesterbard, Jjordahl, Jmh649, JohnOwens, JohnSRoberts99, JonRichfield, JorisvS,
Jpt262, Jrcla2, Jsaxin, Jyngyr, Karol Langner, Kate, KeawBeer, Keith Edkins, Keobeer5, Kuru, Lamro, LarryMorseDCOhio, Leedeth, Lemonus', Leyo, Libstooge 01, LittleDan, LittleOldMe old,
Lordmwa, Luna Santin, M.Ebner, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MC10, MER-C, Mankarse, Marshalldunn, Master Jay, Master of Puppets, Materialscientist, Matrix61312, Matthew Kornya, Maximus Rex,
Maxis ftw, McDutchie, Mdann52, Mendaliv, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Merope, Mesoderm, Michi zh, Mike Rosoft, Minimac, Mintleaf, Mipadi, MissMJ, Mogism, Mojoworker, Mrlennart,
Mubashar88, Murry1975, Naerii, Neparis, Nicolar71, Nlu, Nposs, Nuggetboy, Number 8, Nutriveg, Nv8200p, Ofem, Olsonist, PJueckstock, PMLawrence, Paul August, Pbznyyankeez, Peak,
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10
1
Polypropylene
Polypropylene
Identifiers
CAS number
9003-07-0
[1]
Properties
Molecular formula
(C3H6)n
Density
0.855 g/cm3, amorphous
0.946 g/cm3, crystalline
Melting point
130–171 °C (266–340 °F)
Except where noted otherwise, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C (77 °F), 100 kPa)
(verify)
[2]
(what is:
/
?)
Infobox references
Polypropylene (PP), also known as polypropene, is a thermoplastic polymer used in a wide variety of applications
including packaging and labeling, textiles (e.g., ropes, thermal underwear and carpets), stationery, plastic parts and
reusable containers of various types, laboratory equipment, loudspeakers, automotive components, and polymer
banknotes. An addition polymer made from the monomer propylene, it is rugged and unusually resistant to many
chemical solvents, bases and acids.
In 2008, the global market for polypropylene had a volume of 45.1 million metric tons, which led to a turnover of
about $65 billion (~ €47.4 billion).
Chemical and physical properties
Most commercial polypropylene is isotactic and has an intermediate
level of crystallinity between that of low-density polyethylene (LDPE)
and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Polypropylene is normally
tough and flexible, especially when copolymerized with ethylene. This
allows polypropylene to be used as an engineering plastic, competing
with materials such as ABS. Polypropylene is reasonably economical,
and can be made translucent when uncolored but is not as readily made
transparent as polystyrene, acrylic, or certain other plastics. It is often
opaque or colored using pigments. Polypropylene has good resistance
Micrograph of polypropylene
to fatigue. The melting point of polypropylene occurs at a range, so a
melting point is determined by finding the highest temperature of a
differential scanning calorimetry chart. Perfectly isotactic PP has a melting point of 171 °C (340 °F). Commercial
isotactic PP has a melting point that ranges from 160 to 166 °C (320 to 331 °F), depending on atactic material and
crystallinity. Syndiotactic PP with a crystallinity of 30% has a melting point of 130 °C (266 °F). The melt flow rate
(MFR) or melt flow index (MFI) is a measure of molecular weight of polypropylene. The measure helps to
Polypropylene
2
determine how easily the molten raw material will flow during processing. Polypropylene with higher MFR will fill
the plastic mold more easily during the injection or blow-molding production process. As the melt flow increases,
however, some physical properties, like impact strength, will decrease. There are three general types of
polypropylene: homopolymer, random copolymer, and block copolymer. The comonomer is typically used with
ethylene. Ethylene-propylene rubber or EPDM added to polypropylene homopolymer increases its low temperature
impact strength. Randomly polymerized ethylene monomer added to polypropylene homopolymer decreases the
polymer crystallinity and makes the polymer more transparent.
Degradation
Polypropylene is liable to chain degradation from exposure to heat and UV radiation such as that present in sunlight.
Oxidation usually occurs at the tertiary carbon atom present in every repeat unit. A free radical is formed here, and
then reacts further with oxygen, followed by chain scission to yield aldehydes and carboxylic acids. In external
applications, it shows up as a network of fine cracks and crazes that become deeper and more severe with time of
exposure. For external applications, UV-absorbing additives must be used. Carbon black also provides some
protection from UV attack. The polymer can also be oxidized at high temperatures, a common problem during
molding operations. Anti-oxidants are normally added to prevent polymer degradation. Microbial communities
isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading polypropylene.
History
Propylene was first polymerized to a crystalline isotactic polymer by Giulio Natta as well as by the German chemist
Karl Rehn in March 1954. This pioneering discovery led to large-scale commercial production of isotactic
polypropylene by the Italian firm Montecatini from 1957 onwards.[3] Syndiotactic polypropylene was also first
synthesized by Natta and his coworkers.
Polypropylene is the second most important plastic with revenues expected to exceed US$145 billion by 2019. The
demand for this material was growing at a rate of 4.4% per year between 2004 and 2012.[4]
Synthesis
Short segments of polypropylene, showing examples of isotactic (above) and syndiotactic
(below) tacticity.
An important concept in understanding
the link between the structure of
polypropylene and its properties is
tacticity. The relative orientation of
each methyl group (CH
3 in the figure) relative to the methyl
groups in neighboring monomer units
has a strong effect on the polymer's
ability to form crystals.
A Ziegler-Natta catalyst is able to restrict linking of monomer molecules to a specific regular orientation, either
isotactic, when all methyl groups are positioned at the same side with respect to the backbone of the polymer chain,
or syndiotactic, when the positions of the methyl groups alternate. Commercially available isotactic polypropylene is
made with two types of Ziegler-Natta catalysts. The first group of the catalysts encompasses solid (mostly supported)
catalysts and certain types of soluble metallocene catalysts. Such isotactic macromolecules coil into a helical shape;
these helices then line up next to one another to form the crystals that give commercial isotactic polypropylene many
of its desirable properties.
Polypropylene
Another type of metallocene catalysts produce syndiotactic
polypropylene. These macromolecules also coil into helices (of a
different type) and form crystalline materials.
When the methyl groups in a polypropylene chain exhibit no preferred
orientation, the polymers are called atactic. Atactic polypropylene is an
amorphous rubbery material. It can be produced commercially either
with a special type of supported Ziegler-Natta catalyst or with some
metallocene catalysts.
Modern supported Ziegler-Natta catalysts developed for the
polymerization of propylene and other 1-alkenes to isotactic polymers
usually use TiCl
A ball-and-stick model of syndiotactic
4 as an active ingredient and MgCl
polypropylene.
[5]
2 as a support.
The catalysts also contain organic modifiers, either
aromatic acid esters and diesters or ethers. These catalysts are activated
with special cocatalysts containing an organoaluminum compound such as Al(C2H5)3 and the second type of a
modifier. The catalysts are differentiated depending on the procedure used for fashioning catalyst particles from
MgCl2 and depending on the type of organic modifiers employed during catalyst preparation and use in
polymerization reactions. Two most important technological characteristics of all the supported catalysts are high
productivity and a high fraction of the crystalline isotactic polymer they produce at 70–80 °C under standard
polymerization conditions. Commercial synthesis of isotactic polypropylene is usually carried out either in the
medium of liquid propylene or in gas-phase reactors.
Commercial synthesis of syndiotactic polypropylene is carried out with the use of a special class of metallocene
catalysts. They employ bridged bis-metallocene complexes of the type bridge-(Cp1)(Cp2)ZrCl2 where the first Cp
ligand is the cyclopentadienyl group, the second Cp ligand is the fluorenyl group, and the bridge between the two Cp
ligands is -CH2-CH2-, >SiMe2, or >SiPh2.[6] These complexes are converted to polymerization catalysts by
activating them with a special organoaluminum cocatalyst, methylaluminoxane (MAO).[7]
Industrial processes
Traditionally, three manufacturing process are the most representative ways to produce polypropylene.
Hydrocarbon slurry or suspension: Uses a liquid inert hydrocarbon diluent in the reactor to facilitate transfer of
propylene to the catalyst, the removal of heat from the system, the deactivation/removal of the catalyst as well as
dissolving the atactic polymer. The range of grades that could be produced was very limited. (The technology has
fallen into disuse).
Bulk (or bulk slurry): Uses liquid propylene instead of liquid inert hydrocarbon diluent. The polymer does not
dissolve into a diluent, but rather rides on the liquid propylene. The formed polymer is withdrawn and any unreacted
monomer is flashed off.
Gas phase: Uses gaseous propylene in contact with the solid catalyst, resulting in a fluidized-bed medium.
3
Polypropylene
Manufacturing
Melt processing of polypropylene can be achieved via extrusion and molding. Common extrusion methods include
production of melt-blown and spun-bond fibers to form long rolls for future conversion into a wide range of useful
products, such as face masks, filters, diapers and wipes.
The most common shaping technique is injection molding, which is used for parts such as cups, cutlery, vials, caps,
containers, housewares, and automotive parts such as batteries. The related techniques of blow molding and
injection-stretch blow molding are also used, which involve both extrusion and molding.
The large number of end-use applications for polypropylene are often possible because of the ability to tailor grades
with specific molecular properties and additives during its manufacture. For example, antistatic additives can be
added to help polypropylene surfaces resist dust and dirt. Many physical finishing techniques can also be used on
polypropylene, such as machining. Surface treatments can be applied to polypropylene parts in order to promote
adhesion of printing ink and paints.
Biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP)
When polypropylene film is extruded and stretched in both the machine direction and across machine direction it is
called biaxially oriented polypropylene. Biaxial orientation increases strength and clarity.[8] BOPP is widely used as
a packaging material for packaging products such as snack foods, fresh produce and confectionery. It is easy to coat,
print and laminate to give the required appearance and properties for use as a packaging material. This process is
normally called converting. It is normally produced in large rolls which are slit on slitting machines into smaller rolls
for use on packaging machines.
Development trends
With the increase in the level of performance required for polypropylene quality in recent years, a variety of ideas
and contrivances have been integrated into the production process for polypropylene.[9]
There are roughly two directions for the specific methods. One is improvement of uniformity of the polymer
particles produced using a circulation type reactor, and the other is improvement in the uniformity among polymer
particles produced by using a reactor with a narrow retention time distribution.
4
Polypropylene
5
Applications
As polypropylene is resistant to fatigue, most plastic living hinges,
such as those on flip-top bottles, are made from this material.
However, it is important to ensure that chain molecules are oriented
across the hinge to maximise strength.
Very thin sheets of polypropylene are used as a dielectric within
certain high-performance pulse and low-loss RF capacitors.
Polypropylene is used in the manufacturing piping systems; both ones
concerned with high-purity and ones designed for strength and rigidity
(e.g. those intended for use in potable plumbing, hydronic heating and
cooling, and reclaimed water).[10] This material is often chosen for its
resistance to corrosion and chemical leaching, its resilience against
most forms of physical damage, including impact and freezing, its
environmental benefits, and its ability to be joined by heat fusion rather
than gluing.[11][12][13]
Polypropylene lid of a Tic Tacs box, with a living
hinge and the resin identification code under its
flap
Many plastic items for medical or laboratory use can be made from
polypropylene because it can withstand the heat in an autoclave. Its heat
resistance also enables it to be used as the manufacturing material of
consumer-grade kettles[citation needed]. Food containers made from it will not melt
in the dishwasher, and do not melt during industrial hot filling processes. For this
reason, most plastic tubs for dairy products are polypropylene sealed with
aluminum foil (both heat-resistant materials). After the product has cooled, the
tubs are often given lids made of a less heat-resistant material, such as LDPE or
polystyrene. Such containers provide a good hands-on example of the difference
in modulus, since the rubbery (softer, more flexible) feeling of LDPE with
respect to polypropylene of the same thickness is readily apparent. Rugged,
translucent, reusable plastic containers made in a wide variety of shapes and
sizes for consumers from various companies such as Rubbermaid and Sterilite
A polypropylene chair
are commonly made of polypropylene, although the lids are often made of
somewhat more flexible LDPE so they can snap on to the container to close it.
Polypropylene can also be made into disposable bottles to contain liquid, powdered, or similar consumer products,
although HDPE and polyethylene terephthalate are commonly also used to make bottles. Plastic pails, car batteries,
wastebaskets, pharmacy prescription bottles, cooler containers, dishes and pitchers are often made of polypropylene
or HDPE, both of which commonly have rather similar appearance, feel, and properties at ambient temperature.
A common application for polypropylene is as biaxially oriented polypropylene (BOPP). These BOPP sheets are
used to make a wide variety of materials including clear bags. When polypropylene is biaxially oriented, it becomes
crystal clear and serves as an excellent packaging material for artistic and retail products.
Polypropylene, highly colorfast, is widely used in manufacturing carpets, rugs and mats to be used at home.[14]
Polypropylene is widely used in ropes, distinctive because they are light enough to float in water.[15] For equal mass
and construction, polypropylene rope is similar in strength to polyester rope. Polypropylene costs less than most
Polypropylene
other synthetic fibers.
Polypropylene is also used as an alternative to polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as insulation for electrical cables for LSZH
cable in low-ventilation environments, primarily tunnels. This is because it emits less smoke and no toxic halogens,
which may lead to production of acid in high-temperature conditions.
Polypropylene is also used in particular roofing membranes as the waterproofing top layer of single-ply systems as
opposed to modified-bit systems.
Polypropylene is most commonly used for plastic moldings, wherein it is injected into a mold while molten, forming
complex shapes at relatively low cost and high volume; examples include bottle tops, bottles, and fittings.
It can also be produced in sheet form, widely used for the production of stationery folders, packaging, and storage
boxes. The wide color range, durability, low cost, and resistance to dirt make it ideal as a protective cover for papers
and other materials. It is used in Rubik's Cube stickers because of these characteristics.
The availability of sheet polypropylene has provided an opportunity for the use of the material by designers. The
light-weight, durable, and colorful plastic makes an ideal medium for the creation of light shades, and a number of
designs have been developed using interlocking sections to create elaborate designs.
Polypropylene sheets are a popular choice for trading card collectors; these come with pockets (nine for
standard-size cards) for the cards to be inserted and are used to protect their condition and are meant to be stored in a
binder.
Expanded polypropylene (EPP) is a foam form of polypropylene. EPP has very good impact characteristics due to its
low stiffness; this allows EPP to resume its shape after impacts. EPP is extensively used in model aircraft and other
radio controlled vehicles by hobbyists. This is mainly due to its ability to absorb impacts, making this an ideal
material for RC aircraft for beginners and amateurs.
Polypropylene is used in the manufacture of loudspeaker drive units. Its use was pioneered by engineers at the BBC
and the patent rights subsequently purchased by Mission Electronics for use in their Mission Freedom Loudspeaker
and Mission 737 Renaissance loudspeaker.
Polypropylene fibres are used as a concrete additive to increase strength and reduce cracking and spalling.
Polypropylene is used in polypropylene drums.
Clothing
Polypropylene is a major polymer used in nonwovens, with over 50% used[citation needed] for diapers or sanitary
products where it is treated to absorb water (hydrophilic) rather than naturally repelling water (hydrophobic). Other
interesting non-woven uses include filters for air, gas, and liquids in which the fibers can be formed into sheets or
webs that can be pleated to form cartridges or layers that filter in various efficiencies in the 0.5 to 30 micrometre
range. Such applications could be seen in the house as water filters or air-conditioning-type filters. The high surface
area and naturally oleophilic polypropylene nonwovens are ideal absorbers of oil spills with the familiar floating
barriers near oil spills on rivers.
Polypropylene, or 'polypro', has been used for the fabrication of cold-weather base layers, such as long-sleeve shirts
or long underwear. Polypropylene is also used in warm-weather clothing, which transports sweat away from the skin.
More recently, polyester has replaced polypropylene in these applications in the U.S. military, such as in the
ECWCS.[16] Although polypropylene clothes are not easily flammable, they can melt, which may result in severe
burns if the service member is involved in an explosion or fire of any kind.[17] Polypropylene undergarments are
known for retaining body odors which are then difficult to remove. The current generation of polyester does not have
this disadvantage.[18]
Thanks to its specific weight, polypropylene yarn is the lightest fibre of all synthetic and natural fibers. Producers
gain economic and ecological advantages when producing fabrics and clothes out of polypropylene yarn. Final users
gain more comfort because the garments are lighter. This enables them to give better performance during their
6
Polypropylene
activities and gives them the freedom of movement. For example, If they hike, they have less weight to carry.
Polypropylene yarn has very good insulation properties. Its water absorption is almost nil. Fabric made of
polypropylene yarn transports humidity to the outside or to another absorbent layer from where it gradually
evaporates.
The material has recently been introduced into the fashion industry through the work of designers such as Anoush
Waddington, who have developed specialized techniques to create jewelry and wearable items from polypropylene.
Medical
Its most common medical use is in the synthetic, nonabsorbable suture Prolene, manufactured by Ethicon Inc.
Polypropylene has been used in hernia and pelvic organ prolapse repair operations to protect the body from new
hernias in the same location. A small patch of the material is placed over the spot of the hernia, below the skin, and
is painless and rarely, if ever, rejected by the body. However, a polypropylene mesh will erode over the uncertain
period from days to years. Therefore, the FDA has issued several warnings on the use of polypropylene mesh
medical kits for certain applications in pelvic organ prolapse, specifically when introduced in close proximity to the
vaginal wall due to a continued increase in number of mesh erosions reported by patients over the past few years.[19]
Most recently, on 3 January 2012, the FDA ordered 35 manufacturers of these mesh products to study the side
effects of these devices.
EPP toy aircraft
Since 2001, expanded polypropylene (EPP) foams have been gaining in popularity and in application as a structural
material in hobbyist radio control model aircraft. Unlike expanded polystyrene foam (EPS) which is friable and
breaks easily on impact, EPP foam is able to absorb kinetic impacts very well without breaking, retains its original
shape, and exhibits memory form characteristics which allow it to return to its original shape in a short amount of
time. In consequence, a radio-control model whose wings and fuselage are constructed from EPP foam is extremely
resilient, and able to absorb impacts that would result in complete destruction of models made from lighter
traditional materials, such as balsa or even EPS foams. EPP models, when covered with inexpensive fibreglass
impregnated self-adhesive tapes, often exhibit much increased mechanical strength, in conjunction with a lightness
and surface finish that rival those of models of the aforementioned types. EPP is also chemically highly inert,
permitting the use of a wide variety of different adhesives. EPP can be heat molded, and surfaces can be easily
finished with the use of cutting tools and abrasive papers. The principal areas of model making in which EPP has
found great acceptance are the fields of:
• Wind-driven slope soarers
• Indoor electric powered profile electric models
• Hand launched gliders for small children
In the field of slope soaring, EPP has found greatest favour and use, as it permits the construction of radio-controlled
model gliders of great strength and maneuverability. In consequence, the disciplines of slope combat (the active
process of friendly competitors attempting to knock each other's planes out of the air by direct contact) and slope
pylon racing have become commonplace, in direct consequence of the strength characteristics of the material EPP.
7
Polypropylene
Recycling
Polypropylene is recyclable and has the number "5" as its resin identification code:[20]
Repairing
Many objects are made with polypropylene precisely because it is resilient and resistant to most solvents and glues.
Also, there are very few glues available specifically for gluing PP. However, solid PP objects not subject to undue
flexing can be satisfactorily joined with a two part epoxy glue or using hot-glue guns. Preparation is important and it
is often helpful to roughen the surface with a file, emery paper or other abrasive material to provide better anchorage
for the glue. Also it is recommended to clean with mineral spirits or similar alcohol prior to gluing to remove any
oils or other contamination. Some experimentation may be required. There are also some industrial glues available
for PP, but these can be difficult to find, especially in a retail store.[citation needed]
PP can be melted using a speed welding technique. With speed welding, the plastic welder, similar to a soldering
iron in appearance and wattage, is fitted with a feed tube for the plastic weld rod. The speed tip heats the rod and the
substrate, while at the same time it presses the molten weld rod into position. A bead of softened plastic is laid into
the joint, and the parts and weld rod fuse. With polypropylene, the melted welding rod must be "mixed" with the
semi-melted base material being fabricated or repaired. A speed tip "gun" is essentially a soldering iron with a broad,
flat tip that can be used to melt the weld joint and filler material to create a bond.
Health concerns
In 2008, researchers in Canada asserted that quaternary ammonium biocides and oleamide were leaking out of
certain polypropylene labware, affecting experimental results.[21] As polypropylene is used in a wide number of food
containers such as those for yogurt, Health Canada media spokesman Paul Duchesne, said the department will be
reviewing the findings to determine whether steps are needed to protect consumers.[22]
The Environmental Working Group classifies PP as of low to moderate hazard.[23] PP is dope-dyed, no water is used
of its dyeing in comparison for example with cotton.[24]
References
[1] http:/ / www. commonchemistry. org/ ChemicalDetail. aspx?ref=9003-07-0
[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Special:ComparePages& rev1=477171874& page2=Polypropylene
[3] This week 50 years ago (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg19426014. 900-this-week-50-years-ago. html) in New Scientist 28 April
2007, p. 15
[4] Market Study: Polypropylene – 2nd edition (UC-4205) (http:/ / www. ceresana. com/ en/ market-studies/ plastics/ polypropylene). Ceresana
Research.
[5] Moore, E. P. (1996) Polypropylene Handbook. Polymerization, Characterization, Properties, Processing, Applications, Hanser Publishers:
New York, ISBN 1569902089
[6] Benedikt, G. M. and Goodall, B. L. (eds.) (1998) Metallocene Catalyzed Polymers, ChemTech Publishing: Toronto. ISBN
978-1-884207-59-4.
[7] Sinn, H.; Kaminsky, W. and Höker, H. (eds.) (1995) Alumoxanes, Macromol. Symp. 97, Huttig & Wepf: Heidelberg.
[8] Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene Films (http:/ / www. granwell. com/ bopp/ ). Granwell. Retrieved: 2012-05-31.
[9] Sato, Hideki and Ogawa, Hiroyuki (2009) Review on Development of Polypropylene Manufacturing Process (http:/ / www. sumitomo-chem.
co. jp/ english/ rd/ report/ theses/ docs/ 20090201_6jw. pdf), Sumitomo Kagaku.
[10] ASTM Standard F2389, 2007, "Standard Specification for Pressure-rated Polypropylene (PP) Piping Systems", ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2007, , www.astm.org.
[11] Green pipe helps miners remove the black (http:/ / contractormag. com/ news/ green-pipe-mine-2345) Contractor Magazine, 10 January
2010
[12] Contractor Retrofits His Business (http:/ / www. achrnews. com/ Articles/ Feature_Article/
BNP_GUID_9-5-2006_A_10000000000000690490). the News/ 2 November 2009.
8
Polypropylene
[13] What to do when the piping replacement needs a replacement? (http:/ / www. esmagazine. com/ Articles/ Case_In_Point/
BNP_GUID_9-5-2006_A_10000000000000691766) Engineered Systems. 1 November 2009.
[14] Rug fibers (http:/ / www. fibersource. com/ f-tutor/ olefin. htm). Fibersource.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-31.
[15] Braided Polypropylene Rope is Inexpensive and it Floats (http:/ / www. contractorsrope. com/ braided-polypropylene-rope. html).
contractorrope.com. Retrieved on 2013-02-28.
[16] Generation III Extended Cold Weather Clothing System (ECWCS) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20081217143906/ http:/ / peosoldier.
army. mil/ factsheets/ SEQ_CIE_ECWCS. pdf). PM Soldier Equipment. October 2008
[17] USAF Flying Magazine. Safety. Nov. 2002 (http:/ / permanent. access. gpo. gov/ lps11992/ 2002/ fsmnov02. pdf). access.gpo.gov
[18] Ellis, David. Get Real: The true story of performance next to skin fabrics (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20100602092559/ http:/ / www.
outdoorsnz. org. nz/ cms_show_download. php?id=168). outdoorsnz.org.nz
[19] FDA Public Health Notification: Serious Complications Associated with Transvaginal Placement of Surgical Mesh in Repair of Pelvic
Organ Prolapse and Stress Urinary Incontinence (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ MedicalDevices/ Safety/ AlertsandNotices/
PublicHealthNotifications/ ucm061976. htm), FDA, 20 October 2008
[20] Plastics recycling information sheet (http:/ / www. wasteonline. org. uk/ resources/ InformationSheets/ Plastics. htm), Waste Online
[21] Plastic additives leach into medical experiments, research shows (http:/ / www. physorg. com/ news145545554. html), Physorg.com, 10
November 2008
[22] Scientific tests skewed by leaching plastics (http:/ / www. canada. com/ chilliwacktimes/ story.
html?id=be27d48b-ef01-4e78-b2bf-c108801884c2), November 6, 2008.
[23] POLYPROPYLENE || Skin Deep® Cosmetics Database | Environmental Working Group (http:/ / www. cosmeticdatabase. com/ ingredient.
php?ingred06=705094). Cosmeticdatabase.com. Retrieved on 2012-05-31.
[24] Chapagain, A.K. et al. (September 2005) The water footprint of cotton consumption (http:/ / www. waterfootprint. org/ Reports/ Report18.
pdf). UNESCO-IHE Delft. Value of Water Research Report Series No. 18. waterfootprint.org
External links
• Chain structure of Polypropylene (http://www.pslc.ws/mactest/pp.htm)
• Polypropylene on Plastipedia (http://www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/polymers/pp.aspx)
9
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Polypropylene Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=605590738 Contributors: 4n5 6n6, 7e7, 7infinity, 97198, AKGhetto, AThing, Aboalbiss, Abraaoemelquisedeque,
AgentPeppermint, Ahoerstemeier, Ajraddatz, Akawhite, Alan Liefting, Albmont, Alex Rio Brazil, Alex.muller, Alphamuchi, Alynna Kasmira, AmolKoldhekar, Ank329, Ankerman101,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Polypropylen.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polypropylen.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: NEUROtiker
File:Yes check.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yes_check.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie
File:X mark.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:X_mark.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Gmaxwell
Image:Polypropene migrograph.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polypropene_migrograph.png License: Public domain Contributors: Unbound
Image:Polypropylene tacticity.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polypropylene_tacticity.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:RicHard-59
Image:Syndiotactic polypropene.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Syndiotactic_polypropene.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Ilmari Karonen
Image:Mint box polypropylene lid.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mint_box_polypropylene_lid.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Andy Dingley, Frank
C. Müller, Ingolfson, Polyparadigm, Vanischenu, Waldir, Zureks
Image:Red Polypropylene Chair with Stainless Steel Structure.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_Polypropylene_Chair_with_Stainless_Steel_Structure.JPG
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Alex Rio Brazil
Image:Resin-identification-code-5-PP.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Resin-identification-code-5-PP.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: TotoBaggins (talk)
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