Sustainable Development

Sustainable development
2 Definition

Sustainable development is a road-map, an action plan,
for achieving sustainability in any activity that uses resources and where immediate and intergenerational replication is demanded. As such, sustainable development
is the organizing principle for sustaining finite resources
necessary to provide for the needs of future generations
of life on the planet. It is a process that envisions a desirable future state for human societies in which living conditions and resource-use continue to meet human needs
without undermining the “integrity, stability and beauty”
of natural biotic systems.[1]

1

Sustainability and Sustainable
Development

Main article: Sustainability
As a working definition, sustainability can be defined
as the practice of maintaining processes of productivity indefinitely—natural or human made—by replacing resources used with resources of equal or greater
value without degrading or endangering natural biotic
systems.[2][3] According to M. Hasna, sustainability is a
function of social, economic, technological and ecological themes.[4] Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural systems with
the social, political, and economic challenges faced by
humanity. As early as the 1970s, the concept of “sustainability” was employed to describe an economy “in
equilibrium with basic ecological support systems.”[5]
Scientists in many fields have highlighted The Limits to
Growth,[6][7] and economists have presented alternatives,
for example a 'steady state economy';[8] to address concerns over the impacts of expanding human development
on the planet.

The natural resource of wind powers these 5MW wind turbines
on this wind farm 28 km off the coast of Belgium.

The United Nations World Commission on Environment
and Development (WCED) in its 1987 report Our Common Future defines sustainable development: “Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.”[9] Under the principles of the United Nations Charter the Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties on sustainable development, including
economic development, social development and environmental protection. Broadly defined, sustainable development is a systems approach to growth and development
and to manage natural, produced, and social capital for
the welfare of their own and future generations. The term
sustainable development as used by the United Nations
incorporates both issues associated with land development and broader issues of human development such as

The term sustainable development rose to significance
after it was used by the Brundtland Commission in its
1987 report Our Common Future. In the report, the
commission coined what has become the most oftenquoted definition of sustainable development: “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs.”[9][10] The United Nations Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties on sustainable development, including economic development, social development and environmental protection.
1

2
education, public health, and standard of living.

4 DOMAINS
to which overriding priority should be
given; and

The concepts of sustainable development and sustainability derive from the older forestry term “sustained yield”,
2. The idea of limitations imposed by the
which, in turn, is a translation of the German term “nachstate of technology and social organiza[11]
haltiger Ertrag” dating from 1713.
Sustainability scition on the environment’s ability to meet
ence is the study of the concepts of sustainable developpresent and future needs.[16]
ment and environmental science. There is an additional
focus on the present generations’ responsibility to regenerate, maintain and improve planetary resources for use
In 1992, the UN Conference on Environment and Deby future generations.[12]
velopment published in 1992 the Earth Charter, which
outlines the building of a just, sustainable, and peaceful global society in the 21st century. The action plan
3 History
Agenda 21 for sustainable development identified information, integration, and participation as key building
Main article: History of sustainability
blocks to help countries achieve development that recognizes these interdependent pillars. It emphasises that in
The concept of “sustainable development” has its roots sustainable development everyone is a user and provider
in forest management as early as the 12th to 16th of information. It stresses the need to change from old
centuries.[13] However, over the last five decades the con- sector-centered ways of doing business to new approaches
cept has significantly broadened. The first use of the term that involve cross-sectoral co-ordination and the integrasustainable in the contemporary sense was by the Club tion of environmental and social concerns into all deof Rome in 1972 in its classic report on the "Limits to velopment processes. Furthermore, Agenda 21 emphaGrowth", written by a group of scientists led by Dennis sises that broad public participation in decision making
and Donella Meadows of the Massachusetts Institute of is a fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable
[17]
Technology. Describing the desirable “state of global development.
equilibrium”, the authors used the word “sustainable": The UN Commission on Sustainable Development in“We are searching for a model output that represents a tegrated sustainable development into the UN System.
world system that is: (1) sustainable without sudden and Indigenous peoples have argued, through various interuncontrolled collapse and (2) capable of satisfying the ba- national forums such as the United Nations Permanent
sic material requirements of all of its people.”[11][12]
Forum on Indigenous Issues and the Convention on Biological Diversity, that there are four pillars of sustainable
• In 1980, the International Union for the Conserva- development, the fourth being cultural. The Universal
tion of Nature published a world conservation strat- Declaration on Cultural Diversity from 2001 states: "...
egy that included one of the first references to sus- cultural diversity is as necessary for humankind as biotainable development as a global priority.[14]
diversity is for nature”; it becomes “ one of the roots of
development understood not simply in terms of economic
• In 1982, the United Nations World Charter for Na- growth, but also as a means to achieve a more satisfactory
ture raised five principles of conservation by which intellectual, emotional, moral and spiritual existence”.[18]
human conduct affecting nature is to be guided and
The proposed changes were supported by a study in 2013,
judged.[15]
which concluded that sustainability reporting should be
reframed through the lens of four interconnected do• In 1987, the United Nations World Commission on
mains: ecology, economics, politics and culture.[19]
Environment and Development released the report
Our Common Future, now commonly named the
'Brundtland Report' after the commission’s chairperson, the then Prime Minister of Norway Gro
Harlem Brundtland. The report included what is 4 Domains
now one of the most widely recognised definitions:
“Sustainable development is development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising See also: Planetary boundaries and Outline of sustainthe ability of future generations to meet their own ability
needs.” [16] The Brundtland Report goes on to say
that sustainable development also contains within it Different domains have been identified for research and
two key concepts:
analysis of sustainable development. Broadly defined,
these include ecology, economics, politics and culture[20]
1. The concept of “needs,” in particular,
— as used by the United Nations and a number of other
the essential needs of the world’s poor,
international organizations.[21]

5.2

Energy

5

Ecology

3

5.2 Energy

Main articles: Smart grid and Sustainable energy
See also: Ecological engineering
The ecological sustainability of human settlements is part
Sustainable energy is the sustainable provision of energy
that is clean and lasts for a long period of time. Unlike
the fossil fuel that most of the countries are using, renewable energy only produces little or even no pollution.[29]
The most common types of renewable energy in US are
solar and wind energy, solar energy are commonly used
on public parking meter, street lights and the roof of
buildings.[30] On the other hand, wind energy is expanding quickly in recent years, which generated 12,000 MW
in 2013. The largest wind power station is in Texas and
followed up by California.[31][32] Household energy consumption can also be improved in a sustainable way, like
using electronics with energy star <https://en.wikipedia.
Ecological footprint for different nations compared to their Hu- org/wiki/Energy_Star> logos, conserving water and enman Development Index (HDI)
ergy. Most of California’s fossil fuel infrastructures are
sited in or near low-income communities, and have traof the relationship between humans and their natural, so- ditionally suffered the most from California’s fossil fuel
cial and built environments.[22] Also termed human ecol- energy system. These communities are historically left
ogy, this broadens the focus of sustainable development out during the decision- making process, and often end
to include the domain of human health. Fundamental hu- up with dirty power plants and other dirty energy projects
man needs such as the availability and quality of air, wa- that poison the air and harm the area. These toxins are
ter, food and shelter are also the ecological foundations major contributors to significant health problems in the
for sustainable development;[23] addressing public health communities. While renewable energy becomes more
risk through investments in ecosystem services can be a common, the government begins to shut down some of
powerful and transformative force for sustainable devel- the fossil fuel infrastructures in order to consume renewopment which, in this sense, extends to all species.[24]
able energy and provide a better social equity to the specific community.[33]

5.1

Agriculture

See also: Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture may be defined as consisting of
environmentally-friendly methods of farming that allow
the production of crops or livestock without damage to
human or natural systems. More specifically, it might
be said to include preventing adverse effects to soil, water, biodiversity, surrounding or downstream resources—
as well as to those working or living on the farm or in
neighboring areas. Furthermore, the concept of sustainable agriculture extends intergenerationally, relating to
passing on a conserved or improved natural resource,
biotic, and economic base instead of one which has
been depleted or polluted.[25] Some important elements
of sustainable agriculture are permaculture, agroforestry,
mixed farming, multiple cropping, and crop rotation.[26]
Numerous sustainability standards and certification systems have been established in recent years to meet development goals, thus offering consumer choices for sustainable agriculture practices. Well-known food standards include organic, Rainforest Alliance, Fair Trade, UTZ Certified, Bird Friendly, and the Common Code for the Coffee
Community(4C).[27][28]

5.3 Environment
See also: Environmental engineering and Environmental
technology
Beyond ecology as the intersection of humans in the
environment, environmental sustainability concerns the
natural environment and how it endures and remains diverse and productive. Since Natural resources are derived from the environment, the state of air, water, and
the climate are of particular concern. The IPCC Fifth
Assessment Report outlines current knowledge about scientific, technical and socio-economic information concerning climate change, and lists options for adaptation
and mitigation.[34] Environmental sustainability requires
society to design activities to meet human needs while
preserving the life support systems of the planet. This,
for example, entails using water sustainably, utilizing renewable energy, and sustainable material supplies (e.g.
harvesting wood from forests at a rate that maintains the
biomass and biodiversity).
An “unsustainable situation” occurs when natural capital
(the sum total of nature’s resources) is used up faster than
it can be replenished. Sustainability requires that human
activity only uses nature’s resources at a rate at which they
can be replenished naturally. Inherently the concept of

4

6

ECONOMICS

5.4.1 Improve public transit
- Larger coverage area in order to provide more mobility and accessibility, use new technology to provide a
more reliable and responsive public transportation network, company providing ECO pass to employees.[37]
5.4.2 Encourage walking and biking
-Wider pedestrian pathway, bike share station in commercial downtown, locate parking lot far from the shopping center, limit on street parking, slower traffic lane in
downtown area.
5.4.3 Increase the cost of car ownership and gas
taxes
-Increase parking fees/ toll fees, encourage people to
drive more fuel efficient vehicles. -Social equity problem, poor people usually drive old cars that have low fuel
efficiency. However, government can use the extra revenue collected from taxes and tolls to improve the public
sustainable development is intertwined with the concept transportation and benefit the poor community.[38]
of carrying capacity. Theoretically, the long-term result
of environmental degradation is the inability to sustain
human life. Such degradation on a global scale should 6 Economics
imply an increase in human death rate until population
falls to what the degraded environment can support. If
the degradation continues beyond a certain tipping point
or critical threshold it would lead to eventual extinction
for humanity.
Only 2.5% of the Earth’s water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that
water is in ice and groundwater. Image: Apollo 17.

5.4

Transportation

Transportation is a large contributor to greenhouse gases.
It is said that one-third of all gasses produced are due
to transportation.[35] Some western countries and United
States are making transportation more sustainable in both
long-term and short-term implementations.[36] One great
example of this is the transportation changes done in
the city of Freiburg, Germany. The city has implemented extensive methods of public transportation, cycling, and walking, along with large areas where cars are
not allowed.[35]
Since many western countries are highly automobileorientated areas, the main transit that people use is
personal vehicles. About 80% of their travel involves
cars.[35] Therefore, California, deep in the automobileoriented west, is one of the highest greenhouse gases
emitters in the country. The federal government has to
come up with some plans to reduce the total number of
vehicle trips in order to lower greenhouse gases emission.
Such as:

A sewage treatment plant that uses environmentally friendly solar
energy, located at Santuari de Lluc monastery.

See also: Ecological economics
It has been suggested that because of rural poverty
and overexploitation, environmental resources should be
treated as important economic assets, called natural
capital.[39] Economic development has traditionally required a growth in the gross domestic product. This
model of unlimited personal and GDP growth may be
over.[40] Sustainable development may involve improvements in the quality of life for many but may necessitate a
decrease in resource consumption.[41] According to ecological economist Malte Faber, ecological economics is

6.2

Income

defined by its focus on nature, justice, and time. Issues of
intergenerational equity, irreversibility of environmental
change, uncertainty of long-term outcomes, and sustainable development guide ecological economic analysis and
valuation.[42]
In 1987 the economist Edward Barbier published the
study The Concept of Sustainable Economic Development,
where he recognized that goals of environmental conservation and economic development are not conflicting and
can be reinforcing each other.[43]

5
ical impacts and resource intensity throughout the lifecycle to a level at least in line with the earth’s carrying
capacity.” (DeSimone and Popoff, 1997: 47)[55]
Similar to the eco-efficiency concept but so far less explored is the second criterion for corporate sustainability. Socio-efficiency[56] describes the relation between a
firm’s value added and its social impact. Whereas, it can
be assumed that most corporate impacts on the environment are negative (apart from rare exceptions such as the
planting of trees) this is not true for social impacts. These
can be either positive (e.g. corporate giving, creation of
employment) or negative (e.g. work accidents, mobbing
of employees, human rights abuses). Depending on the
type of impact socio-efficiency thus either tries to minimize negative social impacts (i.e. accidents per value
added) or maximise positive social impacts (i.e. donations per value added) in relation to the value added.

A World Bank study from 1999 concluded that based
on the theory of genuine savings, policymakers have
many possible interventions to increase sustainability, in
macroeconomics or purely environmental.[44] A study
from 2001 noted that efficient policies for renewable energy and pollution are compatible with increasing human
welfare, eventually reaching a golden-rule steady state.[45]
The study, Interpreting Sustainability in Economic Terms, Both eco-efficiency and socio-efficiency are concerned
found three pillars of sustainable development, interlink- primarily with increasing economic sustainability. In this
age, intergenerational equity, and dynamic efficiency.[46] process they instrumentalize both natural and social capwin-win situations. However,
A meta review in 2002 looked at environmental and ital aiming to benefit from
as Dyllick and Hockerts[56] point out the business case
economic valuations and found a lack of “sustainability policies”.[47] A study in 2004 asked if we consume alone will not be sufficient to realise sustainable development. They point towards eco-effectiveness, sociotoo much.[48] A study concluded in 2007 that knowledge, manufactured and human capital(health and educa- effectiveness, sufficiency, and eco-equity as four criteria
that need to be met if sustainable development is to be
tion) has not compensated for the degradation of natural
capital in many parts of the world.[49] It has been sug- reached.
gested that intergenerational equity can be incorporated
into a sustainable development and decision making, as
has become common in economic valuations of climate
economics.[50] A meta review in 2009 identified conditions for a strong case to act on climate change, and called
for more work to fully account of the relevant economics
and how it affects human welfare.[51] According to John
Baden[52] “the improvement of environment quality depends on the market economy and the existence of legitimate and protected property rights.” They enable the
effective practice of personal responsibility and the development of mechanisms to protect the environment. The
State can in this context “create conditions which encourage the people to save the environment.”[53]

6.1

Business

See also: Corporate sustainability
The most broadly accepted criterion for corporate sustainability constitutes a firm’s efficient use of natural capital. This eco-efficiency is usually calculated as the economic value added by a firm in relation to its aggregated
ecological impact.[54] This idea has been popularised by
the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) under the following definition: “Ecoefficiency is achieved by the delivery of competitively
priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and
bring quality of life, while progressively reducing ecolog-

6.2 Income
At the present time, sustainable development as well as
solidarity or Catholic social teaching can impact reduce
the poverty. Because over many thousands of years
the ‘stronger’ (economically or physically) used to defeat/eliminate the weaker, nowadays, no matter what we
call the reason for this decision – within Catholic social
teaching, social solidarity, and sustainable development –
the stronger helps the weaker. This aid may take the form
of in-kind or material, refer to the present or the future.
‘The Stronger’, should offer real help and not, as demonstrated by the frequent experience – strive for the elimination or annihilation of another entity. Sustainable development reduce poverty through economic(among other
things, a balanced budget), environmental (living conditions) and also social (including equality of income)
dimensions.[57]

6.3 Architecture
See also: Sustainable architecture
In sustainable architecture the recent movements of New
Urbanism and New Classical Architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction, that appreciates
and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and

6

8 POLITICS

classical design.[58][59] This in contrast to modernist and
globally uniform architecture, as well as opposing to solitary housing estates and suburban sprawl, with long commuting distances and large ecological footprints.[60] Both
trends started in the 1980s. (It should be noted that sustainable architecture is predominantly relevant to the economics domain while architectural landscaping pertains
more to the ecological domain.)

7

Culture

verse World”,[63] sponsored by the European Union, integrates multidisciplinary capacities and interprets cultural
diversity as a key element of a new strategy for sustainable
development. The Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development Theory has been referenced by executive director
of IMI Institute at UNESCO Vito Di Bari[64] in his manifesto of art and architectural movement Neo-Futurism,
whose name was inspired by the 1987 United Nations’
report Our Common Future. The Circles of Sustainability approach used by Metropolis defines the (fourth) cultural domain as practices, discourses, and material expressions, which, over time, express continuities and discontinuities of social meaning.[65]

8 Politics
See also: Environmental ethics, Environmental governance and Sustainability metrics and indices

Framing of sustainable development progress according to the
Circles of Sustainability, used by the United Nations.

Working with a different emphasis, some researchers
and institutions have pointed out that a fourth dimension should be added to the dimensions of sustainable
development, since the triple-bottom-line dimensions of
economic, environmental and social do not seem to be
enough to reflect the complexity of contemporary society.
In this context, the Agenda 23 for culture and the United
Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) Executive Bureau lead the preparation of the policy statement “Culture:
Fourth Pillar of Sustainable Development”, passed on 17
November 2010, in the framework of the World Summit
of Local and Regional Leaders – 3rd World Congress of
UCLG, held in Mexico City. although some which still
argue that economics is primary, and culture and politics should be included in 'the social'. This document
inaugurates a new perspective and points to the relation
between culture and sustainable development through a
dual approach: developing a solid cultural policy and advocating a cultural dimension in all public policies. The
Circles of Sustainability approach distinguishes the four
domains of economic, ecological, political and cultural
sustainability.[61][62]
Other organizations have also supported the idea of a
fourth domain of sustainable development. The Network of Excellence “Sustainable Development in a Di-

A study concluded that social indicators and, therefore,
sustainable development indicators, are scientific constructs whose principal objective is to inform public
policy-making.[66] The International Institute for Sustainable Development has similarly developed a political policy framework, linked to a sustainability index for establishing measurable entities and metrics. The framework
consists of six core areas, international trade and investment, economic policy, climate change and energy, measurement and assessment, natural resource management,
and the role of communication technologies in sustainable development.
The United Nations Global Compact Cities Programme
has defined sustainable political development is a way that
broadens the usual definition beyond states and governance. The political is defined as the domain of practices
and meanings associated with basic issues of social power
as they pertain to the organisation, authorisation, legitimation and regulation of a social life held in common.
This definition is in accord with the view that political
change is important for responding to economic, ecological and cultural challenges. It also means that the politics
of economic change can be addressed. They have listed
seven subdomains of the domain of politics:[65]
1. Organization and governance
2. Law and justice
3. Communication and critique
4. Representation and negotiation
5. Security and accord
6. Dialogue and reconciliation
7. Ethics and accountability

9.3

Natural capital

7

This accords with the Brundtland Commission emphasis expected to be identified and adjusted through empirical
on development that is guided by human rights principles observations (trial and error).[69]
(see above).
The most common critiques are related to issues like data
quality, comparability, objective function and the necessary resources.[70] However a more general criticism is
9 Themes
coming from the project management community: How
can a sustainable development be achieved at global level
if we cannot monitor it in any single project?[71][72]
9.1 Progress
See also: Sustainable development goals

The Cuban-born researcher and entrepreneur Sonia
Bueno suggests an alternative approach that is based upon
the integral, long-term cost-benefit relationship as a measure and monitoring tool for the sustainability of every project, activity or enterprise.[73][74] Furthermore this
concept aims to be a practical guideline towards sustainable development following the principle of conservation
and increment of value rather than restricting the consumption of resources.

The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD), also known as Rio 2012, Rio+20, or
Earth Summit 2012, was the third international conference on sustainable development, which aimed at reconciling the economic and environmental goals of the global
community. Few nations met the World Wide Fund for
Nature's definition of sustainable development criteria Reasonable qualifications of sustainability are seen U.S.
established in 2006.[67]
Green Building Council’s (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). This design
incorporates some ecological, economic, and social el9.2 Measurement
ements. The goals presented by LEED design goals
are sustainable sites, water efficiency, energy and atmoMain articles: Ecological footprint and Sustainability spheric emission reduction, material and resources efmeasurement
ficiency, and indoor environmental quality. Although
In 2007 a report for the U.S. Environmental Protection amount of structures for sustainability development is
many, these qualification has become a standard for sustainable building.

9.3 Natural capital

Deforestation and increased road-building in the Amazon Rainforest are a significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wilderness areas, increased resource extraction
and further threats to biodiversity.

Agency stated: “While much discussion and effort has
gone into sustainability indicators, none of the resulting
systems clearly tells us whether our society is sustainable. At best, they can tell us that we are heading in the
wrong direction, or that our current activities are not sustainable. More often, they simply draw our attention to
the existence of problems, doing little to tell us the origin of those problems and nothing to tell us how to solve
them.”[68] Nevertheless a majority of authors assume that
a set of well defined and harmonised indicators is the only
way to make sustainability tangible. Those indicators are

Deforestation of native rain forest in Rio de Janeiro City for extraction of clay for civil engineering (2009 picture).

The sustainable development debate is based on the
assumption that societies need to manage three types
of capital (economic, social, and natural), which may
be non-substitutable and whose consumption might be
irreversible.[75] Daly (1991),[76] for example, points to the
fact that natural capital can not necessarily be substituted
by economic capital. While it is possible that we can find
ways to replace some natural resources, it is much more
unlikely that they will ever be able to replace eco-system

8

10

SEE ALSO

services, such as the protection provided by the ozone theory many firms are not perfect optimizers. They poslayer, or the climate stabilizing function of the Amazo- tulate that firms often do not optimize resource allocation
nian forest. In fact natural capital, social capital and eco- because they are caught in a “business as usual” mentality.
nomic capital are often complementarities. A further obstacle to substitutability lies also in the multi-functionality
of many natural resources. Forests, for example, not only
provide the raw material for paper (which can be sub- 10 See also
stituted quite easily), but they also maintain biodiversity,
regulate water flow, and absorb CO2.
• Applied sustainability
Another problem of natural and social capital deterioration lies in their partial irreversibility. The loss in biodiversity, for example, is often definite. The same can
be true for cultural diversity. For example with globalisation advancing quickly the number of indigenous languages is dropping at alarming rates. Moreover, the depletion of natural and social capital may have non-linear
consequences. Consumption of natural and social capital may have no observable impact until a certain threshold is reached. A lake can, for example, absorb nutrients
for a long time while actually increasing its productivity.
However, once a certain level of algae is reached lack of
oxygen causes the lake’s ecosystem to break down suddenly.

9.4

Business as usual

• Circles of Sustainability
• Conservation biology
• Conservation development
• Conservation (ethic)
• Ecological modernization
• Ecologically sustainable development
• Environmental issue
• Environmental justice
• Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education
• Micro-sustainability
• Planetary boundaries
• Public schemes for energy efficient refurbishment
• Social sustainability
• State of Sustainability Initiatives
• Sustainability standards and certification

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the air-polluting
emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide.

If the degradation of natural and social capital has such
important consequence the question arises why action is
not taken more systematically to alleviate it. Cohen and
Winn (2007)[77] point to four types of market failure as
possible explanations: First, while the benefits of natural
or social capital depletion can usually be privatized, the
costs are often externalized (i.e. they are borne not by the
party responsible but by society in general). Second, natural capital is often undervalued by society since we are
not fully aware of the real cost of the depletion of natural
capital. Information asymmetry is a third reason—often
the link between cause and effect is obscured, making it
difficult for actors to make informed choices. Cohen and
Winn close with the realization that contrary to economic

• Sustainable coffee
• Sustainable development goals
• Sustainable fishery
• Sustainable forest management
• Sustainable land management
• Sustainable living
• Sustainable yield
• Sustainopreneurship
• Zero-carbon city

9

11

Further reading

• Ahmed, Faiz (2008). An Examination of the Development Path Taken by Small Island Developing
States. (pp. 17–26)
• Atkinson, G., S. Dietz, and E. Neumayer (2009).
Handbook of Sustainable Development. Edward Elgar Publishing, ISBN 1848444729.
• Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. “Globalization and
Sustainable Development: False Twins?.” New
Global Studies 7.3: 23-56. ISSN (Online) 19400004, ISSN (Print) 2194-6566, DOI: 10.1515/ngs2013-021, November 2013.
• Bertelsmann Stiftung, ed. (2013). Winning Strategies for a Sustainable Future. Reinhard Mohn
Prize 2013. Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung, Gütersloh. ISBN 978-3-86793-491-6.
• Book Review on An Introduction to Sustainable Development by Peter Rogers, Kazi Jalal, & John Boyd
Sustainability: Science, Practice, & Policy, Published online June 18, 2008
• Beyerlin, Ulrich. Sustainable Development, Max
Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law
• Cook, Sarah and Esuna Dugarova (2014).
“Rethinking Social Development for a Post2015 World”.
Development 57 (1): 30–35.
doi:10.1057/dev.2014.25.
• Danilov-Danil’yan, Victor I., Losev, K.S., Reyf,
Igor E. Sustainable Development and the Limitation
of Growth: Future Prospects for World Civilization.
Transl. Vladimir Tumanov. Ed. Donald Rapp.
New York: Springer Praxis Books, 2009. Google
Book
• Edwards, A.R., and B. McKibben (2010). Thriving
Beyond Sustainability: Pathways to a Resilient Society. New Society Publishers, ISBN 0865716412.
• Li, Rita Yi Man. , Building Our Sustainable Cities”
Illinois, Published by Common Ground Publishing.
• James, Paul; with Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). Urban Sustainability in
Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability. London: Routledge.
• James, Paul; Nadarajah, Yaso; Haive, Karen; Stead,
Victoria (2012). Sustainable Communities, Sustainable Development: Other Paths for Papua New
Guinea. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
• Mark Jarzombek, “Sustainability - Architecture:
between Fuzzy Systems and Wicked Problems,”
Blueprints 21/1 (Winter 2003), pp. 6–9.

• Huesemann, M.H., and J.A. Huesemann (2011).
Technofix: Why Technology Won’t Save Us or the Environment, Chapter 6, “Sustainability or Collapse?”,
and Chapter 13, “The Design of Environmentally
Sustainable and Socially Appropriate Technologies”, New Society Publishers, ISBN 0865717044.
• Pezzey, J; M. Toman (January 2002). “The Economics of Sustainability:A Review of Journal Articles”. Resources for the Future DP 02-03: 1–36.
Retrieved 2009-06-16.
• Raudsepp-Hearne C, Peterson GD, Tengö M, Bennett EM, Holland T, Benessaiah K, MacDonald GM
and Pfeifer L (2010) “Untangling the Environmentalist’s Paradox: Why is Human Well-Being Increasing as Ecosystem Services Degrade?" BioScience, 60
(8): 576–589.
• Rogers, P., K.F. Jalal, and J.A. Boyd (2007). An
Introduction to Sustainable Development. Routledge,
ISBN 1844075214.
• Scerri, Andy; James, Paul (2010). “Accounting
for sustainability: Combining qualitative and
quantitative research in developing ‘indicators’
of sustainability”.
International Journal of
Social Research Methodology 13 (1): 41–53.
doi:10.1080/13645570902864145.
• Sianipar, C. P. M., Dowaki, K., Yudoko, G., &
Adhiutama, A. (2013). Seven Pillars of Survivability: Appropriate Technology with a Human
Face. European Journal of Sustainable Development, 2(4), 1-18. ISSN 2239-5938.
• Van der Straaten, J., and J.C van den Bergh (1994).
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13

External links

• Circles of Sustainability - website for the Circles of
Sustainability approach
• List of Global Development Indexes and Rankings
• Principles of Sustainability - University of IdahoWashington State University Open Course
• Sustainable Development: Center for Global Studies
at the University of Illinois
• Sustainable Real Estate Research Center, Hong
Kong Shue Yan University

13

14
14.1

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Thunderstix, DumZiBoT, Escientist, Beria, XLinkBot, Boyd Reimer, Duki998, WikHead, Zodon, Hakuin, Cewvero, Hydrazillawik,
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14.2

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• File:Circles_of_Sustainability_image_(assessment_-_Melbourne_2011).jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/96/Circles_of_Sustainability_image_%28assessment_-_Melbourne_2011%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Based on a template that I developed for the UN Global Compact Cities Programme, I did an assessment of the city of Melbourne, and
then designed and constructed the diagram to best show Melbourne’s sustainability. It is made with Adobe Ilustrator.
Previously published: It has been previously published on the citiesprogramme.org website Original artist: SaintGeorgeIV
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Crystal_energy.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg License: LGPL Contributors:
Own work conversion of Image:Crystal_128_energy.png Original artist: Dhatfield
• File:Depuradora_de_Lluc.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Depuradora_de_Lluc.JPG License: CCBY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Chixoy
• File:Earth_Day_Flag.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png License: Public domain
Contributors: File:Earth flag PD.jpg, File:The Earth seen from Apollo 17 with transparent background.png Original artist: NASA (Earth
photograph)
SiBr4 (flag image)
• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).”
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Hillside_
deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alex Rio Brazil
• File:Human_welfare_and_ecological_footprint_sustainability.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/
Human_welfare_and_ecological_footprint_sustainability.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:
Travelplanner based on data from UN Development Programme and Global Footprint Network
• File:Planetary_boundaries.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Planetary_boundaries.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Christian Leichsenring
• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
• File:Sustainable_development.svg Source:
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg Li-

• Inspired from Developpement durable.jpg Original artist:
• original: Johann Dréo (talk · contribs)
• File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_
Apollo_17.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/images/content/115334main_image_feature_329_ys_full.jpg
Original artist: NASA/Apollo 17 crew; taken by either Harrison Schmitt or Ron Evans
• File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgcat/html/object_page/a17_h_148_22727.html Original artist: NASA
• File:Unbalanced_scales.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Lukipuk
• File:Windmills_D1-D4_-_Thornton_Bank.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Windmills_D1-D4_-_
Thornton_Bank.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hans Hillewaert

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Content license

Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

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