Psychology

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is best defined as the study of mind. It is the science of behavior and a mental process that seeks to describe and explain aspects of human thought feelings, perceptions and actions. It is about understanding people: how they think, what they say, and why they do what they do. It‘s about finding out what motivates people, what is important to us, and why we are all so individual.

The Goals of Psychology

To describe, explain, predict, and control behavior and mental processes

Describe: tell what occurred Explain: tells the why Predict: under what conditions is the behavior/event likely to occur Control: how is the principle applied or what change in condition is necessary to prevent unwanted occurrence or to bring about a desired outcome

Research in Psychology

Basic Research: research conducted for the purpose of advancing knowledge rather than for practical application (typically three goals: description, explanation, prediction) Applied Research: research for the purpose of solving practical problems (typically the fourth goal: to control behavior)

1

Research Methods

Naturalistic Observation: researchers observe and record behavior without trying to influence or control it-subjects are not aware of observation   Advantage: study is in natural setting ; good descriptive; can provide hypothesis to be tested later Disadvantage: must wait for behavior to occur, researcher has no control so cause and effect is difficult to determine-potential for observer bias, presence of researcher may influence situation Case Study: an in depth study of one or a few participants consisting of information gathered by observation, interview, or psychological testing to provide a description of behavior or disorder   Advantage: advances knowledge especially in unusual conditions; can provide a hypothesis to be tested later Disadvantage: cannot establish cause of observed behaviors; don't know if the cases studied generalize to larger population; may not be representative of condition, event; subject to misinterpretation by experimenter Surveys: a research technique in which questionnaires or interviews are administered to a selected group of people.   Advantage: large quantity of information; It‘s fast, cheap, easy and more flexible than some other methods. Disadvantage: can be affected by an unrepresentative sample or poor survey questions Co relational Research: a research technique based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables.   Advantage: efficient, study things that can‘t be controlled/manipulated in laboratory, description and prediction possible Disadvantages: no control over variables and cannot imply causality

2

Experimental Method: A research technique in which an investigator deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior  Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter to test its effects  Dependent variable:   the variable that is measured to see how it is

changed by the independent variable Advantages: conclusions about causality can be made Disadvantages: more ethical considerations, behavior is constrained to laboratory and artificiality of lab

Subfields of Psychology

Biopsychology: is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain and neurotransmitters influence our behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and neuroscience. Clinical Psychology: is concerned with the assessment, diagnosis, and treatment, and prevention of mental disorders. Cognitive Psychology: is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal states, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention. Community Psychology: is the application of psychology to the study of social organizations such as neighborhoods, and the development of methods for evaluating and initiating changes in social policy Counseling Psychology: maintains an emphasis on the positive aspects of human development and are focused on exploring and facilitating the strengths and assets of individuals, groups, and organizational units Developmental Psychology: is the study to how people grow and change over the course of a lifetime.

3

Environmental Psychology: is the study of how changes in physical space & related physical stimuli can affect behavior of individuals; relationships between humans & the physical environment Experimental Psychology: is a broad area concerned with a variety of basic topics, including cognition, memory, learning, and language in humans or animals. Most experimental psychologists are in academia and work in a variety of areas during their career Forensic Psychology: is the branch of psychology that studies possible relationships between psychopathology and criminal behavior. Sometimes work within court systems and conduct psychological evaluations on individuals accused of committing a crime, particularly juveniles Health Psychology: is the study of the effects of psychological matters on physical well being. Often focus on developing programs to help individuals break physically unhealthy habits, or to reduce the likelihood of participation in such an activity. I/O Psychology: is the Study of the behavior and mental processes that take place in organizational settings (typically work situations), and the human factors that influence the work environment Personality Psychology: Attempts to identify the factors that cause one person to think, feel, and behave differently from another person within a given situation. The study of how people differ. Positive Psychology: is the study of the conditions & processes that contribute to the flourishing or optimal functioning of people, groups, & institutions. Attempts to help people learn to live lives filled with greater health & well-being as well as the absence of illness & disease. Recognizes an imbalance in clinical psychology, where research focuses on mental illness. Psychometric Psychology: is the study of the development of methods and research designs used to measure behavior. Requires a strong background in

4

statistics and a general knowledge of matters related to testing personality and intelligence. School/Educational Psychology: is the study of learning, & the conditions under which it happens best. Social Psychology: is the study of how our attitudes, beliefs, social perceptions, culture, cognitions, and relationships effect, and are effected by, our behavior and the behavior of others.

What is I/O Psychology?

Psychology is the science of human behavior and I/O psychology is the science of human behavior at work. This field focuses on increasing workplace productivity and related issues such as the physical and mental well being of employees. Industrial organizational psychologists perform a wide variety of tasks, including studying worker attitudes and behavior, evaluating companies and conducting leadership training.

Specific Areas of Concern

Recruiting and selecting employees for jobs Training employees Assessing performance Defining and analyzing jobs Determining people feel about work Determining why people act as they do at work Effects work has on people Effects people have on one another How organizations are structured and function Designing work

5

Designing tools and equipment Employee Health and Safety

History of I/O

The "industrial" side of I-O psychology has its historical origins in research on individual differences, assessment, and the prediction of performance. This branch of the field crystallized during World War I, in response to the need to rapidly assign new troops to duty stations. After the War the growing industrial base in the US added impetus to I-O psychology. Walter Dill Scott, who was elected President of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1919, was arguably the most prominent I-O psychologist of his time, although James McKeen Cattell (elected APA President in 1895) and Hugo Munsterberg (1898) was influential in the early development of the field. Organizational psychology gained prominence after World War II, influenced by the Hawthorne studies and the work of researchers such as Kurt Lewin and Muzafer Sherif.

Measurement and Statistics

Measurement: means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified rules.    One-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the characteristics being measured. The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly. Rules must not change over objects or time.

Scaling: It involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is

assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 =

6

Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores. The first and most fundamental issue to resolve is the type of scale data to be obtained The type of scale data collected determines the type of analysis which can be used.  Nominal-level data (identity)  found in dichotomous categories (e.g., male=1, female=2) and multichotomous categories (1=marketing, 2=finance, 3=economics)  Measure of average is the mode.  Chi-square is a common test used with nominal-level data.  Ordinal-level data (order)  Categories are in some type of order, but the distance between points is not known.  Ex: Very Good = 5, Good = 4, Neutral = 3, Poor = 2, Very Poor = 1  Measures of the average are the median and the mode.  Chi-square is a common test used with nominal-level data.  Interval-level data (comparison of intervals)  The categories are not only in order, but the distance between each category is known and has a numerical meaning.  Ex: a 1-7 scale, anchored only by bi-polar adjectives (Good/Bad, Agree/Disagree)  Interval-level data (comparison of intervals)  Anchoring the intermediate points converts the scale into an ordinal scale.  There is no absolute zero to an interval scale.

7

 Measure of the average is the mean.  z-tests, t-tests, ANOVA, factor analysis, regression, bivariate correlations are a common with interval-level data.  Ratio-level data (absolute magnitudes)  Categories are in order, a distance between items is known, and an absolute zero exists.  Ex: Sales (an absolute zero exists)  Tip: If a number doubles, does it mean there‘s twice as much of it? If yes, it‘s ratio data. If no, it‘s internal (or less).  Measure of the average is the mean.  z-tests, t-tests, ANOVA, factor analysis, regression, bivariate correlations are a common with ratio-level data.

8

A Comparison of Scaling Techniques Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties. In noncomparative scales, each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled. Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected. Same known reference points for all respondents. Easily understood and can be applied. Involve fewer theoretical assumptions.

9

Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another. Ordinal nature of the data Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled.

10

HUMAN COMMUNICATION

Definition Communication is the process of exchanging information by the use of words, letters, symbols, or nonverbal behavior. Process of Communication

Here, the person who is the source of the communication encodes it into a message, and transmits it through a channel. The receiver decodes the message, and, in one way or another, feeds back understanding or a lack of understanding to the source. Elements in Communication Context Culture Channel Noise
11

Sender Receiver Feedback Types of communication Intrapersonal: Communicating with oneself Interpersonal: Communication that takes place between two people Dyad- two persons interacting Small Group: Communication that takes place between more than two members. Group members usually communicate equally Public: Communication that takes place in a large group. Too large for all members to communicate equally. Mass communication: Consists of messages that are transmitted in large quantities to several people at one time. Transmitted through several sources: electronic, print, television, radio, magazines, etc. No personal contact between sender and receiver. Needs of Communication Physical needs: Communicating with others benefits our physical health/well-being. Identity needs: We define who we are through communicating with others. Impressions of who we are formed according to the ways in which others respond to us. Social needs: Several social needs are met through communication:  Pleasure
12

    

Escape Affection Relaxation Inclusion Control

Practical needs: Communication is used in order to achieve our everyday needs    to get where we need to go to accomplish what we need to accomplish to better understand our environment and what is expected of us

Communication competence Communication competence is the ability to communicate effectively. Effective communication Communication that maintains or enhances the relationship in which it occurs is effective communication. Characteristics of Competent Communicators Empathy: Ability to put yourself in another‘s shoes and understanding another‘s perspective. Cognitive Complexity: The ability to analyze the behavior of others in a variety of ways .Looking at the situation from a variety of angles (rather than just your perspective). Self-Monitoring: Observing your own behaviors as if you are outside yourself. Imagining how others are interpreting your behaviors. Being aware of how your behaviors affect others.

13

Commitment to the relationship: Level of commitment to a relationship determines willingness to communicate effectively. We work harder at communicating in relationships we genuinely care about. Models of Communication Linear Model: In this model communication only goes one way. How It Works    Sender – person sending the message Receiver – person receiving the message Sender encodes a message, chooses a channel by which to send the message, and then sends the message to a receiver who then decodes the message.  Channel – the way the message is conveyed (face- to-face, telephone, email, etc.) depends on the situation  Encode – when the sender consciously attaches meanings to symbols from feelings and ideas, creating the message sent  Decode – when the receiver interprets and creates an understanding of what the message sent means Transactional Model: Similar to the linear model with added elements. Represents two-way communication.  Feedback is the scene and understood response of a receiver to a sender‘s message   Both parties involved are sending and receiving messages simultaneously Noise and environment are also elements involved with the transactional model
14

Modes of Communication i. ii. Verbal Communication Non-Verbal communication

Understanding Verbal Communication Styles Passive Communication: Allowing our own rights to be violated by failing to express our honest feelings. The goal of being a passive communicator is to avoid conflict no matter what. Little risk involved – very safe. Little eye contact, often defers to others‘ opinions, usually quiet tone, may suddenly explode after being passive too long. Aggressive Communication: Protecting one‘s own rights at the expense of others‘ rights – no exceptions. The goal of the aggressor is to win at all costs; to be right. Does not consider actions a risk because this person thinks they will always get their way. It is risky in terms of relationships. Eye contact is angry and intimidating; lots of energy; loud and belittling; never defers to others, or at least does not admit to; manipulative and controlling. Often uses violence or verbal abuse.

Assertive Communication: Protecting your own rights without violating the rights of others. The goal of the assertive person is to communicate with respect and to understand each other; to find a solution to the problem. Takes a risk with others in the short run, but in the long run relationships are much stronger. Eye contact maintained; listens and validates others; confident and strong, yet also flexible; objective and unemotional; presents wishes clearly and respectfully.

15

Non-Verbal Communication The study of non-verbal communication examines how messages are communicated through physical behavior, vocal cues and spatial relationships. Barriers of Effective Communication Hearing what you want to hear called selective listening Thinking of what you are going to say next Distractions such as co-workers, noise, side conversations etc. Thinking about the previous customer call Worrying about the next customer call or work in general Stress Getting involved emotionally (instead of logically) Holding preconceived ideas about the caller‘s inquiry Thinking about personal issues Boredom Making assumptions rather than asking questions

16

CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATION
Introduction

Basically, an organization in its simplest form is a person or group of people intentionally organized to accomplish an overall, common goal or set of goals. Business organizations can range in size from one person to tens of thousands. There are several important aspects to consider about the goal of the business organization. These features are explicit (deliberate and recognized) or implicit (operating unrecognized, "behind the scenes"). Ideally, these features are carefully considered and established, usually during the strategic planning process. Organizations by definition require people to work together and communicate with one another. Ideally these interpersonal relationships should be productive, cooperative and satisfying. However, almost every working relationship produces some degree of conflict across time. Whether the conflicts will be destructive or constructive depends on the attitudes and skills of the participants.

Conflict

Conflict refers to any situation in which two or more parties feel themselves in opposition. Conflict is an interpersonal process that arises from disagreements over goals to attain or the methods to be used to accomplish these goals.

Sources of Conflicts

Although a variety of causes contribute to the emergence of organizational conflict, most conflicts boil down to several basic types or of combinations of them.

These include  Dispute over goals
17

 

Dispute over facts Dispute over methods

Conflict also arises due to          Task interdependence Ambiguity of roles, policies and rules Personality clashes Ineffective communications Organizational change Threats to status Lack of trust The competition over scare resources Differences in perceptions, beliefs, attitudes, values, & experiences

Types of Conflict

i. ii. iii. iv.

Interpersonal Conflict Intra-group Conflict Intergroup Conflict Inter-organizational Conflict

18

Conflict Process

What begins as a problem of interdependence, ambiguity, or scarcity quickly escalates to the point that the conflict process itself becomes an additional problem. The conflict continues to cycle ―on its own steam‖ Consequences of Conflicts Positive or Functional  People are stimulated to search for improved approaches that lead to better results.   Energizes to be more creative and to experiment with new ideas. Once-hidden problems are brought to the surface, where they may be confronted and solved. Negative or Dysfunctional  If conflict lasts long, at the interpersonal level, cooperation & teamwork may deteriorate.  Distrust may grow among people who need to coordinate their efforts.
19



At the individual level, some person may feel defeated, while the selfimage of others will decline and personal stress levels will arise.



The motivation level of some employees will be reduced

Effect of Conflict on Performance Level of conflict Types of conflict Unit’s internal characteristics Apathetic Low or None Stagnant Dysfunctional Non-responsive to change Lack of new ideas Low Unit performance

Situation

A

Viable B Optimal Functional Self-critical innovative High

Disruptive C High Dysfunctional Chaotic Uncooperative Low

20

Conflict-Handling Style 1. Avoiding 2. Competing/Dominating — I win, you lose 3. Accommodating/Obliging — I lose or give in 4. Compromising — We both get something 5. Collaborating/Integrating — We both win

21

Competing/Dominating Plus   The winner is clear Winners usually experience gains

Minus   Establishes the battleground for the next conflict May cause worthy competitors to withdraw or leave the organization

Accommodating/Obliging Plus   Curtails conflict situation Enhances ego of the other

Minus  Sometimes establishes a precedence
22



Does not fully engage participants

Compromising Plus   Shows good will Establishes friendship

Minus   No one gets what they want May feel like a dead end

Collaborating/Integrating Plus   Everyone ―wins‖ Creates good feelings

Minus   Hard to achieve since no one knows how Often confusing since players can ―win‖ something they didn‘t know they wanted Conflict Management Strategies Strategies focused on individuals    Increasing awareness of the sources of conflict Increasing diversity awareness and skills Practicing job rotation

23



Using permanent transfers or dismissals when necessary

Strategies focused on the whole organization   Changing an organization‘s structure or culture Altering the source of conflict

Negotiation  A method of conflict resolution in which two parties of equal power try to find an acceptable solution by considering various alternatives to allocate resources to each other.    Third-party negotiator – an impartial individual with expertise in handling conflicts. Helps parties in conflict reach an acceptable solution. Mediators – facilitates negotiations but no authority to impose a solution. Arbitrator – can impose what he thinks is a fair solution to a conflict that both parties are obligated to abide by. Tips for Managing Workplace Conflict Build good relationships before conflict occurs Do not let small problems escalate; deal with them as they arise Respect differences Listen to others‘ perspectives on the conflict situation Acknowledge feelings before focusing on facts Focus on solving problems, not changing people If you can‘t resolve the problem, turn to someone who can help Remember to adapt your style to the situation and persons involved

24

JOB ANALYSIS

Definition Job is a Group of related activities and duties made up of task. And job analysis is a method for describing jobs and the human attributes necessary to perform them Two approaches: 


Job oriented: Systematically collects, evaluates, and organizes information about jobs. Person oriented: Identifies knowledge, skills, abilities, and other personal characteristics (KSAOs) that are critical to a job

Uses of Job Analysis

Purpose of JA Career Development: JA contributes to career development by providing a picture of the KSAO requirements for jobs at each level of the career ladder
25

Legal Issues: JA ensures system is legally defensible and perceived as fair Performance Appraisal: Job analysis establishes performance standards Selection: Selection system developed to assess key KSAOs. Ensures that it is job-related Training: Gaps in KSAs of new hires represent training needs Methods of Job Analysis The Job Components Inventory      Tools and equipment Perceptual and physical requirements Mathematical requirements Communication requirements Decision making and responsibility

Functional Job Analysis (FJA)   Fine & Wiley (1971) Tasks are rated on scales reflecting varying degrees of involvement with Things, Data, and People as well as math, language, etc. requirements  Each scale is arranged hierarchically

Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)  McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham (1972)
26

     

Developed because of criticism that JA relied on observation – not quantifiable Detailed questionnaire (194 tasks) Determines extent to which each task is applicable to target job Using a 5-point scale

Task Inventories Time spent on task Importance of task, difficulty of learning

Critical Incident Technique (CIT)    Flanagan (1949) Identifies behaviors that indicate success or failure on the job  Effective vs. ineffective behaviors Critical Incidents include:  Context - in which the incident occurred  Behavior - exactly what the individual did that was effective or ineffective  Consequences - of the behavior and whether or not consequences were in the employee‘s control Job Evaluation Job Evaluation refers to a family of quantitative techniques used to determine the salary levels of jobs. Ranking  rank order the jobs according to each jobs relative worth or value to the organization. Classification  placing all jobs into a predetermined taxonomy of grades or classes (like the DOT). Point systems  assign points to various levels of skill, knowledge, responsibility, working conditions, then summing the points.

27

PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL
Performance appraisal is a powerful tool to help the supervisor meet the objectives of the department and organization.  The benefits of conducting performance appraisals include providing information necessary for improving performance and motivating employees.  Performance appraisals also provide important records for the company.  Managers use this information for decisions on raises, promotions, and discipline. There are systematic steps in appraising performance.    First, performance and results expectations and standards of performance are established and communicated to employees. The supervisor then observes behavior and performance results, comparing them to the standards set. Finally, the supervisor provides reinforcement for acceptable or excellent performance and works with employees to develop remedies for inadequate performance. It is impossible for different supervisors to evaluate employees in exactly the same way.   A supervisor may have a tendency to select some specific ratings or identify certain behaviors as problematic over others. Biases about specific people and groups of people can affect the appraisal process.  For example, supervisors who fail to keep good records may rely on recent events when evaluating an employee.

28

 A supervisor may give a more favorable appraisal to someone who is similar to the supervisor and appraise more negatively a person who is different from the supervisor.  Another bias comes from the halo effect, which leads people to generalize one positive or negative trait to a person‘s entire performance. There are several types of appraisals used to evaluate performance.  Supervisors usually do not choose the type of form to use, rather it is selected by the human resources department or upper management. The goal of some appraisal forms is to make the process easy and consistent for all employees.  Ideally, the form focuses on behavioral performance and results to reduce bias and increase objectivity.  The graphic rating scale is an example of this type of appraisal form.  However, this type of form is susceptible to lack of consistency from supervisor to supervisor. Another type of appraisal is the paired-comparison approach, which measures the relative performance of employees in a group.  This form rank orders all employees to find the best employees.  Therefore, it reflects negatively on other employees. The appraisal interview provides feedback to the employee and allows the employee to join in the process of performance improvement.  The interview should follow careful and thoughtful completion of the appraisal form, and should be in a private place with plenty of time for the employee to discuss issues raised in the interview. The final outcome of the interview should be agreement between the supervisor and employee about what improvements need to be made and the method for achieving the improvement goals.

29

Uses of Performance Appraisals Training and development needs. Career planning and development. Deficiencies in staffing process. Informational inaccuracies. Job design error. Avoidance of discrimination. External challenges Benefits of Conducting a Performance Appraisal Performance Appraisal: Formal feedback on how well an employee is performing his or her job.   Performance appraisals may be accomplished with the use of a standard form, which includes questions or items to guide the process. On the other hand, performance appraisal can be accomplished without a standard form.  In either case, the evaluation should be based on predetermined performance expectations that are communicated to employees. Performance appraisals provide information necessary for employees to improve the quality of their work.  It can help motivate employees.  Employees like to hear how they are doing, and behaviors that are evaluated or measured tend to get more attention from individuals.  Therefore, when it is useful to the organization to have special attention directed at a goal, it is useful to have that item on a formal appraisal.  For example, if the quality of a product or service is important, it is worthwhile to have a section on the performance appraisal on quality.

30

Another reason for conducting performance appraisals is that they provide important records for the organization.  They are a useful source of information when deciding on raises, promotions, and discipline, and they provide evidence that these were administered fairly.  In the case of employee behavior or performance problems, an appraisal documents the problem.

Systematically Appraising Performance

For appraisals to deliver their potential benefits, they must be as fair and accurate as possible.  Supervisors should be systematic in appraising performance.

Appraisal Process

Establish and Communicate Expectations: During the planning process and related action plans, the supervisor spells out who is to do what in order to accomplish the department objectives. This information will indicate what each employee must do in order to help the department or work group meet its objectives. One approach is to list three to five major responsibilities of each position; then focus on these responsibilities. Observe and Measure Individual Performance: Through the control process, the supervisor should continuously gather information about each employee‘s performance. This is an ongoing process, not something the supervisor saves to do when filling out appraisal forms. Reinforce Performance: To keep employees motivated and informed, the supervisor needs to tell them when they are doing something right, not just

31

when they are making a mistake. Reinforce good performance by pointing out to employees the areas in which their performance is good.

Avoiding Discrimination in Performance Appraisals The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) is the government agency charged with enforcing federal laws against discrimination. The EEOC has published the Uniform Guidelines of Employee Selection Procedures, which include guidelines for designing and implementing performance appraisals.

Types of Appraisals

Types of commonly used performance appraisal techniques include:     Graphic rating scales. Paired-comparison approach. Forced-choice approach. Essay appraisal.

Preparing for a Performance Appraisal

Preparation for the interview begins with completing the appraisal form.   The supervisor should allow enough time to complete the form carefully and thoughtfully. The supervisor should think about how the employee is likely to react to the appraisal and should plan how to handle the employee‘s reaction.  Also be ready with some ideas for how to correct problems noted in the appraisal. Notify the employee ahead of the time of the interview.  Arrange for a private place to hold the interview.

32



Make arrangements to prevent interruptions.  This is a very important event for both the supervisor and the employee--treat it as such.

In preparation for the appraisal interview, it is also useful for the supervisor to review for himself or herself why appraisals are important for the organization, department, and most of all for the supervisor to be competent at the job. When the supervisor is convinced the performance is a positive enterprise and that it can be a win-win situation, it will be easier to do the interview.

Guidelines for Conducting the Interview

Begin the interview session by an attempt to put the employee at ease.    A refreshment and small talk may help break the ice. Review the employee‘s self-evaluation first, if there is one. Ask for reasons for the various ratings. Then the supervisor describes his or her evaluation of the employee.  Start with an overall impression, then explain the contents of the appraisal forms.  Most employees are waiting for the ―bad news,‖ so it is probably most effective to describe areas for improvement first.  Then describe the employee‘s strengths. Allow time for the employee to respond to the performance appraisal.   The employee should be allowed to agree or disagree with the supervisor‘s conclusions, as well as to ask questions. It is important for the supervisor to keep an open mind and listen to the employee.

33

When the supervisor and employee understand each other‘s point of view, they should reach a decision on how to solve problems described in the appraisal.   At the end of the interview, the supervisor and employee are usually required to sign the appraisal form. By doing so, they acknowledge that the interview has been conducted and that the employee has read and understood the form. After the interview is over, the supervisor continues to appraise performance. Training and coaching for improvement should ensue. The follow-up is an ongoing process.

34

ASSESSMENT METHOD OF SELECTION
Reliability

Reliability is the degree to which a measure of physical or cognitive abilities, or traits, is free from random error. The correlation coefficient is a measure of the degree to which two sets of numbers are related.   A perfect positive relationship equals +1.0 A perfect negative relationship equals - 1.0

Knowing how scores on the measure at one time relate to scores on the same measure at another time refers to test-retest reliability.

Validity

Validity is the extent to which a performance measure assesses all the relevant—and only the relevant—aspects of job performance. Criterion-related validation is a method of establishing the validity of a personnel selection method by showing a substantial correlation between test scores and job-performance scores. The types include:   Predictive validation Concurrent validation

Content Validation Content validation is a test-validation strategy performed by demonstrating that the items, questions, or problems posed by a test are a representative sample of the kinds of situations or problems that occur on the job.  Best for small samples
35



Content validity is achieved primarily through a process of expert judgment

Generalizability

Generalizability is the degree to which the validity of a selection method established in one context extends to other contexts. Three contexts include:    different situations different samples of people different time periods

Utility

Utility is the degree to which the information provided by selection methods enhances the effectiveness of selecting personnel in organizations. It is impacted by reliability, validity, and generalizability.

Legality

All selection methods must conform to existing laws and legal precedents. Three acts have formed the basis for a majority of the suits filed by job applicants:    Civil Rights Act of 1964 and 1991 Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1991

36

Techniques for the Assessment

1. Psychological Tests 2. Biographical Inventory 3. Interview 4. Work Sample 5. Assessment Center 6. Electronic Assessment

Characteristics of Psychological Test

1. Group Versus Individually Administered Tests 2. Objective Versus Open-Ended Tests 3. Paper-and-Pencil Versus Performance Tests 4. Power Versus Speed Tests 5. Ability Tests   Cognitive Ability Tests Psychomotor Ability Tests

6. Knowledge and Skill or Achievement Tests 7. Personality Tests 8. Integrity Tests: Overt Versus Personality 9. Vocational Interest Tests 10. Emotional Intelligence: Trait Versus Information Processing 11. Drug Testing

Biographical Information

Biographical Inventory Detailed information about a person‘s background

37

Empirical vs. Rational Predictive of job performance

Interviews

Used in almost every hiring situation Most acceptable to college students in US and France (Steiner & Gilliland, 1996 Relates to cognitive ability (Huffcutt et al., 1996) Structured vs. Unstructured Structured much more valid in predicting performance

Work Samples

Simulation of actual job tasks Good predictors of future job performance Acceptability by applicants because of obvious job relevance High face validity

Assessment Centers

Simulation of management and other white collar jobs 44% of British employers who hire college students use (Keenan, 1995) In US used mainly for promotion and selection of managers Can also be used for employee development Overall scores valid predictors of performance Dimension scores often not valid Assesses how person fits role (Russell & Domm, 1995)

38

Electronic Assessment Electronic administration of psychological test Web-based assessment Can administer customized test Makes scoring easier and quicker Tailored testing Trend or wave of the future?

39

SELECTING EMPLOYEES

What is selection?

The process of collecting and evaluating information about an individual in order to extend an offer of employment   Either a first position for a new employee Or a different position for a current employee

Performed under legal and environmental constraints Addresses the future interests of the organization

Basic objective of selection

Separate, from a pool of applicants for a job, those that have the appropriate knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to perform well on the job. To do so, the selection specialist must systematically collect information from the applicants about how much of the necessary KSA each possesses.

Crucial Issue in Selection

The crucial issue is not whether an organization can collect information from applicants and then decide which are to be given employment offers. The issue is whether the organization can collect information from applicants about individual characteristics that are closely related to job performance and effectively use these data to identify the best applicants for employment offers

40

Steps in the Development of Selection Program 1. Job analysis:   The gathering of information about a job in an organization Information should describe:  Tasks or activities engaged in  The results of those tasks or activities  The equipment and materials used  The individuals  The environment 2. Identification of relevant job performance dimensions:   What constitutes successful job performance? What do the workers need to know and be able to do upon entering the job to be successful at the job?  Some things can be learned on the job and therefore are less critical in the selection process 3. Identify the KSAs necessary for the job:    These are the prerequisites to performance What must a worker know? What skills and abilities must he or she possess to perform the critical job tasks?

41

4.

Development of assessment devices to measure KSAs  Once you‘ve identified the KSAs needed, you have to measure those KSAs in applicants for the job  Tests  Interview questions  Demonstrations of skills  Etc. 5. Validation of assessment devices  Validation is the steps taken to collect and evaluate information to determine whether the worker characteristics thought to be important to job performance are, in fact, related to successful job performance  If not, you need to revise  So that you get the best people  Legal reasons 6. Use of assessment devices in processing of applicants  Once you‘re sure your assessment methods work, use them.

Why not more information?    Measurement   Why are numbers necessary in the selection process? Because they facilitate comparison of people
42

Better selection decisions can be made when the data collected are accurate and complete. The greater the amount of accurate data collected, the more complete the assessment will be. So, why do selection specialists only obtain limited information?

 

Gives you information better than words alone Permit statistical manipulation, which provides even more information about the selection program

Problem of measurement  The problem for selection specialists is to ensure that the numbers generated are actually accurate descriptions of the characteristics of the applicant, job, or job performance    Can measure anything But should only measure what‘s important Analyze measurements in a meaningful way

Legal issues with selection Very important for a company to adopt clear, effective, measurable selection procedures that do not unfairly discriminate between groups of individuals Those procedures should measure only the person‘s ability to do a job Must be able to prove that your procedures are measuring only that Otherwise, organization is very vulnerable if discrimination charges are brought against them Two major objectives of every selection program To maximize the probability of making accurate selection decisions about applicants To ensure that these selection decisions are carried out in such a manner as to minimize the chance of a judgment of discrimination being made against organization Equal Employment Opportunity EEO regulation is directed at addressing social and economic problems It is directed toward the solution of national issues such as employment inequalities
43

EEO Regulations Two components:  The laws and executive orders that state general principles and empower regulatory agencies (EEOC, OFCC, federal courts, state courts, state agencies) Court decisions that interpret these general principles in specific situations



EEO Laws and Executive Orders EEO laws are federal laws whose purpose is the elimination of discrimination in HR management decisions EEO executive orders are statements made by the executive branch of the government intended for the same purpose, but aimed at organizations that do business directly with the government ADA of 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act Prohibits pre-employment inquires about a person‘s disability. Places the responsibility on the disabled person to bring any relevant disability to the employer‘s attention. Many applications will specifically ask if you have a disability that would interfere with your ability to perform a job. This is illegal. Disparate treatment / impact EEO laws and executive orders prohibit discrimination in selection. But what precisely is discrimination? One of two things:   Disparate treatment Disparate impact (adverse impact)

44

Disparate Treatment Refers to those situations in which different standards are applied to various groups of individuals, even though there may not be an explicit statement of intentional prejudice Example: Not hiring women with young children but hiring men with young children Example: Hiring minorities for cleaning positions in a restaurant and hiring whites with similar qualifications for wait staff or cashiering Disparate Impact When selection standards are applied uniformly to all groups of applicants, but the net result of such standards is to produce differences in the selection of various groups. Example: requiring a high school diploma, which unfairly limits the % of minority applicants Example: height requirements, which unfairly limit women, Asian Americans and Latin Americans Evidence In both types of discrimination there must be evidence that the discrimination has occurred. But the way in which evidence is presented differs depending on whether it is a case of disparate treatment or disparate impact. Title VII discrimination cases In a Title VII discrimination case (discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin) the following steps are involved in presentation of evidence (see table 2.2)… Disparate Treatment Step 1 Plaintiff  Demonstrates that he or she belongs to a protected class

45

  

He or she applied and was qualified for a job for which the company was seeking applicants Despite these qualifications, he or she was rejected After this rejection, the position remained open and the employer continued to seek applicants from persons with the complainant‘s qualifications

Disparate Treatment Step 2 Defendant  Provides a clear and specific job-based explanation for actions

Disparate Treatment Step 3 Plaintiff  Proves that the defendant‘s argument is a pretext and the true reason for rejection was prejudice

Disparate Impact Step 1 Plaintiff  Demonstrates statistically that this HRM practice affects various groups differently in comparison to their distribution in the relevant labor market

Disparate Impact Step 2 Defendant  Demonstrates at least one of the following: • • • Business necessity Bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) Validation data

Disparate Impact Step 3 Plaintiff
46



Proves that an alternative practice is available that has less adverse impact

BFOQ One way of fighting a discrimination charge is by demonstrating bona fide occupational qualification. A BFOQ defense means that no person of a particular sex, race, color, religion, or national origin can adequately perform the given job. This has mainly been related to sex or religion cases Legally, it is impossible to frame a BFOQ defense for race, color, or national origin Statistics With both forms of discrimination, statistics become important in helping to show the discrimination either did or did not occur Disparate treatment: statistics are mainly used to assist the plaintiff in rebutting the defendant‘s explanation of the selection practice under question Disparate impact: statistics are most often used by the plaintiff in demonstrating that a pattern of adverse effect has occurred Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures (1978) These guidelines show how you should set up your selection program. Prior to this time, both the EEOC and the Department of Labor had issued separate guidelines that conflicted with respect to certain procedures. Problem was that you could not conform to both sets of guidelines. Therefore, you could not avoid the threat of trouble from both agencies. Later the courts ruled that the joint guidelines will be used almost as a checklist for any court cases. Therefore they are very significant.

47

Unacceptable Skills and Abilities According to the joint guidelines, skills and abilities easily learned during a brief training program are not acceptable as selection requirements Affirmative action programs An affirmative action program (AAP) applies to a set of specific actions taken by an organization to meet the objectives of EEO law. Typically an affirmative action plan is created to explicitly state the steps the organization will take in selection. Three situations to adopt AAP Being a government contractor Having lost a court discrimination case or having signed a consent decree Voluntarily attempting to implement EEO principles Government Contractors Most of the EEO laws and executive orders require AAPs for government contractors with contracts of at least $10,000 So, they have good reason to adopt AAPs (they have to) Losing a discrimination case Often a part of losing the case entails that the organization legally has to adopt an AAP So, they also have a good reason to adopt AAPs (they also have to) Voluntary adoption An organization may decide, on its own, to implement an AAP to promote diversity However, this can get tricky In the process of being fair to traditional victims of discrimination, the company may bend over backwards and end up discriminating other groups.

48

By discriminating against those other groups and thus violating parts of Title VII, the organization opens itself to charges reverse discrimination. Griggs v. Duke Power (1971) 13 African American employees filed a class-action suit against Duke Power. They were charging discriminatory employment practices The claim was based on newly implemented selection requirements (high school diplomas, passage of a mechanical aptitude test, and an IQ test) According to the plaintiffs, these tests unfairly screened out a much higher percentage of African Americans than whites. The requirements did not affect current employees, just future employees (applicants) Duke Power made no attempt to determine the job relatedness of the selection requirements A lower district court found in favor of the company on the grounds that there was no discriminatory intent. An appellate court agreed district court However, the Supreme Court, in an unanimous decision, reversed the previous decisions The court ruled that a lack of discriminatory intent was not a sufficient defense against the use of employment devices that exclude on the basis of race. The court held that tests and other measuring devices must be related to job performance. Duke Power had workers who did not meet the selection requirements (the ones who had been hired before the requirements were put into place). Those workers had performed their jobs successfully Therefore, Duke Power had no evidence relating the selection requirements to job performance

49

Important precedents set by Griggs v. Duke Power The applicant has the burden of proving the adverse impact of a particular selection device Once adverse impact has been established, the burden of proof shifts to the employer The employer must prove the validity or job relatedness of the device

Selection Problem: Choose the Best Person For the Job Best performer Best social fit (team player) Best person job fit (worker adjustment/well-being)    Empirical process: Data based and objective Legal process: Government regulation and law Utility: Benefit of using a selection procedure

Hiring Process

Planning and Recruitment Planning: Anticipating needs for human resources   Expansion vs. replacements Labor markets

Recruitment

50

     

Advertising Employee referral Employment agencies School recruiters Walk-ins Web (Monster website)

Preliminary Concepts Reliability        Test-retest Internal consistency: Multiple items required

Validity Criterion related  Concurrent vs. predictive Content Face Convergent vs. Discriminant Construct: Overall case necessary for legal defense

Making Selection Decisions Human judgment: Hire whoever seems best I/O approach: Use empirically (research-based) proven assessment methods Steps involved in I/O method       1. Analyze job 2. Define criteria 3. Define abilities needed 4. Choose potential predictors 5. Validate (determine equation) 6. Cross-validate

51

Multiple cutoff option: Must meet each selection requirement Multiple regression: Must achieve a certain total score regardless of performance on each requirement Validity generalization: Effective selection devices work in all settings Utility Value of selection system to the organization Cost/benefit ratio Utility is maximized by      1. Validity of selection device—should be high 2. Selection ratio (hired/applicants)—should be low 3. Baseline for success—should be 50% 4. Cost of selection program—should be low 5. Cost of bad selection (recruitment, training, low productivity)— should be high Hunter-Schmidt programmer aptitude test for federal government     Cost: $6000/year Estimated gain: $5.6 million to 97.2 million If universally adopted could save $1.5 billion in U.S. However, this assumes unlimited supply of applicants and no constraints on performance in organizations

52

TRAINING EMPLOYEES Training in Organizations Training can be very valuable by    Increasing employee competence and performance Increasing employee motivation Increasing employee adjustment and well-being

Not always effective because training    is for the wrong thing given to the wrong people uses the wrong methods

Steps to Developing Training

Needs Assessment Determining which employees need training Determining what training should be done According to Goldstein (1986, 1991), needs assessment should focus on three levels: i) Organization ii) Job iii) Person

53

Major methods     Job analysis: KSAO's necessary for the job Critical incidents: E.g., hospital incident reports Performance appraisal: Can be part of a performance management system Employee surveys

Setting Objectives The objectives of training are based on criteria and include a statement of what a trainee should be able to do or know after training The training criteria is a statement of how achievement of the training objective can be assessed Criteria serve as the basis for the design of organizational training Training Design Goal: Transfer of training to job Factors to Consider   Trainee characteristics Design factors that affect transfer of training  Feedback  General principles  Identical elements  Over learning (Practice)  Sequencing of Training Sessions part versus whole and massed versus spaced  Work Environment  Training Methods
54

Training Methods 1. Audiovisual Instruction 2. Auto instruction 3. Conference 4. Lecture 5. Modeling 6. On-the-Job Training 7. Role Playing 8. Simulations

Delivery of A Training Program In most organizations specialists who are skilled in training deliver the program They may or may not be experts in the content of the training or in training design
55

Evaluation

Set Criteria Training criteria   Reactions Learning

Performance criteria   Behavior Results

Choose Design   Pretest-posttest Control group

Pretest-Posttest Design

56

Control Group Design

Choose Measures of the Criteria Collecting Data Data Analysis and Interpretation

57

JOB SATISFACTION & ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT

Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is an attitudinal variable that reflects how people feel about their jobs overall as well as various aspects of them. Organizational commitment It is attachment to the job and another popular attitudinal variable in the work domain. Nature of Job Satisfaction Global approach: Overall satisfaction with work Facet approach: Satisfaction with aspects of the job     Pay Promotion Supervision Nature of work

Most people like the job overall Facet satisfactions vary   Highest: Nature of work Lowest: Pay and Promotion opportunities

58

Mean levels of U.S. Satisfaction On the Job Satisfaction Survey

Assessment Self-report survey    Easy to use Can be anonymous Person best judge of own feelings

Standard scales exist  Job Descriptive Index (JDI)  5 facets of job satisfaction  Job In General (JIG)  Global job satisfaction Scales exist for commitment and emotion Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental Job characteristics   Hackman & Oldham Characteristics  Psychological States  Job satisfaction

59

 

Strong research support linking perceptions of characteristics to job satisfaction Weak research support linking objective characteristics to job satisfaction

Pay  Salary compared to people in same job more important than different jobs

Justice  Distributive and Procedural related to global and facet satisfaction

Job Characteristics Theory

Antecedents of Job Satisfaction: Environmental Personality   Gender
60

Negative affectivity (high NAs less satisfied) Locus of control (externals less satisfied)

 Age 

Few gender differences

Curvilinear—satisfaction lowest age 26 to 31

Culture and Ethnicity   Few racial differences within the U.S. Western countries score higher than Asians  Could be due to response styles rather than true feelings Person-Job Fit Match between individual and the job People differ in reactions to same situation Characteristics of the person is a moderator  Moderator: Variable that affects relationship between two other variables

Growth need strength (GNS)   People high on GNS are more satisfied with high scope jobs People low on GNS are not more satisfied with high scope jobs

Effects of Job Satisfaction Job Performance   Small correlation More evidence that performance causes satisfaction than reverse

Turnover   Dissatisfied people more likely to quit Moderated by labor market—people quit when they find another job

Absence
61



Very small correlation—other factors more important

Health and Well-Being  Job satisfaction relates to health variables such as anxiety and depression

Life Satisfaction   Job satisfaction important component of life satisfaction Spillover

Organizational Commitment One commitment, three components     Mowday, Steers, Porter Acceptance of organization goals Intention to stay on the job Willingness to work hard

Three commitments     Meyer and Allen Affective: Like the job Continuance: Need the job Normative: Feel obligated to stay on the job

Commitment and Other Variables Similar correlations as job satisfaction High commitment associated with    High job scope High job satisfaction Low job stressors
62



Job Scope

Emotions and Work Emotion state: How you feel now Emotion mood: How you have been feeling lately Positive emotions: Feeling good    Greater creativity Higher job satisfaction More contextual performance

Negative emotions: Feeling bad    Lower job satisfaction Higher absence More turnover

Emotional Labor Requirement at work to express or inhibit emotional display   Smiling at customers Not showing anger toward clients

Some studies showed that acting happy can lead to job satisfaction Emotional dissonance: Expressing emotion you don‘t feel  Leads to dissatisfaction and stress

63

WORK GROUPS &WORK TEAMS

Work Group A work group is a collection of two or more people who interact with one another and share some interrelated task goals.

Work Team A work team is a type of work group, but a team has three specific properties (Baker, 1991): 1. The actions of individuals must be interdependent and coordinated. 2. Each member must have a particular, specified role. 3. There must be common task goals and objectives. Group/Team Concepts Roles: Specialization of function within positions   Status   Norms        Expected & accepted behavioral standards Productivity norms Dress norms Power & influence, prestige, respect Partially inherent in role Formal: position title and description define with job analysis Informal: Emergent behavior in group

Group Cohesiveness: Attraction of group members toward staying in group High cohesive groups Lower turnover Stronger adherence to norms (homogenizer of behavior) Greater satisfaction
64



Greater group influence

Team Commitment  Strength of an individual‘s involvement in team and acceptance of team goals Team Mental Model  Shared understanding of task by team members

Process Loss  Effort/time spent by team members on non-task activities

Stages in Team Building

Stages in Team Building    Stage I: Forming – Provide clear direction to establish the team‘s purpose, setting goals, etc., Stage II: Storming – Provide strong, hands-on leadership to keep people talking and task-focused Stage III: Norming – Codes of behaviour becomes established and an identifiable group culture emerges. People begin to enjoy each other‘s company and appreciate each other‘s contributions Stage IV: Performing – Teams that reach this stage achieve results easily and enjoyably. People work together well and can improve systems, solve problems and provide excellent customer service.
65





Stage V: Adjourning – Temporary project team reaches this stage; celebrate their team‘s achievements.

Types of Teams 1. Problem-solving teams – groups of 5-12 employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment.  These teams are rarely given the opportunity to unilaterally implement any of their suggested actions, i.e. lack of employee involvement in decisionmaking process.

2.

Self-managed work teams – groups of employees (typically 10-15) who perform highly related or interdependent jobs (e.g. planning, assigning tasks to members, making operational decisions, and taking action on problems) and take on many of the responsibilities of their previous supervisors.  Members report higher job satisfaction but also higher absenteeism and turnover rates – situation dependent.

3. Cross-functional teams – employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. Examples include ‗Task force‘, ‗Committees‘.  It takes time to build trust and teamwork, especially among people from different backgrounds, with different experiences and perspectives.

4. Virtual teams – that use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.   Allow people to work together who might otherwise never be able to collaborate. Suffer from less social rapport and less direct interaction among members.

Considerations Before Deciding To Use Teams Teams are not always preferable to individuals. Three conditions favor teams: (a) The work is complex and can be done better by more than one person;

66

(b) The work has a common purpose or set of goals that is more than the aggregate of individual goals; and (c) There is interdependence between tasks. Key Factors to Successful Performance of a Team S.C.O.R.E.  Strategy  Clear Roles and Responsibility  Open Communication  Rapid Response  Effective Leadership S.C.O.R.E.  Strategy:  Shared purpose  Clearly articulated values and ground rules  Understanding of risks and opportunities facing the team  Clear categorization of the overall responsibilities of the team  Clear Roles and Responsibilities:  Clear definition of roles and responsibilities  Responsibility shared by all members  Specific objectives to measure individual results  Open communication:  Respect for individual differences  Open communication environment among team members  Rapid response:  Rapid response to the team‘s problems
67

 Effective management to change in the internal and external environment  Effective Leadership:  Team leader who is able to help members achieve the objective and build the team  Team leader who can draw out and free up the skills of all team members, develop individuals Components of Effective Teams 1. Context – adequate resources, leadership and structure, climate of trust, performance evaluation and reward systems. 2. Composition – abilities of members, personality, allocating roles, diversity, size of teams, member flexibility, member preferences. 3. Work design – autonomy, skill variety, task identity, task significance. 4. Process – common purpose, specific goals, team efficiency, conflict levels, social loafing.

68