The Anthropological Tradition in Slovenia

ANTROPOLOŠKA TRADICIJA NA SLOVENSKEM

Z m a g o Smitek, Božidar J e z e m i k . IZVLEČEK Avtorja ugotavljata, da je poleg prev­ ladujoče etnoloSke tradicije na Slovenskem obstajal tudi živ antropološki ndselni tok, in v članku dajeta pregled nekaterih njegovih poglavitnih predstavnikov od 16. stoletja dalje. Zaradi nejasne meje med antropologijo in na Slovenskem prevladujočo etnologijo je v članku poseben poudarek na stališčih slovenskih avtor­ jev o razmerju med njima. ABSTRACT The authors advocate the thesis that - be­ sides the prevailing ethnological tradition in Slovenia - there also exists a strong anthropological line of thought. Their article presents a revieiu of some of the most eminent supporters of this line of thought. Due to the undefined borderline between anthropology and the-in Slovenia-paramount ethnology, the authors anphasize the viavs of relevant Slovene authors on the relation be­ tween the tzvo disciplines.

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Antropokigija j e ena mlajšili akademsicili disciplin; to zlasti velja za stanje v Sloveniji, kjer je dobila svoje m e s t o na Filozofski fakulteti šele leta 1991, k o se je p o s p r e m e m b a h v študijskem p r o g r a m u dotedanji O d d e l e k za etnologijo tudi f o r m a l n o p r e i m e n o v a l v O d d e l e k za etnologijo in k u l t u r n o antropologijo. P r e d tem j e b i l a od konca šestdesetih let eden izmed študijskih p r e d m e t o v na Fakulteti z a n a r a v o s l o v j e in t e h n o l o g i j o ( p r o f e s o r B o ž o Škerlj) in na F a k u l t e t i za sociologijo, politične v e d e in n o v i n a r s t v o v Ljubljani (profesor Stane J u ž n i č ) . S e v e d a pa to ne p o m e n i , da a n t r o p o l o š k a vprašanja že d o l g o prej niso bila p r e d m e t z n a n s t v e n e g a zanimanja. Slovenski strokovnjaki zastopajo s p e k t e r različnih stališč o razmerju m e d etnologijo in antropologijo. P o nekaterih je za razliko od etnologije, ki velja za n a c i o n a l n o v e d o par e x c e l e n c e , antropologija študij drugih, predvsem n e e v r o p s k i h ljudstev in kultur. P o Vilku N o v a k u j e ( s l o v e n s k a ) etnologija v e d a o ( s l o v e n s k i ) ljudski k u l t u r i ' . T o stališče je i m p l i c i r a n o v vseh obstoječih p r e g l e d i h z g o d o v i n e s l o v e n s k e etnologije, v katerih z a m a n i š č e m o i m e n a piscev, ki o b r a v n a v a j o n e s l o v e n s k a ljudstva in kulture-.

1 Vilko Novak: R a z i s k o v a l c i s l o v e n s k e g a življenja, Ljubljana 1 9 8 6 , s t r . 3 6 7 - 3 6 8 . 2 France Kotnik: P r e g l e d s l o v e n s k e g a n a r o d o p i s j a ; v: Rajko Loiar: N a r o d o p i s j e S l o v e n c e v I (Ljubljana 1 9 4 4 ) , str. 2 1 - 5 2 . Slavko Kreniciilek: D r u ž b e n i temelji r a z v o j a s l o v e n s k e e t n o l o š k e misli; v; Slavko Krenieniek &Angcloi ßß.'eds.; P o g l e d i na e t n o l o g i j o (Ljubljana 1 9 7 8 ) , s t r . 9 - 6 5 .

N a d a l j e j e med s l o v e n s k i m i etnologi dokaj z a k o r e n i n j e n o stališče, da j e za razliko od etnologije, ki velja za z g o d o v i n s k o v e d o ^ a n t r o p o l o g i j a študij tako i m e n o v a n i h ljudstev in njihovih kultur iz n e z g o d o v i n s k e g a z o r n e g a kota, torej n e z n a n s t v e n o početje'^. Prepričanje, da je z g o d o v i n a e d i n a znanost, torej ni umrlo z Marxom. N e k a t e r i avtorji vidijo a n t r o p o l o g i j o zgolj kot s m e r v etnologiji, pri kateri naj bi za razliko od k u l t u r o l o š k e smeri, pri kateri j e p r e d m e t p r o u č e v a n j e kultura, bil s p o z n a v n i cilj č l o v e k kot nosilec kulture, kot da bi bilo v z n a n s t v e n e m p r o u č e v a n j u m o g o č e o b r a v n a v a t i č l o v e k a l o č e n o od kulture^. P o l e g o m e n j e n i h s t a l i š č j e m o g o č e z a s l e d i t i tudi m i š l j e n j e , da m e d a n t r o p o l o g i j o in etnologijo ni n o b e n e razlike, da gre d e j a n s k o le za dvoje i m e n z a isto vedo*^.

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Avtorja z a s t o p a t a mnenje, da m e d a n t r o p o l o š k o in e t n o l o š k o tradicijo na S l o v e n s k e m ni m o g o č e p r e p r o s t o potegniti enačaja in da gre za dvoje tradicij, ki sta se sicer p o g o s t o prepletali in prekrivali, v e n d a r sta s e p o g o s t o razvijali tudi e n a m i m o d r u g e . Pri tem je bila g l a v n a z n a č i l n o s t a n t r o p o l o š k e tradicije, da j e s k u š a l a s v o j p r e d m e t ( č l o v e k a ) o b r a v n a v a t i h o l i s t i č n o in j e p r e d v s e m p r o b l e m a t i z i r a l a vprašanje, kaj je človek, k a k š n o je n j e g o v o p o r e k l o in p r o c e s k u l t u r n e g a dozorevanja, kaj je tisto, p o č e m e r se razlikuje od živali, m e d t e m k o etnologija na S l o v e n s k e m tega vprašanja ni eksplicirala kot problem in se še v e d n o o b n a š a , kot da je to nekaj s a m o u m e v n e g a ^ R a z l o g za uveljavitev izraza in v s e b i n e etnologije na S l o v e n s k e m l a h k o i š č e m o v o b č u t k u n a c i o n a l n e o g r o ž e n o s t i v 19. stoletju in v prvi polovici 2 0 . stoletja, k o je bil v e v r o p s k e m merilu relevanten politični dejavnik narod kot k o l e k t i v n a entiteta, in ne č l o v e k kot p o s a m e z n i k . Z a t o je m o g o č e .še d a n e s zaslediti mnenje, da a n t r o p o l o š k e tradicije na S l o v e n s k e m s p l o h ni b i l o in da zanjo še d a n e s ni prostora. Antropologija j e po slovarski definiciji študij č l o v e k a g l e d e na razširjenost, izvor, razvrstitev in razmerja m e d rasami, fizične lastnosti, razmerja v družbi in n a r a v n e m okolju in kulture**. B e s e d a antropologija j e b i l a prvič u p o r a b l j e n a leta 1501^, v e n d a r s o o a n t r o p o l o š k i h vprašanjih razmišljali že prej: " A n t r o p o l o š k a vprašanja so v e č n a , k e r se osredotočajo na u n i v e r z a l n o z a n i m a n j e za č l o v e k o v o življenje in vedenje.""^ Avtorja vidita temeljno razliko med a n t r o p o l o g i j o in etnologijo v tem, d a j e p r e d m e t p r o u č e v a n j a a n t r o p o l o g i j e č l o v e k kot po.sameznik, p r e d m e t etnologije
3 Slavko Kn'iiicnlck: R e t r o g r a d n i v i d i k - z a n e m a r j e n e t n o l o š k i m e t o d i č n i p r i s t o p ? ; r e f e r a t na s i m p o z i j u P r e d s o d k i in s t e r e o t i p i v s p o z n a v n e m p r o c e s u h u m a n i s t i č n i h v e d , B o k r a č i , o k t o b e r 1 9 9 1 , t i p k o p i s , str. 1. 4 Slavko KrcmciilL-k: Obča etnologija (Ljubljana 1 9 7 8 ) , s i r . 1 0 6 . 5 Slavko Krcmciiit'k: E t n o l o g i j a ( O p i s r a z i s k o v a l n e g a polja), r a z m n o ž e n t i p k o p i s za p o s v e t e t n o l o g o v v Ljubljani, a p r i l a 1 9 9 2 , str. 2. " Blaž Tciban: Kaj je pri n a s a n t r o p o l o g i j a ? ; D e l o , 2. 10. 1 9 9 1 , str. 13. 7 Božiriiir Jczcrnik: O n o v e m v z g o j n o i z o b r a ž e v a l n e m p r o g r a m u ; G l a s n i k S E D 3 1 / 1 - 2 (Ljubljana 1 9 9 1 ) , str. 13-16. 8 Webster's hlintli New Collegiate Dictionanj (Springfield 1 9 8 7 ) , s.v. a n t h r o p o l o g y .

' Magnus Hundt: A n t h r o p o l o g i u m d e h o m i n i s d i g n i t a t e , n a t u r a et p r o p r i e t a t i b u s ( L i p t z i k 1 5 0 1 ) . Z a p o d a t e k s e z a h v a l j u j e v a dr. H. F. Vermeulenu. 10 Annemarie de Waal Malefijt: I m a g e s of M a n ( N e w Y o r k 1 9 7 4 ) , I n t r o d u c t i o n .

pa č l o v e k kot kolektivna entiteta. Ž e sam izraz etnologija implicira prepričanje, da je e t n i č n a p r i p a d n o s t b i s t v e n a . I m e etnologija j e po doslej z n a n i h virih nastalo v drugi polovici o s e m n a j s t e g a stoletja, in sicer v v z h o d n e m delu Srednje E v r o p e . T a k r a t se j e pojavila disciplina etnologija, da bi p r i p o m o g l a k r a z r e š e v a n j u p r o b l e m o v , ki jih je s o d o b n i k o m , zlasti s e v e d a a v s t r i j s k e m u d v o r u , zastavljala e t n i č n a p e s t r o s t p r e b i v a l s t v a v P o d o n a v j u , na o b m o č j u , ki je b i l o osvobtijeno in v z e t o t u r š k e m u cesarstvu. V tem smislu je uporabil naziv etnologija A d a m F r a n c K o l l a r leta 1 7 8 3 " . P o j m o v a l j o je kot i n t e l e k t u a l n o dejavnost, v kateri s e s p r o u č e v a n j e m j e z i k a , o b i č a j e v in institucij p o s a m e z n i h ljudstev o d k r i v a j o njihovi izviri in prvotna bivališča. Etnologija naj bi se torej ukvarjala z e t n i č n o zgodovino posameznih skupnosti'". T e m e l j n a razlika m e d a n t r o p o l o g i j o in etnologijo j e v tem, da j e p r e d m e t a n t r o p o l o g i j e č l o v e k kot p o s a m e z n i k , p r e d m e t etnologije pa j e č l o v e k kot k o l e k t i v n a (etnična) entiteta. Ž e izraz etnologija implicira, d a j e b i s t v e n a etnična p r i p a d n o s t . V e n d a r j e za č l o v e k a kot p o s a m e z n i k a p o g o s t o p o m e m b n e j š a njegova spolna, rasna, verska, starostna, poklicna, r a z r e d n a itd. p r i p a d n o s t . E t n i č n a p r i p a d n o s t j e d o b i l a p o s e b e n p o u d a r e k in p o m e n v e v r o p s k i z g o d o v i n i 19. stoletja v o b d o b j u r o m a n t i k e , ki je o d k r i l o d r ž a v o t v o r n o m o č n a c i o n a l n e zavesti. Zunaj E v r o p e je ni in tudi ne v E v r o p i , kjer je temeljni subjekt č l o v e k kot državljan ne g l e d e na svojo nacionalno, v e r s k o , rasno, s p o l n o p r i p a d n o s t . . . Začetki a n t r o p o l o g i j e so p o v e z a n i s srečanji s pripadniki drugih, d r u g a č n i h , tujih kultur. Z a njenega začetnika štejejo že Herodota. Različnost kultur j e za antropologijo bistvenega pomena, saj še danes velja pravilo, da j e antropolog "profesionalni tujec". Šele primerjava o m o g o č a problematizacijo, tj. vprašanje zakaj prav tako, in ne drugače. Brez primerjave antropologija kot znanost sploh ni m o g o č a . P a r a d o k s antropološke pozicije, ki je tudi stalni generator njene krize oziroma j e zaradi njega vsaka še tako popolna etnologija nezadostna, je v tem, da je m o g o č e primerjavo opraviti s a m o z določene (kulturne) pozicije. Antropolog j e l a h k o n e z a d o v o l j e n in kritičen do svoje kulture, lahko je nekritičen in zadovoljen, l a h k o indiferenten, toda ne m o r e biti b r e z e n e g a od teh stališč. Z a t o j e njegov p o g l e d nujno o b r e m e n j e n s kulturnim okoljem, v katerein je bil socializiran. P o H u d g e n o v i je b i l o o b d o b j e 16. in 17. stoletja čas, ko se j e z a n i m a n j e za k u l t u r n e značilnosti ljudi v oddaljenih deželah in obdobjih n e i z m e r n o izostrilo. "Ta literatura šestnajstega in sedemnajstega stoletja, ki je dala p o d l a g o sodobni antropologiji, p r i m e r j a l n e m u veroslovju, antropogeografiji in številnim d r u g i m s o r o d n i m s t r o k a m , p o m e n i to, k a r m o r a m o zdaj šteti za z n a n s t v e n o m e t o d o v p r o u č e v a n j u kulture in družbe: prvič, v d o k o n č n e m p r e h o d u od m o t i v a z a b a v e k o r g a n i z i r a n e m u raziskovanju; drugič, v bolj ali manj j a s n e m zastavljanju p o m e m b n i h vprašanj ali p r o b l e m o v ; in tretjič, v izboru urejanja idej, ki naj bi se u p o r a b i l e pri o b r a v n a v a n j u v p r a š a n j a i z v o r a č l o v e k a , r a z l i č n o s t i kultur, p o m e n a p o d o b n o s t i , zaporedja visokih civilizacij in poteka procesa kulturnih sprememb."'"^
11 Aciiiin Fmnciscus 1783). 12 Viera Urbaiicnvä: T h e B e g i n n i n g s o f E t h n o g r a p h y in Slovakia; E t h n o l o g i a S l a v i c a 1 2 / 1 3 ( B r a t i s l a v a 1 9 8 0 / 8 1 ) , str. 9 3 - 1 1 0 . Vitomir Belaj: P l a i d o y e r za etnologiju k a o historijsku z n a n o s t o etničkim s k u p i n a m a ; Studia ethnologica 1 (Zagreb 1989), s t r 9-17. 13 Mar'^ard T. Hodgor. E a r l y A n t h r o p o l o g y in t h e S i x t e e n t h a n d S e v e n t e e n t h C e n t u r i e s Kolhir. H i s l o r i a c i u r i s q u e puhlici regni H u n g a r i a e a m o c n i t a t e s ( W i e n

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( P h i l a d e l p h i a 1 9 7 1 ) , str. 8 .

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P r v a dela a n t r o p o l o š k e n a r a v e s o z a t o izpod peres p o p o t n i k o v , ki s o potovali v daljne tuje kraje. Z a t o je - g l e d e na s l o v e n s k o tradicijo - najbolj p r i m e r n o z a č e t i ta p r e g l e d z B e n e d i k t o m K u r i p e č i č e m ( B e n e d i c t e n C u r i p e s c h i t z ) in njegovim p o t o p i s o m , ki j e b i l objavljen leta 1531 b r e z n a v e d b e i m e n a avtorja in kraja natisa pod n a s l o v o m W e g r a y s s K ö ( n i g l i c h e r ) M a y ( e s t ä t ) potschafft gen C o n s t a n t i n o p e l zu dem T ü r c k i s c h e n K a y s e r S o l e y m a n . A n n o X X X - M D X X X I . P o t o p i s p o s l o v e n s k e m delu ozemlja je s k r o m e n : šli s m o iz Ljubljane, skozi Grosuplje, N o v o m e s t o in M e t l i k o . Pi.sec torej d o m n e v a , da so b r a l c u pot in kraji ob njej znani. P o d r o b n e j e opisuje bolj o d d a l j e n e kraje, zlasti B o s n o , ki j e bila tedaj e v r o p s k e m u bralcu n e z n a n a . P o t o p i s j e najstarejši o p i s p o t o v a n j a p o B a l k a n s k e i n polotoku iz 16. stoletja, ki j e ohranjen in j e p o m e m b e n v i r za antropologijo, etnografijo, .sociologijo, topografijo, orografi jo, hidrografijo p o s a m e z n i h b a l k a n s k i h dežel, saj je iz tiste d o b e le m a l o ali sploh ni ohranjenih p o d a t k o v o r a z m e r a h in stanju v deželah, skozi katere j e potoval (Bosna, Srbija, Bolgarija in G r č i j a ) . ' ^ M e d p l e m i č i s s l o v e n s k e g a o z e m l j a , ki s o k o t a v s t r i j s k i ali b e n e š k i d i p l o m a t s k i o d p o s l a n c i p o t o v a l i v M o s k v o ali v C a r i g r a d , si j e največji z n a n s t v e n i ugled pridobil S i g m u n d Herberstein. Na d v e h o d p r a v a h v R u s i j o (v letih 1 5 1 6 - 1 8 in 1526-27) j e s k r b n o z a p i s o v a l vse, kar je i n o g l o z a n i m a t i tedanjega e v r o p s k e g a i z o b r a ž e n c a , ki o Rusiji ni vedel skoraj ničesar. Leta 1 5 4 9 j e na D u n a j u izdal široko zastavljen o p i s Rusije z n a s l o v o m R e r u m M o s c o v i t i c a r u m C o m m e n t a r i i , ki j e postal bestsel ler tedanjega časa in j e izšel v številnih p r e v o d i h in izdajah. Herbenstein j e sku.šal biti v svojih opisih v s e s k o z i r a c i o n a l e n in nepristranski, hkrati pa tudi karseda izčrpen in barvit. Č e p r a v se j e zanašal p r e d v s e m na lastno izkušnjo in r a z u m s k o presojo, je z izpraševanjem ruskih z n a n c e v zbiral tudi p o d a t k e o o b m o č j i h v z h o d n o od M o s k v e , ki jih sam ni o b i s k a l . T a k o j e zapisal z a n i m i v e informacije o Sibiriji i n T a t a r i h . M e d njegovimi informatorji so bili vojaki, ki so se udeležili obleganja K a z a n a leta 1 5 2 4 , o o b m o č j u J u g r e (severnega Urala in dela Sibirije) pa s e j e o č i t n o poučil iz ruskih rokopisnih popotnih vodnikov'^. M e d t i s t i m i , ki s o h v a l i l i H e r b e r s t e i n o v o d e l o , je b i l tudi angleški o d p o s l a n e c v Rusiji G e o r g e T u r b e r v i l l e v svojih Letters in V e r s e (1568). T h e celebrated T h e a t r u m orbis terrarum b y Ortelius, first issued in 1570, is s e n d i n g the r e a d e r for m o r e information to S i g m u n d H e r b e r s t e i n ' ^ . P o t o p i s c i K u r i p e č i č e v e g a in H e r b e r s t e i n o v e g a tipa s o a n t r o p o l o š k e p o j a v e o p i s o v a l i n e s i s t e m a t i č n o , a so imeli velik vpliv na o b l i k o v a n j e e v r o p s k i h j r e d s t a v o (tujih) krajih in ljudeh. Z a n i m a n j e za razlike m e d d o m a č o in tujo cultura se j e ujelo s prizadevanji E v r o p e j c e v , da bi se definirali kot civilizirani; z a t o so potrebovali antitezo. P o v s o d s o odkrivali divjake, d o b r e ali slabe. V 1 6 . stoletju je prišlo na S l o v e n s k e m d o ločevanja teologije in filozofije, k o s e je zastavilo vprašanje o razinerju med v e r o in r a z u m o m . Pri tem je bil p o m e m b e n vpliv socinianizma, radikalnega reformacijskega gibanja, ki ga j e p o z n a l tudi n a j p o m e m b n e j š i p r e d s t a v n i k s l o v e n s k e r e f o r m a c i j e P r i m o ž T r u b a r ' ' ' . Filozofija j e tedaj že po logiki o m e n j e n e delitve o b s e g a l a č l o v e š k o u
Zmago šmitek:

Klic daljnih

s v e t o v (Ljubljana 1 9 8 6 ) , str. 3 8 - 3 9 .

15 O.e., str. 3.3-35. if M. T. Hodgeii, o.e., str. 1 5 3 . 17 Jože Pogačnik: Starejše s l o v e n s k o s l o v s t v o (Ljubljana 1 9 9 0 ) , s t r . 2 2 1 - 2 2 3 .

p r o b l e m a t i k o in j e v s e b o v a l a z a m e t k e a n t r o p o l o g i j e in etnologije. T r u b a r s e j e ž i v o z a n i m a l za kulturne značilnosti S l o v e n c e v in d r u g i h J u ž n i h S l o v a n o v (zlasti za njihov j e z i k in običaje), poročal pa j e tudi o značilnostih i s l a m a . Pri d r u g e m reformatorju, A d a m u B o h o r i č u (v p r e d g o v o r u k slovenski slovnici, 1584), j e sicer še z a z n a v e n s k e p t i c i z e m , da bi bilo s filozofijo m o g o č e priti d o Domembnih s p o z n a n j , "ker je č l o v e š k i r a z u m p o g r e h u s t a r š e v oslepel".'« V e n d a r j e p o l d r u g o stoletje kasneje ž e d e l o v a l o nekaj p o m e m b n i h teoretikov, ki so filozofijo razumeli, p o d o b n o kot S a i n t - S i m o n , kot s p l o š n o znanost, ki p o v e z u j e dognanja p o s e b n i h znanosti''^. T a k o j e filozof J a k o b Štelin d o k a z o v a l , da j e m o r a l n o n a z a d o v a n j e č l o v e š t v a p o t e k a l o v z p o r e d n o z n j e g o v i m oddaljevanjem od narave^^. F r a n c K s a v e r G m e i n e r j e v z a d o š č a n j u v e d n o n o v i m č l o v e k o v i m p o t r e b a m videl g o n i l n o silo k u l t u r n e g a n a p r e d k a - ' . O e n a k o s t i različnih ljudstev g l e d e na kvaliteto r a z u m a in njihovi n e e n a k o s t i g l e d e na n j e g o v o kvantiteto j e pisal Martin K u r a l t ( 1 7 8 3 ) - - . P o t r e b a p o sisteinatičnosti in m e t o d i č n o s t i se k a ž e od 17. stoletja dalje v r a z l i č n i h n a v o d i l i h za zbiranje relevantnih p o d a t k o v . M e d njimi s o imela p o s e b n o u g l e d n o m e s t o takšnale navodila a n g l e š k e g a n a r a v o s l o v c a R o b e r t a B o y l a : " U p o š t e v a j e v e l i k n a p r e d e k , d o s e ž e n p r e d k r a t k i m na p o d r o č j u n a r a v o s l o v j a ( e d i n e g a z a n e s l j i v e g a temelja n a r a v n e filozofije), s potovanji g e n t l e i n a n o v , p o m o r š č a k o v in drugih; in hudimi neprijetnostmi, s katerimi se soočajo innogi b i s t r o u m n i možje na svojih potovanjih, k e r ne v e d o v n a p r e j , o č e m naj s e p o u č i j o v d e ž e l a h , k a i n o r p r i d e j o , ali s k a k š n o m e t o d o naj poizvedujejo o stvareh, ki so tam z n a m e n i t e , sem menil, da n e b o nesprejemljivo zanje, č e b o d o imeli s p l o š n e napotke, ki se nanašajo na vse, in še posebej na d o l o č e n o d e ž e l o s čim manj o m e j i t v a m i v njihovih nazorih."-'' B o y l o v i n a p o t k i s o bili izdani v knjižni obliki p o s t h u m n o ; v r o k o p i s n i h verzijah so bili v u p o r a b i ž e prej. Isti ali p o d o b e n vpra.šalnik, namenjen p o p o t n i k o m , j e uporabljal tudi slovenski polihistor Janez Vajkard Valvasor. Valvasor je v svojem e n c i k l o p e d i č n o z a s n o v a n e m delu D i e E h r e d e s H e r z o g t h u m s Grain (Ljubljana 1 6 8 9 ) p o l e g o p i s o v n a r a v n i h p o s e b n o s t i , t o p o g r a f s k i h in z g o d o v i n s k i h informacij prvi s i s t e m a t i č n o prikazal p r e b i v a l c e tedanje K r a n j s k e in Istre. V delu j e o p i s a l običaje, p r e h r a n o , nošo, bivališča in g o s p o d a r s t v o ter označil njihovo e t n i č n o pripadnost. N a j v e č a n t r o p o l o š k i h data j e z b r a n i h v šesti knjigi, ki j o j e naslovil K r a n j s k o - s l o v a n s k i jezik, nravi in š e g e na K r a n j s k e m . V poglavju o K r a š e v c i h j e precej pozornosti posvetil tudi zunanjosti m o š k i h in ž e n s k "in s tem segel d a l e č naprej v s o d o b n o gledanje ( n e k a k e a n t r o p o l o š k e ali - pretirano ' r a s n e ' estetike). "2* V a l v a s o r j e v o m e t o d o lahko i m e n u j e m o a n t r o p o l o š k o zaradi
18

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O.e., str. 2 2 0 . Izlior iz djela ( Z a g r e l i 1 9 7 9 ) , s t r . .S4.

1" Cìaudc-HcnridcSamì-Simim:

20 }akob Štelin: S p e c i m e n d e o r t u et p r o g r e s s u m o r u m ( V e n e z i a 1 7 4 0 ) . 21 Literargescliiclìtedes Ursprungs und Fortganges der Pliilosoplüe, 1-2 ( G r a z 1 7 8 8 - 8 9 ) .

22 P o d r o b n e j e o Štelinu, G m e i n e r j u in K u r a l t u : Ivan Urbančič: P o g l a v i t n e ideje s l o v e n s k i h filozofov m e d s h o l a s t i k o in n e o s h o l a s t i k o ; F i l o z o f s k a knjižnica 10 (Ljubljana 1 9 7 1 ) , in Zmago Šmitek: S l o v e n s k i poglcxti iz 18. in 19. stoletja na k u l t u r n i r a z v o j č l o v e š t v a ; T r a d i t i o n e s 15 (Ljubljana 1 9 8 6 ) , s t r . 5 - 1 8 . 23Kobi'rf Boyle: G e n e r a l H e a d s for t h e N a t u r a l H i s t o r y o f a C o u n t r y , G r e a t o r Small; D r a w n o u t for t h e U s e o f T r a v e l l e r s a n d N a v i g a t o r s ( L o n d o n I 6 9 2 ) , s t r . 1-2. 24 Vüko Novak: R a z i s k o v a l c i s l o v e n s k e g a življenja (Ljubljana 1 9 8 6 ) , str. 1 4 .

n j e g o v e n a r a v o s l o v n e usmerjenosti in holističnega o b r a v n a v a n j a , po k a t e r e m j e k m e č k i živelj n e r a z d r u ž n i del n a r a v e . V a l v a s o r j e zbiral p o d a t k e na kraju s a m e m , p r e d v s e m zaradi z n a n s t v e n e s k e p s e , k e r j e vse hotel videti in preveriti na svoje o č i . N j e g o v a terenska m e t o d a j e obstajala tudi v o p a z o v a n j u , spraševanju in skiciranju. G l e d e na to, da B o y l e v svojih n a p o t k i h i z r e c n o o m e n j a C e r k n i š k o j e z e r o ( T h e S c h e m i t z e r L a k e in Carniola),--'' po opisu katerega j e V a l v a s o r z a s l o v e l na A n g l e š k e m , l a h k o s k l e p a i n o , da je obstajala m e d V a l v a s o r j e m in B o y l o m n e k a p o v e z a v a in da j e B o y l o v a navodila p o z n a l tudi V a l v a s o r , ko j e zbiral g r a d i v o za svojo S l a v o Vojvodine K r a n j s k e . D e l o je z a s n o v a n o i z r e d n o o b s e ž n o in j e e d e n i z m e d v r h u n c e v e v r o p s k e g a naravoslovja. M e d e v r o p s k i m i učenjaki 17. in 1 8 . stoletja j e o d m e v a l p r e d v s e m njegov o p i s C e r k n i š k e g a j e z e r a . "O slednjem j e b a r o n V a l v a s o r i z d a l dokaj o b š i r e n , e k s a k t e n in k u r i o z e n o p i s v s v o j e m o b š i r n e m d e l u o S l a v i Vojvodine K r a n j s k e , ki j o j e r e d k o najti v n a š i h knjižnicah. "26 A n t o n T o m a ž L i n h a r t j e objavil o b s e ž n o historiografsko d e l o o Slovencih^^, v k a t e r e m j e v z a č e t n i h poglavjih skušal orisati način življenja S l o v e n c e v v najstarejši dobi in evolucijski tok njihove kulture. Linhart j e verjel, da tudi v tem p r o c e s u , tako kot v naravi nasploh, obstajajo trdna pravila. K u l t u r n i razvoj j e p o j m o v a l kot l o č e v a n j e o d n a r a v e in s t o p n j e v a n o poduhovljanje. Ločil j e štiri o s n o v n e stopnje kulturnega n a p r e d k a . Ž e sredi 19. stoletja j e b i l a o n j e g o v e m delu z a p i s a n a p r a v i č n a o c e n a , da je "prvi Kranjec..., ki j e z lučjo e t i m o l o g i j e in j e z i k o v n e p r i m e r j a v e raziskoval najstarejša bivališča, najstarejše s o r o d s t v o in socialni razvoj", in tudi "prvi, ki je k u l t u r n o z g o d o v i n s k e m u delu p o g a n s k i h S l o v a n o v p o s v e č a l tisto p o z o r n o s t , iz katere izvirajo p r a v n a stanja in politične razmere".'-'* L i n h a r t j e n e d v o m n o p o z n a l n e k a t e r a dela s o d o b n i h francoskih teoretikov o razvoju civilizacije. Svoj spis Ü b e r die N u t z b a r k e i t d e r n a t ü r l i c h e n P h i l o s o p h i e (v a l m a n a h u B l u m e n a u s Krain für das J a h r 1781, Ljubljana 1780) j e z a s n o v a l p o z g l e d u An E s s a y on M a n a n g l e š k e g a razsvetljenca A l e x a n d r a P o p a . N a p r e h o d u iz 1 8 . v 19. stoletje j e p o m e m b n o d e l o B r e t o n c a Baltazarja H a c q u e t a , ki je p o v e z o v a l svoje široko n a r a v o s l o v n o z a n i m a n j e in dejavnost z r a z i s k a v a m i načina življenja, g o s p o d a r s t v a ter ljudskih fizičnih lastnosti in j e z i k o v n i h posebnosti-'*. G i a n R i n a l d o Carli, d o m a iz K o p r a , j e v o s e m d e s e t i h letih 1 8 . stoletja v o b s e ž n i študiji Lettere Ainericane, objavljeni v M a g a z z i n o L e t t e r a r i o ( F i r e n z e 1780), istega leta v knjižni izdaji v d v e h z v e z k i h in v razširjeni izdaji ( C r e m o n a 1 7 8 1 - 8 3 ) , pisal o azteški in inkovski kulturi. N a v d u š e v a l s e j e n a d n j i h o v o

264

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O.e., str. 6.

26 Alberto Fortis: S a g g i o d ' o s s e r v a z i o n i s o p r a l'isola di C h e r s o ed O s e r ò ( V e n e z i a 1 7 7 1 ) , s t r . 8 1 . O p o m e n u A. F o r t i s a glej B o ž i d a r Jezernik: O m e t o d i in p r e d s o d k i h v d e l u A l b e r t a F o r t i s a ( P r i s p e v e k za z g o d o v i n o a n t r o p o l o g i j e ) ; T r a d i t i o n e s 17 (Ljubljana 1 9 8 8 ) , s t r . 7 1 - 8 5 . 27 Aììton Tomaž Linhart: V e r s u c h e i n e r G e s c h i c h t e v o n Krain u n d d e n ü b r i g e n L ä n d e r n d e r s ü d l i c h e n S l a v e n O e s t e r r e i c h s (I, Ljubljana 1789; II, 1 7 9 1 ) . 2 8 1 / , K / w » : Ü b e r d i e G e s c h i c h t s f o r s c h u n g u n d G e s c h i c h t s s c h r e i b u n g in K r a i n ; M i t t h e i l u n g e n d e s h i s t o r i s c h e n V e r e i n e s für K r a i n ( 1 8 5 7 ) , str, 5 1 , 'i''Abbildung 180I-I808). und Beschreibung der Südwest- und östlichen Wenden, Iliyren und Slawen,., ( L e i p z i g

d r ž a v n o , d r u ž b e n o in e k o n o m s k o u r e d i t v i j o in z a v r a č a l a m e r i š k o " d e g e n e r a c i j s k o teorijo", katere z a g o v o r n i k i so bili Buffon, P a u w in d r u g i . F r a n c S a m u e l K a r p e je o b r a v n a v a l p o d r o č j e "empirične p s i h o l o g i j e ali antropologije"^". Bil je z a g o v o r n i k teorije linearne k u l t u r n e evolucije. Z a n i m a l e s o ga p r e d v s e m d u š e v n e r a z l i k e m e d ljudstvi in vzroki z a n j e ( p o d n e b j e , p r e h r a n a , r a s n e značilnosti, d r u ž b e n a ureditev ipd.). V p r o c e s u o b l i k o v a n j a a m e r i š k e k u l t u r n e antropologije ima p o m e m b n o m e s t o m i s i j o n a r s l o v e n s k e g a rodu F r i d e r i k B a r a g a , k i j e v l e t i h 1 8 3 1 - 1 8 6 8 deloval m e d Indijanci iz p l e m e n Otava in Ojibva (Čipeva). Napisal j e monografijo o njihovi kulturi, p r e d v s e m na podlagi svojega dotedanjega petletnega bivanja pri O t a v i h na v z h o d n i obali M i c h i g a n s k e g a jezera, č e p r a v s e j e tu in tam skliceval tudi na p o d a t k e drugih avtorjev. B a r a g o v a knjiga z n a s l o v o m G e s c h i c h t e , C h a r a c t e r , Sitten und G e b r ä u c h e der n o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n I n d i e r j e izšla v Ljubljani leta 1 8 3 7 s o č a s n o s s l o v e n s k o p r i r e d b o P o p i s n a v a d in sadershanja indijanov P o l n o z h n e A m e r i k e in s francosko izdajo A b r e g é d e l'Histoire des Indiens de l ' A m é r i q u e septentrionale, natisnjeno v P a r i z u . B a r a g o v o z n a n s t v e n o d e l o i m e n u j e m o a n t r o p o l o š k o p r e d v s e m zato, ker j e črpal v z o r e in p o b u d e iz a m e r i š k e a n t r o p o l o š k e literature. Leta 1847 j e za e n e g a od z a č e t n i k o v a m e r i š k e a n t r o p o l o g i j e Henryja R. Schoolcrafta izpolnil o b s e ž e n v p r a š a l n i k ("Inquiries") o Indijancih Ojibva. Bil je tudi zbiralec p r e d m e t o v indijanske k u l t u r e in j e leta 1 8 3 7 podaril K r a n j s k e m u d e ž e l n e m u inuzeju z b i r k o z o b i n o č j a G o r n j e g a in M i c h i g a n s k e g a jezera^". Z b i r a l e c in p i s e c knjige o Indijancih O t a v a in Ojibva j e bil tudi B a r a g o v s o d e l a v e c F r a n c Pire''-. Ivan B e n i g a r , ki j e p o preselitvi v A r g e n t i n o (leta 1908) živel m e d p a t a g o n s k i m i Indijanci in A r a v k a n c i in si m e d njimi ustvaril tudi d r u ž i n o , j e p r o u č e v a l k o n c e p t prostora, časa in v z r o č n o s t i pri A r a v k a n c i h i n o tem napisal tri r a z p r a v e . N a t i s n j e n e so bile v B o l e t i n o de la J u n t a de Historia y N u i n i s m à t i c a v dvajsetih letih tega stoletja. V b i s t v u g r e za študije o n a č i n u mišljenja in z a z n a v a n j a z u n a n j e g a sveta, temelječe na lingvistični analizi. V zvezi s tem je n a s p r o t o v a l tudi nekaterim z a k l j u č k o m L e v y - B r ü h l o v e teorije o p r e d l o g i č n e m mišljenju. N a j o b s e ž n e j š e B e n i g a r j e v o d e l o j e knjiga El p r o b l e m a del h o m b r e a m e r i c a n o (Bahia B i a n c a 1 9 2 8 ) , v kateri j e razpravljal o e t n o g e n e z i a m e r i š k i h Indijancev, zlasti o difuzionistični pacifiško-ameriški teoriji, katere p r e d s t a v n i k a sta bila Paul R i v e t in J o s é I m b e l l o n i . N a s p r o t o v a l j e z a k l j u č k o m I m b e l l o n i j a , bil pa j e kritičen tudi d o e v o l u c i o n i z m a , ki mu j e sicer načeloina priznaval veljavo-*. P o značaju in o b s e g u svojega dela je bil B e n i g a r pravi a n t a i p o l o g . Z a n i m a l a s o ga področja lingvistike, z g o d o v i n e , arheologije, etnologije, s o c i o l o g i j e in filozofije, ki jih j e p o v e z o v a l in i m e n o v a l "znanost o bistvu človeka "3*.
30 Franz Samuel 31 Zuw^o Karpe: D a r s t e l l u n g d e r P h i l o s o p h i e o h n e B e y n a m e n {Wien 1 8 0 2 ) , vol. I.

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B a r a g a , S c h o o l c r a f t in začetki a m e r i š k e a n t r o p o l o g i j e ; Naši r a z g l e d i

(Ljubljana, 1 1 10. 1 9 8 4 ) , s t r . 5 6 9 - 5 7 0 . 3 2 F r a n c Pire: D i e I n d i a n e r in N o r d - A m e r i k a , ihre L e b e n s w e i s e , Sitten, G e b r ä u c h e (St. L o u i s 1855). 33 Zmago Šmitek: A m e r i k a n i s t i č n a r a z i s k o v a n j a I v a n a Benigarja - z a s n o v e in t e o r e t i č n a i z h o d i š č a ; T r a d i t i o n e s 16 (Ljubljana 1 9 8 7 ) , sir. 7 3 - 8 2 . IreneMislej: J a n e z B e n i g a r : I z b r a n o g r a d i v o (Ljubljana 1 9 8 8 ) .

T e o l o g L a m b e r t E h r l i c h se j e v letih 1920-21 s p e c i a l i z i r a l na s o c i a l n i a n t r o p o l o g i j i v O x f o r d u pri p r o f e s o r j u R . R . M a r e t t u . R e z u l t a t t a k š n e g a n j e g o v e g a študija j e b i l o d e l o Origin o f Australian Beliefs (St. Gabriel - M ö d l i n g 1922), ki je, p o avtorjevih lastnih b e s e d a h , "poskus p o d v r e č i preizkušnji dejstva iz Avstralije z različnimi uveljavljenimi teorijami, ki se n a n a š a j o na i z v o r v e r e in p r i z a d e v a n j e pojasniti - k o l i k o r j e to m o g o č e - avstralska verovanja". E h r l i c h j e sicer najtesneje s o d e l o v a l z VVilhelmom S c h m i d t o m in d r u g i m i p r e d s t a v n i k i d u n a j s k e k u l t u r n o z g o d o v i n s k e š o l e , k o t p r o f e s o r na ljubljanski T e o l o š k i fakulteti pa j e tudi sicer delal na podrtičju primerjalnega v e r o s l o v j a . E t n o l o g i j o j e p o j m o v a l dokaj široko, v o b s e g u , ki se p r a k t i č n o izenačuje s k u l t u r n o ali socialno antropologijo. N i k o Z u p a n i č j e b i l prvi slovenski a k a d e m s k i a n t r o p o l o g . Leta 1921 j e b i l p o njegovih p r i z a d e v a n j i h ustanovljen Etnografski institut pri N a r o d n e m m u z e j u . Ž u p a n i č j e postal njegov u p r a v n i k , po ustanovitvi E t n o g r a f s k e g a m u z e j a 1 9 2 3 5 a njegov ravnatelj in u r e d n i k č a s o p i s a E t n o l o g . M u z e j j e imel po Ž u p a n i č e v i h j e s e d a h "nalogo, da p o s p e š u j e narodopisje, a n t r o p o l o g i j o in z g o d o v i n o ljudske u m e t n o s t i , da zbira ttizadevni material, ga proučuje in hrani v svojih r a z s t a v n i h zbirkah "35. Ž u p a n i č e v o p u s j e i z r e d n o širok po tematiki, saj j e b i l o n j e g o v o r a z i s k o v a l n o p o d r o č j e lingvistika, fizična a n t r o p o l o g i j a in e t n i č n a z g o d o v i n a B a l k a n s k e g a polotoka^^. Č e p r a v j e ustvarjal v času, k o se je e v g e n i k a najbolj vsiljevala v e v r o p s k i h okvirih, j e na m e d n a r o d n e m k o n g r e s u za z n a n s t v e n o p r o u č e v a n j e ljudskih p r o b l e m o v v B e r l i n u 2 9 . avgusta 1 9 3 5 nastopil z referatom O rasni estetiki ljudstva pri J u g o s l o v a n i h in zavrnil rasistično z a k o n o d a j o , ki j e d o v o l j e v a l a sklenitev z a k o n s k e z v e z e m e d Arijci in Nearijci le na p o d l a g i poprejšnje sterilizacije, kot " n e s o d o b n o , p r e v e č p o n i ž e v a l n o in p r e v e č n a p e r j e n o proti e l e m e n t a r n e m u p r a v u č l o v e k a in v s a k e g a naroda"^^. Ž u p a n i č j e leta 1 9 4 0 postal prvi p r o f e s o r na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani na tedanjem s e m i n a r j u z a etnografijo, ki j e kasneje prerasel v s a m o s t o j e n o d d e l e k .

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35 N / l o Županič:

Z a E t n o g r a f s k i m u z e j v Ljubljani; E t n o l o g 7 (Ljubljana 1 9 3 4 ) , str. 2 3 5 .

Cf. npr. študijo Etnololki značaj kosovskih Čerkeza; E t n o l o g 5 - 6 (Ljubljana 1 9 3 3 ) , str. 2 1 8 - 2 5 3 . 37 Etnolog S-9 (Ljubljana 1 9 3 6 ) , str. 6 2 - 8 1 .

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL TRADITION IN SLOVENIA

Z m a g o Smitek, Božidar J e z e m i k

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A n t h r o p o l o g y is o n e o f the y o u n g e r a c a d e m i c disciplines; this a p p l i e s in p a r t i c u l a r to the state o f affairs in S l o v e n i a , w h e r e a n t h r o p o l o g y h a d a c q u i r e d its p l a c e at the F a c u l t y o f P h i l o s o p h y o n l y in 1991 w h e n following the c h a n g e s in t h e curricula the hitherto D e p a r t m e n t o f E t h n o l o g y w a s formally r e n a m e d D e p a r t m e n t of E t h n o l o g y a n d Cultural A n t h r o p o l o g y . P r i o r to that, s i n c e the e n d o f the sixties, a n t h r o p o l o g y had b e e n o n e o f the subjects studied at the F a c u l t y o f S o c i o l o g y , Political Sciences a n d J o u r n a l i s m in Ljubljana (Prof. S t a n e J u ž n i č ) . This, h o w e v e r , is in no w a y indicative that a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l issues s h o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n a l o n g time before that a topic a r o u s i n g scientific interest. B o t h a u t h o r s find that in spite of the p r e v a i l i n g e t h n o l o g i c a l tradition in S l o v e n i a there h a s existed a l s o an a c t i v e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l current o f t h o u g h t a n d in the p a p e r t h e y offer a s u r v e y o f s o m e o f its m a i n e x p o n e n t s from the 16th c e n t u r y o n w a r d s . B e c a u s e o f the u n c l e a r delimitation b e t w e e n a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d in the S l o v e n e area p r e d o m i n a t i n g e t h n o l o g y the article is specifica l y focused o n the v i e w p o i n t s o f S l o v e n e a u t h o r s a s r e g a r d s the relation b e t w e e n the t w o fields. M o d e m e x p e r t s plead for a s p e c t r u m o f different v i e w s c o n c e r n i n g t h e relation b e t w e e n e t h n o l o g y a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y . In c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to e t h n o l o g y w h i c h ranks a s a national discipline par e x c e l l e n c e a c c o r d i n g to s o m e , a n t h r o p o l o g y is the s t u d y o f other, m o s t l y n o n - E u r o p e a n p e o p l e s a n d c u l t u r e s . A c c o r d i n g to N o v a k (the Slovene) e t h n o l o g y is the discipline a b o u t (the S l o v e n e ) folk c u l t u r e . (Vilko N o v a k , R e s e a r c h e r s into S l o v e n e Life (in S l o v e n e ) , Ljubljana 1986, p. 3 6 7 - 3 6 8 ) . T h i s is a v i e w p o i n t present b y i m p l i c a t i o n in all the e x i s t i n g s u r v e y s o f the h i s t o r y of S l o v e n e e t h n o l o g y , in w h i c h o n e w o u l d in v a i n s e e k for n a m e s o f w r i t e r s d e a l i n g w i t h n o n - S l o v e n e p e o p l e s a n d c u l t u r e s ( N S I; V i e w s (in S l o v e n e ) . A m o n g the S l o v e n e e t h n o l o g i s t s there is further on a fairly w i d e s p r e a d o p i n i o n t h a t in c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n t o e t h n o l o g y , r e g a r d e d a s a h i s t o r i c a l discipline, a n t h r o p o l o g y is the s t u d y o f the p e o p l e s a n d their c u l t u r e s from a non-historical a n g l e , thus an unscientific u n d e r t a k i n g : the belief that history is the o n l y science, had not died with M a r x . S o m e a u t h o r s see in a n t h r o p o l o g y m e r e l y o n e trend w i t h i n e t h n o l o g y , w h e r e in contradistinction to the culturological trend, the object o f w h i c h s h o u l d

b e the s t u d y o f culture, the scientific p u r s u i t is a i m e d at m a n a s the v e h i c l e o f culture, a s if in a scientific s t u d y m a n could b e treated in isolation from culture. In a d d i t i o n to the v i e w s indicated a b o v e it is also possible to c o m e a c r o s s a n o p i n i o n m a k i n g n o distinction b e t w e e n a n t h r o p o l o g y and e t h n o l o g y , a s if in fact these w e r e b u t t w o t e r m s for the s a m e discipline (B. Telban, D e l o ) . T h e a u t h o r s s u b s c r i b e to the o p i n i o n that the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n d the e t h n o l o g i c a l traditions in Slovenia c a n n o t s i m p l y b e e q u a t e d a n d that w e are d e a l i n g with t w o traditions often interlinking o r o v e r l a y i n g o n e a n o t h e r b u t n e v e r t h e l e s s often o n e d e v e l o p i n g past the other. T h e principal characteristic o f the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l tradition in this context w a s that it s o u g h t to treat m a n o r r a t h e r its subject holistically a n d thus c o n c e r n e d itself with the p r o b l e m : w h a t is man, w h a t is his origin and his process o f cultural m a t u r a t i o n , w h a t is it that m a k e s h i m different from aniinals, w h e r e a s e t h n o l o g y in S l o v e n i a did n o t e x p l i c a t e this q u e s t i o n a s a problem a n d still c o n t i n u e s to b e h a v e as if it w a s s o m e t h i n g u n d e r s t o o d for g r a n t e d . T h e r e a s o n w h y the term a n d the c o n t e n t of e t h n o l o g y h a d b e c o m e e s t a b l i s h e d in S l o v e n i a m a y b e s o u g h t in the S l o v e n e feeling o f b e i n g n a t i o n a l l y iinperilled in the 19th a n d in the first half of the 20ieth c e n t u r y w h e n w i t h i n the E u r o p e a n n e t w o r k s it w a s nation a s a collective entity that w a s the r e l e v a n t political factor a n d n o t inan a s an individual. T h e r e f o r e t h e r e persist t r a c e s o f the o p i n i o n that in Slovenia there h a s b e e n n o a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l tradition a n d that t o d a y as w e l l there is n o r o o m for it. B y the l e x i c o g r a p h e r i s definition a n t h r o p o l o g y is the s t u d y o f h u m a n b e i n g s in relation to distribution, origin, classification, a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r a c e s , physical c h a r a c t e r a n d social relations a n d culture. T h e w o r d a n t h r o p o l o g y is a c c o r d i n g to W e b s t e r ' s dictionary first recorded in E n g l i s h in 1 5 9 3 , w h i l e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l issues had b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a l r e a d y earlier. " A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s are timeless b e c a u s e they c e n t e r a r o u n d the universal c o n c e r n to u n d e r s t a n d h u m a n e x i s t e n c e a n d h u m a n behavior." ( A n n e m a r i e d e W a a l Malefijt, I m a g e s of M a n , N e w Y o r k 1974, I n t r o d u c t i o n ) T h e a u t h o r s s e e the fundainental difference b e t w e e n a n t r o p o l o g y a n d e t h n o l o g y in that the subject o f a n t h r o p o l o g y is m a n a s an individual w h i l e the subject o f e t h n o l o g y is m a n as a collective entity. T h e v e r y term e t h n o l o g y itself i m p l i e s that e t h n i c b e l o n g i n g is essential. A c c o r d i n g to the s o u r c e s c u r r e n t l y k n o w n the w o r d e t h n o l o g y c a m e up in the s e c o n d half o f the 18th century, specifically in the eastern part of Central E u r o p e . At that time e t h n o l o g y is said to h a v e d e v e l o p e d a s a discipline w h i c h w a s to help c o p e w i t h the p r o b l e m s arising for c o n t e m p o r a r i e s and of c o u r s e in particular for the Austrian C o u r t t h r o u g h the ethnical variegation of the p o p u ation in the D a n u b e b a s i n , in t h e area that had b e e n liberated and taken from u n d e r the T u r k i s h E m p i r e . In this s e n s e the term e t h n o l o g y w a s used b y Adain F r a n z K o l l a r in 1 7 8 3 w h o r e g a r d e d e t h n o l o g y to b e an intellectual activity in w h i c h the s t u d y o f l a n g u a g e , c u s t o m s , a n d institutions o f individual p e o p l e s is used to d i s c o v e r their o r i g i n s a n d original s e t t l e m e n t s . E t h n o l o g y should thus b e c o n c e r n e d w i t h e t h n i c h i s t o r y o f individual c o m m u n i t i e s , (cf. Belaj). W h i l e the v e r y teriu, as said a b o v e , e t h n o l o g y implies e t h n i c b e l o n g i n g as an essential quality, for m a n as an individual it is v e r y often inore i m p o r t a n t

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wheK he b e l o n g s a c c o r d i n g to sex, race, religion, age, v o c a t i o n , class, etc. In the E u r o p e a n h i s t o r y of the 19th c e n t u r y ethnic b e l o n g i n g had o b t a i n e d a special stress a n d significance in the period o f r o m a n t i c i s m , w h i c h w a s intent u p o n d i s c o v e r i n g the state-forming p o w e r of national a w a r e n e s s . O u t s i d e E u r o p e it d o e s not exist a n d a l s o not in E u r o p e w h e r e the fundamental subject is m a n as a citizen, irrespective o f w h e r e he b e l o n g s b y nation, religion, race, o r sex ... T h e b e g i n n i n g s o f a n t h r o p o l o g y are related to m e e t i n g s with m e m b e r s o f other, different, foreign cultures. Its first b e g i n n e r should b e a l r e a d y H e r o d o t u s . T h e difference a m o n g cultures is for a n t h r o p o l o g y o f essential i m p o r t a n c e , w i t h the rule still t o d a y h o l d i n g that the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t is a "foreigner b y profession". It is o n l y the c o m p a r i s o n that m a k e s it possible to p o s e p r o b l e m s , i.e. the q u e s t i o n of w h y in this particular w a y a n d not o t h e r w i s e . W i t h o u t the c o m p a r i s o n a n t h r o p o l o g y is a s a s c i e n c e not feasible. T h e p a r a d o x of the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l position, w h i c h is at the s a m e t i m e a p e r m e n e n t g e n e r a t o r of its crisis a n d b e c a u s e o f w h i c h a n y no m a t t e r h o w perfect e t h n o l o g y r e m a i n s insufficient, lies in the fact that a c o m p a r i s o n can b e m a d e o n l y from a fixed (cultural) position. T h e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t m a y b e dissatisfied with a n d critical a b o u t his culture, he can b e non- critical and satisfied, o r he c a n b e indifferent, b u t he c a n n o t b u t s h a r e o n e o f these v i e w p o i n t s . T h e r e f o r e his v i e w is necessarily b u r d e n e d w i t h the cultural e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h he had b e c o m e socialized. A c c o r d i n g to H o d g e n , the p e r i o d of the 16th and 17th c e n t u r i e s w a s a time w h e n the interest in cultural c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n a n k i n d in f a r a w a y l a n d s and t i m e s w a s i m m e s u r a b l y s h a r p e n e d . "This sixteenth - a n d seventeenth - c e n t u r y literature, w h i c h laid the foundation of modern anthropology, comparative religions, a n t h r o p o g e o g r a p h y , and m a n y o t h e r related studies, exhibit the e m e r g e n c e o f w h a t m u s t n o w b e regarded a s scientific m e t h o d in the s t u d y o f c u l t u r e a n d society: first, in a definite transition from the m o t i v e of e n t e r t a i n m e n t to that o f inquiry; s e c o n d , in the m o r e o r less clear s t a t e m e n t o f q u e s t i o n s o r p r o b l e m s o f i m p o r t a n c e ; a n d third, in the c h o i c e of o r g a n i z i n g i d e a s to b e e m p l o y e d in d e a l i n g w i t h the p r o b l e m o f origin of m a n , o f d i v e r s i t y o f c u l t u r e s , the significance o f similarities, the s e q u e n c e o f high civilizations, a n d o f c o u r s e the p r o c e s s o f cultural change." ( M a r g a r e t T . H o d g e n , E a r l y A n t h r o p o l o g y in the Sixteenth a n d S e v e n t e e n t h Centuries, p.8. P h i l a d e l p h i a 1 9 7 1 ) . T h e first w o r k s o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r are therefore from the p e n s o f travellers w h o w e n t on j o u r n e y s to farà w a y foreign places. It is t h u s - w i t h regard to the S l o v e n e tradition - most a p p r o p r i a t e to t o b e g i n this s u r v e y with B e n e d i k t K u r i p e č i č ( B e n e d i c t e n C u r i p e s c h i t z ) a n d his travel b o o k p u b l i s h e d in 1531 w i t h o u t stating the n a m e of the a u t h o r o r the place of p r i n t i n g u n d e r the title W e g r a y s s K ü ( n i g l i c h e r ) M a y ( e s t ä t ) potschafft gen C o n s t a n t i n o p e l zu dem T ü r c k i s c h e n K a y s e r S o l e y m a n . A n n o X X X - M D X X X I . T h e description o f the j o u r n e y t h r o u g h the S l o v e n e part o f the territory is really short. ("We w e n t from Ljubljana, t h r o u g h Grosuplje, N o v o m e s t o and Metlika.") T h e r e a d e r is a s s u m e d to b e familiar with the w a y a n d the p l a c e s a l o n g it. H e d e s c r i b e s in g r e a t e r detail the m o r e distant places, in particular Bosnia, w h i c h w a s at that t i m e u n k n o w n to the E u r o p e a n reader. T h e travel b o o k , c o m i n g from the 16th century, is the o l d e s t description of a j o u r n e y t h r o u g h the B a l k a n P e n i n s u l a a n d r e p r e s e n t s an i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e for a n t h r o p o l o g y , e t h n o g r a p h y , s o c i o l o g y , t o p o g r a p h y , h y d r o g r a p h y o f individual B a l k a n c o u n t r i e s a s from that period there are few

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o r n o data p r e s e r v e d a b o u t the c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d situation in c o u n t r i e s t h r o u g h w h i c h h e w a s travelling (Bosnia, Serbia, Bulgaria, and G r e e c e ) . A m o n g the n o b l e m e n from the S l o v e n e territory w h o in the c a p a c i t y o f Austrian o r Venetian d i p l o m a t i c e m i s s a r i e s travelled either to M o s c o w o r to C o n s t a n t i n o p l e s t a n d s out for his scientific reputation S i g m u n d H e r b e r s t e i n . O n his t w o m i s s i o n s to Russia (in the y e a r s 1516-27) he carefully r e c o r d e d a n y t h i n g that m i g h t b e o f interest to the E u r o p e a n intellectual o f his time and w h o k n e w a b o u t R u s s i a practically nothing. In 1549 he published in V i e n n a a b r o a d - s c a l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f R u s s i a entitled R e r u m M o s c o v i t i c a r u m C o m e n t a r i i , w h i c h b e c a m e a b e s t s e l l e r o f the time a n d w a s to c o m e o u t in n u m e r o u s translations a n d issues. T h r o u g h o u t h i s descriptions H e r b e r s t e i n tried to b e rational a n d impartial a n d at the s a m e time as e x h a u s t i v e a n d vivid a s possible. A l t h o u g h h e relied p r e d o m i n a n t l y on his o w n e x p e r i e n c e and rational evaluation, from his R u s s i a n a c q u a i n t a n c e s h e collected t h r o u g h inquiries a l s o information a b o u t r e g i o n s east o f M o s c o w , w h i c h he h i m s e l f had not visited. H e t h u s r e c o r d e d interesting information a b o u t Siberia a n d the T a t a r s . A m o n g his i n f o r m a n t s w e r e soldiers w h o had b e e n b e s i e g i n g K a z a n in 1524, w h i l e on the region o f J u g r a (northern Ural M t s . and a part of Siberia) he had o b v i o u s l y i n f o r m e d h i m s e l f from R u s s i a n travel g u i d e s in m a n u s c r i p t form. A m o n g those w h o v o i c e d praise o f H e r b e r s t e i n ' s w o r k w a s a l s o the E n g l i s h e m i s s a r y to M o s c o w G e o r g e Turberville, in his Letters in V e r s e ( 1 5 6 8 ) . T h e celebrated T h e a t r u m orbis terrarum b y Ortelius, first issued in 1571, is s e n d i n g the r e a d e r for m o r e information to S i g m u n d H e b e r s t e i n . ( M a r g a r e t T. H o d g e n , E a r l y A n t h r o p o l o g y in the Sixteenth a n d S e v e n t e e n t h Centuries, P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1971, p. 1 5 3 ) . A u t h o r s o f travelling a c c o u n t s o f Kuripecic's and H e r b e r s t e i n ' s t y p e w e r e offering o n l y u n s y s t e m a t i c descriptions o f anthropological p h e n o m e n a , b u t t h e y e x e r c i s e d a great influence o n the formation of E u r o p e a n i d e a s a b o u t (foreign) p l a c e s a n d p e o p l e . T h e interest in the differences b e t w e e n d o m e s t i c a n d foreign c u l t u r e b e c a m e integrated in the e n d e a v o u r s of E u r o p e a n s to define t h e m s e l v e s a s civilized; a n d for that t h e y n e e d e d an anti-thesis. E v e r y w h e r e t h e y w e r e d i s c o v e r i n g s a v a g e s , noble o n e s a n d b a d o n e s . In the 1 6 t h c e n t u r y there started in S l o v e n i a a differentation b e t w e e n t h e o l o g y a n d p h i l o s o p h y , w h e n the question o f the relation b e t w e e n b e l i e f a n d r e a s o n c a m e up. Significant here w a s the influence o f S o c i n i a n i s m , a radical r e f o r m a t i o n m o v e m e n t w i t h w h i c h also the m o s t i m p o r t a n t representative o f the S l o v e n e reformation, P r i m o ž Trubar, w a s familiar. (J. P o g a č n i k , O l d e r S l o v e n e Literature (in S l o v e n e ) , Ljubljana 1990, pp. 2 2 1 - 2 2 3 ) . A c c o r d i n g to the logic o f the differentiation m e n t i o n e d , the p h i l o s o p h y o f the p e r i o d dealt w i t h h u m a n issues a n d included the g e r m s o f a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d e t h n o l o g y . T r u b a r w a s taking an active interest in the cultural characteristics o f S l o v e n e s a n d o t h e r S o u t h e r n S l a v s (especially in their l a n g u a g e a n d c u s t o m s ) and a l s o reported o n the characteristics o f Islam. W i t h the s e c o n d reformer, A d a m B o h o r i č , (in the Preface to the S l o v e n e g r a m m a r , 1 5 8 4 ) there is already m a r k e d scepticism that t h r o u g h p h i l o s o p h y it c o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to d i s c o v e r significant k n o w l e d g e , "because the h u m a n m i n d h a s b e e n m a d e blind t h r o u g h the sin of the parents". (Pogačnik, p. 2 2 0 ) . Y e t a c e n t u r y a n d a half later there w e r e active a few theorists w h o u n d e r s t o o d p h i l o s o p h y , s i m i l a r l y a s S a i n t - S i m o n , a s a general s c i e n c e i n t e g r a t i n g the

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findings o f o t h e r sciences (Claude-Henri d e S a i n t - S i m o n , A Selection from W o r k s (in C r o a t i a n ) , e d . b y M i l e J o k a , Z a g r e b 1979, p. 5 4 ) . T h e p h i l o s o p h e r J a k o b Stelin w a s t h u s in his w o r k S p e c i m e n de ortu et p r o g r e s s u m o r u m ( V e n e z i a 1740) a r g u i n g that the m o r a l retrogression of m a n k i n d w e n t parallel with m a n k i n d ' s e s t r a n g e m e n t from the nature. Franz X a v e r G m e i n e r ( L i t e r a i ^ e s c h i c h t e d e s U r s p r u n g s und F o r t g a n g e s der P h i l o s o p h i e , 1-2, G r a z 1788-89) s a w in the satisfying o f m a n ' s c o n s t a n t l y increasing n e e d s the m o t i v e p o w e r o f h u m a n p r o g r e s s . M a r t i n Kuralt (178.3) w r o t e a b o u t the e q u a l i t y o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e s as r e g a r d s the q u a l i t y o f r e a s o n a n d a b o u t their inequality a s r e g a r d s its q u a n t i t y . S i n c e the 17th c e n t u r y o n w a r d s the need for a s y s t e m a t i c and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h is t o b e seen in v a r i o u s instructions for the c o l l e c t i n g o f pertinent information. A particulariy notable place a m o n g these instructions is o c c u p i e d b y this kind o f instructions set o u t b y the E n g l i s h natural scientist R o b e r t B o y l e : "Considering the Great I m p r o v e m e n t s , that h a v e o f late b e e n m a d e of N a t u r a l H i s t o r y (the o n l y sure F o u n d a t i o n o f Natural P h y l o s o p h y ) , b y the travels o f G e n t l e m e n , S e a m e n , a n d others; A n d the great D i s a d v a n t a g e m a n y I n g e n i o u s M e n are at in their Travels, b y reason t h e y k n o w not b e f o r e h a n d , w h a t t h i n g s are they to inform t h e m s e l v e s o f in e v e r y C o u n t r y t h e y c o m e to, o r b y w h a t M e t h o d t h e y m a y m a k e E n q u i r i e s a b o u t things to b e k n o w n there, I t h o u g h t it w o u l d n o t b e u n a c c e p t a b l e to such, to h a v e D i r e c t i o n in G e n e r a l , relating to all, a n d also in Particular, relating to P a r t i c u l a r C o u n t r i e s , in a s little B o u n d s a s possible, presented in their View." (Robert Boyle, G e n e r a l H e a d s for the N a t u r a l H i s t o r y of a C o u n t r y , G r e a t o r Small; D r a w n o u t for the U s e o f T r a v e l l e r s a n d N a v i g a t o r s , L o n d o n 1692, pp. 1-2). B o y l e ' s instructions a p p e a r e d in a b o o k form p o s t h u m o u s l y , b u t in m a n u s c r i p t v e r s i o n s t h e y w e r e in use a l r e a d y earlier on. T h e s a m e o r a s i m i l a r q u e s t i o n n a i r e , intended for travellers, w a s u s e d a l s o b y t h e S l o v e n e p o l y h i s t o r J a n e z Vajkard V a l v a s o r . In his e n c y c l o p a e d i c a l l y c o n c e i v e d w o r k T h e G l o r y o f the D u k e d o m o f C a m i o l a (in G e r m a n ) (Ljubljana 1 6 8 9 ) he offered in addition to natural specifics, t o p o h r a p h i c a l a n d historical information also the first s y s t e m a t i c presentation o f the p o p u l a t i o n of the C a r n i o l a a n d Istria of his time. In his w o r k he d e s c r i b e d the c u s t o m s , food, c l o t h e s , d w e l l i n g s a n d the e c o n o m y a n d he outlined a l s o the p e o p l e ' s e t h n i c b e l o n g i n g . M o s t o f the a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l information is collected in the sixth b o o k b e a r i n g the tittle C a r n i o l a n - S l a v i c l a n g u a g e . M a n n e r s a n d C u s t o m s in C a r n i o l a . In the c h a p t e r o n the Karst inhabitants he paid c o n s i d e r a b l e attention to the e x t e r n a l a p p e a r a n c e of m e n a n d w o m e n "and in d o i n g that he r e a c h e d a l o n g w a y t o w a r d s m o d e m v i e w s (of a kind o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l o r - w i t h s o m e e x a g g e r a t i o n - ' r a c i a l ' aesthetics)." (Novak, 1 4 ) . V a l v a s o r ' s a p p r o a c h m a y b e called a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l b e c a u s e o f his orientation t o w a r d s natural s c i e n c e a n d o f h i s h o l i s t i c p u r s u i t in t h e a r e a w h e r e t h e p e a s a n t e l e m e n t r e m a i n s a n u n d i s s o c i a b l e part o f the nature. V a l v a s o r w a s c o l l e c t i n g his information o n the spot, p r i m a r i l y so b e c a u s e o f his scientific scepticism; w e w a n t e d to see a n d v e r y e v e r y t h i n g with his o w n e y e s . H i s field m e t h o d included also observation, inquiring, a n d s k e t c h i n g . In v i e w o f the fact that in his i n s t r u c t i o n s B o y l e e x p l i c i t l y m e n t i o n s C e r k n i š k o j e z e r o ( S c h e r n i t z e r Lake) in Carniola (p. 6 ) , t h r o u g h a description o f w h i c h V a l v a s o r b e c a m e f a m o u s in E n g l a n d , w e m a y posit a certain c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n V a l v a s o r a n d B o y l e a n d w e m a y c o n c l u d e that V a l v a s o r a s well w a s

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familiar w i t h B o y l e ' s instructions w h e n c o l l e c t i n g the inaterial for T h e G l o r y o f the D u k e d o m of C a m i o l a . T h e w o r k is c o n c e i v e d on an e x c e p t i o n a l l y b r o a d scale a n d r e p r e s e n t s o n e o f the p e a k s o f the E u r o p e a n natural history. A m o n g the l e a r n e d m e n o f E u r o p e of the 17th a n d 18th c e n t u r i e s a particular r e s p o n s e w a s called forth b y V a l v a s o r ' s description o f the S c h e r n i t z e r L a k e . "About the latter B a r o n V a l v a s o r b r o u g h t forth a fairly e x t e n s i v e , exact, a n d c u r i o u s description in his c o m p r e h e n s i v e w o r k on the G l o r y of the d u k e d o i n of C a m i o l a , w h i c h o n e r a r e l y finds in o u r libraries." ("Di quest' u l t i m o il B a r o n V a l v a s o r i a d a t o al p u b b l i c o u n a b e n lunga, esatta, e curiosa d e s c r i z i o n e nella sua vasta O p e r a s o p r a L e g l o r i e del D u c a t o della C a m i o l a , che di raro si trova nelle nostre Biblioteche.") (Alberto Fortis, S a g g i o d'osservazioni sopra l'isola di C h e r s o ed O s e r o , V e n e z i a 1771, p. 8 1 ) .

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A n t o n T o i n a ž Linhart p u b l i s h e d a h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c w o r k entitled V e r s u c h e i n e r G e s c h i c h t e v o n Krain u n d den ü b r i g e n L a n d e r n d e r s ü d l i c h e n S l a v e n Oesterreichs, (Vol l, Ljubljana 1789; Vol IL 1791), w h e r e in the initial c h a p t e r s he tried to outline the w a y of living of S l o v e n e s in the earliest p e r i o d a n d the e v o l u t i o n a r y c o u r s e o f their culture. L i n h a r t b e l i e v e d that a l s o in this p r o c e s s , like in n a t u r e generally, there operate firm m l e s . H e u n d e r s t o o d the cultural d e v e l o p m e n t as a p r o c e s s o f separation from n a t u r e a n d a s a p r o c e s s of spiritual a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l g r o w t h . H e d i s t i n u g u i s h e d four b a s i c s t a g e s o f c u l t u r a l p r o g r e s s . A l r e a d y in the m i d d l e of the 19th c e n t u r y a just e v a l u a t i o n of his w o r k w a s written, a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h he w a s "the first C a m i o l i a n ... w h o w i t h the light of e t y m o l o g y a n d linguistic c o m p a r i s o n studied the earliest d w e l l i n g s , the earliest k i n s h i p a n d the social d e v e l o p m e n t " a s well a s "the first w h o paid to the cultural-historical w o r k of the p a g a n S l a v s attention a s to that activity from w h i c h p r o c e e d legal status a n d political c i r c u m s t a n c e s " . (V. K l u n , U e b e r die G e s c h i c h t s f o r s c h u n g u n d G e s c h i c h t s s c h r e i b u n g in Krain, M i t t h . d. hist. V e r . f. K r a i n 1 8 5 7 , p. 5 1 ) . Linhart d o u b t l e s s l y k n e w s o m e of the w o r k s o f the F r e n c h theorists o f his time as r e g a r d s the d e v e l o p m e n t of civilization. H i s text U e b e r die N u t z b a r k e i t d e r natürlichen P h i l o s o p h i e (contained in the a l m a n a c h B l u m e n a u s K r a i n für das J a h r 1781, Ljubljana 1780) is m o d e l l e d u p o n A. P o p e ' s A n E s s a y on Man. At the turn of the 18th to the 19th c e n t u r y there a p p e a r e d a significant w o r k b y the B r e t o n B a l t a z a r H a c q u e t relating his d i v e r s e interests in natural s c i e n c e s a n d his activity to the s t u d y o f the w a y s o f life, e c o n o m y , a n d p e o p l e ' s p h y s i c a l characteristics a n d linguistic specific. ( A b b i l d u n g und B e s c h r e i b u n g s ü d w e s t u n d östlichen W e n d e n , lUyren und S l a w e n Leipzing 1801-1808). G i a n R i n a l d o Carli, a native of K o p e r , p r o d u c e d in the e i g h t i e s of the 18th c e n t u r y a sizeable s t u d y Lettere A m e r i c a n e , p u b l i s h e d in M a g a z z i n o L e t t e r a r i o (Firenze 1780), a n d in the s a i n e y e a r in b o o k form in t w o v o l u m e s (Firenze 1 7 8 0 ) , a n d in an e x p a n d e d edition ( C r e m o n a 1 7 8 1 - 1 7 8 3 ) ; h e r e he w r o t e a b o u t the A z t e c a n a n d Inca cultures. H e w a s full o f e n t h u s i a s m for their civic, social, a n d e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d rejected the A m e r i c a n " d e g e n e r a t i o n t h e o r y " a d v o c a t e d b y Buffon, P a u w , a n d others. In t h e first b o o k of his w o r k D a r s t e l l u n g der P h i l o s o p h i e o h n e B e y n a m e n (Wien 1 8 0 2 ) F r a n z S a m u e l K a r p e discussed the field o f "empirical p s y c h o l o g y o r a n t h r o p o l o g y " . K a r p e w a s a p r o p o n e n t o f the t h e o r y o f linear c u l t u r a l e v o l u t i o n . H e w a s p r i m a r i l y interested in m e n t a l differences a m o n g p e o p l e s a n d in the r e a s o i n s for them (cliinate, food, racial features, social order, a n d the like).

In the p r o c e s s o f t h e formation o f A m e r i c a n cultural a n t h r o p o l o g y a significant p l a c e is o c c u p i e d b y Friderik B a r a g a , a m i s s i o n a r y of S l o v e n e origin, w h o w a s in the y e a r s 1831 -1868 w o r k i n g a m o n g I n d i a n s from the tribes O t t a w a a n d O j i b w a ( C h i p p e w a ) . H e p r o d u c e d a m o n o g r a p h on their culture, b a s i n g it m o s t l y on his five-year stay a m o n g them on the eastern c o a s t o f L a k e M i c h i g a n , a l t h o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y h e d r a w also upon other a u t h o r s for information. B a r a g a ' s b o o k entitled Geschichte, Character, Sitten und Gebräuche der n o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n I n d i e r w a s published in 1 8 3 7 in Ljubljana s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h the S l o v e n e version A D e s c r i p t i o n o f H a b i t s a n d B e h a v i o u r of the I n d i a n s in m i d n i g h t A m e r i c a (in S l o v e n e ) a n d a F r e n c h edition A b r e g é de I'Histoire d e s I n d i e n s d e 1'Amerrique septentrionale, printed in Paris. B a r a g a ' s scientific w o r k is called a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a b o v e all b e c a u s e he had d r a w n u p o n A m e r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l literature for his m o d e l s a n d initiatives. F o r the research n e e d o f o n e of the b e g i n n e r s o f A m e r i c a n a n t h r o p o l o g y , H e n r y R. Schoolcraft, he provided a n s w e r to his c o m p r e h e n s i v e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ('Inquiries') a b o u t O j i b w a n d i a n s . B a r a g a w a s a l s o a collector of s p e c i m e n s of Indian culture a n d in 1837 he donated to the Carniolan Provincial M u s e u m a collection from the area a r o u n d the U p p e r a n d M i c h i g a n L a k e s . B a r a g a ' s c o l l e a g u e F r a n c Pire w a s a n o t h e r collector a n d a u t h o r of a b o o k on I n d i a n s o f the O t t a w a a n d Ojibwa tribes (Die I n d i a n e r in N o r d - A m e r i k a , ihre L e b e n s w e i s e , Sitten, G e b r ä u c h e ; St. Louis 1 8 5 5 ) . Ivan B e n i g a r , w h o in 1908 settled d o w n for g o o d in Argentina, lived a m o n g P a t a g o n i a n Indians and A r a u c a n i a n s a n d established his family there. H e s t u d i e d t h e c o n c e p t o f s p a c e , time, a n d c a u s a l i t y a s u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e A r a u c a n i a n s a n d w r o t e three studies a b o u t that. T h e y w e r e printed in B o l e t i n o de la J u n t a de Historia y N u m i s m a t i c a in the twenties of the present c e n t u r y . E s s e n t i a l l y t h e y c e n t r e a r o u n d the s t u d y o f the w a y o f t h i n k i n g a n d p e r c e i v i n g the e x t e r n a l w o r l d , and are b a s e d on linguistic a n a l y s i s . In this c o n n e c t i o n B e n i g a r o p p o s e d to stime o f the c o n c l u s i o n s o f L e v y - B r u h l ' s t h e o r y a b o u t pre-logical thinking. B e n i g a r ' s largest w o r k is the b o o k El p r o b l e m a del h o m b r e a m e r i c a n o (Bahia B i a n c a 1921), in w h i c h he investigated the e t h n o g e n e s i s o f A m e r i c a n Indians, in p a r t i c u l a r the diffusionist pacifico-Ainerican theory, represented typically b y P a u l R i v e t a n d J o s é I m b e l l o n i . B e n i g a r w a s o p p o s e d to c o n c l u s i o n reached b y I m b e l l o n i a n d he w a s likewise critical o f e v o l u t i o n i s m , to w h i c h he a d m i t t e d v a l i d i t y in principle. B y the n a t u r e a n d the s c o p e o f his w o r k B e n i g a r w a s a true a n t h r o p o l o g i s t . H i s scientific interests s p a n n e d o v e r fields like linguistics, history, a r c h e o l o g y , e t h n o l o g y , s o c i o l o g y , a n d p h i l o s o p h y ; h e a t t e m p t e d t o integrate t h e m a n d c a l l e d them a "science o f the e s s e n c e of man". T h e t h e o l o g i a n L a m b e r t Ehriich w a s in the y e a r s 1920-21 s p e c i a l i s i n g in social a n t h r o p o l o g y with Prof. R. R. Marett in Oxford. A fruit o f this s t u d y w a s the w o r k Origin o f Australian Beliefs (St. Gabriel - M ö d l i n g 1922), w h i c h is in the a u t h o r ' s o w n w o r d s "an a t t e m p t to a p p l y the test o f Australian facts to the v a r i o u s theories p u t forward c o n c e r n i n g the origin of religion, a n d e n d e a v o u r s t o g i v e a n e x p l a n a t i o n - a s far a s this m a y b e possible - o f A u s t r a l i a n beliefs." W h i l e E h r i i c h w a s m o s t closely cociperating with W i l h e l m S c h m i d t a n d o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the V i e n e s e cultural-historical school, a s P r o f e s s o r at the F a c u l t y o f T h e o l o g y in Ljubljana he w a s a c t i v e in the field o f c o m p a r a t i v e

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religions. H e t o o k a v e r y b r o a d v i e w o f e t h n o l o g y , t a k i n g it a s a l m o s t e q u a l w i t h cultural o r social a n t h r o p o l o g y . N i k o Ž u p a n i č w a s the first S l o v e n e a n t h r o p o l o g i s t o f a c a d e m i c rank. T h a n k s to his e n d e a v o u r the E t h n o g r a p h i c Institute w a s founded in 1921 at the N a t i o n a l M u s e u m . Ž u p a n i č b e c a m e its first principal c u s t o d i a n a n d after the f o u n d i n g o f t h e E t h n o g r a p h i c M u s e u m its director, a s well as the e d i t o r o f the j o u r n a l E t n o l o g . A c c o r d i n g t o Ž u p a n i č , t h e m u s e u m h a d "the t a s k to p r o m o t e e t h n o g r a p h y , a n t h r o p o l o g y , the h i s t o r y o f folk art, to collect r e l e v a n t material, a n d to keep it p r e s e r v e d in its e x h i b i t i o n collections". ( N i k o Ž u p a n i č , F o r the E t h n o g r a p h i c M u s e u m in Ljubljana! (in S l o v e n e ) ; E t n o l o g , N o 7, Ljubljana 1934, p. 235).

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Zupanic 's w o r k is in its t h e m a t i c field e x t r e m e l y varied, w i t h investigation r e a c h i n g from linguistics, p h y s i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y to the e t h n i c h i s t o r y o f the B a l k a n p e n i n s u l a . {Cf. for i n s t a n c e t h e s t u d y E t h n o l o g i c a l C h a r a c t e r o f T s c h e r k e s s e s in K o s o v o (in S l o v e n e ) , E t n o l o g , N o 5-6, Ljubljana 1 9 3 3 , p p 2 1 8 - 2 5 3 ) . A l t h o u g h he lived at a t i m e w h e n e u g e n i c s w a s c o m i n g to the fore in E u r o p e a n f r a m e w o r k s , at the International C o n g r e s s foi r Scientific S t u d y of F o l k P r o b l e m s , in Berlin, Ž u p a n i č o n A u g u s t 2 9 t h , 19.35, p r e s e n t e d the p a p e r O n P e o p l e ' s Racial Aesthetics a m o n g the Y u g o s l a v s and rejected the racial legislature, w h i c h permitted the c o n t r a c t i n g of m a t r i m o n i a l u n i o n b e t w e e n A r i a n s a n d N o n - A r i a n s s o l e l y on the b a s i s o f the a l r e a d y p e r f o r m e d sterilization a s "indecent, too h u m i l i a t i n g and too m u c h directed a g a i n s t the e l e m e n t a r y l a w o f m a n and a n y nation". (Etnolog, N o 8-9, Ljubljana 1 9 3 6 , pp 6 2 - 8 1 ) . In 1 9 4 0 Ž u p a n i č b e c a m e the first P r o f e s s o r at the A r t s Faculty h o l d i n g t h e C h a i r o f E t h n o l o g y , w h i c h in d u e c o u r s e e x p a n d e d into an i n d e p e n d e n t d e p a r t m e n t .

V a n g l e š č i n o prevedel F a n e S l i v n i k

O AVTORJIH Dr. Zmago Šmitek, izr. prof. na Od­ delku za etnologijo in kulturno antro­ pologijo Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani; D r Božidar Jezemik, docent na istem oddelku.

ABOUTTHE AUTHORS Dr. Zmago Šmitek Senior Lecturer at the Department of Ethnology and Cultural Anthropology at the Arts Faculty in Ljubljana. Dr. Božidar lezemik Lecturer at the same department.

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