Psychology

History of Psychology
The history of psychology as a scholarly study of the mind and behavior dates back to
the Ancient Greeks. There is also evidence of psychological thought in ancient
Egypt. Psychology was a branch of philosophy until the 1870s, when it developed as an
independent scientific discipline in Germany and the United States. Psychology borders on
various other fields including physiology,neuroscience, artificial
intelligence, sociology, anthropology, as well as philosophy and other components of
the humanities.
Today, psychology is defined as "the study of behavior and mental processes". Philosophical
interest in the mind and behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations
of Egypt, Persia, Greece, China, and India. For a condensed overview of the subject see
the Timeline of Psychology article.
Psychology as a self-conscious field of experimental study began in 1879, when Wilhelm
Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig.
Wundt was also the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist and wrote the first textbook
on psychology: Principles of Physiological Psychology. Other important early contributors to the
field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in the study of memory), William James (the
American father of pragmatism), and Ivan Pavlov (who developed the procedures associated
with classical conditioning).
Soon after the development of experimental psychology, various kinds of applied psychology
appeared. G. Stanley Hall brought scientific pedagogy to the United States from Germany in the
early 1880s. John Dewey's educational theory of the 1890s was another example. Also in the
1890s, Hugo Münsterberg began writing about the application of psychology to industry, law,
and other fields.Lightner Witmer established the first psychological clinic in the 1890s. James
McKeen Cattell adapted Francis Galton's anthropometric methods to generate the first program
of mental testing in the 1890s. In Vienna, meanwhile, Sigmund Freuddeveloped an independent
approach to the study of the mind called psychoanalysis, which has been widely influential.
The 20th century saw a reaction to Edward Titchener's critique of Wundt's empiricism. This
contributed to the formulation ofbehaviorism by John B. Watson, which was popularized by B. F.
Skinner. Behaviorism proposed emphasizing the study of overt behavior, because that could be
quantified and easily measured. Early behaviorists considered study of the "mind" too vague for
productive scientific study. However, Skinner and his colleagues did study thinking as a form of
covert behavior to which they could apply the same principles as overt (publicly observable)
behavior. The final decades of the 20th century saw the rise of cognitive science, an
interdisciplinary approach to studying the human mind. Cognitive science again considers the
"mind" as a subject for investigation, using the tools of evolutionary
psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, behaviorism, and neurobiology. This form
of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that
such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.


Behavior
Behavior or behaviour is the range of actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems,
or artificial entities in conjunction with themselves or their environment, which includes the other
systems or organisms around as well as the (inanimate) physical environment. It is the
response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether
internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.

Kinds of behaviors
a. Overt : behavior that is observable by others and can be seen readily (ex. Laughing,
shouting, talking, etc.)
b. Covert : behavior that is internal therefore not observable and cannot be seen. This comes in
the forms of feelings, thoughts, and motives (ex. Happy, angry, imaginations, etc.)
Sigmund Freud, a Psychoanalyst classified behavior according to a person’s awareness
of his behavior, to wit:
a. Conscious Behavior : any behavior that the person is aware of (ex. walking, eating, etc.)
b. Unconscious Behavior : any behavior that the person is not aware of (ex. mannerisms,
shaking of the legs while sitting, biting your fingers, playing, with your pen while listening to your
teacher’s discussion, etc.)

Structuralism
Structuralism, as the name suggests, was centered on investigating the structure of the mind.
Wundt believed that psychology should focus on breaking down consciousness into its basic
elements, in much the same way a child would pull apart a toy to reveal its component parts.
The idea of determining the specific structure of something so abstract and dynamic as the mind
may seem absurd to many today. Yet, structuralists were confident that not only could they
accomplish this goal, but that they could do so scientifically.
Functionalism
The mind is fluid, not stable; consciousness is ongoing, not static. Attempts to study the
structure of the mind would therefore be futile at worst and frustrating at best. A more fruitful
endeavor, they argued, would be to study the function, as opposed to the structure, of the mind.
Function in this sense can mean one of two things – first, how the mind operates – that is, how
the elements of the mind work together – and second, how mental processes promote
adaptation. Clearly influenced by the teachings of Charles Darwin and the principle of natural
selection (survival of the fittest), James believed that mental processes serve vital functions that
enable us to adapt and survive in a changing world. Thus, while the structuralists asked ―what
happens‖ when we engage in mental activity, the functionalists were more concerned with ―how
it happens‖ and ―why.‖

Psychoanalysis

Mention the word psychology, and few persons would fail to recall Sigmund Freud. Like the
structuralists and functionalists before him, Freud believed in studying covert behavior, but
unlike his predecessors, Freud was not content with examining only conscious thought; he
dived head-first into the unconscious. Freud compared the human psyche to an iceberg – only a
small portion is visible to others with most of it lying below the surface. Freud also believed that
many of the factors that influence our thoughts and actions lie outside of conscious awareness
and operate entirely in our unconscious. Psychology therefore needed to study these
unconscious drives, motives and impulses to arrive at a more complete understanding of the
individual.

Behaviourism
Despite their differences, structuralism, functionalism and psychoanalysis all shared an
emphasis on mental processes – events that are unseen to the naked eye. John B. Watson, a
staunch supporter of behaviourism, strongly objected to this approach and prompted a
revolution in psychology. Watson was an advocate of scientific scrutiny but for him, covert
behavior, including mental processes, could not be studied scientifically. The emphasis, from his
perspective, should only be on overt or observable behavior. Behaviourists believed that human
behavior can be understood by examining the relationship between stimuli (events in the
environment) and responses (observable behavior). They saw no need to employ subjective
techniques such as introspection to infer mental processes over which even trained subjects
and researchers could not agree. What was once the study of the mind thus became the study
of observable behaviour.

Gestalt Psychology
The word ―gestalt‖ means ―form, pattern or whole.‖ Gestalt psychologists believed that
psychology should study human experience as a ―whole,‖ not in terms of separate elements as
the structuralists would contend. Their slogan, ―the whole is greater than the sum of its parts‖
conveyed the idea that meaning is often lost when psychological events are broken down; only
when these pieces are analyzed together and the whole pattern is visible do we find true
meaning in our experiences. To use an example, imagine breaking apart the words you are now
reading into individual letters and scattering them as you wish across the page. Would you be
able to discern anything meaningful from them? Quite likely, you wouldn’t. Only when the letters
are properly combined to form words and then structured into sentences do you grasp any true
meaning. The ―whole‖ then becomes something different, something greater than the
accumulation of its ―parts.‖


Humanistic Psychology
With the rise of each school of thought mentioned previously, the face of psychology was
gradually taking shape. Yet, not all were satisfied with the way things were progressing.
Foremost among these were the humanistic psychologists, such as Carl Rogers, who were
uncomfortable with the highly deterministic view of two of the major forces in psychology –
psychoanalysis and behaviourism. Determinism is the idea that our actions are controlled by
forces beyond our control. For the psychoanalysts, these forces are unconscious; for the
behaviourists, they exist in our environment. Humanistic psychologists, however, viewed
humans as free agents capable of controlling their own lives (as opposed to being controlled),
making their own choices, setting goals and working to achieve them. Humanism asserted a
positive view of human nature, stressing that humans are inherently good. A unique form of
therapy also emerged out of this school of thought, with emphasis on helping people to achieve
their full potential. This differed greatly from psychoanalysis which only focused on reducing
maladaptive behavior.

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
Abnormal Psychology
Abnormal behavior is defined as behavior that is considered to be maladaptive or deviant by the
social culture in which it occurs. Though disagreement exists regarding which particular
behaviors can be classified as abnormal, psychologists have defined several criteria for
purposes of classification. One is that the behavior occurs infrequently and thus deviates from
statistical norms. Another is …
Applied Psychology
Applied psychology can be best understood by comparing it to the area of psychology known as
basic psychology, which is concerned with answering questions about behavior through
psychological theory and research. Applied psychology utilizes this knowledge to actively
intervene in the treatment of individuals with mental or emotional disorders, and is also
employed in business, education, and gover…
Counseling Psychology
While the counseling psychologist may diagnose, assess, and treat adjustment difficulties, they
often address problems which are more moderate than those encountered by the clinical
psychologist. Clients of counseling psychologists are people who need help coping with the
stresses of everyday life, and the focus is on strengthening their existing resources rather than
overcoming disorders or defic…
Cross-Cultural Psychology
Studies in this discipline attempt to expand the compass of psychological research beyond the
few highly industrialized nations on which it has traditionally focused. While definitions of what
constitutes a culture vary widely, most experts concur that "culture" involves patterns of
behavior, symbols, and values. The prominent anthropologist Clifford Geertz has described
culture as &…
Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychologists study how characteristics and behaviors first appear and how and
when they change. They study the relationships between different types of development, such
as cognitive and social, as well as individual variations in development, both normal and
deviant. Initially, developmental psychology focused on childhood but was subsequently
expanded to cover changes that occur o…
Differential Psychology
The earliest research in the field of differential psychology began in the late nineteenth century
with Francis Galton's investigation of the effects of heredity on individual intelligence and his
pioneering work in intelligence testing, which was further advanced by James McKeen Cattell
and Alfred Binet. It was Binet who developed the first standardized intelligence test. Growth in
related…
Educational Psychology
Educational psychology departments in many universities provide training to educators, school
psychologists, and other educational professionals. Applied research in this field focuses on
how to improve teaching, solve learning problems, and measure learning ability and progress.
Other concerns of educational psychology include cognitive development, the dynamics of pupil
behavior, and the psychol…
Ethology
The pioneering work of Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen in the 1930s established a
theoretical foundation for ethology, which has had an effect on such wide-ranging disciplines as
genetics, anthropology, and political science in addition to psychology. Ethologists believe that
an animal must be studied on its own terms rather than primarily in relation to human beings,
with a focus on its normal b…
Etiology - The change in theory
Psychological etiology refers to the scientific investigation into the origins of a disorder that
cannot be explained biologically. Etiology is complicated by the fact that most disorders have
more than one cause. Early etiological theories were the Freudian and post-Freudian
psychoanalytic beliefs. Sigmund Freud attributed mental or neurotic disorders to deep-seated or
hidden psychic motivations.…
Existential Psychology - History of the movement
Existential psychology is an approach to psychology and psychotherapy that is based on
several premises, including: understanding that a "whole" person is more than the sum of his or
her parts; understanding people by examining their interpersonal relationships, understanding
that people have many levels of self-awareness that can be neither ignored nor put into an
abstract context, …
Experimental Psychology
Experimental psychologists work to understand the underlying causes of behavior by studying
humans and animals. Animals are studied within and outside laboratory settings for a variety of
reasons. A researcher may wish to learn more about a particular species, to study how different
species are interrelated, to investigate the evolutionary significance of certain behaviors, or to
learn more about …
Forensic Psychology
Forensic psychologists often work within the judicial system in such diverse areas as
determining an inmate's readiness for parole; evaluation of rehabilitation programs; criminal
competency; tort liability and damages; eyewitness testimony and evidence; jury selection; and
police training. Forensic psychology may also be employed in other areas of jurisprudence,
including patent and tradem…
Gestalt Psychology
The Gestaltists were at odds with the popular school of psychology of the day, known as
structuralism, whose proponents believed that the mind consists of units or elements and could
be understood by mapping and studying them in combination. The Gestalt psychologists
believed that mental experience was dependent not on a simple combination of elements but on
the organization and patterning of expe…
Health Psychology
Health psychology is a diverse area with a variety of emphases. Medical psychology focuses on
the clinical treatment of patients with physical illnesses, offering practical advice people can use
in order to improve their health. While there is special emphasis on psychosomatic disorders—
those that have traditionally been most closely related to psychological factors—the current
trend…
Humanistic Psychology - Theories and therapeutic applications, Research
Humanistic psychology evolved in the 1960s as a reaction to psychodynamic psychology and
behaviorism. Humanists objected to the pessimistic view of human nature advocated by
psychodynamic psychologists who saw the selfish pursuit of pleasure as the root of all human
behavior. They also felt that the behaviorists' beliefs that all human behavior is the product of
environmental influences red…
Industrial Psychology
Some industrial psychologists, also called personnel or organizational psychologists, may be
employed by companies to administer tests which measure employee aptitudes or skills in hiring
and placement programs. Others work for consulting firms which offer their services to
companies on a contractual basis to solve specific problems. The projects which they work on
may include facilitating interpe…
Media Psychology - What does psychology have to do with media?, Processing
information
According to reports the average American household has the television on for about seven
hours a day. It is also reported that young people are increasingly turning to the Internet as a
form of escape and information-gathering. The movie industry spends billions of dollars on new
films every year. Advertising currently has more outlets, like television, billborads, magazines,
radio, the Internet,…
Metapsychology
Metapsychology describes the effort to construct or to postulate a systematic and
comprehensive set of general principles encompassing all of psychology, specifically including
elements that are theoretical in addition to elements that are considered to have been
empirically demonstrated; also known as nomothetic psychology. In classical Freudian
psychoanalytical theory, the term metapsychology is…
Occupational Therapist
Occupational therapists help persons with both physical and emotional problems as well as
learning difficulties. Although occupational therapy was initially associated with reintegrating
veterans of First and Second World Wars into the work force, the term "occupation" used in the
context of this profession actually refers to any activity with which persons occupy their time.
Occupat…
Parapsychology
The study of paranormal activities and phenomena has been riddled with controversy since its
conception. It is claimed that some people, utilizing senses beyond the ordinary, exhibit powers
that cannot be explained by traditional science. Skeptics of the paranormal point to the fact that
in over a century since the first serious studies of the paranormal began, usually dated to the
opening of the …
Philosophical Psychology
One of the central questions in philosophical psychology has been the relationship between the
mind and body, a perennial area of inquiry throughout the history of philosophy. Other topics
considered in this discipline include memory, perception, and consciousness; the nature of the
self; the existence of free will; the relationship between thought and emotion; and so-called
irrational phenomena, …
Physiological Psychology
The area of experimental known as physiological psychology has evolved in the 1990s.
Increasingly, the field is being referred to as behavioral neuroscience, replacing physiological
psychology and biological psychology. Nonetheless, the goals of psychologists in this field
remain the same: to utilize basic research to explain behavior in physiological terms, working on
the assumption that for ever…
Psychiatry/Psychiatrist
Psychiatrists treat patients privately and in hospital settings through a combination of
psychotherapy and medication. There are about 41,000 practicing psychiatrists in the United
States. Their training consists of four years of medical school, followed by one year of internship
and at least three years of psychiatric residency. Psychiatrists may receive certification from the
American Board of P…
Psychoanalysis - Psychoanalysis and the development of personality, Freud's critics
Developed in Vienna, Austria, by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), psychoanalysis is based on an
approach in which the therapist helps the patient better understand him- or herself through
examination of the deep personal feelings, relationships, and events that have shaped
motivations and behavior. Freud developed his theories during the end of the 19th and the early
part of the 20th centuries in Vienna…
Psychology/Psychologist
As psychology has grown and changed throughout its history, it has been defined in numerous
ways. As early as 400 B.C., the ancient Greeks philosophized about the relationship of
personality characteristics to physiological traits. Since then, philosophers have proposed
theories to explain human behavior. In the late 1800s the emergence of scientific method gave
the study of psychology a new focus…
Psychophysics - CONCEPTS IN PSYCHOPHYSICS
Psychophysics originated with the research of Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), who first studied
the relationship between incoming physical stimuli and the responses to them. Psychophysicists
have generally used two approaches in studying our sensitivity to stimuli around us: measuring
the absolute threshold or discovering the difference threshold. In studying the absolute
threshold using the method of…
Psychosurgery
Psychosurgery involves severing or otherwise disabling areas of the brain to treat a personality
disorder, behavior disorder or other mental illness. The most common form of psychosurgery is
the lobotomy, where the nerves connecting the frontal lobes of the brain and the thalamus or
hypothalamus are severed. Performed first in the late 1930s, by the 1940s lobotomies were
recommended for patients d…
Psychotherapy - Psychodynamic approach, Behavioral techniques, Cognitive methods,
Family and group therapy
Psychoanalysis, the first modern form of psychotherapy, was called the "talking cure," and the
many varieties of therapy practiced today are still characterized by their common dependence
on a verbal exchange between the counselor or therapist and the person seeking help. The
therapeutic interaction is characterized by mutual trust, with the goal of helping individuals
change destruc…
School Psychology
Developed in 1896 at the University of Pennsylvania in a clinic that studied and treated children
considered morally or mentally defective, the field of school psychology today includes 30,000
psychologists, most of whom work in educational systems throughout the United States. School
psychologists, in various roles within the school systems they serve, focus on the development
and adjustment of t…
Social Psychology
Social psychology is the study of human interaction, including communication, cooperation,
competition, leadership, and attitude development. Although the first textbooks on the subject of
social psychology were published in the early 1900s, much of the foundation for social
psychology studied in the 1990s is based on the work of the behavioral psychologists of the
1930s. Behavioral psychologists …
Sociobiology
In his 1975 work, Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, entomologist Edward O. Wilson first coined
the term "sociobiology" to create a new field of study combining biology and social sciences,
especially anthropology and sociology. Sociobiologists study the biological nature of human
behavior and personality according to the tenet that all social behavior has a biological basis.
The field…
Sports Psychology
Sports—which involve emotion, competition, cooperation, achievement, and play—provide a
rich area for psychological study. People involved in sports attempt to master very difficult skills,
often subjecting themselves to intense physical stress as well as social pressure. When
psychologists began studying sports in the 1930s and 1940s, they focused on motor
performance and the acquis…
Statistics in Psychology
Psychologists rely heavily on statistics to help assess the meaning of the measurements they
make. Sometimes the measurements involve individuals who complete psychological tests; at
other times, the measurements involve statistics that describe general properties of groups of
people or animals. In psychological testing, the psychologist may interpret test results in light of
norms, or the typical…