Runaway Scrape

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Runaway Scrape
forces. Houston’s actions were viewed as cowardice by
the ad interim government, as well as by some of his own
troops. As he and the refugees from Gonzales escaped
first to the Colorado River and then to the Brazos, evacuees from other areas trickled in and new militia groups
arrived to join with Houston.

Occidente state was divided into Sonora and Sinaloa in
1830.
Aguascalientes was separated from Zacatecas in 1835.
The Siete Leyes converted the states into departments.
After its approval, the Federal District was abolished
and reincorporated into the Department of México.
Zacatecas declared independence in 1835, but was
defeated by the army of the Republic.
Texas declared independence 2 October 1835 and
achieved it when Santa Anna signed the Treaty of
Velasco (14 May 1836, never recognized by Mexico).

Alta California

In 1840, Nuevo León, Coahuila and Tamaulipas
declared ephemeral independence as the
Republic of the Río Grande.
Yucatán was independent 1841-1843 and 1846-1848.

Nuevo México

UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA

Sonora
Baja California

Chihuahua

Sinaloa

Durango

Coahuila

Nuevo
León

Tamaulipas

Zacatecas
Territorial division of Mexico
during the First and Second
Centralist Republics (1835 - 1846)

Aguas- San Luis
calientes Potosí
Guanajuato

Jalisco

Departments
Separatist movements
Frontier claimed by Texas
after independence
(1836 - 1848)
Current frontier

The towns of Gonzales and San Felipe de Austin were
burned to keep them out of the hands of the Mexican army. Santa Anna was intent on executing members of the Republic’s ad interim government, who fled
from Washington-on-the-Brazos to Groce’s Landing to
Harrisburg and New Washington. The government officials eventually escaped to Galveston Island, and Santa
Anna burned the towns of Harrisburg and New Washington when he failed to find them. Approximately 5,000
terrified residents of New Washington fled from the Mexican army. After a little over a month of training the
troops, Houston reached a crossroads where he ordered
some of them to escort the fleeing refugees farther east
while he took the main army southeast to engage the Mexican army. The subsequent Battle of San Jacinto resulted
in the surrender of Santa Anna and the signing of the
Treaties of Velasco.

Texas

Colima

Veracruz

Querétaro

Michoacán
Mexico

Tlaxcala

Puebla

Yucatán
Veracruz

Oaxaca

Tabasco

Chiapas
UNITED PROVINCES
OF CENTRAL
AMERICA

A map of Mexico, 1835–46, showing administrative divisions.

The Runaway Scrape was the 1836 evacuation by Texas
residents fleeing the Mexican Army of Operations during the Texas Revolution, from the Battle of the Alamo
through the decisive Battle of San Jacinto. The ad interim government of the new Republic of Texas and
much of the civilian population fled eastward, ahead of
the Mexican forces. The conflict arose after Antonio
López de Santa Anna abrogated the 1824 constitution
of Mexico and established martial law in Coahuila y Tejas. The Texians resisted and declared their independence. It was Sam Houston's responsibility, as the appointed commander-in-chief of the Provisional Army of
Texas (before such an army actually existed), to recruit
and train a military force to defend the population against
troops led by Santa Anna.

1 Prelude
1.1 Ad interim government
In 1834, Mexican president Antonio López de Santa
Anna shifted from a Federalist political ideology to creating a Centralist government and revoked the country’s
Constitution of 1824.[FN 1] That constitution had not only
established Coahuila y Tejas[FN 2] as a new Mexican state,
but had also provided for each state in Mexico to create its own local-level constitution.[3] After eliminating
state-level governments Santa Anna had in effect created
a dictatorship and put Coahuila y Tejas under the military rule of General Martín Perfecto de Cos.[4] When
Santa Anna made Miguel Barragán temporary president,
he also had Barragán install him as head of the Mexican
Army of Operations.[5] Intending to put down all rebellion in Coahuila y Tejas, he began amassing his army on
November 28.[6] General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma led
the Vanguard of the Advance across the Rio Grande in
December.[7]

In what would be an event replayed across Texas, residents on the Gulf Coast and at San Antonio de Béxar
began evacuating in January upon learning of the Mexican army’s troop movements into their area. During
early skirmishes some Texian soldiers surrendered believing they would become prisoners of war, but Santa Anna
demanded their executions. The news of the Battle of
the Alamo and the Goliad massacre instilled fear in the
population and resulted in the mass exodus of the civilian
population of Gonzales, where the opening battle of the
Texian revolution had begun, and where only days before
the fall of the Alamo they had sent a militia to reinforce
the defenders at the mission. The civilian refugees were
accompanied by the newly forming provisional army, as Stephen F. Austin was commander of the existing unHouston bought time to train soldiers and create a mili- paid volunteer Texian army, and at his urging[8] the
tary structure that could go up against Santa Anna’s larger Consultation of 1835 convened in San Felipe de Austin
1

2

1 PRELUDE
region.[18] The Convention of 1836 met at Washingtonon-the-Brazos on March 1.[19] The following day, the 59
delegates created the Republic of Texas by affixing their
signatures to the Texas Declaration of Independence.[20]
Houston’s military authority was expanded on March 4,
to include “the land forces of the Texian army both Regular, Volunteer, and Militia.”[21] The delegates elected the
Republic’s ad interim government on March 16,[22] with
David G. Burnet as president, Lorenzo de Zavala as vice
president, Samuel P. Carson as secretary of state, Thomas
Jefferson Rusk as secretary of war, Bailey Hardeman as
secretary of the treasury, Robert Potter as secretary of
the navy, and David Thomas as attorney general.[23]

1.2 Battle of Gonzales

Sam Houston army recruitment proclamation December 12,
1835
Battle of Gonzales cannon

on November 3. Their creation of a provisional government based on the 1824 constitution[9] established the
General Council as a legislative body with each municipality allotted one representative.[10] Henry Smith was
elected governor without any clearly defined powers of
the position.[11] Sam Houston was in attendance as the
elected representative from Nacogdoches, and also served
as commander of the Nacogdoches militia.[12] The Consultation approved the creation of the Provisional Army
of Texas, a paid force of 2,500 troops. Houston was
named commander-in-chief of the new army and issued
a recruitment Proclamation on December 12.[FN 3][FN 4]
Edward Burleson replaced Austin as commander of the
volunteer army on December 1, but they disbanded on
December 20.[15] Harrisburg was designated the seat of
a deeply divided provisional government on December
30.[16] Most of the General Council wanted to remain part
of Mexico, but with the restoration of the 1824 constitution. Governor Smith supported the opposing faction
who advocated for complete independence. Smith dissolved the General Council on January 10, 1836, but it
was unclear if he had the power to do that. He was impeached on January 11. The power struggle effectively
shut down the government.[17]

The Battle of Gonzales was the onset of a chain of events
that led to what is known as the Runaway Scrape. The
confrontation began in September 1835, when the Mexican government attempted to reclaim a bronze cannon
that it had provided to Gonzales in 1831 to protect the
town against Indian attacks. The first attempt by Corporal Casimiro De León resulted in De León’s detachment being taken prisoners, and the cannon being buried
in a peach orchard.[24] James C. Neill, a veteran who had
served at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend under Andrew
Jackson, was put in charge of the artillery after it was
later dug up and wheel mounted.[25] When Lieutenant
Francisco de Castañeda arrived accompanied by 100 soldiers and made a second attempt at repossessing the
cannon, Texians dared the Mexicans to “come and take
it”.[24] John Henry Moore led 150 Texian militia on October 2 in successfully repelling the Mexican troops. A
“Come and Take It” flag was later fashioned by the women
of Gonzales.[26] The cannon was moved to San Antonio
de Béxar and became one of the artillery pieces used by
the defenders of the Alamo.[FN 5]

The immediate result of the Texian victory at Gonzales was that two days later the number of volunteers had
swelled to over 300, and they were determined to drive
On December 10, the General Council called new elec- the Mexican army out of Texas.[28] Simultaneously, a
tions to choose delegates to determine the fate of the company of volunteers under George M. Collinsworth

1.4

Battle of the Alamo

captured the Presidio La Bahía from the Mexicans on October 9 at the Battle of Goliad.[29] The Mexican government’s response to the unrest in Texas was an October
30 authorization of war.[30] On the banks of the Nueces
River 3 miles (4.8 km) from San Patricio on November
4 during the Battle of Lipantitlán, volunteers under Ira
Westover captured the fort from Mexican troops.[31]

1.3

Béxar

By October 9, Cos had taken over San Antonio de
Béxar.[30] Stephen F. Austin sent an advance scout troop
of 90 men under James Bowie and James Fannin to
observe the Mexican forces. While taking refuge at
Mission Concepción on October 28, they repelled an attack by 275 Mexicans under Domingo Ugartechea during
the battle.[32] Austin continued to send troops to Béxar.
Bowie was ordered on November 26 to attack a Mexican
supply train alleged to be carrying a payroll. The resulting skirmish became known as the Grass Fight, after it
was discovered that the only cargo was grass to feed the
horses.[33] When Austin was selected to join Branch T.
Archer and William H. Wharton on a diplomatic mission to seek international recognition and support, Edward Burleson was named as commander.[34] On December 5, James C. Neill began distracting Cos by firing artillery directly at the Alamo, while Benjamin Milam and
Frank W. Johnson led several hundred volunteers in a surprise attack. The fighting at the Siege of Béxar continued
until December 9 when Cos sent word he wanted to surrender. Cos and his army were sent back to Mexico, but
would later unite with Santa Anna’s forces.[35]
Approximately 300 of the Texian garrison at Béxar
departed on December 30 to join Frank W. Johnson and James Grant on the Matamoros Expedition,
in a planned attack to seize the port for its financial
resources.[36] Proponents of this campaign were hoping
Mexican Federalists[FN 1] would oust Santa Anna and restore the 1824 constitution.[37] When Sesma crossed the
Rio Grande, residents of the Gulf Coast began fleeing
the area in January 1836.[38] Santa Anna ordered General
José de Urrea on February 16 to secure the Gulf Coast.[39]
About 160 miles (260 km) north of Matamoros at San
Patricio, Urrea’s troops ambushed Johnson and members
of the expedition on February 27 at the Battle of San
Patricio. Sixteen Texians were killed, six escaped, and 21
were taken prisoner.[40] Urrea’s troops then turned southwest by some 26 miles (42 km) to Agua Dulce Creek
and on March 2 attacked a group of the expedition led
by Grant, killing all but 11, six of whom were taken prisoner. Five of the men escaped the Battle of Agua Dulce
and joined Fannin who wanted to increase the defense
force at Goliad.[41]

3

1.4 Battle of the Alamo
Main article: Battle of the Alamo
Neill was promoted to lieutenant colonel during his participation in the Siege of Béxar,[25] and 10 days later
Houston placed him in charge of the Texian garrison
in the city.[42] In January residents had begun evacuating ahead of Santa Anna’s approaching forces.[43] Neill
pleaded with Houston for replenishment of troops, supplies and weaponry. The departure of Texians who joined
the Matamoros Expedition had left Neill with only about
100 men. At that point Houston viewed Béxar as a military liability and did not want Santa Anna’s advancing
army gaining control of any remaining soldiers or artillery. He dispatched Bowie with instructions to remove
the artillery, have the defenders abandon the Alamo mission and destroy it.[FN 6] Upon his January 19 arrival[17]
and subsequent discussions with Neill, Bowie decided the
mission was the right place to stop the Mexican army in its
tracks. He stayed and began to help Neill prepare for the
coming attack. Lieutenant Colonel William B. Travis arrived with reinforcements on February 3.[45] When Neill
was given leave to attend to family matters on February
11, Travis assumed command of the mission, and three
days later he and Bowie agreed to a joint command.[46]
Santa Anna crossed the Rio Grande on February 16, and
the Mexican army’s assault on the Alamo began February
23.[39] Captain Juan Seguín left the mission on February
25, carrying a letter from Travis to Fannin at Goliad requesting more reinforcements.[47] Santa Anna extended
an offer of amnesty to Tejanos inside the fortress; a noncombatant survivor, Enrique Esparza, said that most Tejanos left when Bowie advised them to take the offer.[48]
In response to Travis’ February 24 letter To the People of
Texas, 32 militia volunteers formed the Gonzales Ranging Company of Mounted Volunteers and arrived at the
Alamo on February 29.[FN 4]
If you execute your enemies, it saves you
the trouble of having to forgive them.
— General Antonio López de Santa Anna,
February 1836[49]

2 Flight
2.1 Houston begins forming his army
As the closest settlement to San Antonio de Béxar,
Gonzales was the rallying point for volunteers who responded to both the Travis letter from the Alamo and
Houston’s recruitment pleas. Recently formed groups
came from Austin and Washington counties and from
the Colorado River area.[50] Volunteers from Brazoria,
Fort Bend and Matagorda counties organized after ar-

4

2 FLIGHT

riving in Gonzales.[51] The Kentucky Rifle company
under Newport, Kentucky business man Sidney Sherman had been aided by funding from Cincinnati, Ohio
residents.[52]
Alamo commandant Neill was in Gonzales purchasing supplies and recruiting reinforcements on March 6.
When Seguin learned en route that Fannin would be unable to reach the Alamo in time,[53] he immediately began
mustering an all-Tejano company of scouts.[54] His men
combined with Lieutenant William Smith’s and volunteered to accompany Neill’s recruits. They encountered
the Mexican army 18 miles (29 km) from the Alamo on
March 7, and Neill’s men turned back while the SeguinSmith scouts moved forward.[55] As the scouts neared the
Alamo, they met only silence.[56] Andrew Barcena and
Anselmo Bergara from Seguin’s other detachment inside
the Alamo showed up in Gonzales on March 11, telling of
their escape and delivering news of the slaughter. Their
stories were discounted; Houston, who had arrived that
same day, denounced them as Mexican spies.[57]
Smith and Seguin confirmed the fate of the mission
upon their return. Houston dispatched orders to Fannin to abandon Goliad, blow up the Presidio La Bahía
fortress, and retreat to Victoria,[58] but Fannin delayed
acting on those orders. Believing the approach of Urrea’s
troops brought a greater urgency to local civilians, he sent
29 men under Captain Amon B. King to help evacuate
nearby Refugio.[59]
Houston promptly began organizing the troops at Gonzales into the First Regiment under Burleson who had arrived as part of the Mina volunteers.[60] A second regiment would later be formed when the army grew large
enough.[61] As others began to arrive, individual volunteers not already in another company were put under Captain William Hestor Patton.[62] Houston had 374 volunteers and their commanders in Gonzales on March 12.[63]
Santa Anna sent Susannah Dickinson with her infant
daughter Angelina, Travis’ slave Joe, and Mexican
Colonel Juan Almonte's cook Ben to Gonzales, with dispatches written in English by Almonte to spread the news
of the fall of the Alamo.[64] Scouts Deaf Smith, Henry
Karnes and Robert Eden Handy encountered the survivors 20 miles (32 km) outside of Gonzales on March
13. When Karnes returned with the news, almost immediately 25 volunteers deserted. Wailing filled the air when
Dickinson and the others reached the town with their firsthand accounts.[38]
There was not a soul left among the
citizens of Gonzales who had not lost a father,
husband, brother or son ... That terrible
massacre had, for a time, struck terror into
every heart.
— John Milton Swisher, private in William
W. Hill’s volunteers.[65]

The Sam Houston Oak[FN 7] where the Provisional Army of Texas
rested after the burning of Gonzales

Although civilian evacuations had begun in January for
the Gulf Coast and San Antonio de Béxar, the Texian
military was either on the offensive or standing firm until
the smaller Gulf Coast skirmishes happened in February.
Houston was now facing a choice of whether to retreat to
a safe place to train his new army, or to meet the enemy
head-on immediately.[66] He was wary of trying to defend
a fixed position – the debacle at the Alamo had shown that
the new Texian government was unable to provide sufficient provisions or reinforcements.[67]

2.2 The burning of Gonzales
Houston called for a Council of War. The officers voted
that the families should be ordered to leave, and the
troops would cover the retreat. By midnight, less than
an hour after Dickinson had arrived, the combined army
and civilian population began a frantic move eastward,[66]
leaving behind everything they could not immediately
grab and transport. Much of the provisions and artillery
were left behind, including two 24-pounder cannons.[68]
Houston ordered Salvador Flores along with a company
of Juan Seguin’s men to form the rear guard to protect
the fleeing families. Couriers were sent to other towns in
Texas to warn that the Mexican army was advancing.[69]
The retreat took place so quickly that many of the Texian
scouts did not fully comprehend it until after the town was
evacuated.[70] Houston ordered Karnes to burn the town
and everything in it so nothing would remain to benefit the
Mexican troops. By dawn, the entire town was in ashes
or flames.[71]
Volunteers from San Felipe de Austin who had been organized under Captain John Bird on March 5 to reinforce the men at the Alamo[72] had been en route to San
Antonio de Béxar on March 13 when approximately 10
miles (16 km) east of Gonzales they encountered fleeing
citizens and a courier from Sam Houston. Told of the
Alamo’s fall, Bird’s men offered assistance to the fleeing
citizens and joined Houston’s army at Bartholomew D.
McClure’s plantation on the evening of March 14.[FN 7]

2.3

Colorado River crossings

5

At Washington-on-the-Brazos, the delegates to the convention learned of the Alamo’s fall on March 13.[74] The
Republic’s new ad interim government was sworn in on
March 17, with a department overseeing military spy operations, and adjourned the same day.[75] The government then fled to Groce’s Landing where they stayed for
several days before moving on to Harrisburg on March
21 where they established temporary headquarters in the
home of widow Jane Birdsall Harris.[76]
King’s men at Refugio had taken refuge in Mission Nuestra Señora de la Rosario when they were subsequently attacked by Urrea’s forces. Fannin sent 120 reinforcements
under William Ward, but the March 14 Battle of Refugio
cost 15 Texian lives.[77] Ward’s men escaped, but King’s
men were captured and executed on March 16.[78]

2.3
2.3.1

Colorado River crossings
Burnam’s

Upon learning of the flight, Santa Anna sent General
Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma with 700 men to pursue HousCampaigns of the Texas Revolution
ton, and 600 men under General Eugenio Tolsa as reinforcements. Finding only burned remains at Gonzales,
Sesma marched his army toward the Colorado River.[79]
19. The estimated 320 troops were low on food and waThe Texian army camped March 15–18 on the Lavaca ter, and the breakdown of a wagon allowed Urrea’s men
River property of Williamson Daniels[80] where they were to overtake them at Coleto Creek, ending in Fannin’s surjoined by combined forces under Joe Bennett and Cap- render on March 20.[90] Peter Kerr, who had served with
tain Peyton R. Splane.[81] Fleeing civilians accompanied Fannin and claimed to have been held prisoner, arrived
Houston’s army turning north at the Navidad River as they at DeWees on March 25. Houston announced Fannin’s
crossed to the east side of the Colorado River at Burnam’s surrender,[91] but would later claim to have uncovered evCrossing.[82] The ferry and trading post, as well as the idence that Kerr was a spy for the Mexicans.[92]
family home of Jesse Burnam, were all burned at Houswas a force of 810 volunteers and staff
ton’s orders on March 17 to prevent Santa Anna’s army The Texian army
[93]
at
this
point,
but
few had any military training and ex[FN 8]
from making the same crossing.
perience. Faced with past desertions, discipline flaws,
and individual indecisiveness of volunteers in training,
Houston knew they were not yet ready to engage the Mex2.3.2 Beason’s and DeWees
ican army. Compounding the situation were the civilian
[94]
Beason’s Crossing was located where Columbus is refugees dependent upon the army for their protection.
today.[84] DeWees Crossing was 7 miles (11 km) north The news of Fannin’s capture, combined with his doubts
of Beason’s. From March 19 through March 26, Hous- about the readiness of the Texian army, led Houston to or[95]
ton split his forces between the two crossings.[85] Addi- der a retreat on March 26. Some of the troops viewed
tional Texian volunteer companies began arriving at both the decision as cowardice with Sesma sitting just on the
crossings, including three companies of Texas Rangers, other side of the Colorado, and several hundred men
[96]
the Liberty County Volunteers and the Nacogdoches deserted.
Volunteers.[86]
Sesma’s battalion of approximately 725 men and artillery
camped on the opposite side of the Colorado, at a distance
halfway between the two Texian camps.[87] To prevent
Sesma’s troops from using the William DeWees log cabin,
Sherman ordered it burned.[88] Three Mexican scouts
from Sesma’s army were captured by Sherman’s men, and
although Sherman argued for an attack on Sesma’s troops,
Houston was not ready.[89]
Fannin had begun evacuating Presidio La Bahía on March

... the only army in Texas is now present ...
There are but few of us, and if we are beaten,
the fate of Texas is sealed. The salvation of
the country depends upon the first battle had
with the enemy. For this reason, I intend to
retreat, if I am obliged to go even to the banks
of the Sabine.
— Sam Houston[97]

6

2.4
2.4.1

2 FLIGHT

Brazos River training camp
Groce’s Landing

Texian survivors of the Battle of Coleto Creek believed
their surrender agreement with Urrea would, at worst,
mean their deportation. Santa Anna, however, adhered to
the 1835 Tornel Decree that stated the insurrection was
an act of piracy fomented by the United States, and ordered their executions.[FN 9] Although he personally disagreed with the need to do so, Urrea carried out his commander’s orders on March 27.[99] Of the estimated 370
Texians being held, a few managed to escape the massacre. The remainder were shot, stabbed with bayonets
and lances and clubbed with gun butts. Fannin was shot
through the face and his gold watch stolen. The dead were
cremated on a pyre.[100]
It would be a week before word of the Goliad massacre reached Sam Houston. The retreating Texian army
stopped at San Felipe de Austin[101] on March 28–29
to stock up on food and supplies.[102] Houston’s plan to
move the army north to Groce’s Landing on the Brazos
River was met with resistance from captains Wyly Martin and Moseley Baker, whose units balked at further retreat. Houston reassigned Martin 25 miles (40 km) south
to protect the Morton Ferry crossing at Fort Bend, and
Baker was ordered to guard the river crossing at San Felipe de Austin.[103]
News of approaching Mexican troops and Houston’s retreat caused panic among the population in the counties of Washington, Sabine, Shelby and San Augustine.
Amid the confusion of fleeing residents of those counties,
two volunteer groups under captains William Kimbro and
Benjamin Bryant arrived to join Houston on March 29.
Kimbro was ordered to San Felipe de Austin to reinforce
Baker’s troops, while Bryant’s men remained with the
main army.[104]
After an erroneous scouting report of approaching Mexican troops, Baker burned San Felipe de Austin to the
ground on March 30.[105] When Baker claimed Houston had given him an order to do so, Houston denied
it.[106] Houston’s account was that the residents burned
their own property to keep it out of the hands of the Mexican army.[91] San Felipe de Austin’s residents did as those
before them in escaping the Mexican army, and fled to the
east.[105]

ing the Mexicans enlisted at Groce’s,[111] and displaced
civilian women in the camp helped the army’s efforts by
sewing shirts for the soldiers.[112]
Samuel G. Hardaway, a survivor of Major William
Ward’s group who had escaped the Battle of Refugio and
re-joined Fannin at the Battle of Coleto, also managed
to escape the Goliad massacre. As he fled Goliad, he
was eventually joined by three other survivors, Joseph
Andrews, James P. Trezevant and M. K. Moses. Spies
for the Texian army discovered the four men and took
them to Baker’s camp near San Felipe de Austin on April
2.[113] Several other survivors of the Goliad massacre
were found on April 10 by Texian spies. Survivors Daniel
Murphy, Thomas Kemp, Charles Shain, David Jones,
William Brenan and Nat Hazen were taken to Houston at
Groce’s Landing where they enlisted to fight with Houston’s army.[114]
Houston learned of the Goliad massacre on April 3. Unaware that Secretary of War Rusk was already en route
to Groce’s with orders from President Burnet to halt the
army’s retreat and engage the enemy, he relayed the Goliad news by letter to Rusk.[115]
The enemy are laughing you to scorn. You
must fight them. You must retreat no further.
The country expects you to fight. The salvation
of the country depends on your doing so.
— David G. Burnet, ad interim president of
the Republic of Texas[116]

Empowered to remove Houston from command and take
over the army himself, Rusk instead assessed Houston’s
plan of action as correct, after witnessing the training at
Groce’s. Rusk and Houston formed the Second Regiment
on April 8 to serve under Sherman, with Burleson retaining command of the First Regiment.[FN 10]
2.4.2

Yellowstone steamboat

The steamboat Yellowstone[112] under the command of
Captain John Eautaw Ross was impressed into service for
the Provisional Army of Texas on April 2, and initially
ferried patients across the Brazos River when Dr. James
Aeneas Phelps established a field hospital at Bernardo
Plantation.[118] Three days later, Santa Anna joined with
Sesma’s troops,[119] and had them build flatboats to cross
the Brazos as the Mexicans sought to overtake and defeat
the Texians.[120] Wyly Martin reported on April 8 that
Mexican forces had divided and were headed both east
to Nacogdoches and southeast to Matagorda.[121] Houston reinforced Baker’s post at San Felipe de Austin on
April 9,[122] as Santa Anna continued moving southeast
on April 10.[123]

During a two-week period beginning March 31, the Texian army camped on the west side of the Brazos River
in Austin County, near Groce’s Landing (also known as
Groce’s Ferry).[107] As Houston led his army north towards the landing, the unrelenting rainy weather swelled
the Brazos and threatened flooding.[108] Groce’s was
transformed into a training camp for the troops.[109] Major Edwin Morehouse arrived with a New York battalion
of recruits who were immediately assigned to assist Wyly The Texian army was transported by the Yellowstone over
Martin at Fort Bend.[110] Civilian men who were flee- to the east side of the Brazos on April 12, where they set

2.5

Burning of Harrisburg and the crucial crossroads

7

up camp at the Bernardo Plantation.[124] After walking
50 miles (80 km) from Harrisburg, future president of
the Republic Mirabeau B. Lamar arrived at Bernardo to
enlist as a private in Houston’s army and suggested using
the steamer for guerilla warfare.[125]
Had it not been for its service, the enemy
could never have been overtaken until they had
reached the Sabine ... use of the boat enabled
me to cross the Brazos and save Texas.
— Sam Houston on the Yellowstone’s
contributions[126]

With Baker guarding the crossing at San Felipe de Austin,
and Martin guarding the Morton Ferry crossing[127] at
Ford Bend, Santa Anna opted on April 12 to cross the
Brazos halfway between at Thompson’s Ferry,[128] with
Sesma’s men and artillery crossing over the next day.[129]
The Mexican army attacked the steamer numerous times
in an attempt to capture it, but Ross successfully used cotton bales to protect the steamer and its cargo, and was able
to keep the Yellowstone away from Mexican control.[129]
Houston released the steamboat from service on April 14,
and it continued to Galveston.[130]

2.5

Burning of Harrisburg and the crucial
crossroads

The ad interim government departed Harrisburg on the
steamboat Cayuga for New Washington ahead of Santa
Anna’s April 15 arrival,[131] thwarting his plans to eliminate the entire government of the Republic of Texas.[132]
Three printers still at work on the Telegraph and Texas
Register told the Mexican army that everyone in the government had already left, and Santa Anna responded
by having the printers arrested and the printing presses
tossed into Buffalo Bayou.[133] After days of looting and
seeking out information about the government, Santa
Anna ordered the town burned on April 18.[134] He
later tried to place the blame for the destruction on
Houston.[135]
Before the Texian army left Bernardo Plantation, they
welcomed the arrival of two cannons cast in November 1835 by Greenwood and Webb in Cincinnati, Ohio,
funded entirely by the people of that city as a donation to
the Texas Revolution. The idea had arisen as a suggestion
from Robert F. Lytle, one of the businessmen who helped
fund Sherman’s Kentucky Riflemen.[136] Arriving in New
Orleans after a lengthy trip from Ohio on the Mississippi
River, the cannons were transported to the Gulf Coast
aboard the Pennsylvania schooner. The cannons were
nicknamed the “Twin Sisters”, perhaps in honor of the
twins Elizabeth and Eleanor Rice traveling aboard the
Pennsylvania, who were to present the cannons upon
their arrival at Galveston in April 1836.[137][138] At Galveston, Leander Smith had the responsibility of transport-

Replicas of the Twin Sisters cannons at San Jacinto Battleground
State Historic Site

ing the cannons from Harrisburg to Bernardo Plantation
in Waller County. Along the way, Smith recruited 35
men into the army.[139] Lieutenant Colonel James Neill
was put in charge of the cannons once they arrived in
camp.[140]
Martin and Baker abandoned the river crossings on April
14 and re-joined Houston’s army which had marched
from Bernardo to the Charles Donoho Plantation near
present-day Hempstead in Waller County.[141] As news
spread of the Mexican army’s movements, residents of
Nacogdoches and San Augustine began to flee east towards the Sabine River. After refusals to continue with
the army, Martin was ordered by Houston to accompany
displaced families on their flight eastward. Hundreds of
soldiers left the army to help their families. The main
army parted from the refugees at this point, and acting
Secretary of War David Thomas[FN 10] advised Houston
to move southward to secure Galveston Bay.[142] Houston, however, was getting conflicting advice from the cabinet members. President Burnet had sent Secretary of
State Carson to Louisiana in hopes of getting the United
States army and individual state militias involved in the
Texas fight for independence. While he attempted to secure such involvement, Carson sent a dispatch to Houston on April 14 advising him to retreat all the way to the
Louisiana-Texas border on the Sabine River, and bide his
time before engaging the Mexican army.[143]
The Texian army camped west of present-day Tomball
on April 15, at Sam McCarley’s homestead.[144] They
departed the next morning[145] and 3 miles (4.8 km)
east reached a crucial crossroads.[FN 11] One road led
east to Nacogdoches and eventually the Sabine River and
Louisiana, while the other road led southeast to Harrisburg. The army was concerned that Houston would continue the eastward retreat. Although Houston discussed
his decision with no one, he led the army down the southeast road. Rusk ordered that a small group of volunteers be split from the army to secure Robbins’s Ferry on
the Trinity River.[147] Houston’s troops stopped overnight
on April 16 at the home of Matthew Burnet, and the

8

6 NOTES

next morning continued marching towards Harrisburg, 25 ton was actually retreating.[160] He had allowed his army
miles (40 km) southeast.[148]
time to relax and feed their horses, while he took a
[161]
When he was awakened by the attack, he imWith the refugee families being accorded a military es- nap.
mediately
fled on horseback, but was later captured when
cort eastward and Houston marching southeast, the reSergeant
James
Austin Sylvester found him hiding in
treat of the Provisional Army of Texas was over. On
[162]
the
grass.
Houston’s
own account was that the battle
the march which would lead to San Jacinto, moving the
[160]
lasted
“about
eighteen
minutes”,
before apprehendheavy artillery across rain-soaked terrain slowed down
[163]
When the
ing
prisoners
and
confiscating
armaments.
[140]
the army’s progress.
The army had previously been
Twin Sisters went up against the Mexican army’s Golden
assisted in moving the Twin Sisters with oxen borrowed
Hockley’s
from refugee Pamela Martin when she believed the army Standard cannon, they performed so well that[FN
unit was able to capture the Mexican cannon. 12]
was fleeing towards Nacogdoches. When she learned the
army was headed towards Harrisburg and a confrontation The Yellowstone saw war service for the Republic one
with the Mexican army, she reclaimed her oxen.[149] The more time on May 7, when it transported Houston and
Texian army had expanded to twenty-six companies by his prisoner Santa Anna, along with the government Santa
the time they reached Harrisburg on April 18 and saw Anna tried to extinguish, to Galveston Island.[FN 13] From
the destruction Santa Anna had left behind.[150]
there, the government and Santa Anna traveled to Velasco
for the signing of the treaties.[166] Houston had suffered
a serious wound during the battle,[167] and on May 28
boarded the schooner Flora for medical treatment in New
3 New Washington
Orleans.[168]
On orders of Santa Anna, Almonte went in pursuit of
the ad interim government at New Washington. During
their flight the Republic officials switched from steamer
to ferry to skiff. On the final leg of the trip, Almonte finally had them in his sights, but refused to fire after he
saw Mrs. Burnet and her children on the skiff.[151] In addition to letting the government get away one more time,
Almonte’s spies had misread Houston’s troop movements
and Santa Anna was told that the Texian army was still
retreating eastward, this time through Lynchburg.[152]
New Washington was later looted and burned by Mexican
troops,[153] and as many as 5,000 civilians fled, either by
boat or across land. Those attempting to cross the San
Jacinto River were bottlenecked for three days, and the
vicinity around the crossing transformed into a refugee
camp. Burnet ordered government assistance all across
Texas for fleeing families.[154]

4

Aftermath

Not until news of the victory at San Jacinto spread did
the refugees return to their homesteads and businesses,
or whatever was left after the destruction caused by both
armies.[38] Throughout Texas, possessions had been abandoned and later looted. Businesses, homes and farms
were wiped out by the devastation of war. Often there
was nothing left to go back to, but those who went home
began to pick up their lives and move forward. San Felipe de Austin never really recovered from its total destruction. The few people who returned there moved elsewhere, sooner or later. Secretary of War Rusk would later
commend the women of Texas who held their families together during the flight, while their men volunteered to
fight: “The men of Texas deserve much credit, but more
was due the women. Armed men facing a foe could not
but be brave; but the women, with their little children
around them, without means of defense or power to resist,
faced danger and death with unflinching courage.”[154]

5 See also

Main article: Battle of San Jacinto
• Timeline of the Texas Revolution
In a troop movement that took all night on a makeshift
raft, the Texian army crossed Buffalo Bayou at Lynchburg April 19 with 930 soldiers, leaving behind 255 oth- 6 Notes
ers as guards or for reasons of illness.[155] The idea had
been floated of leaving the Twin Sisters behind as protection, but Neill was adamant that the cannons be taken into 6.1 Footnotes
the battle.[156] In an April 20 skirmish the day before the
main battle Neill was severely wounded,[157] and George [1] In 19th century Mexico, Federalism was the empowerment of local governments, while Centralism sought to
Hockley took command of the heavy artillery.[158] Estieliminate local political power and give it all to the namates of the Mexican army troop strength on the day of
tional government.[1]
[159]
the main battle range from 1,250 to 1,500.
The Texians attacked in the afternoon of April 21 while
Santa Anna was still under the misconception that Hous-

[2] 193,600 square miles (501,000 km2 ), Mexican provinces
of Coahuila and Texas.[2]

6.2

Citations

[3] The Provisional Army of Texas consisted of three different categories of enlistees. The Regular Army was much
like a modern-day army in its command structure, and
had a two-year enlistment period. Permanent Volunteers
ran a democratic structure allowing internal elections, and
was for the duration of the war. The Volunteer Auxiliary
was short-termed with an enlistment period of only six
months.[13]
[4] Locally organized volunteer militias were initially separate from the Provisional Army of Texas and operated autonomously. Whether or not they were paid, or had supplies or uniforms, varied. Each had its own framework
and elected leaders. They decided as a unit which battles
they would fight. The Consultation only made Houston
commander-in-chief of the paid provisional army he was
to recruit and train. On March 4, 1836 at Washington-onthe-Brazos , the Convention also put the volunteer militias
under Houston’s command.[14]
[5] While it is not certain what became of the cannon, Santa
Anna ordered all brass and bronze artillery seized after the
battle to be melted down.[27]
[6] Historians disagree as to the clarity of Houston’s orders.
In a letter dated January 17, 1836, Houston’s wording
seems to leave the final decision to provisional Governor
Henry Smith. “Colonel Bowie will leave here in a few
hours for Bexar, with a detachment of from thirty to fifty
men. I have ordered the fortifications in the town of Bexar
to be demolished, and if you think well of it, I will remove
all the cannon and other munitions of war to Gonzales
and Copano, blow up the Alamo, and abandon the place,
as it will be impossible to keep up the Station with volunteers.” The fractious provisional government had impeached Smith on January 11.[44]
[7] A historical plaque denotes the Sam Houston Oak in front
of the Braches House, which itself is on the NRHP.[73]
[8] The ferry and trading post had been built by Jesse Burnam in 1824, and had survived numerous attacks from
Karankawa indians. Burnam later claimed Houston destroyed his property because of personal issues between
the two, not because of any threat from the Mexican
army.[83]
[9] Historians Jack Jackson and John Wheat in their research
of Mexican government records believe that although the
wording of the December 30, 1835 Tornel Decree specified “foreigners”, the document was a mere formality to
green-light Santa Anna’s broader plan of dealing with opposition both foreign and domestic. In a letter to General
Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma on February 29, 1836, Santa
Anna wrote “in this war there are no prisoners”. At the
Battle of the Alamo prior to the final siege, he offered a
three-day amnesty to allow Tejanos inside the mission to
leave unharmed. At other skirmishes in the war, there is
no indication either he or his generals made that distinction. Jackson and White stated, “When he learned that
Urrea had taken several hundred prisoners near Goliad,
Santa Anna expressed his amazement that they had not
been treated as pirates and swiftly executed as Tornel’s decree specified. He sent more letters until the tragic deed
was done.” [98]

9

[10] Attorney General David Thomas was named as acting
Secretary of War when Rusk joined the army.[117]
[11] In Texas history and in historical works on Sam Houston,
this is referred to as “the fork in the road” where Houston stopped retreating and instead actively pursued Santa
Anna. The site is now designated as a Recorded Texas
Historic Landmark and located in the present day Harris
County city of Tomball.[146]
[12] The final fate of the Twin Sisters cannons is unknown.
After the Battle of San Jacinto, the cannons were sent to
Austin, Texas, to be used for ceremonial purposes. When
the cannons were discovered to be in New Orleans, Sam
Houston petitioned for their return to Texas at the onset of
the Civil War. Their last known whereabouts was in 1863
at the Battle of Galveston. Replicas are on display at the
San Jacinto Battleground State Historic Site.[164]
[13] Houston’s agreement when he impressed the Yellowstone
steamboat April 2 through April 14, was for Ross and the
17-man crew to receive at least 1/3 of a league of land
(more for officers) as payment. The crew was not obligated to fight. When Stephen F. Austin died in December 1836, the Yellowstone transported his body to Brazoria County for burial. Nothing is known about the steamer
after 1837.[165]

6.2 Citations
[1] Todish et al. (1998), pp. 2, 4, 6.
[2] Tucker (2012), pp. 151–152.
[3] McKay, S. S. “Constitution of Coahuila y Tejas”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association.
Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Haley (2002), p. 116.
[4] Davis (2004), p. 143; Todish et al. (1998), p. 121.
[5] Davis (2004), p. 200.
[6] Todish et al. (1998), p. 125.
[7] Todish et al. (1998), p. 34.
[8] Todish et al. (1998), p. 23.
[9] Todish et al. (1998), p. 24.
[10] Steen, Ralph W. “General Council”. Handbook of Texas
Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[11] Steen, Ralph W. “Henry Smith”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[12] Haley (2002), p. 116.
[13] Todish et al. (1998), pp. 14–15, 24; “Proclamation of
San Houston, A Call for Volunteers, December 12, 1835”.
Texas State Library and Archives Commission. State of
Texas. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[14] Todish et al. (1998), pp. 14, 44, 46, 75, 127.

10

6 NOTES

[15] Kelso, Helen Burleson. “Edward Burleson”. Handbook
of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[35] Davis (2004), pp. 182–185.

[16] Muir, Andrew Forest.
“Harrisburg, Texas (Harris
County)". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[37] Davis (2004), pp. 75, 186–187; Roell, Craig H.
“Matamoros Expedition”. Handbook of Texas Online.
Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December
1, 2014.

[17] Todish et al. (1998), p.126; Steen, Ralph W. “Provisional
Government”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State
Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[18] Lack (1992), p. 76.
[19] Hardin (1994), p. 161.
[20] Hardin (1994), p. 161; Lack (1992), p. 83.
[21] Hatch (1999), p. 188; “The Texas Revolution: Part C
(January–March 7, 1836)". Handbook of Texas Online.
Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December
17, 2014.
[22] “Ad interim government”. Handbook of Texas Online.
Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved September
16, 2015.
[23] Lack (1992), p. 77.
[24] Lindley, Thomas Ricks. “Gonzales Come and Take It
Cannon”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[25] Hardin, Stephen L. “James Clinton Neill”. Handbook of
Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[26] Hardin, Stephen L. “Battle of Gonzales”. Handbook of
Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[27] Davis (2004), p. 223.

[36] Todish et al. (1998), p. 29, 125.

[38] Covington, Carolyn Callaway. “Runaway Scrape”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association.
Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 55–56.
[39] Todish et al. (1998), pp. 126–127.
[40] Todish et al. (1998), p. 128; Jackson, Wheat (2005), p.
372.
[41] Bishop, Curtis. “Battle of Agua Dulce Creek”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Hartmann, Clinton
P. “James Walker Fannin Jr.”. Handbook of Texas Online.
Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December
1, 2014.
[42] Todish et al. (1998), pp. 29, 125.
[43] Reid, Jan (May 1989). “The Runaway Scrape”. Texas
Monthly. p. 130. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[44] Todish et al. (1998), pp. 31, 139, 226; Hardin, Stephen
L. “Battle of the Alamo”. Handbook of Texas Online.
Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December
1, 2014.
[45] McDonald, Archie P. “William Barret Travis”. Handbook
of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[46] Todish et al. (1998), p.126; Moore (2004), p. 39.
[47] Todish et al. (1998), p. 43; Moore (2004), p. 28.

[28] Davis (2004), pp. 142–145.

[48] Poyo (1996), p. 53, 58 “Efficient in the Cause” (Stephen
L. Harden); Lindley (2003), p. 94, 134.

[29] Davis (2004), p. 147.

[49] Todish et al. (1998), p. 142.

[30] Todish et al. (1998), p. 124.

[50] Moore (2004), pp. 22–24, 51.

[31] Guthrie, Keith. “Battle of Lipantitlán”. Handbook of
Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[51] Moore (2004), pp. 49, 51.

[32] Davis (2004), pp. 157–159; Barr, Alwyn. “Battle of Concepcion”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[33] Barr, Alwyn. “Grass Fight”. Handbook of Texas Online.
Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December
1, 2014.

[52] Beazley, Julia. “Sidney Sherman”. Handbook of Texas
Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 24–27, 51.
[53] Moore (2004), p. 28.
[54] Moore (2004), pp. 28–29, 51.
[55] Moore (2004), pp. 39–40.
[56] Moore (2004), pp. 39–43, 46, 51.

[34] Denham, James M. (January 1994). “New Orleans, Maritime Commerce, and the Texas War for Independence,
1836”. The Southwestern Historical Quarterly (Texas
State Historical Association) 97 (3): 510–534. JSTOR
30241429. (subscription required (help)).; “The Siege of
Béxar”. Texas Library and Archives Commission. Retrieved May 29, 2015.

[57] Moore (2004), pp. 45–46, 163, 171.
[58] Moore (2004), pp. 46–47.
[59] Moore (2004), p. 47, 67.
[60] Moore (2004), pp. 19–22, 51.

6.2

Citations

11

[61] Moore (2004), p. 48.

[87] Moore (2004), pp. 94, 95.

[62] Moore (2004), pp. 51–52.

[88] Moore (2004), pp. 98–99.

[63] Moore (2004), p. 51.

[89] Moore (2004), pp. 107, 111.

[64] Moore (2004), pp. 37–38.

[90] Roell, Craig H. “Battle of Coleto”. Handbook of Texas
Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Todish et al. (1998), p.130.

[65] Moore (2004), p. 56.
[66] Hardin, McBride (2001), p. 9.
[67] Hardin (1994), p. 179.
[68] Moore (2004), pp. 57–60; Hardin, McBride (2001), p. 9.
[69] Moore (2004), p. 60.
[70] Moore (2004), p. 58.
[71] Moore (2004), p. 59.
[72] Moore (2004), pp. 61–63.

[91] Moore (2004), p. 147.
[92] Moore (2004), pp. 114, 144, 171.
[93] Moore (2004), p. 100
[94] Moore (2004), pp. 126–130.
[95] Moore (2004), pp. 114–118.
[96] Moore (2004), pp. 117–118.
[97] Haley (2002), p. 129.

[73] Moore (2004), pp.
63–67; “Sam Houston Oak”.
Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas Historical
Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.; “Braches
House”. NRHP Texas landmarks. Texas Historical Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[98] Jackson, Wheat (2005), pp. 374, 377, 386–387; Poyo
(1996), pp. 53, 58 “Efficient in the Cause” (Stephen
L. Harden); Lindley (2003), pp. 94, 134; Todish et al.
(1998), pp. 137–138.

[74] Davis (2004), p. 241.

[99] Haley (2002), p. 130.

[75] Moore (2004), pp. 77–79.

[100] Moore (2004), pp. 128–133.

[76] Muir, Andrew Forest. “Jane Birdsall Harris”. Handbook [101] Moore (2004), p. 128.
of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Re[102] Moore (2004), pp. 135–136.
trieved December 1, 2014.; Todish et al. (1998), p. 103;
Moore (2004), p. 139.
[103] Moore (2004), pp. 136–137.
[77] Todish et al. (1998), p. 129.

[104] Moore (2004), pp. 145–146, 163–164.

[78] Moore (2004), p. 68

[105] Christopher, Charles. “San Felipe de Austin de Austin,
Tx”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical
Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.

[79] Moore (2004), pp. 71–72.

[80] Moore (2004), p. 66; “Site of the Camp of the Texas
[106] Moore (2004), pp. 140–141.
Army”. Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas Historical Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[107] Berlet, Sarah Groce. “Groce’s Ferry”. Handbook of Texas
Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved De[81] Moore (2004), pp. 69–73.
cember 1, 2014.
[82] Moore (2004), pp. 75–76, 83; “Route of the Texas
Army”. Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas His- [108] Moore (2004), p. 162.
torical Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[109] Moore (2004), pp. 151–152.
[83] Watts (2008), p. 18; Awbrey, Dooley (2005), p. 537;
[110] Cutrer, Thomas W. “Edwin Morehouse”. Handbook of
Haley (2002). pp. 126–127; “Burnam’s Ferry”. Texas
Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. ReHistorical Commission. Retrieved December 18, 2014.;
trieved December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), p. 157.
Largent, Jr., F. B. “Burnam’s Ferry”. Handbook of Texas
Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved De- [111] Moore (2004), pp.147–148.
cember 19, 2014.; Largent, Jr., F. B. “Jesse Burnam”.
Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Asso- [112] Moore (2004), p. 149.
ciation. Retrieved December 19, 2014.
[113] Moore (2004), pp. 157–158.
[84] Allon Hinton, Don Allon. “Columbus, Texas”. Handbook
of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Re- [114] Moore (2004), pp. 194–195.
trieved August 8, 2015.
[115] Benham, Priscilla Myers. “Thomas Jefferson Rusk”.
Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Asso[85] Moore (2004), pp. 90, 94–95.
ciation. Retrieved December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp.
[86] Moore (2004), pp. 90, 97, 99–103, 118–120, 126.
165, 167,169.

12

6 NOTES

[116] Moore (2004), p. 189.

[144] “Samuel McCarley Homesite”. Recorded Texas Historic
Landmarks. Texas Historical Commission. Retrieved
[117] Kemp, L. W. “David Thomas”. Handbook of Texas OnDecember 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 220–221.
line. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved De[145] Moore (2004), p. 222.
cember 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 183–185.
[118] Moore (2004), p. 156.
[119] Moore (2004), p. 176.
[120] Moore (2004), pp. 179,181.
[121] Moore (2004), p. 182.
[122] Moore (2004), p. 186.
[123] Moore (2004), pp. 186–187.
[124] Moore (2004), pp. 198–200.

[146] Moore (2004), p. 225; “Abraham Roberts Homesite”.
Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas Historical
Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[147] “Robbins’s Ferry”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas
State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1,
2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 226–227.
[148] “Matthew Burnett Homesite”. Recorded Texas Historic
Landmarks. Texas Historical Commission. Retrieved
December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), p. 229.
[149] Moore (2004), pp. 227–228.

[125] Moore (2004), pp.
203–204; Gambrell, Herbert.
[150] Moore (2004), pp. 233–235, 243.
“Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved De- [151] Moore (2004), pp. 230–232.
cember 1, 2014.
[152] Moore (2004), p. 230; “Lynchburg Town Ferry”.
[126] Greene (1998), pp. 19–21.
Recorded Texas Historical Landmarks. Texas Historical
Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[127] “John V. Morton”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas
State Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, [153] Moore (2004), pp. 235–237.
2014.
[154] Downs, Fane (1986–1987).
""Tryels and Trub[128] Hardin, Stephen F. “Thompson’s Ferry”. Handbook of
bles":Women in Early Nineteenth-Century Texas”. SouthTexas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Rewestern Historical Quarterly (Denton, TX: Texas State
trieved December 1, 2014.
Historical Association) 90: 50–55.
[129] Moore (2004), pp. 206–207.
[130] Moore (2004), p. 212.
[131] Moore (2004), p. 207.
[132] Moore (2004), pp. 195–197, 207.
[133] Moore (2004), pp. 219–220; Fischer (1976), p. 88.
[134] Davis (2004), pp. 264–165.

[155] Moore (2004), pp. 242, 295–296; “Sam Houston Crossed
Buffalo Bayou”. Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State
Historical Association. Retrieved December 1, 2014.;
Moore (2004), p. 251.
[156] Moore (2004), p. 246.
[157] Moore (2004), pp. 264, 267.
[158] Moore (2004), p. 295.

[159] Moore (2004), p. 298; Todish et al. (1998), p. 131.
[135] Moore (2004), pp. 218–219, 232–233; Todish et al.
(1998), p.130.
[160] Moore (2004), p. 230.
[136] Moore (2004), pp. 15, 152–153.

[161] Moore (2004), pp. 328–329.

[137] Hunt, Jeffrey William. “Twin Sisters”. Handbook of [162] Moore (2004), pp. 337,353,377.
Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Re[163] Moore (2004), pp. 344–345.
trieved December 1, 2014.
[138] Moore (2004), p. 185; Haley (2002), p. 137.
[139] Moore (2004), pp. 171–173, 201–202.

[164] “San Jacinto and the Mystery of the Twin Sisters Cannons”. Texas State Cemetery. State of Texas. Retrieved
December 1, 2014.; Moore (2004), pp. 333–336.

[140] Moore (2004), pp. 212–213.

[165] Burkhalter, Lois Wood. “Yellow Stone”. Handbook of
Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Re[141] Moore (2004), p. 214; “Charles Donoho Plantation”.
trieved December 1, 2014.; Greene (1998), pp. 19–21.
Recorded Texas Historic Landmarks. Texas Historical
Commission. Retrieved December 1, 2014.
[166] Moore (2004), pp. 375–386,405–407.
[142] Moore (2004), pp. 215–217.

[167] Moore (2004), pp. 338–339.

[143] Moore (2004), pp. 211–212.

[168] Moore (2004), p. 407.

13

7

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1770–1850. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
ISBN 978-0-292-76570-2.

• Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted
(1998). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas
Revolution. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-157168-152-2.
• Tucker, Spencer C. (2012). The Encyclopedia of
the Mexican-American War [3 volumes]: A Political,
Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-853-8.
• Watts, Marie W. (2008). La Grange (Images of
America: Texas). Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7385-5636-9.

8 External links
• The Runaway Scrape

14

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

9

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

• Runaway Scrape Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway_Scrape?oldid=716338969 Contributors: Leandrod, Nv8200pa, Michael
Devore, Beginning, Deh, Bender235, JW1805, Woohookitty, NekoDaemon, Scott Mingus, Awiseman, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Ian
Rose, Bluebot, Elagatis, Shunpiker, Freek Verkerk, Onlinenow, Kuru, Spiel, Mr Stephen, Civil Engineer III, Ken Gallager, Cydebot,
LarryMColeman, Denarn, Mark Shaw, KConWiki, JaGa, Fiachra10003, Karanacs, Jeepday, Maile66, Kritikos99, Jackfork, Oldag07,
MBK004, ClueBot, Mild Bill Hiccup, Piledhigheranddeeper, Sturmvogel 66, Dank, Versus22, WikHead, Good Olfactory, Some jerk on the
Internet, Ronhjones, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, LilHelpa, The Banner, Mononomic, NFD9001, Anotherclown, AustralianRupert,
FrescoBot, JMilty, Chenopodiaceous, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Abductive, Serols, Trappist the monk, Dewritech, Dcirovic, Crews
Giles, DLS Texas, $1LENCE D00600D, Gjmokcb, Helpful Pixie Bot, MusikAnimal, DPL bot, The Illusive Man, Ireilly9, Niketitan,
Acre1234567890, DavidLeighEllis, TFA Protector Bot, Savorycesar, FACBot, JorisEnter, SSTflyer and Anonymous: 50

9.2

Images

• File:Braches_House_and_Sam_Houston_Oak.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Braches_House_
and_Sam_Houston_Oak.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: 25or6to4
• File:Campaigns_of_the_Texas_Revolution.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Campaigns_of_the_
Texas_Revolution.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: derived from Pageant of America, Vol. 2, The Lure of the Frontier (1928),
Yale University Press. Original artist: original image drawn by Joseph L. Cain; update by karanacs
• File:Gonzales_cannon_2005.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Gonzales_cannon_2005.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: © 2005 Larry D. Moore Original artist: Larry D. Moore
• File:Mexico_1835-1846_administrative_map-en-2.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Mexico_
1835-1846_administrative_map-en-2.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Mexico_1835-1846_administrative_map-en.svg
with minor modifications Original artist: Translated from Mexico_1835-1846_administrative_map-es.svg by User:JWB with minor
modifications by User:Spacepotato
• File:Sam_Houston_Army_of_Texas_recruitment_proclamation_Dec_12,_1835.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/3/35/Sam_Houston_Army_of_Texas_recruitment_proclamation_Dec_12%2C_1835.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: https://www.tsl.texas.gov/treasures/republic/proclamation-houston.html Original artist: Sam Houston
• File:Texas_flag_map.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Texas_flag_map.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Self-made image, based on PD image File:Flag_of_Texas.svg and CC-BY-SA/GFDL image File:Flag-map of Texas.svg.
Original artist: AnonMoos based on image by Darwinek
• File:Twin_Sisters,_San_Jacinto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Twin_Sisters%2C_San_Jacinto.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Wikipedia:Contact us/Photo submission Original artist: Ernest Mettendorf
• File:_Seal_of_the_Republic_of_Texas_(1839).svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Seal_of_the_
Republic_of_Texas_%281839%29.svg License: CC0 Contributors:
• Modeled on: File:Republicseal.jpg Original artist: Svgalbertian

9.3

Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

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