Supply Chain

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 Q.1. Tabula Q.1. Tabulate te the events events of Supply Supply Chain Chain Manag Managem ement ent evoluti evolution on accord according ing to chronological dates starting from Ancient times to 2000 AD. Ans. Six major movements can be observed in the evolution of supply chain management studies: Creation, Integration, and Globalization (Lavassani et al., 2008), Specialization Phases One and  Two, and SCM 2.0. 2.0. 1. Creation Era  The term supply chain managem management ent was first coined by a U.S. industry industry consultant consultant in the early 1980s. However, the concept of a supply chain in management was of great importance long before bef ore,, in the early early 20th 20th centur century, y, especia especially lly with the creation creation of the assembly assembly line. line. The charac cha racter teristi istics cs of this this era of supply supply chain chain manage managemen mentt includ include e the need for large-s large-scal cale e change cha nges, s, re-eng re-engin ineer eering ing,, downsi downsizin zing g driven driven by cost reducti reduction on progra programs, ms, and widespr widespread ead attention to the Japanese practice of management. 2. Integration Era  This era of supply chain manageme management nt studies studies was highlighted highlighted with the developmen developmentt of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) systems in the 1960s and developed through the1990s by the introduction of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems. This era has continued to develop into the 21st century with the expansion of internet-based collaborative systems. This era of sup supply ply chain chain evolut evolution ion is charac character terize ized d by both both increas increasing ing valuevalue-add adding ing and cost cost reductions through integration. 3. Globalization Era  The third movement movement of supply chain managemen managementt developmen development, t, the globalization globalization era, can be charac cha racter terize ized d by the attenti attention on given given to global global systems systems of suppli supplier er relatio relationsh nships ips and the expansion of supply chains over national boundaries and into other continents. Although the use of global sources in the supply chain of organizations can be traced back several decades (e (e.g .g., ., in the oi oill in indu dustr stry) y),, it was was not not until until th the e late late 1980 1980s s th that at a co cons nsid ider erab able le numb number er of  or orga gani niza zati tion ons s start started ed to in integ tegra rate te glob global al so sour urce ces s in into to th thei eirr co core re busin business ess.. This This era era is characterized by the globalization of supply chain management in organizations with the goal of  increa inc reasin sing g their their compet competiti itive ve advant advantage age,, value-a value-addi dding ng,, and reduci reducing ng costs costs throug through h global global sourcing. 4. Specialization Era—Phase One: Outsourced Manufacturing and Distribution In the 1990s industries industries began to focus on “core competencie competencies” s” and adopted a specializati specialization on model. Companies abandoned vertical integration, sold off non-core operations, and outsourced those functions to other companies. This changed management requirements by extending the supply chain well beyond beyond company company walls and distributing distributing manageme management nt across specialized specialized supply chain partnerships. This transition also re-focused the fundamental perspectives of each respect resp ective ive organi organizat zation ion.. OEMs OEMs became became brand brand owners owners that needed needed deep deep visibil visibility ity into into their their supply base. They had to control the entire supply chain from above instead of from within. Contract manufacturers had to manage bills of material with different part numbering schemes from multiple OEMs and support customer requests for work -in-process visibility and vendormanaged mana ged inventory inventory (VMI).The (VMI).The specializatio specialization n model model creates manufactu manufacturing ring and distribution distribution networks composed of multiple, individual supply chains specific to products, suppliers, and customers who togethermay to design, market,region, sell, and a product. The setwork of partners changemanufacture, according todistribute, a given market, or service channel,

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 resu resulti lting ng in a prol prolif ifer erati ation on of tradi trading ng partn partner er envi enviro ronm nmen ents, ts, each each with with its own own uniq unique ue characteristics and demands. 5. Specialization Era—Phase Two: Supply Chain Management as a Service Specialization within the supply chain began in the 1980s with the inception of transportation brokerages, warehouse management, and non-asset-based carriers and has matured beyond transp tra nsport ortati ation on and logist logistics ics into into aspect aspects s of supply supply planni planning, ng, collab collabora oratio tion, n, executi execution on and performance management. At any given moment, market forces could demand changes from su supp ppli lier ers, s, lo logi gisti stics cs prov provid ider ers, s, locat locatio ions ns and and custo custome mers rs,, and and from from any any numb number er of th these ese specialized participants as components of supply chain networks. This variability has significant effects eff ects on the supply supply chain chain infrast infrastru ructu cture, re, from from the founda foundatio tion n layers layers of establi establishi shing ng and managi man aging ng the electro electronic nic commu communic nicati ation on betwee between n the tradin trading g partne partners rs to more more comple complex x requirements including the configuration of the processes and work flows that are essential to the manage managemen mentt of the network network itself. itself. Suppl Supply y chain chain special specializa izatio tion n enable enables s compan companies ies to improv imp rove e their their overal overalll compete competenci ncies es in the same same way that that outsou outsource rced d manufa manufactu cturin ring g and distrib dist ributi ution on has done; done; it allows allows them to focus focus on their their core core compet competenc encies ies and assemble assemble networ net works ks of specifi specific, c, best-i best-in-c n-class lass partn partners ers to contrib contribute ute to the overall overall value value chain chain itself, itself, thereby increasing overall performance and efficiency. The ability to quickly obtain and deploy this domain-spe domain-specific cific supply chain expertise without developing developing and maintaini maintaining ng an entirely entirely unique and complex competency in house is the leading reason why s supply upply chain specialization is gaining Outsourced technology hosting for and supply chain solutions debuted in has the late 1990spopularity. and has taken root primarily in transportation collaboration categories. This progressed from the Application Service Provider (ASP) model from a approximately pproximately 1998through 2003 to the On-Demand model from approximately 2003-2006 to the Software as a Service (SaaS) model currently in focus today. 6. Supply Chain Management 2.0 (SCM 2.0) Building on globalization and specialization, the term SCM 2.0 has been coined to describe both the changes within the supply chain itself as well as the evolution of the processes, methods and tools that manage it in this new "era". Web 2.0 is defined as a trend in the use of the World Wide Web that is meant to increase creativity, information sharing, and collaboration among users. At its core, the common attribute that Web 2.0 brings is to help navigate the vast amount of information available on the Web in order to find what is being sought. It is the notion of a usable pathway. SCM 2.0 follows this notion into supply chain operations. It is the pathway to SCM results, a combinatio pathway combination n of the processes, methodologie methodologies, s, tools and delivery delivery options to guide companies to their results quickly as the complexity and speed of the supply chain increase due to the effects of global competition, rapid price fluctuations, surging oil prices, short product life cycles, expanded specialization, near-/far- and off-shoring, and talent scarcity.

Q2. “The “The utility utility of forec forecast asts s can be enhanc enhanced ed collab collabora orativ tive e forec forecast asting ing among supply chain partners.” Explain? Ans. Collaborative Supply Chain Management: Ma nagement: Enabling Visibility  The participatio participation n of the entire supply chain community community leads to improved improved inventory inventory planning and optimization. If you’ve tried working with suppliers in multiple locations and different time zones, you know that email is an improvement over voice and fax, but it still falls short of what you need. Demand Solutions Collaboration provides a collaborative framework to create a supply network that includes credible demand and

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 replenish replen ishmen mentt signals; signals; shared shared busine business ss process processes es with with custom customers ers and suppli suppliers ers;; exception-b excepti on-based ased manageme management nt of key performanc performance e indicators; indicators; coordinate coordinated d workflow workflow and activity among all trading partners and a common view of business performance via a se secu cure re Inter Interne nett-ba based sed solu solutio tion. n. A four fourth th gene genera rati tion on collaborati collaborative ve planning planning   solution, Collaboration work seamlesslyacross disparate applications a pplications and organizations

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Item forec Item forecast ast numb number ers s are based based on empi empiric rical al data. data. A flexi flexibl ble e and and hi hier erar arch chic ical al statistical forecasting engine is essential, but a true collaborative forecast will take into account factors outside the four walls of your company. Accurate and collaborative forecasts improve customer service, enhance inventory planning and optimization and ultimately increase net sales. Demand Solutions Collaboration extends beyond the core forecasting activity to include your external trading partners and internal departments -in real time with a Web-based solution. With Collaboration, you get a more accurate forecast. Your trading partners and customers have visibility into their account plans in your system and are able to enhance the plan. With collaborative plans, everyone can focus on value-added analysis versus data collection. Collaboration process Whether you follow CPFR, CPFR, have your own internal collaboration methodology or don’t have one established yet, Collaboration is flexible and dynamic to tailor the process to support your business. Using Demand Solutions Collaboration tools, you can improve sales and order forecast accuracy, employs automatic automatic exception exception manageme management nt and alert notifications, simplify promotion planning and easily analyze business trends. The results: •Increased supply chain visibility •Optimized inventories •Reduced stock outs •Lower costs •Satisfied customers •Increased revenue Demand Solutions Collaboration provides a powerful collaborative platform Using Usin g the flexibi flexibility lity of Collab Collabora oratio tion, n, manuf manufact acture urers rs can now share share their their plann planned ed order forecasts with key suppliers. Business alerts, prioritized lists of critical events and automatic resolutions help focus valuable resources on urgent issues.Trading partner scan work together to address exception conditions proactively. Customer demand is synchr syn chron onize ized d with suppli supplier er capabi capabilit lities ies for optimi optimized zed invent inventory ory and produc productio tion. n. Dynamic Dynam ic views support flexible aggregation aggregation and disaggregat disaggregation ion of items at various various levels leve ls of detail, detail, making making collab collabora oratio tion n much much easier. easier. Compan Companies ies that collabo collaborat rative ively ly manage their supply chain gain a real competitive advantage. Dashboards for better response Demand Deman d Soluti Solution ons s Dashbo Dashboard ards s provid provide e a way to visually visually present present critic critical al data data in summary form. The Dashboard functionality can be customized by job function so planners can see the views they need and everyone can make quick decisions and

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 respond to managemen respond management’s t’s every-chang every-changing ing desire to see forecasting forecasting information information in multiple formats. Additional features •Quickly delivers business value and ROI through inventory optimization and improved forecasting accuracy •Includes collaborative calendar capabilities to display inter-company inte r-company promotions promotions •Integrates easily with existing supply chain, CRM and ERP systems •Simpl •Si mplifi ifies es comple complex x plann planning ing proces processes ses with cl clos osed ed-l -loo oop p de dema mand nd fo fore re ca casti sting ng   capabilities •Accelerates Sales Sales & Ope Operati rations ons Plan Plannin ning g (S& (S&OP) OP) impro improves ves communic communication ations s and generates alerts for key exceptions •Browser based which means zero client deployment •Supports XML and EDI for easy exchange of data with wit h trading partners •Provides visibility into the entire supply chain •Exception managemen managementt (configurable by trading partner) •Ability to define work flows •View •Vi ew data data as inform informati ation on to help help optim optimize ize invent inventory ory and maximi maximize ze profits profits with with Demand Solutions Dashboards  

3. Explain management the Steps in implementing CPFR andthe themodel. roles and responsibilities of various levels in implementing Ans.3. Steps in implementing CPFR   The CPFR CPFR process process model model contains contains nine steps: 1. Develop front-end agreement: the parties involved establish e stablish the guidelines and rules for the collaborative relationship. relat ionship. 2. Create joint business plan: the parties involved create a business plan that takes into account their individual corporate strategies and defined category roles, objectives and tactics. 3. Create sales forecast: retailer point-of-sales data, causal information and information on planned events are used by one party to create an initial sales forecast, this forecast is then communicated to the other party and used as a baseline for the creation of an order forecast. 4. Identify exceptions for sales forecast: items that fall outside the sales forecast constraints set inc the t he front-end agreement are identified. 5. Resolve / collaborate on exception items: the parties negotiate and produce an adjusted forecast. 6. Cr Crea eate te or orde derr forec forecast ast:: poin pointt-ofof-sal sales es data, data, ca caus usal al in info form rmat atio ion n and and in inven vento tory ry strategies are combined to generate a specific order forecast that supports the shared sales forecasts and joint business plan. 7. Identify exceptions for order forecast: items that fall outside the order forecast constraints set jointly by the parties involved are identified. 8. Resolve / collaborate on exception items: the parties negotiate (if  necessary) to produce an adjusted order forecast. 9. Order generation: the order forecast is translated into a firm order by one of the parties involved. Following table shows the roles and responsibilities re sponsibilities of various management

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 levels in implementing CPFR model  TABLE Benefits of CPFR Model Some of the benefits implementation are: •Increased level of trust t rust due to sharing of critical information among trading partners •Distinct increase in service levels to customers •More accurate demand and sales forecasting, enabling better production management •Increased visibility to planned and unplanned changes •Near elimination of out-of-stock situations sit uations •Enhanced category management benefits •Reductions in inventory on hand •Reduction in returns and allowances •Shift from make-to-stock discipline to make-to-demand manufacturing •Double-digit increase in sales •Improved return-on-assets (ROA) performance •Enhancement of the organization's Economic Value Added (EVA) Successful CPFR pilots have been carried out by Wal-Mart, Sara Lee Corp., WarnerLambert Co., Procter & Gamble Co., Wegmans Food Markets, Nabisco Inc., Schnuck Markets, Food Lion, Salisbury, Meijer, Loblaw Cos., Kmart Corp., Kimberly-Clark Corp., Hewlet Hew lett-P t-Pack ackard ard,, Lucent Lucent Technol Technologi ogies es Inc., Inc., Circui Circuitt City Stores Stores Inc. Inc. to name name a few. few. According to Katz, Klaris, and Scorpio "The success of a CPFR initiative depends on strong, stro ng, sustain sustained, ed, highly highly visible visible sponso sponsorsh rship. ip. In order order to create create and implem implement ent a success suc cessful ful CPFR process process,, the manage managemen mentt team must be ready ready to commi committ both both personnel and resources". Scope of future work on CPFR  The emergence emergence of business business as a global global activity activity and the shrinkage shrinkage of the world into a Global Village, unfettered by the constraints of geographical and political boundaries, have necessitated a re-adjustment of attitudes with regard to the manner of doing business. At present, over sixty leading manufacturers, retailers, system integrators and software solution providers actively participate in the VICS CPFR Committee. This represents a very small percentage of the entire business community, and of the scope of CPFR. Every industry, every business has at least one supplier and one retailer, and therefore the scope of CPFR opportunities is unlimited. With the emergence of 'trading exchanges' across industries, buyers and sellers are coming together more than ever before and the trading partner relationship is shifting from a 'win/lose' adversarial interaction to a 'win/win' collaborative interaction. The corpor cor porate ate and value-c value-chai hain n focus focus is shiftin shifting g from from market market-ar -area ea specific specific plannin planning g to customer custom er specific specific planning. planning. According According to Harrington Harrington,, True collaborati collaboration on requires requires a strategic strateg ic change in the nature of both the relationships relationships and transaction transactions s between between trading partners. By collaborating collectively, and in real time, on such things as sales

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 forecasts, production plans, inventory management, and procurement, companies can begin to eliminate uncertainty from the supply chain".

4. What What is Custom Customer er value? value? How can differ different ential ial advant advantage age be achiev achieved ed through Supply Chain Management? Management? Ans4. Today’s aggressively competitive business environment has led to companies recognizing more and more the imperative of strategically positioning themselves in order ord er to remain remain competit competitive. ive. The propag propagati ation on of goods goods and service services, s, contin continual ually ly improving impro ving modes of operation, operation, quality standards, standards, innovation, innovation, information information etc, have spawned spawn ed commoditi commoditization zation and replication replication of offerings, offerings, and with them, unremitting unremitting competition, hence the imperative of differentiation. Applying the principles of the value chain (ie adding value within each and at the interface between business processes to create value for the end consumer), can assist companies in achieving this.  The nine nine elemen elements ts of the chain chain are compar compartmen tmentaliz talized ed as follows: follows:

Primary Activities encompassing: encompassing: Inbound logistics Operations Outbound Logistics Marketing and Sales Service Servic e (suppl (supply y chain chain activiti activities es concer concerned ned with with puttin putting g the produc productt togeth together er and getting it to the consumer)

Support Activities encompassing: encompassing: Procurement Human Resource Management  Technolog  Techn ology y Firm’s Infrastructure Infrastructure (which facilitate facilitate the primary activities). Firm’s infrastructure infrastructure oversees the management of the entire chain. Let us now examine examples of how ‘value activities’ can be leveraged to create differential advantage. The following examples are by no means exhaustive, but simply give ideas as to how it can be done.

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 Inbound Logistics Inbound logistics involves the receipt of inputs such as raw materials or inventory, storage stor age in prepar preparatio ation n for produc production tion,, and distrib distributi ution on to produ producti ction on area(s) area(s) as necessary. necessa ry. The ease of facilitating facilitating the availability availability of inputs to feed manufacturing manufacturing process pro cesses es is crucia cruciall to subsequen subsequentt process processes. es. A compan company y can set itself itself apart by ensuring ensuri ng exceptiona exceptionall coordinati coordination on of supplier supplier relationship relationships, s, transportati transportation on services, services, inventory inven tory management management and so on. Enhancin Enhancing g the sub-activiti sub-activities es within this element results in greater efficiency and effectiveness that spill over to subsequent processes, creating a domino effect, resulting in customer satisfaction perceived as invaluable. For instance, the buying company can consider enhancing logistics performance by De-sophisti De-soph isticat cating ing proces processes ses so they they are under understan standab dable le at every every interfa interface, ce, thus thus offsetting mayhem; Enter eriing optimal contr tra acts that require adherence eliminating/reducing potential setbacks that hinder progress;

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Instituting EDI programmes that allow information-sharing and support; Implement Implem entin ing g just-in just-in-tim -time e invent inventory ory systems systems to keep stock stock levels levels down, down, thereb thereby y reducing storage costs, translating to lower final costs to the consumer; Engaging the input of suppliers, as their knowledge, experience and value networks can prove invaluable; Explo Expl oit itin ing g com communicat icatio ion n chan channe nels ls su such ch as the the in inte tern rnet et thus thus el elim imin inat atin ing g intermediaries, reducing costs by allowing direct interaction with suppliers; Re-engine Re-eng ineeri ering ng transpo transporta rtatio tion n service services, s, say to preserv preserve e qualit quality y of perish perishabl able e raw materials on arrival e.g.: Fair-trade fruits shipped to the UK from Costa Rica by cargo jet rather rather than than by by sea.

Outbound Logistics  This loop refers to the collection, collection, storage storage and distributio distribution n of the finished finished good. Like inbou inb ound nd logisti logistics, cs, effecti effective ve coordi coordinat nation ion of storage storage,, and distrib distributi ution on to buyers buyers (eg retaile reta ilers) rs) reduce reduces s hitches hitches and thereb thereby y adds adds value. value. Compan Companies ies may differ different entiat iate e th them emsel selve ves s th ther eref efor ore e by ensu ensuri ring ng th that at stock stocks s are alway always s avail availab able le at opti optima mall convenienc conve nience e to the customer customer – optimal optimal being the key word here. Remember, Remember, it must stand stan d above above what what the competito competitorr does does in order order to be distinc distinctly tly valuable valuable.. Thus, Thus, improving processes and relationships at the downstream end of the supply chain adds value. Clyde Witt (2002) in his article  Addin  Adding g Value the Old-Fashio Old-Fashioned ned Way-Throug Way-Through h Hard Work , identifies USA’s Wisconsin Lift Truck as an example of a differentiated company,

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 deemed one which “demonstrates exceptional skill and enterprise in adding value to clients' businesses”. Highli Highlightin ghting g some of the strategies that have contributed contributed to the firm’s success, he quotes the CEO, Otto Wolter as advising, "If the manufacturers can't deliver trucks or parts on time - for whatever the reasonthe result is lost orders."

5. With reference to procurement management, illustrate your own ideas of  inte intern rnal al supp suppli lier ers s and and exte extern rnal al supp suppli lier ers s by ta taki king ng exam exampl ple e of any any commodities like soaps or perfumes Ans5. We are aware that the equivalent word for Procurement is Purchase/Buy. Buying has ha s been been an ac acti tivi vity ty th that at has has been been in exis existe tenc nce e in th the e life life of man man sinc since e ti tim me immemorial[2] immemorial [2].. There was buying in some form or other whenever there was a need for something. This buying may not have been in the t he form, as we know it nowadays. Procurement can be seen as exchange of goods/services for value. All Procurement arises from/is an outcome of felt need. As per the above statement, all Procurement will have some important necessary components like: Individuals/institutions with a specific s pecific need, that is, buyer. Availability of product/service to satisfy the need. Offer of the need satisfying product/service by institutions/individuals that is supplier/seller. Information about the source providing the product/service, that is, media. A place or medium for the exchange to take place, that is, market. Value that is price. The purchase process takes place only when, all the above components are satisfactory to the parties looking at the exchange. Supplier/Seller: The Supplier/Seller is the most important component/link In Supply Chain Cha in Manage Manageme ment. nt. It is more more exclusi exclusive ve so in Procur Procureme ement nt Manage Managemen ment. t. This This is because it is the Supplier/Seller who answers the who/what element in what/which is the source of supply? Every procurement decision involves a detailed analysis and rating of the supplier. We will discuss more on this at a later stage. It is enough for us to know that supplier is a very important component in Procurement Management process. Suppli pplier er defi defin nit itio ion n: The The Supp Suppli lier er is one who who pr prov ovid ide es the the need eed sa sati tisf sfyi yin ng product/service in the Procurement Management process. Like internal and external customers, there are internal and external suppliers. External Supplier: External Supplier is generally the provider of goods/services required by the procur procurer/ er/pur purcha chaser. ser. The import important ant charac character teristi istics cs of transac transactio tions ns with with an external supplier are as given below:  There is is invariably invariably a monetary monetary component component involved involved in the transact transaction ion with with the external external supplier.  There is also a transfer transfer of ownership/ ownership/title title to goods and/or services, in all transactio transactions ns with an external supplier. Besides, generally all transactions with an external supplier is contractual

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 Inte Intern rnal al Supp Suppli lier er:: This This is a very very cruc crucia iall in inpu putt comp compon onen entt in th the e Proc Procur urem emen entt Management process. This is because the performance of the internal supplier is very critical to an organization in providing its external customers a customer delight. Only when this happens, the organization can survive and grow. Otherwise the organization is doomed to fail. Almost every employee who has an interaction/requirement from another employee is an internal supplier. The one who has the t he requirement is the internal customer. For example: Scen cenario ario 1: The The acco accou unts dep departm artmen ent, t, whic which h has to make ake the the cheq chequ ue for for goods/ goo ds/serv service ices s provid provided ed agains againstt a purch purchase ase order, order, is an intern internal al suppli supplier er to the purchase department. The purchase department is the internal customer. Scenario 2: The production division that manufactures goods against an order for say, 1000 cases of toilet soaps is the internal supplier. In this case, the internal customer is the marketing department. Scenario Scenar io 3: The office attendant attendant who makes makes photoc photocopy opy of the purcha purchase se order order in example 2 above is the internal supplier to the executive handling the concerned external customer account. It is clearly understood from the above statement that there are innumerable instances of internal customers and internal suppliers.  The distinguish distinguishing ing characterist characteristics ics between between the the internal internal and external external supplier supplier are: 1. In case of the external suppliers, there is a component of exchange of money involved. It is not so in the case of internal suppliers. 2. The relationship with the external supplier is contractual while it is one of support in the case of internal supplier. 3. There is a transfer of right to ownership/title in the case of external supplier. This does not happen with internal suppliers.  This is because because the internal internal suppliers and the customers are a part of the same team having common goals similar to the goals of the t he organization they are working for

Q6. Write short notes on the following fo llowing w.r.t. supply chain management a) Bar code b) Radio Frequency Identification c) Electronic Data Interchange I nterchange d) Artificial Intelligence or Expert System Ans.A) Bar code:A barcode is an optical machine-readable representation of data, which shows certain data on certain products. Originally, barcodes represented data in the widths (lines) and an d th the e spac spacin ings gs of para parall llel el line lines, s, and and may may be re refe ferr rred ed to as line linear ar or 1D (1 dimensional) barcodes or symbologies. They also come in patterns of squares,dots, hexagons and other geometric patterns within images termed 2D (2 dimensional)matrix codes or symbologies. Although 2D systems use symbols other

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 than bars, they are generally referred to as barcodes as well. Barcodes can be read by optical scann optical scanners ers called barcode barcode reader readers s, or scan scanne ned d from from an imag image e by spec specia iall so softw ftwar are. e.Th The e fir first st use use of barc barcod odes es was was to label label rail railro road ad cars, cars, but but they they were were not not commer com mercia cially lly succes successfu sfull until until they they were were used used to autom automate ate supermarket supermarket  checkout  checkout  systems, a task in which they have become almost universal. Their use has spread to many other roles as well, tasks that are generically referred to as Auto ID Data Capture  Capture  (AIDC). Other systems are attempting to make inroads in the AIDC market, but the simplicity, universality and low cost of barcodes has limited the role of these other systems. It costs 0.5¢ ((U.S. ((U.S.)) to implement a barcode, while passive RFID still costs about 7¢ to 30¢ per tag. B) Radio Frequenc Frequency y Identific Identification: ation: - RadioRadio-fre frequ quenc ency y identifi identificat cation ion (RFID) (RFID) is a technology that uses communic communication ation via electromag electromagnetic netic waves to exchange exchange data between a terminal and an object such as a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyo be yond nd th the e li line ne of sight sight of th the e reade reader. r. Radio Radio-f -fre requ quen ency cy id iden enti tifi fica cati tion on in invo volv lves es interrogators (also known as readers), and tags (also known as labels).Most RFID tags contain at least two parts. One is an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, demodulatinga radio-frequency (RF (RF)) signal, signal, and other other special specialize ized d modulating and demodulatinga functions. The other is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal.There are three types of RFID tags: passive tags, which have no power source require an external electromagnetic fieldRFID to initiate a signal transmission, activeand RFID tags, which contain a battery and can transmit signals once an external source('Interrogator') has been successfully identified, and battery assisted passive (BAP) RFID ta RFID tags gs,, whic which h re requ quir ire e an exte extern rnal al sour source ce to wake wake up but but have have sign signif ific ican antt higher forward link capability providing greater range.  There are a variety variety of groups groups defining defining standards standards and regulating regulating the use of RFID, Inte tern rnat atio iona nall Orga Or gani niza zati tion on forr fo Stan St anda dard rdiz izat atio ion n(ISO) (ISO),,International  International  including:  In Electrotechnical Commission(IEC) Commission(IEC)

C)Electronic Data Interchange:- Electronic data interchange (EDI) is the structured transmission of data between organizations by electronic means. It is used to transfer electronic documents or business data from one computer system to another computer system, syst em, i.e. from from one tradin trading g partne partnerr to anothe anotherr trading trading partner partner withou withoutt human human bills  intervention.It is more than meree-mail meree-mail;; for instance, organizations might replace bills  of lading and even cheques with appropriate EDI messages. It also refers specifically to a family of standards of standards,, e.g. UN/EDIFACT, ANSI X12.The National Institute of Standards and Techn Technolo ology gy in a 1996 1996 public publicati ation on define defines s electro electronic nic data data interch interchang ange e as "the "the compu com puter ter-to -to-co -compu mputer ter interc interchan hange ge of strictl strictly y format formatted ted message messages s that repres represent ent documents other than monetary instruments. EDI implies a sequence of messages betw be twee een n two two part partie ies, s, ei eith ther er of whom whom may may serve serve as orig origin inat ator or or recip recipie ient nt.. The The formatted data representing the documents may be transmitted from originator to recipie reci pient nt via telecom telecommu munic nicati ation ons s or physic physicall ally y transpo transporte rted d on electro electronic nic storag storage e medi me dia. a.” ” It goes goes on fu furth rther er to say that "In EDI, th the e usua usuall proc process essin ing g of rece receiv ived ed messages is by computer only. Human intervention in the processing of a received messag mes sage e is typical typically ly intend intended ed only only for error error conditi conditions ons,, for quality quality review, review, and for

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Supply Chain Management OM0012 special situations. For example, the transmission of binary or textual data is not EDI as defined here unless the data are treated as one or more data elements of an EDI message and are not normally intended for human interpretation as part of online data processing." EDI can be formally defined as 'The transfer of structured data, by agreed message standards, from one computer system to another without human intervention'. Most other definitions used are variations on this theme. Even in this era of technologies such as XML  XML we services, the Internet and the World Wide Web, Web, EDI may be the data format used by the vast majority of electronic of electronic commerce transactions in the world.

D) Artificial Intelligence or Expert System:- Artificial intelligence of computer science that aims to (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent of intelligent agents" agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions McCarthy hy,, who coined the term in 1956, that maximize its chances of success.  John McCart defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines. "The field was founded on the claim that a central property of humans, intelligence—the sapience  sapience  of Homo of  Homo sapiens—can sapiens—can be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine.  This raises raises philosophi philosophical cal issues issues about the the nature of the the mind and the limits of scientific inquiry, issues s whic which h have have been been addr addres essed sed by myth myth,,  fiction and philosophy since inquiry, issue antiquity Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism,[but has also suffered setba set back cks s and, and, to toda day, y, has has beco become me an essen essenti tial al part part of th the e techn technol olog ogy y in indu dustr stry, y, providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science. AI research is highly technical and specialized, deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each ach oth the er. Subfie iellds have ave grow rown up aro around partic par ticula ularr institu institution tions, s, the work work of individ individua uall researc researche hers, rs, the solution solution of specif specific ic problems, longstanding differences of opinion about how AI should be done and the application of widely differing tools. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects. General intelligence (or "strong "strong AI") AI") is still among the field's long term goals.

Roll No.521038251

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