The Foundations of Belief Being Notes Introductory to the Study of Theology (Arthur James Balfour, 1896-6th Edition)

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THE

FOUNDATIONS OF BELIEF
BEING

NOTES INTRODUCTORY TO THE

STUDY OF THEOLOGY

r

THE

FOUNDATIONS OF
BEING

BELIEF

NOTES INTRODUCTORY TO THE

STUDY OF THEOLOGY

BY THE

RIGHT HON. ARTHUR JAMES BALFOUR
AUTHOR OF 'A DEFENCE OK PHILOSOPHIC DOUBT
'

ETC.

SIXTH EDITION

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND
LONDON,

CO.

NEW

YORK, AND BOMBAY
1896

All rights reserved

\l

//-2 11

CONTENTS
PAGE

PRELIMINARY

I

PART
CHAPTER
I

I

SOME CONSEQUENCES OF BELIEF
-"•

Naturalism and Ethics
Naturalism and ^Esthetic
Naturalism and Reason

II.

III.

IV.

Summary and Conclusion of Part

I

.

PART

II

some reasons for belief
I.

The Philosophic

Basis of Naturalism

...

89
137

II.

Idealism; after some recent English Writings

III.

Philosophy and Rationalism
Rationalist Orthodoxy

156
175

IV.

n

CONTENTS

PART
:hapter
I.

III

SOME CAUSES OF BELIEF
page

Causes of Experience

185

II.

Authority and Reason

194

PART IV
suggestions towards a provisional philosophy
I.

The Groundwork
Beliefs and Formulas
Beliefs, Formulas,

233
251
. . .
.

II.

III.

and Realities

263

IV.

'Ultimate Scientific Ideas'
Science and Theology

280

V.
VI.

290
321

Suggestions towards a Provisional Unification

NOTE
Part
Part
II.,

Chapter

II.,

of the following Essay ap-

peared in 1893
I.,

in the
I.,

October number of 'Mind.'
to

Chapter

was delivered as a Lecture

the Ethical Society of
1893,

Cambridge

in the

spring of
the

an d

subsequently

appeared

in

July

number

of the 'International Journal of Ethics' in

the present year.

Though

published separately, both

these chapters were originally written for the present

volume.
'

The

references

to

'

Philosophic

Doubt which occur from time

to time in the Notes,
II.,

especially at the beginning of Part

are to the

only edition of that book which has as yet been
published.
It
is

now
;

out of print, and copies are
if
I

not easy to procure a

but

have time to prepare

new

edition,

care will be taken to prevent any

confusion which might arise from a different

num-

bering of the chapters.
I

desire to acknowledge the kindness of those

who have read through the proof-sheets of these Notes and made suggestions upon them. This
somewhat ungrateful labour was undertaken by my
friends, the

Rev. E. S. Talbot, Professor Andrew

viii

NOTE
James Robertson, and
brother, Mr. G.
last,

Seth, the Rev.
far

but very

from

least,

my

W.

Balfour, M.P.,

and

my

brother-in-law, Professor

None of these gentlemen

are, of course, in

Henry Sidgwick. any way
advocated, with
I

responsible for the views

herein

which some of them, indeed, by no means agree.

am

the

more beholden

to

them

for the assistance

they have been good enough to render me.

A.
Whittingehame, September
1894.

J.

B.

PRELIMINARY
As
its title

imports, the following Essay

is

intended

to serve as

an Introduction
'

to the

Study of Theology.
is

The word
and
in

Introduction,' however,

ambiguous
little

;

order that the reader

may be
it

as

disap-

pointed as possible with the contents of the book,
the sense
explained.
subject
ciples
is

in

which

I

here use

must be

first

Sometimes, by an Introduction

to

a

meant a

brief survey of

its

leading prinits

—a

first initiation,

as

it

were, into

methods

and
of

results.

For such a
I

task,

however,

in the case

Theology

have no

qualifications.

With the
its

growth of knowledge Theology has enlarged
borders until
it

has included subjects about which

even the most accomplished theologian of past ages
did not greatly concern himself.

To

the Patristic,

Dogmatic, and Controversial learning which has
always been required, the theologian of to-day must

add knowledge

at first

hand of the complex
critical

his-

torical, antiquarian,

and

problems presented

by the Old and
them.

New

Testaments, and of the vast and

daily increasing literature

which has grown up around
sufficient

He

must have a

acquaintance with
B

2

PRELIMINARY
;

the comparative history of religions
tion to all this,

and

in addi-

he must be competent to deal with
philosophical questions which

those scientific and

have a more profound and permanent bearing on

Theology even than
historical scholarship.

the

results

of

critical

and

Whether any

single individual

is

fully

compedo not

tent either to acquire or successfully to manipulate

so formidable an apparatus of learning,

I

know.

But

in

any case

I

am

very

far

indeed from

being even

among

that not inconsiderable

number

who

are qualified to put the reader in the

way

of

profitably cultivating

some portion of
of research.

this vast

and

always increasing

field

The

following

pages, therefore, scarcely claim to deal with the sub-

stance of Theology at

all.
'

They are in
introduction
'

the narrowest
to
;

sense of the word an
deal for the

it.

They
it

most part with preliminaries

and

is

only towards the end of the
Introduction

volume, where the

begins insensibly to merge into that

which

it is

designed to introduce, that purely theomentioned, except by

logical doctrines are
illustration.

way
fitly

of

Although what follows might thus be
scribed as
'

de-

Considerations preliminary to a study of
I

Theology,'

do not think the subjects dealt with
For, in truth,

are less important on that account.

the decisive battles of Theology are fought
its

beyond
won.

frontiers.

It is

not over purely religious controis

versies that the cause of Religion

lost or

PRELIMINARY

3

The judgments we
mode

shall

form upon
for us
;

its

special

problems are commonly settled

by our general
this again, in
all,

of looking at the Universe
it

and

so far as

is

determined by arguments at

is

determined by arguments of so wide a scope that
they can seldom be claimed as more nearly con-

cerned with Theology than with the philosophy of
Science or of Ethics.

My
way
I

object, then,

is

to

recommend a

particular

of

looking
like
it

at

the

World-problems which,

whether we
wish,
if
I

or not,

we

are compelled to face.

can, to lead the reader

up

to a point of
Infinite

view whence the small fragments of the

Whole, of which we are able
appear to us
in

to obtain a glimpse,

may

their

true

relative
'

proportions.
'

This

is,

therefore,

no work of

Apologetics

in the

ordinary sense of that word.
are not taken
objections
;

Theological doctrines

up

in turn

and defended from current

nor

is

there any endeavour here
'

made
'

specifically to solve the
culties
'

doubts
as
in

'

or allay the

diffi-

which

in

this,

every

other,

age

perplex the minds of a certain
persons.

number of

religious

Yet, as

I

think that perhaps the greater
difficulties

number of these doubts and
even present themselves
our habitual

would never were
it

in that character

not for a certain superficiality and one-sidedness in

manner
belief,
I

of

considering

the

wider

problems of

cannot help entertaining the
is

hope that by what
Apologist proper

here said

the

work of the

may

indirectly

be furthered.

'

4
It
is

PRELIMINARY
a natural,
if

not an absolutely necessary

consequence of
in the

this plan, that the subjects alluded to

following pages are, as a rule,
title

more

secular
at first

than the
suggest,

of the

book might perhaps
even
to

and also that the treatment of some of
brief
to

them has been
reader
is

meagreness.

If the

tempted

complain of the extreme con-

ciseness with which

some

topics of the greatest imirreleI

portance are touched on, and the apparent

vance with which others have been introduced,

hope he
to
If

will

reserve his judgment until he has read

the end, should his patience hold out so long.

he then thinks that the

'

particular
this

way

of looking

at the

World-problems
is

'

which

book

is

intended

to

recommend

not rendered clearer by any porI

tion of

what has been written,
;

shall

be open to his
I

criticism

but not otherwise.

What
fco

have

tried to

do

is

not to write a monograph, or a series
delineate, and,

of
if

monographs, upon Theology, but
possible, to

recommend, a
in

certain attitude of mind);

and

I

hope that
I

in carrying out this less

ambitious

scheme
fluous
If
I

have put
left

few touches that were super-

and
it

out none that were necessary.
'

be asked,

For whom

is

this

book intended

?

answer, that

it is

intended for the general body of

readers interested in such subjects rather than for the
specialist in Philosophy.
I

do

not, of course,

mean

that

I

have either desired or been able

to avoid

questions which in essence are strictly philosophical.

Such an attempt would have been wholly absurd.

PRELIMINARY

5

But no knowledge either of the history or the technicalities of

Philosophy

is is

assumed
any

in the reader,

nor

do

I

believe that there
if

train of
it

thought here

suggested which,
will

he thinks

worth his while, he

have the

least difficulty in following.

He

may,

and very
stance of
shall

likely will, find objection

both to the subform.

my

arguments and
if,

their

But

I

be disappointed

in addition to their

other

deficiencies,

he

finds

them

unintelligible

or

even

obscure.

1

There

is

one more point

to

be explained before

these prefatory remarks are brought to a conclusion.
In order that the views here advocated
in

may be

seen

the highest

relief, it is

convenient to exhibit them

against the background of some other and contrasted

system of thought.

What system

shall

that be

?

Germany the cessors may be
In

philosophies of

Kant and

his suc-

matters of such

(I know not whether they are) common knowledge that they fit-

tingly supply a standard of reference,

by the aid of

which the relative positions of other and more or
less differing

systems
to

may be

conveniently deterof things,
I

mined.

As

whether
is

this state

if

it

anywhere exists,
But
in
I

desirable or not,
it

offer

no opinion.

am

very sure that

does not at present exist

any English-speaking community, and probably
will, until

never
are
1

the ideas of these speculative giants

throughout

rethought

by

Englishmen,

and
II.,

Chapter

These observations must not be taken as applying to Part II., which the general reaaer is recommended to omit.

;

6

PRELIMINARY
in a

reproduced
will

shape which ordinary Englishmen
Until this occurs Tranit

consent to assimilate.

scendental Idealism must continue to be what

is

now

— the

intellectual possession of a small minority

of philosophical specialists.

Philosophy cannot, under

existing conditions, become, like Science, absolutely
international.

There

is

in matters speculative, as in

matters poetical, a certain amount of natural protection for the home-producer,

which commentators
altogether to over-

and translators seem unable
come.

Though,
the

therefore,

I

have devoted a chapter to
Idealism
it

consideration

of Transcendental

as
is

represented in some recent English writings,

not with overt or tacit reference to that system that
I
I I

have arranged the material of the following Essay.
have, on the contrary, selected a system with which

am

in

much

less

sympathy, but which under many
following,

names numbers a formidable
reality the only

and

is

in

system which ultimately

profits

by

any defeats which Theology may

sustain, or

which

may be counted on
the
tide

to flood the spaces

from which

of Religion

has

receded.
all

Agnosticism,

Positivism, Empiricism, have

been used more or

less correctly to describe this

scheme of thought

though
which

in

the

following

pages, for reasons with

it is

not necessary to trouble the reader, the
I

term which

shall

commonly employ
For
its

is

Naturalism.
is

But whatever the name

selected, the thing itself

sufficiently easy to describe.

leading doctrines

'

PRELIMINARY
are that

7
1

we may know phenomena
'

and the laws

by which they are connected, but nothing more.

More there may or may not be but if it exists we can never apprehend it and whatever the World may be in its reality (supposing such an
'
'

;

:

'

'

expression to be otherwise than meaningless), the

World

for us,

the

concerned,
cognisance,

or
is

of which
that

World with which alone we are alone we can have any World which is revealed to us
is

through perception, and which
of the Natural Sciences.

the subject-matter

Here, and here only, are

we on

firm ground.

Here, and here only, can we

discover anything which deserves to be described as
and perhaps apology, is due for this use phenomena.' In its proper sense the term implies, I suppose, that which appears, as distinguished from something, presumably more real, which does not appear. I neither use it as carrying this metaphysical implication, nor do I restrict it to things which appear, or even to things which could appear to beings endowed with senses like ours. The ether, for instance, though it is impossible that we should ever know it except by its effects, I should call a phenomenon. The coagulation of nebular meteors into suns and planets I should call a phenomenon, though nobody may have existed to whom
1

I

feel that explanation,

of the

word

'

Roughly speaking, things and events, the general is what I endeavour to indicate by a term for which, as thus used, there is, unfortunately, no substitute, however little the meaning which I give to it can be etymologically
it

could appear.

subject-matter of Natural Science,

justified.

While
physics.

I

am

on the subject of
I

definitions,

it

may be

as well to say

that, generally speaking,

distinguish between Philosophy
I

and MetaI

To

Philosophy

give an epistemological significance.

regard

it

as the systematic exposition of our grounds of knowledge.

Thus, the philosophy of Religion or the philosophy of Science would mean the theoretic justification of our theological or scientific beliefs. By Metaphysics, on the other hand, I usually mean the knowledge that we have, or suppose ourselves to have, respecting realities which are not phenomenal, e.g. God, and the Soul.

3

PRELIMINARY
Here, and here only,

Knowledge.

may we

profit-

ably exercise our reason

or gather

the fruits of

Wisdom.
Such,
in

rough

outline,

is

Naturalism.

My

first

task will be the preparatory one of examining certain
of
its

consequences

in various
;

departments of human
this in the

thought and emotion
chapters
I

and to

next four

proceed to devote myself.

PART

I

SOME CONSEQUENCES OF BELIEF

CHAPTER

I

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
I

The two

subjects on which the professors of every

creed, theological

and

anti-theological,

seem

least

anxious to

differ,

are the general substance of the

Moral Law, and the character of the sentiments
with

which

it

should be
reverence
;
;

regarded.
that
it

worthy of
merely

all

That it is demands our
it

ungrudging submission
obedience,

and that we owe

not

but love

— these
all

are

common-

places which the preachers of

schools vie with

each other
right.

in proclaiming.
is

And

they are certainly
laws,

Morality

more than a bare code of
otherwise,

than a catalogue raisonnd of things to be clone or
left

undone.

Were

it

we must change
old
ideals

something more important than the mere customary
language of exhortation.

The

of the

world would have to be uprooted, and no new ones
could spring up and nourish in their stead
soil
;

the very

on which they grew would be
all

sterilised,

and the

phrases in which

that has hitherto been regarded

12

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
.

as

best

and noblest

in
'

human
best
'

life
'

has been exnoblest
'

pressed, nay, the words
selves,

and

them-

would become as

foolish

and unmeaning as

the incantation of a forgotten superstition.

This unanimity, familiar though
very remarkable.
because
clusions,
'

it

be,

is

surely

And

it

is

the

more remarkable
only as to
con-

the unanimity

prevails

and

is

accompanied by the widest diverbe founded.

gence of opinion with regard to the premises on

which these conclusions are supposed

to

Nothing but habit could blind us
of the fact that the
is

to the strangeness

man who

believes that morality

based on a priori principles, and the
it

man who
mystic,
well
at

believes

to

be based on the commands of God,
the
theologian,

the

transcendentalist,

the

and

the

evolutionist,
to

should

be

pretty

one both as

what morality teaches, and as
its

to

the sentiments with which

teaching should be

regarded.
It
is

not

my

business in this place to examine

the Philosophy of Morals, or to find an answer to
the charge which this suspicious

harmony

of opinion

among

various

schools

of

moralists

appears to

suggest, namely, that in their speculations they have

taken current morality for granted, and have squared
their proofs to their conclusions,

and not

their con-

clusions

to

their proofs.

I

desire
to

now

rather to

direct the

reader's

attention

certain

questions

relating to the origin of ethical systems, not to their
justification
;

to the natural history of morals, not to

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
its

13

philosophy

;

to the place

which the moral law

occupies in the general chain of causes and effects,

not to the nature of

its

claim on the unquestioningI

obedience of mankind.

am

aware, of course, that

many
but

persons have been, and are, of opinion that

these two sets of questions are not merely related,
identical
;

that

the

validity

of

a

command
it

depends only on the source from which

springs

;

and

that in the investigation into the character

and

authority of this source consists the principal busi-

ness of the moral philosopher.

I

am

not concerned
as

here to controvert
stated,
if
I
I

this

theory,
it.

though,

thus

do not agree with

It will

be

sufficient

lay

down two

propositions
(1)

of a

dubious character:

—

That,

practically,

much less human

beings being what they are, no moral code can be
effective

which does not
it,

inspire, in those

who

are

asked to obey

emotions of reverence; and

(2) that,

practically, the capacity of

any code

to excite this or

any other elevated emotion cannot be wholly independent of the origin from which those
that code suppose
it

who

accept

to

emanate. 1
is

Now

what, according to the naturalistic creed,
or,

the origin of the generally accepted,

indeed, of any
it

other possible, moral law

?

What

position does

occupy
1

in

the great

web

of interdependent pheno-

These are statements, it will be noted, not relating to ethics They have nothing to do either with the contents of the moral law or with its validity and if we are to class them as belonging to any special department of knowledge at all, it is to psyproper.
;

chology or anthropology that they should

in strictness

be assigned.

;

r

4

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
the knowable
?

mena by which
life
is

hypothesis constituted

Whole The answer is
'

'

is

on

this

plain.

As
frac-

but a petty episode in the history of the
;

universe

as feeling

is

an attribute of only a

tion of things that live, so moral sentiments

and the
but an
are
;

apprehension of moral rules are found
insignificant minority of things that feel.
not, so to speak,

in

They

among

the necessities of Nature
their

no

great spaces are

marked out for

accommodation

were they to vanish to-morrow, the great machine would move on with no noticeable variation the
;

sum

of realities would not suffer sensible diminution
itself

the organic world

would scarcely mark the
and

change.
chiefest
beliefs

A

few highly developed mammals,

among

these man, would lose instincts and
in

which have proved of considerable value
if

the struggle for existence,
at least

not between individuals,
species.

between

tribes

and

But put

it

at

the highest,

we can

say no more than that there

would be a great diminution of human happiness, that civilisation would become difficult or impossible,
and that the
disappear.
'

higher

'

races might even

succumb and
higher
'

These
ever

are considerations which to the

'

races themselves
trifling to

may seem

not unimportant, how-

the universe at large.

But

let

it

be

noted that every one of these propositions can be
asserted with equal or greater assurance of
all

the

bodily appetites, and of

many

of the vulgarest forms

of desire and ambition.

On

most of the processes,

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
indeed, by which consciousness and
in the individual
life

15

are maintained

and perpetuated
;

in the race

never consulted
for the

of their intimate character
totally ignorant,

we we
is

are
are
in

most part

and no one

any case asked

to consider

them with any other
curiosity.

emotion than that of enlightened

But

in

the few and simple instances in which our co-operation
is

required,

it

is

obtained through the stimulus

supplied by appetite and disgust, pleasure and pain,
instinct, reason,

and morality

;

and

it is

hard to

see,

on the

naturalistic hypothesis,
is

whence any one of
to derive a dignity or
all

these various natural agents

a consideration not shared by

the others,

why

morality should be put above appetite, or reason

above pleasure.
It

may, perhaps, be replied that the sentiments

with which

we choose

to regard

any

set of actions or
;

motives do not require special justification
there
is

that

no disputing about

this

any more than about

other questions of 'taste,' and that, as a matter of
fact,

the persons

who

take a strictly naturalistic view

of

man and

of the universe are often the loudest

and not the

least sincere in the

homage they pay
This
is,

to

the 'majesty of the moral law.'
perfectly true
culty.
I
;

no doubt,
diffi-

but

it

does not meet the real

am

not contending that sentiments of the

kind referred to

may

not be, and are not, frequently
all

entertained by persons of
or theological opinion.

shades of philosophical
point
is,

My

that in the case

of those holding: the naturalistic creed the sentiments

TJNI'V

16

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
;

and the creed are antagonistic
clearly the creed
is

and that the more
essential teaching,

grasped, the more thoroughly
its

the intellect
the

is

saturated with

more

certain are the sentiments thus violently
it

and unnaturally associated with

to languish or to die. to

For not only does there seem
distinction in favour of

be no ground,

from the point of view of biology, for drawing a

logical or psychological,

any of the processes, physioby which the individual or
not only are

the race

is

benefited

;

we bound

to

consider the coarsest appetites, the most calculating
selfishness,

and the most devoted heroism, as
all

all

sprung from analogous causes and
similar
objects,

evolved for

but

we can

hardly doubt that the

august sentiments which cling to the ideas of duty

and

sacrifice are

nothing better than a device of

Nature
actions.
ing,

to trick us into the
1

performance of

altruistic

The working

ant expends

its life in

labour-

with more than maternal devotion, for a progeny
its

not

own, and, so
doubtless
it

far as the race of ants is con-

cerned,

does

well.

Instinct,

the_jn-

herited impulse to follow a certain course with no

developed consciousness of

its final

goal,

is

here the

instrument selected by Nature to attain her ends.

But

in

the case of man,
to

more

flexible if less certain

methods have
in

be employed.

Does

conscience,

bidding us to do or to refrain, speak with
1

an

It is

scarcely necessary to state that in following the precedent
I do not wish to suggest that Biology necessarily Naturalism of course cannot be.

set

by Darwin

is

teleological.

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
authority from which there seems no appeal
?

17

Does

our blood tingle at the narrative of some great

deed?

Do

courage and self-surrender extort our
invite,

passionate sympathy, and

however
which
is

vainly,

our halting imitation
attract

?

Does
noble,
?

that

noble
is

even the

least

and that which

base repel even the basest
'

Nay, have the words
all ?

noble

'

and

'

base

'

a meaning for us at

If so,
in the

it is

from no essential and immutable quality
(

deeds themselves.

It is

because, in the struggle for

existence, the altruistic virtues are an advantage to o

the family, the tribe, or the nation, but not always

an advantage to the individual

;

it

is

because

man

comes

into

the

world

richly

inheritance of self-regarding

endowed with the instincts and appetites

required by his animal progenitors, but poor indeed
in

any inbred

inclination to the unselfishness neces-

sary to the well-being of the society in which he
lives
;

it is

because in no other

way can

the original

impulses be displaced by those of late growth to the

degree required by public

utility,

that Nature, in-

different to our happiness, indifferent to our morals,

but sedulous of our survival,
virtue to our practice

commends
it

disinterested
all

by decking

out in

the

splendour which the specifically ethical sentiments
alone are capable of supplying.

Could we imagine

the chronological order of the evolutionary process

reversed

:

if

courage and abnegation had been the

qualities first needed, earliest developed,

and thereorganism
c
;

fore

most deeply rooted

in the ancestral

18

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
cowardice,
greediness,

while selfishness,

and

lust

represented impulses required only at a later stage
of physical and intellectual development, doubtless

we should
crystallise

find the

'

elevated
first

'

emotions which

now
the

round the

set of attributes transferred to the

without alteration or

amendment

second

;

preacher would expend his eloquence in warning us
against

excessive

indulgence

in
'

deeds

of
'

self-

immolation, to which, like the

worker

ant,

we

should be driven by inherited instinct, and in exhorting us to the performance of actions and the
cultivation of habits
nately, find
it

from which we now, unfortudifficult to abstain.

only too
all

Kant, as
to
It

we

know, compared the Moral

Law

the starry heavens, and found them both sublime. would, on the naturalistic hypothesis, be more
it

appropriate to compare

to the protective blotches

on the

beetle's back,

and

to find

them both ingenious.
'

But how on
retain
its

this view' is the

'beauty of holiness

to

lustre in the
its

minds of those who know so
In despite of theories, man-

much
kind

of

pedigree

?

— even
in

instructed

mankind

— may, indeed, long
which
they

preserve uninjured
learned
their

sentiments

have

most impressionable years from
;

those they love best

but

if,

while they are being

taught the supremacy of conscience and the austere

majesty of duty, they are also to be taught that
these sentiments

and

beliefs are

merely samples of
of

the complicated contrivances,

many

them mean

and many of them disgusting, wrought into the

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
physical or into the social organism
forces of selection

19

by the shaping

and

elimination, assuredly

much

of the efficacy of these moral lessons will be destroyed,

and the contradiction between
naturalistic

ethical senti-

ment and

theory

will

remain intrusive
to those

and perplexing, a constant stumbling-block

who endeavour
of Ethics. 1

to

combine

in

one harmonious creed

the bare explanations of Biology and the lofty claims

Unfortunately for

my

reader,

it

is

not possible

wholly to omit from this section some references to
the questionings which cluster round the time-worn

debate on Determinism and

Free Will

;

but

my
be.

remarks
I

will

be

brief,

and as

little

tedious as

may

have nothing here to do with the truth or uncontending theories. [It
is

truth of either of the
1

It

may perhaps be
assumed

fidently

that morality, or,

thought that in this section I have too conmore strictly, the moral sentiments

(including

among

these the feeling of authority which attaches to

due to the working of natural selection. I have no desire to dogmatise on a subject on which it is the business of the biologist and anthropologist to pronounce. But it seems difficult to believe that natural selection should not have had the most important share in producing and making permanent things so obviously useful. If the reader prefers to take the opposite view, and to regard moral sentiments as accidental,' he may do so, without on that account being obliged to differ from my general argument. He will then, of
ethical imperatives), are
'

course, class moral sentiments with the aesthetic emotions dealt with
in the next chapter.

Of course I make no attempt to trace the causes of the variations on which selective action has worked, nor to distinguish between the moral sentiments, an inclination to or an aptitude for which has been bred into the physical organism of man or some races of men, and those which have been wrought only into the social organism of the
family, the tribe, or the State.

C2

20

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
remind the reader that on the
is

sufficient to

naturalistic

view, at least, free will

an absurdity, and that

those

who

hold that view are bound to believe that

every decision at which mankind have arrived, and
every consequent action which they have performed,

was

implicitly

determined by the quantity and

dis-

tribution of the various forms of matter

and energy

which preceded the birth of the solar system.
fact,

The
ineviteither,

no doubt, remains x that every
is

individual, while

balancing between two courses,
able impression that he
is

under the
pursue

at liberty to

and that

it

depends upon 'himself and himself
from his character,
his antecedents,
will

alone, 'himself as distinguished
his desires, his surroundings,

and

which of the offered alternatives he
pursue.
)

elect to

I

do not know that any explanation has
naturalistic hypothesis,
illusion.
I

been proposed of what, on the

we must
with

regard as a singular

venture

some

diffidence to suggest, as a theory pro-

visionally adequate, perhaps, for scientific purposes,

that the

phenomenon

is

due

to the

same cause

as so

many

other beneficent oddities in the organic world,

namely, to natural selection.

To

an animal with no

self-consciousness a sense of freedom

would evidently
unmeaning.

be unnecessary,

if

not, indeed, absolutely

But as soon as self-consciousness is developed, as soon as man begins to reflect, however crudely and
imperfectly,
1

upon himself and the world
so
it

in

which he

At

least,

seems

to

me.

There

are,

however, eminent

psychologists

who

differ.

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
lives,

21

then deliberation, volition, and the sense of

re-

sponsibility

become wheels

in the

ordinary machinery
;

by which species-preserving actions are produced and as these pyschological states would be weakened
or neutralised
if

they were accompanied by the imme-

diate consciousness that they

were as

rigidly detereffects

mined by

their antecedents as

any other

by

any other causes, benevolent Nature steps in, and by a process of selective slaughter makes the consciousness
in

such circumstances practically impossible.
all

The

spectacle of

mankind

suffering

under the
free,

delusion that in their decision
as a matter of fact,

they are

when,

they are nothing of the kind,

must

certainly appear extremely ludicrous to
it

any

superior observer, were
the
naturalistic
;

possible to conceive, on
that

hypothesis,

such

observers

should exist

and the comedy could not be otherwise than greatly relieved and heightened by the performances of the small sect of philosophers who,

knowing
is

perfectly as an abstract truth that freedom
in

an absurdity, yet
fall

moments

of balance
if

and

deliberation

into the vulgar error, as

they were

savages or

idealists.

The
lie

roots of a superstition so ineradicable
in the
if

must

deep

groundwork of our inherited organism,
first

and must,

not now, at least in the

beginning
to

of self-consciousness,

have been

essential
it.

the
it

welfare of the race which entertained

Yet

may, perhaps, be thought that this requires us to
attribute to the

dawn

of intelligence ideas which are

22

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
development
' ;

notoriously of late
primitive

and that as the

man knew nothing of

invariable sequences'

or 'universal causation,' he could in nowise be em-

barrassed in the struggle for existence by recognising
that

he and

his proceedings

were as absolutely deter-

mined by
is,

their antecedents as sticks

and

stones.

It

of course, true that in any formal or philosophical
intel-

shape such ideas would be as remote from the

ligence of the savage as the differential calculus.

But

it

can, nevertheless, hardly be denied that, in other, there

some shape or

must be

implicitly present

to his consciousness the sense of freedom, since his

fetichism largely consists in attributing to inanimate

objects the spontaneity which he finds in himself;

and

it

seems equally certain that the sense,

I

will

not say of constraint, but of inevitableness, would be
as embarrassing to a savage in the act of choice as
it

would

to

his

more

cultivated

descendant, and

would be not

less

productive
I

of that

moral im-

poverishment which, as
out,
1

proceed briefly to point

Determinism
It

is

calculated to produce. 1

seems

to

attribution of
first

human

be regarded as quite simple and natural that this spontaneity to inanimate objects should be the

stage in the interpretation of the external world, and that it should be only after the uniformity of material Nature had been conclusively established by long and laborious experience that the same But, principles were applied to the inner experience of man himself. in truth, unless man in the very earliest stages of his development had believed himself to be free, precisely the opposite order of discovery

might have been anticipated.
investigation

Even now our means
it

of external of lan-

are so imperfect that

is

rather a stretch

theory of uniformity is in accordance with On the contrary, experience, much less that it is established by it. the more refined are our experiments, the more elaborate are our

guage

to say that the

NATURALISM AND ETHICS

23

And

here

I

am

anxious to avoid any appearance
I

of the exaggeration which, as
characterised discussions
that there
is

think, has

sometimes
I

upon

this subject.

admit

nothing in the theory of determinism

which need modify the substance of the moral law.

That which Reason
'

duty

prescribes,
is

or

the

'

Practical

recommends,

equally prescribed

and

recommended whether our actual decisions are or are not irrevocably bound by a causal chain which reaches
back
past.

in

unbroken retrogression through a

limitless

It

may

also

be admitted that no argument

against good resolutions or virtuous endeavours can
fairly

be founded upon necessitarian doctrines.

No

doubt he who makes either good resolutions or
virtuous

endeavours does so (on the determinist
not

theory) because he could
precautions, the
cal with

do otherwise

;

but

more

difficult

it is

to obtain results absolutely identi-

each other, qualitatively as well as quantitatively. So far, mere observation goes, Nature seems to be always aiming at a uniformity which she never quite succeeds in attaining and though it is no doubt true that the differences are due to errors in the observations and not to errors in Nature, this manifestly cannot be proved by the observations themselves, but only by a theory established independently of the observations, and by which these may be corrected and interpreted. But a man's own motives for acting in a particular way at a particular time are simple compared
therefore, as
;

with the complexities of the material world, and to himself at least might be known (one would suppose) with reasonable certainty.

Here, then (were it not for the inveterate illusion, old as selfconsciousness itself, that at the moment of choice no uniformity of
antecedents need insure a uniformity of consequences) would have been the natural starting-point and suggestion of a theory of causation
which,
as

experience ripened and
itself to

knowledge grew, might

have

gradually extended

would, in fact, have had nothing more to do than to apply to the chaotic complex of the macrocosm the principles of rigid and unchanging law by

the universe at large.

Man

which he had discovered the microcosm

to

be governed.

24

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
less

none the

may

these

play an important part

among
may,
I

the antecedents by which moral actions are

ultimately produced.
think,

An
in

even stronger admission

be properly made.

There

is

a

fatalistic

temper of mind found
of action,
religious
all

some
is

of the greatest
in

men

and

irreligious,

which the
only adds

sense that

that happens

fore-ordained does in
volition, but
It

no way weaken the energy of
a finer temper to the remains the
the
fact that

courage.

nevertheless

the persistent realisation of

doctrine that voluntary decisions are as com-

pletely determined

by external and

(if

you go

far

enough back) by material conditions as involuntary
ones, does really conflict with the sense of personal
responsibility,

and that with the sense of personal
is

responsibility
is

bound up the moral

will.

Nor
feel

this

all.

It

may be
it

a small matter that deterthoroughly irrational to

minism should render
people.
that
it

righteous indignation at the
It

misconduct of other

cannot be wholly without importance
it

should render

equally irrational to feel
(

righteous indignation at our own.
tion,

Self-condemnatrain
for

repentance, remorse, and the whole

of

cognate

emotions,

are

really
it is

so

useful

the

promotion of

virtue, that

a pity to find them at
reasonable foundation,
all,

a stroke thus deprived of

all

and reduced,
position
It is clear,

if

they are to survive at

to the

of amiable

but unintelligent weaknesses.
if

moreover, that these emotions,
not
fall

they are

to

fall,

will

alone.

What

is

to

become of

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
moral admiration
?

25

/The virtuous man

will,

indeed,

continue to deserve and to receive admiration of a
certain

kind

— the

admiration,

namely,
;

which

we
is

justly accord to a well-made

machine

but this

a

very different sentiment from that at present evoked

by the heroic or the

saintly

;

and

it

is,

therefore,

much
by the

to

be feared

that, at least in

the region of the

higher feelings, the world will be no great gainer
effective spread of

sound

naturalistic doctrine.

No
their

doubt

this conflict

between a creed which
which are

claims intellectual assent and emotions which have
root

and

justification
is

in

beliefs

deliberately rejected,

greatly

mitigated by the
race enjoys
its

precious faculty which the

human

of

quietly ignoring the logical consequences of

own
in

accepted theories. such
theories

If the abstract

reason by which

are

contrived

always

ended

producing a practice corresponding to them, natural
selection

would long ago have
abstract
practice

killed off all If

those

who possessed
accord

reason.

a

complete

between

and

speculation

were

required of us, philosophers would long ago have

been eliminated.
flict

Nevertheless, the persistent conis

between that which
is

thought to be

true,

and that which

felt

to

be noble and of good
moral unrest
in

report, not only produces a sense of

the individual, but makes

it

impossible for us to

avoid the conclusion that the creed which leads to

such results
as

is,

somehow, unsuited

for

'

such beings

we

are in such a world as ours.'

26

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
III

There

is

thus an incongruity between the sentito morality,
origin.
It

ments subservient
account of
their

and the
remains

naturalistic

to

inquire

whether any better harmony

prevails

between the

demands

of

the

ethical

imagination
the

and

what
oi

Naturalism
all

tells

us concerning

final

goal

human endeavour.
This
is

plainly not a question of small or sub-

sidiary importance,

though

it

is

one which

I

shall

make no attempt
pleteness.

to treat with anything like comis
il

Two

only of these ethical demands
I

necessary, indeed, that

should here refer to

:

thai

which requires the ends prescribed by morality
consistent
;

to be

adequate.
is

and that which requires them to b( Can we say that either one or the othei
is

of a kind which the naturalistic theory
?

able

t(

satisfy

The

first

of these questions
will

—that
;

relating

t(

consistency

—

no doubt be dealt with in differen
but by what

ways by various schools of moralists
ever path they travel,
conclusion.
all

should arrive at a negativ<
hold, as
I

Those who
has

do, that

'

reason

able

self-love'

a

legitimate

position
it

amom
a virtu
calle<

ethical

ends

;

that as a matter of fact
is

is

wholly incompatible with what
selfishness
;

commonly

and that society suffers not from havini too much of it, but from having too little, wi. probably take the view that, until the world undei

NATURALISM AND ETHICS

27

goes a very remarkable transformation, a complete

harmony between 'egoism' and
and the highest happiness
admit
the
this

'altruism,'

between

the pursuit of the highest happiness for one's self
for

other people, can

never be provided by a creed which refuses to
that
in

deeds
life

done
flow

and

the

character

formed

can

over into another,

and there

permit a reconciliation and an adjustconflicting principles

ment between the
hold
'

which are

not always possible here.
(as
I

To

those, again,

who
the the

think,

erroneously),

both that

greatest happiness of the greatest

number

'

is

right

end of

action,

and

also that, as a matter of fact,

every agent invariably pursues his own, a heaven

and a

hell,

which should
interest

make

it

certain
in

that

principle

and

were always

agreement,
otherwise,

would seem almost a necessity.
neither
law,

Not

by education, public

opinion,

nor positive

can there be any assured harmony produced

between that which man must do by the constitution
of his
will,

and that which he ought

to

do according
the other

to the promptings of his conscience.

On
'

hand,

it

must be acknowledged
'

that those moralists

who
is

are of opinion that

altruistic

ends alone are

worthy of being described as moral, and that man
not incapable of pursuing

them without any
life

self-

regarding motives, require no future
their practical system.

to

eke out

But even they would pro-

bably not be unwilling to admit, with the rest of the
world, that there
is

something jarring to the moral

28

NATURALISM AND ETHICS

sense in a comparison between the distribution of

happiness and the distribution of virtue, and that no
better

mitigation

of the

difficulty
is

has

yet

been

suggested than that which
of
'

provided by a system
in

rewards and punishments,' impossible

any uni-

verse constructed on strictly naturalistic principles.

With
with the
the
that

this

bare indication of some of the points
in
I

which naturally suggest themselves
first

connection
pass on to
:

question suggested above,

more

interesting
is

problem raised by the second

which

concerned with the emotional adequacy

of the ends prescribed
in

by

Naturalistic Ethics.
I

And
will

order to consider this to the best advantage
ethical
;

assume that we are dealing with an
which puts these ends
them, as
it

system

at their highest
full

which charges
that,

were, to the

with

all

on the

naturalistic theory, they are capable of containing.

Taking, then, as
scheme,
I

my

text

no narrow or
that
in

egoistic

will

suppose

the

perfection
find

and

felicity

of the sentient

creation

we may
it

the all-inclusive object

prescribed by
this, then,
is

morality for
not,

human

endeavour.
all
?

Does
that

or does
to

supply us with

needed
it,

satisfy our
it

ethical imagination

Does

or does

not, pro-

vide us with an ideal end, not merely big enough
to exhaust our energies, but great

enough

to satisfy

our aspirations

?

At

first

sight the
is

question

may seem
;

absurd.

The

object

admittedly worthy

it

is

admittedly

beyond our

reach.

The unwearied

efforts of count-

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
less generations, the

29

slow accumulation of inherited

experience, may, to those

who

find themselves able
faint

to read optimism into evolution, promise some

approximation to the millennium at
epoch.

How,
at

then,

can

we,

some far distant whose own conat

tribution to
insignificant,

the great

result

must be
the

the best

the worst nothing or worse than
to

nothing,
object
is

presume
less

think

that

prescribed

than adequate to our highest emotional
?

requirements

The

reason

is

plain

:

our ideals are

framed, not according to

the measure of our per-

formances,

but according to the

measure of our
in

thoughts

;

and our thoughts about the world
live tend,

which we

under the influence of increasing

knowledge, constantly to dwarf our estimate of the
importance of man,
if

man be

indeed, as Naturalism

would have us

believe,

no more than a phenomenon
natural object

among phenomena, a
natural objects.

among

other

For what
view
?

is man looked Time was when his

at

from

this point of
its

tribe

and

fortunes

were enough to exhaust the energies and to bound
1 the imagination of the primitive sage.

The

gods'

peculiar

care,

the

central

object of an attendant

universe, that for which the sun shone
fell,
it

and the dew

to

which the
its

stars in their courses ministered,

drew
1

origin in the past from divine ancestors,

The line of thought here is identical with that which I pursued I an already published essay on the Religion of Humanity. have not hesitated to borrow the phraseology of that essay wherever
in
it

seemed convenient.

—
3o

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
to

and might by divine favour be destined
definite existence of success

an

in-

and triumph

in the future.

These ideas
stage in the
far behind.

represent

no early or rudimentary

human thought, yet have we left them The family^ the tribe, the nation^are
inter ests. to

no longer enough to absor b our
past,

Man
our de-

present,

and future— lays claim
then, can

votion.

What,

we say
itself is

of

him ?

Man, so
is

far as natural science

by

able to teach us,

no longer the

final

cause of the universe, the Heavenall

descended heir of
is

the ages.
story

His very existence
transitory

an accident,

his
life

a brief and

episode in the
planets.

of one of the meanest of the
first

Of

the combination of causes which

converted a dead organic compound into the living
progenitors
of humanity,
It
is

science,

indeed,
that

as

yet

knows

nothing.

enough
lords

from

such

beginnings famine, disease, and mutual slaughter
fit

nurses

of

the

future

of creation,

have

gradually evolved, after infinite travail, a race with

conscience
intelligence,

enough enough

to
to

feel

that that
it

it

is

vile,

and
of

know

is

insignificant.

We

survey the past, and see that
tears,

its

history

is

blood and

of helpless

blundering, of wild

revolt, of stupid acquiescence, of

empty

aspirations.

We sound

the future, and learn that after a period,
life,

long compared with the individual

but short

indeed compared with the divisions of time open to our investigation, the energies of our system will
decay, the glory of the sun will be dimmed, and the

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
earth, tideless

31

and

inert, will

no longer tolerate the
disturbed
its

race which has for a

moment

solitude.

Man
will

will

go down

into the pit,

and

all

his thoughts

perish.

The uneasy

consciousness, which in

this

obscure corner has for a brief space broken the
will
'

contented silence of the universe,

be at

rest.

Matter

will
'

know
and

itself
'

no longer.

Imperishable
death
itself,

monuments

immortal deeds,'
death, will

and love stronger than
they had never been.

be as though
is

Nor

will

anything that

be better or be worse
devotion,

for all that the labour, genius^

and

suffering of

man have

striven through

countless generations
It
is

to effect.

no reply

to say that the substance of the
suffer

Moral

Law need
This

no change through any
in

modification
universe.

of our

views of man's place
true,

the

may be

but

it

is

irrelevant.

We
are

desire,

and desire most passionately when we
to

most ourselves, to give our service
is

that

which

Universal, and to that which
is
it,

is

Abiding.

Of what moment
when
any
it

then (from this point of

view), to be assured of the fixity of the, moral law

and the sentient world, where alone

it

has

significance, are alike destined to vanish utterly

away within periods trifling beside those with which the geologist and the astronomer lightly deal in
the

course

of

their

habitual
in

speculations

?

No

doubt to us ordinary

men

our ordinary moments
far off

considerations like these
little

may seem

and of

meaning.

In the hurry and bustle of every-

—
32

NATURALISM AND ETHICS
life

day

death

itself

—the

death of the individual
;

seems

shadowy

and

unreal
less

how much more
that

shadowy, how much

real,

remoter but

not less certain death which must

take the race
reflection

!

Yet, after

all,

it

is

some day overin moments of

that the
is

worth of creeds may best be

tested

;

it

through moments of reflection that

they come into living and effectual contact with our
active
life.

It

cannot, therefore, be a matter to us
that, as

of small
material
clearly
his

moment

we

learn to survey the

world with a wider vision, as we more

measure the true proportions which man and
dwarfed and beggared,

performances bear to the ordered Whole, our

practical ideal gets relatively
till

we may

transitory

ask whether so and so unimportant an accident in the
well feel
inclined to

general

scheme of things as the fortunes of the
race can any longer satisfy aspirations and
in the

human

emotions nourished upon beliefs

Everlasting

and the Divine.

33

CHAPTER

II

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
I

In the last chapter

I

considered the effects which

Naturalism must tend to produce upon the senti-

ments associated with Morality.
consider the

I

now proceed
I

to

same question
as aesthetic

in
;

connection with the

sentiments

known

and as

assumed

that

the former class were, like other evolutionary
in the

utilities,

main produced by the normal operation of
I

selection, so
least in

now assume

that the latter, being (at useless for the

any developed stage) quite

preservation of the individual or species, must be re-

garded, upon the naturalistic hypothesis, as mere by-

products of the great machinery by which organic
life
is

varied and sustained.
I

It will not,

I

hope, be

supposed that

propose to offer

this distinction as a

material contribution towards the definition either of
ethic or of aesthetic sentiments.
in

This

is
;

a question

which

I

am

in

no way interested

and

I

am

quite prepared to admit that
in ordinary

some emotions which

language would be described as 'moral,'

are useless enough to be included in the class of
natural

accidents

;

and also that

this

class

may,

34

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC

indeed does, include
following
aesthetic.

many emotions which no one common usage would characterise as The fact remains, however, that the

capacity for every form of feeling must in the main
either be, or not be, the direct result of selection

and elimination
the
last

;

and whereas

in the first section of
class,
I

chapter

I

considered the former

taking
to

moral emotion as their type, so now
offer

propose

some

observations on the second class, taking

as their type the emotions excited

by the

Beautiful.

Whatever value these Notes may have will not necessarily be affected by any error that I may
have made
divisions,
in the

apportionment between the twc
redistriinI

and the reader may make what
fit,

bution he thinks

without thereby necessarily

validating the substance of the conclusions which
offer for his acceptance.

I do not, however, anticipate that there will be any serious objection raised from the scientific side to the description of developed aesthetic emotion as

'accidental,' in

the sense

in

which that word
I

is

here employed.
in

The

obstacle

have

to deal with
is

conducting the argument of this chapter

of

a

different kind.

My

object

is

to indicate the contreat-

sequences which flow from a purely naturalistic

ment of the theory of the
met with the
no such
treatment has

Beautiful

;

and

I I

difficulty that, so far as

am am

at once

aware,

ever

been attempted on

a large scale, and that the fragmentary contributions

which have been made to the subject do not meel

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
with general acceptance on
investigators
capacities for
direct
result
to

35

the

part

of scientific
that
certain

themselves.

To

say

highly complex feeling are not
of
aid

the

natural

selection,
in
is

and were not
struggle
for

evolved
existence,

the

race

the

may be a

true,

but

a purely negative
little

account of the matter, and gives but

help in

dealing with the two questions to which an answer
is

especially required

:

namely,

What

are the causes,

historical,

psychological,
to

and physiological, which
gratification
it

enable

us

derive

aesthetic

from
?

some
and,

objects,
Is there

and forbid us

to derive

from others

any fixed and permanent element

in

Beauty, any unchanging reality which
in or

we

perceive

through beautiful objects, and to which normal
correspond
?

aesthetic feelings

Now,
till

it is

clear that

on the

naturalistic hypothesis

the second question cannot be properly dealt with

some

sort of

answer has been given
to

to the first

;

and the answers given
satisfactory

the

first

seem so un-

that

they can hardly be regarded as

even provisionally adequate.
In order to realise the difficulties and, as
I

think,

the shortcomings of existing theories on the subject,
let

us take the case of Music

—by
it

far the

most conno
very

venient of the
because,

Fine Arts for our purpose, partly
Architecture,

unlike

serves

obvious purpose, 1 and
1

we

are thus absolved from

I

may be

function of music
in speech.

permitted to ignore Mr. Spencer's suggestion that the is to promote sympathy by improving our modulation

D?

36

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC

giving any opinion on the relation between beauty

and

utility
it

;

partly

because, unlike
reference,

Painting and

Poetry,

has no external

and we are

thus absolved from giving any opinion on the relation

between beauty and

truth.

Of

the inestimable

blessings which these peculiarities carry with them,

anyone may judge who has ever got bogged
the Useful, the Real and the Ideal, which

in the

barren controversies concerning the Beautiful and
fill

so

large a space in certain classes of aesthetic literature.

Great indeed
dealing

will

he

feel

the advantages to be of

with

an Art

whose

most

characteristic

utterances have so
utility or truth.

little

directly to

do either with

What,
It is

then,

is

the cause of our delight in Music
to

?

sometimes hastily said
This

have originated

in

the ancestors of
selection.

man through
is

the action of sexual
impossible.

of course

Sexual
in

selection

can only work on materials already

existence.

Like other forms of
it

selection,

it

can
for

improve, but

cannot create

;

and the capacity

enjoying music (or noise) on the part of the female,

and the capacity

for

making

it

on the part of the

male, must both have existed in a rudimentary state

before matrimonial preferences can have improved
either

one

gift

or the other.

I

do not

in
is

any case
supposed
If the

quite understand

how

sexual selection

even to improve the capacity
caste
exist,
it

for enjoyment.

can no doubt develop
gratification
;

the
it

means

required for

its

but

how can

improve

NATURALISM AND AESTHETIC
the taste itself
spiders,
I

37

?

The

females of certain species of

believe, like to see

good dancing.

Sexual

selection, therefore,

no doubt may

gradually improve

the

dancing of the male.
it

The may

females of

many
of

animals are,
noise.

seems, fond of particular kinds

Sexual selection
the

therefore gradually

furnish

male
noises

with

the

apparatus by which
In

appropriate
cases,

may

be produced.
is

both

however, a pre-existing taste

the cause of
;

the variation, not the variation of the taste

nor,

except in the case of the advanced
not flourish at a period
practise

arts,

which do

when

those

who
in

successfully

them have any advantage

the matri-

monial struggle, does taste appear to be one of the
necessary qualifications of the successful
course,
if

artist.

Of

violin-playing were an important aid to

courtship, sexual selection

would tend

to

develop
without

that

musical

feeling

and

discrimination,
is

which good

violin-playing

impossible.
sensibility

But a
before
;

grasshopper requires no
it

artistic

can successfully rub

its

wing-cases together
to

so

that

Nature

is

only

concerned

provide

the

anatomical machinery by which such rubbing
result
in

may

a

sibilation

gratifying

to

the

existing

aesthetic

sensibilities of
in

the female, but cannot in

any way be concerned

developing the

artistic side

of those sensibilities themselves.

Sexual selection, therefore, however well
be
fitted to

it

may

give an explanation of a large number of

animal noises and of the growth of the organs by

38

NATURALISM AND .ESTHETIC
little

which they are produced, throws but

light on

the origin and development of musical feeling, either
in

animals or men.

And
to

the other explanations

I

have seen do not seem
for instance,

me much

better.

Take,

Mr. Spencer's modification of Rousseau's
to

theory.

According

Mr. Spencer, strong emotions

are naturally accompanied by muscular exertion, and,

among

other

muscular exertions,
'

and extensions of
and vocal
from

the muscles of the chest,

cords.'

The

resultant

by contractions abdomen, noises recall by
birth,

association the emotions which

gave them

and
are

this primordial coincidence sprang, as
first

we

asked to believe,
music.
'

cadenced speech, and then

do not desire to quarrel with the My point is, that even if primordial coincidence.' it ever took place, it affords no explanation of any
I

Now

modern
that the

feeling for music.
'

Grant that a particular

emotion produced a
'

contraction of the abdomen,'

contraction of the
series of sounds,

abdomen
and
that,

'

produced a
through
this

sound or
ultimately

association with the originating emotion, the sound

came

to

have independent

aesthetic value,

how
us,

are

we advanced towards any

explanation of

the fact that quite different sound-effects

now

please

and that the nearer we get

to the original noises,

the

more hideous they appear?
tom-tom
?

How

does the

'primordial coincidence' account for our ancestors
liking the

And how

does the fact that our

ancestors liked the tom-tom account for our liking

the Ninth

Symphony.

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
The
truth
is

39
all

that Mr. Spencer's theory, like

others which endeavour to trace back the pleasure-

giving qualities of art to some simple and original
association, slurs

over the real

difficulties

of the

problem.

If

it

is

the primitive association which

produces the pleasure-giving quality, the further this
is

left

behind by the developing

art,

the less pleaif

sure should be produced.

Of

course,

the art

is

continually fed from other associations and different

experiences,
stantly

if

fresh
to
it

emotional elements are concapable of

added

being worn and

weathered into the
vest,

fitting soil for

an

aesthetic har-

in that case,

no doubt, we may suppose that

with each
qualities
it is

new

development

its

pleasure-giving

may be

enriched and multiplied.
to these

But then,

to these

new elements and
'

new

experi-

ences, not to the

primordial coincidence,' that

we

should mainly look for the causal explanation of

our aesthetic feeling.
are

In the case of music, where

these
?

found

Indeed,

new elements and experiences to be None can tell us few theorists even try. the procedure of those who account for
;

music by searching for the primitive association

which

first in

the history of

man
in

or of his ancestors
noise,
its
is

conferred

aesthetic value

upon

as

if

one

should explain the

Amazon
its

flood

by pointas the

ing to the rivulet in the far
tributary most distant from

Andes which,

mouth, has the honour

of being called

its

source.

This may be allowed to
it

stand as a geographical description, but

is

very

4o

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
Dry up
still

inadequate as a physical explanation.
rivulet,

the

and the huge river would and

flow on,
its

without abatement or diminution.
origin has been touched
;

Only

titular

if

we would know

the

Amazon
tions of

in its beginnings,

and trace back the history
all

of the vast result through
its

the complex ramifica-

contributory causes, each great confluent

must be explored, each of the countless streams
enumerated whose gathered waters sweep
sea four thousand miles across the plain.
into the

mode of procedure will we compare it with that adopted by the same school of theorists when they endeavour I do not mean to explain the beauty of landscape.
imperfection of this
clear
if

The

become

to express

any assent

to their account of the causes
;

of our feelings for scenery

on the contrary, these But though unten-

accounts seem to
able,

me

untenable.

they are not on the face of them inadequate.

Natural objects

—the sky and
(if

hills,

woods and waters
is

— are

spread out before us as they were spread out

before our remotest ancestors, and there

no ob-

vious absurdity

the

hereditary transmission of

acquired qualities be granted) in conceiving them,

through the secular experience of mankind, to be-

come charged with
sure.

associations which reappear for

us in the vague and massive form of aesthetic plea-

But according to
is
is

all

association

theories of

music, that which
aesthetic pleasure

charged with the raw material of
not the music

we wish

to

have

explained, but

some primeval howl,

or at best the

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
unmusical
variations of
is

41

ordinary

speech, and

no

solution whatever

offered of the paradox that the

sounds which give musical delight have no associations,

and that the sounds which had associations
perhaps, partly in consequence of these or
difficulties,

give no musical delight.
It
is,

analogous
his

but mainly in consequence of

views on heredity, which preclude him from

accepting any theory which involves the transmission of acquired qualities, that

Weismann
is

gives an

account of

the musical sense which

practically

equivalent to the denial that any explanation of the
pleasure

we

derive from music
faculties

is

possible at

all.

For him, the

which enable us
for

to appreciate

and enjoy music were evolved
ent purposes, and
it

entirely differ-

is

a mere accident that,

when

they come into relation with certain combinations of
sound,

we

obtain

through their means

aesthetic

gratification.

Mankind, no doubt, are continually
musical devices, as

inventing

new

they are con-

tinually inventing

new

dishes.

But as the second

process implies an advance in the art of cookery,

but no transmitted modification in the
so

human

palate,

the

former implies

musical

progress,

but

no

change

in the innate capacities of successive

genera-

tions of listeners. 1
1

I

have made no allusion

to Helmholtz's classic investigations, for

these deal chiefly with the physical character of the sounds, or combinations of sound, which give us pleasure, but do not pretend fully to

answer the question

why

they give pleasure.

42

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC

This

is,

perhaps, a sufficiently striking example

of the unsatisfactory condition of scientific aesthetics,

and may serve

to

show how

difficult

it is

to find in

the opinions of different authorities a

common body
both

of doctrine on which to rest the argument of this
chapter.
I

should imagine,
I

however,

from

the speculations to which
verted,

have just

briefly adI

and from any others with which

am

ac-

quainted, that no person

who
an

is

at all in

sympathy
essential

with the naturalistic view of things would maintain
that there

anywhere

exists

intrinsic

and

quality of beauty, independent of the feelings and

the taste of the observer.
of the senses principally

The very

nature, indeed,

engaged indicates that on

the naturalistic hypothesis they cannot, in most cases,
refer to

For Naturalism

any external and permanent object of beauty. (as commonly held) is deeply comthe former (exten-

mitted to the distinction between the primary and
the secondary qualities of matter
sion, solidity,
;

and so

forth)

being supposed to exist as

they are perceived, while the latter (such as sound and
colour) are due to the action of the primary qualities

upon the sentient organism, and apart from the senEvery tient organism have no independent being.
scene in Nature, therefore, and every work of
art,

whose beauty
in sound, has,

consists either directly or indirectly,

either presentatively or representatively, in colour or

and can have, no more permanent

exist-

NATURALISM AND AESTHETIC
ence than
is

43

possessed by that relation between the

senses and our material environment which gave them
birth,

and

in the

absence of which they perish.

If

we
are

could perceive the succession of events which
as they

constitute a sunset exactly as they occur,
(physically,

not

metaphysically

speaking) in
guess, have
If

themselves, they would, so far as

we can

no

aesthetic merit,

or even meaning.

we

could
it

perform the

same operation on a symphony,
a like
result.

would end

in

The

first

would be no
;

more than a
of the

special

agitation

of the ether

the

second would be no more than a special agitation
air.

However much they might

excite the

curiosity of the physicist or the mathematician, for

the artist they could no longer possess either interest
or significance.
It

might, however, be said that the
it

Beautiful,

although

cannot be called permanent as compared
is,

with the general framework of the external world,
nevertheless, sufficiently

permanent

for all

human
rela-

purposes, inasmuch as
tions

it

depends upon fixed

between our senses and

their material sur-

roundings.
this, let

Without

at present stopping to dispute

us consider whether
this

we have any
'

right to
'

suppose that even

degree of

objectivity

can

be claimed for the quality of beauty.
settle

In order to
naturalistic

the

question
appeal,

we
it

can,

on the
seem,
to

hypothesis,
authority,

would

only one

namely,

the

experience

of

mankind.

Does

this, then,

provide us with any evidence that

44

NATURALISM AND AESTHETIC
is

beauty
flux

more than the name
endlessly

for a miscellaneous

of

varying causes,

possessing

no

property in common, except that at some place, at

some

time,

and

in

some

person, they have

shown

themselves able to evoke the kind of feeling which

we choose

to describe as aesthetic

?

Put thus there seems room for but one answer. The variations of opinion on the subject of beauty
are
notorious.

Discordant
races,

pronouncements
ages,

are

made by

different

different

different

individuals, the

same

individual at different times.

Nor does
this

it

seem

possible to devise any

scheme by

which an authoritative verdict can be extracted from
chaos of contradiction.

An

appeal, indeed,

is

sometimes made

from the opinion of the vulgar to
'

the decision of persons of
there
is

trained sensibility

'

;

and

no doubt

that, as

a matter of

fact,

through

the action of those
class,

who

profess to belong to this

an orthodox tradition has grown up which
at first sight almost to provide
'

may seem we
are

some

faint

approximation to the
in

objective

'

standard of which

search.

Yet
it is

it

will

be

evident
'

on

consideration that
sensibility'

not simply on their
rely
in

trained
their

that

experts

forming

opinion.

The

ordinary

critical

estimate of a

work

of art

is

the result of a highly complicated set of

antecedents, and by no

means

consists in a simple

and naked valuation of the
the aforesaid
here.
If
it

'aesthetic thrill'
in the critic,

which

work produces
so, clearly it

now and

were

could not be of any

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
importance to the art
particular
critic

45

when and by whom any
Problems of

work of
the

art

was produced.
authorship

age and questions
entirely to

of

would be

left

historian,

and the student of the

beautiful would, as

such, ask himself no question

but this
affected

:

How
by

and why are

my aesthetic
picture,

sensibilities

this statue,

poem,

as

it

is

in

itself? or (to

put the same thing in a form less open

to metaphysical disputation),

What would my
its

feelings
its

towards
its

it

be

if

I

were

totally ignorant of

date,
?

author,

and the circumstances of
all

production

As we
in

know, these are considerations never
ignored by the
critic.

practice

He

is

pre-

occupied, and rightly preoccupied, by a multitude

beyond the mere valuation of the outstanding amount of aesthetic enjoyment which, in
of questions the year 1892, any artistic or literary work, taken
simpliciter,
is,

as a matter of fact, capable of prois

ducing.

He
to

much concerned with
is

its

technical
its

peculiarities.

He

anxious to do justice to
his his
'

author,

assign

him

true

rank

among
country,

the
to

productive geniuses of

age and

make due allowance
traditions in

for his

environment,' for the
for the causes
itself in

which he was nurtured,

which make his creative genius embody
form rather than
does the
critic

one

in another.

Never

for

one instant

forget, or allow his reader to forget,

that the real

magnitude of the foreshortened object

under observation must be estimated by the rules of
historical

perspective.

Never does

he omit,

in

46

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC

dealing with the artistic legacies of bygone times,
to take account of

any long-accepted opinion which

may exist concerning them. He endeavours to make himself the exponent of the 'correct view.' His
judgment
I
is,

consciously or unconsciously, but not,

think, wrongly, a sort of
if

compromise between
his

that

which he would form

he drew solely from

own

inner experience, and that which has been formed

him by the accumulated wisdom of his predeHe expounds case-made law. cessors on the bench. and partly the creator of a creature He is partly the
for
critical tradition
;

and we can

easily conjecture

how

devious his course would be, were his orbit not
largely controlled
if

by the

attraction of received views,
fate

we watch

the

disastrous

which so often

overtakes him

when he pronounces judgment on new
is

woVks, or on works of which there

no estimate
it

embodied

in

any

literary creed

which he thinks

necessary to respect.
speare does not

Voltaire's opinion of

Shakeit

make one

think less of Voltaire, but

throws an interesting light on the genesis of average
critical

decisions

and the normal growth of

taste.

From
critical
if

these considerations, which might easily
it

be supplemented,

seems plain that the opinions of

experts represent, not an objective standard,

such a thing there be, but an historical com-

promise.

The agreement among
is

them, so far as

such a thing
fact that

to

be found,

is

not due solely to the
all

with their

own

eyes they

see the
;

same
is

things,

and therefore say the same things

it

not

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
wholly the result of a

47
it

common

experience

:

arises in

no small measure from their sympathetic endeavours
to see as others to

have seen,

to feel as others

have

felt,

judge as
is,

suppose

others have judged. This may be, and I the fairest way of comparing the merits
But, at the

of deceased artists.
it

same

time,

it

makes
to the

impossible for us to attach

much weight

assumed consensus of the ages, or to suppose that
this,

so

far

as

it

exists,

implies the reality of a

standard independent of the
fancies of individual critics.

varying whims and
In truth, however, the

consensus

of

the

ages,

even about the greatest

works of creative genius, is not only in part due to the process of critical manufacture indicated above,
but
its

whole scope
in the

and magnitude
not a question, be

is

absurdly

exaggerated
the subject.

phrases which pass current on
is
it

This

observed,

of aesthetic right and wrong, of
taste
;

good

taste or

bad

it is

a question of

statistics.

We are

not here

concerned with what the mass of mankind, even of
educated mankind, ought to
a matter of fact they do
literature
feel,

but with what as

feel,

about the works of

and

art
I

which they have inherited from
believe that every impartial obthat,

the past.

And

server

will

admit

of

the

aesthetic

emotion

actually experienced
fraction
is

by any generation, the merest
'

due

to the

immortal

'

productions of the
it.

generations

which have long preceded
is
;

Their

immortality

largely an immortality of libraries

and museums

they supply material to

critics

and

48

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
enjoyment to mankind
;

historians, rather than
if it

and

were

to

be maintained that one music-hall song

gives more aesthetic pleasure in a night than the

most exquisite
decade,
refuted.
I

compositions
not

of

Palestrina

in

a

know

how

the proposition could be

The
departed

ancient

Norsemen supposed

that besides

the soul of the dead, which went to the region of
spirits,

there survived a ghost, haunting,

though
labours.

not for ever,

the

scenes of

his

earthly-

At

first

vivid and almost
until

lifelike, it
it

slowly

waned and

faded,
it

at

length

vanished,
its

leaving behind

no trace or memory of
the immortality
artists.
life

spectral

presence amidst the throng of living men.
it

So,

seems
but

to me,

is

we

glibly preall,

dicate of departed
it

If

they survive at
live,

is

a

shadowy

they

moving on

through the gradations of slow decay to distant but
inevitable death.
fore,

They

can no longer, as hereto-

speak directly to the hearts of their fellow-men,
all

evoking their tears or laughter, and

the pleasures,

be they sad or merry, of which imagination holds
the secret.

Driven from the market-place, they
the companions of the student, then the

become

first

victims of the specialist.
familiar intercourse with

He who
them must
in

would

still

hold

train himself to

penetrate the veil which,
conceals

ever-thickening folds,
;

them from the ordinary gaze

he must

catch the tone of a vanished society, he must
in

move
in a

a

circle of alien associations,

he must think

NATURALISM AND ^ESTHETIC
language not his own.

49

Need

we, then, wonder that
of a critic
if
is

under such conditions the

outfit

as
off

much
•

intellectual as emotional,

or that

from

the complex sentiments with which they regard the

immortal legacies of the past

'

we

strip all that

is

due to

interests connected with history, with biocritical analysis,

graphy, with

with scholarship, and
will,

with technique, but a small

modicum

as a rule,

remain which can with justice be attributed to pure
aesthetic sensibility.

in
I

have, however, no intention of implying by the

preceding observations that the aesthetic feelings of
'

the vulgar

'

are less sophisticated than those of the

learned.
taste
'

A

very cursory examination of
its

'

public

and

revolutions

may

suffice to convince

anyone of the contrary.
us ask

And,
'

in the first place, let
?

why every
?

'

public

has a taste

And
is

why,

at least in

Western communities,

that taste

so apt

to alter

Why,

in other

words, do communities or
so

sections

of communities

often

feel

the

same

thing at the

same

time,

and so often
?

feel

different

things at different times
uniformity,

Why

is

there so
?

much

and why

is

there so

much change

These questions are of great interest, although they have not, perhaps, met with all the attention In these Notes it would not be they deserve.
fitting

to

attempt to deal with them at

length,

and

I

shall only offer observations on two

points

'

50

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC

which seem relevant to the design of the present
chapter.

The

question of Uniformity

is

best approached at

the humbler end of the aesthetic scale, in connection,

not with art in

its

narrower and
is

loftier sense,

but

with dress.
observation

Everybody
or

acquainted,

either

by

by personal experience, with the
;

coercive force of fashion

but not everybody

is

aware what an instructive and interesting pheno-

menon

it

presents.

Consider the case of bonnets.
all

During the same season
aspiring to belong, to the

persons belonging, or
'

same

public,' if

they wear

bonnets at
type.

all,

wear bonnets modelled on the same
this
?

Why

do they do

If

we were asking a
People tend
for

similar question, not about bonnets, but about steam-

engines, the answer would be plain.
at the

same date

to use the

same kind of engine
because
it

the

same kind
invented.
best
'

of purpose

is

the best
better

available.

They change

their practice

when a
'

one

is
'

But as so used the words
to
it

better
dress.

and

have no application

modern
will at

Neither efficiency nor economy,
admitted, supplies the grounds

once be
or

of choice

the

motives for variation.
If,

again,

great phase of

we were asking the question about some art, we should probably be told that

the general acceptance of

was due

to

it by a whole generation some important combination of historic

causes, acting alike

on

artist

and on

public.
;

Such

causes no doubt exist and have existed

but the case

a

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
of fashion proves that uniformity
is

51

not produced

by them
there
is

alone, since

it

will

hardly be pretended that
in

any widely diffused cause
except
the
coercive

the social
of

environment,
fashion
itself,

operation

which should make the bonnets which
in

were thought becoming
year 1892.

1881 unbecoming in the

Again,
tial

we might be

told that art contains essen-

principles of self-development,

which require one

productive phase to succeed another by a kind of
inner necessity, and determine not merely that there
shall

be variation, but what that variation

shall be.
true.

This also

may

be,

and

is,

in

a certain sense,

But

it

can hardly be supposed that

we can

explain

the fashions which prevail in any year by assuming,

not merely that the fashions of the previous years

were foredoomed

to change, but also

that,

in the

nature of the case, only one change was possible, that,

namely, which actually took place.

Such a doctrine
if all

would be equivalent
of each
other's

to saying that

the bonnet-

wearers were for a space deprived of any knowledge
proceedings
(all

other things

re-

maining the same), they would, on the resumption
of their ordinary intercourse, find that they had
inclined
all

towards much

the

same modification

of the

type of bonnet prevalent before their separation
conclusion

—
be

which seems to me,

I

confess, to

somewhat improbable.
It

may perhaps be

hazarded, as a further explais

nation, that this uniformity of practice

indeed a

fact,

;

52

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
is

and

really

produced by a complex group of causes
'fashion,'

which we denominate

but

that

it

is

a

uniformity of practice alone, not of taste or feeling,

and has no
whatever.

real

relation to
is
I

any

aesthetic

problem

This

a question the answer to which

can be supplied,

apprehend, by observation alone
to give

and the answer which observation enables us seems
to

me

quite unambiguous.

If,

as

is

possible,
in

my

readers

have but small experience
let

such

matters themselves,

them examine the

experiif
I

ences of their acquaintance.

They

will find,

mistake not, that by whatever means conformity to
a particular pattern
those

may have been brought

about,

who conform

are not, as a rule, conscious of
authority.

coercion

by an external and arbitrary
not act under penalty
;

They do
for a
'

they yield no un-

willing obedience.

On

the contrary, their admiration
is

well-dressed person,' quel well-dressed,

at

least as

genuine an

aesthetic

approval as any they

are in the
;

habit of expressing for other forms of

beauty just as their objection to an outworn fashion
is

based on a perfectly genuine

aesthetic

dislike.

They

are repelled by the unaccustomed sight, as a
is

reader of discrimination
false pathos.
11

repelled

by

turgidity or

appears to them ugly, even grotesque,
it

and they turn from
as unperturbed
tions, as if they

with an aversion as disinterested,
'

by personal or
critics

society

'

considera-

were

contemplating the produc-

tion of

some pretender

in the region of

Great Art.
is

In truth this tendency in matters aesthetic

only

NATURALISM AND ^ESTHETIC

53

a particular case of a general tendency to agreement

which plays an even more important part
departments of human
ficent doubtless
all

in other

activity.

Its operation,

bene-

on the whole,
life.

may be

traced through
to
it

social

and

political

We

owe

in part

that deep-lying likeness in tastes, in opinions,
habits, without

and

in

which cohesion among the individual
impossible,

units

of a

community would be

and

which constitutes the unmoved platform on which

we

fight out our political battles.

It is

no contemp-

tible factor

among

the forces by which nations are

created and reliq-ions disseminated and maintained.
It
is

the very breath of

life
its

to sects
results

and

coteries.

Sometimes,

no

doubt,

are

ludicrous.

Sometimes they are unfortunate. Sometimes merely
insignificant.

Under which

of these heads

we

should
I

class

our ever-changing uniformity in dress

will

not take upon

me

to determine.

It is sufficient for

my

present purpose to point out that the aesthetic

likings

which fashion originates, however
;

trivial,

are
in

perfectly genuine
kind,

and that

to

an origin similar

however

different in dignity

and permanence,

should be traced

much

of the characteristic quality

which gives

its

special flavour to the higher artistic

sentiments of each successive generation.

IV
It
is,
1

of course, true that this 'tendency to agree-

ment,'
1

this principle of drill,
the
'

cannot
'

itself

determine

Of course

tendency to agreement

is

not presented to the

54

NATURALISM AND ^ESTHETIC
is

the objects in respect of which the agreement

to

take place.

It
'

can do
public
'

much

to

make every member
same bonnet,
but
it

of a particular

like the
;

or the

same

epic, at the

same time

cannot deteris
'

mine what that bonnet or that epic
fashion, as the phrase goes, has to be

to be.

A

set,'
r

and the

persons
then,

who

set

it

manifestly do not follow
?

it.

What,

do they follow

We

note the influences that

move

the flock. What moves the bell-wether ? Here again much might conveniently be learnt
its

from an examination of fashion and

changes, for

these provide us with a field of research where

we

are disturbed by no preconceived theories or incon-

venient admirations, and where
subject

we may

dissect our
befits

with

the

cold

impartiality

which

scientific investigation.

The

reader, however,

may

think that enough has been done already by this

method
the

;

and

I

shall

accordingly pursue a more

general treatment of the subject, premising that in
brief observations

which follow no complete
is

analysis

of the
is,

complexity of concrete Nature
indeed, necessary for

attempted, or
it

my

purpose.

will

be convenient,

in the first place, to dis-

tinguish between the
enjoy,

and the

mode in which the public who artists who produce, respectively
That the
public are often

promote

aesthetic change.

reader as a simple, undecomposable social force. It is, doubtless, highly complex, one of its most important elements being, I suppose,
the instinct of uncritical imitation, which is the very basis of all effecThe line of thought hinted at in this paragraph is tive education.

pursued

much

further in the Third Part of this

Essay

— —
NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
weary and expectant
55

—weary of what
Yet
I

is

provided for

them, and expectant of some good thing to come
will

hardly be denied.

do not think they can

be usually credited with the conscious
fresh artistic development.

demand

for a

For though they

often

want some new

thing, they
;

do not often want a
it

new kind
though

of thing

and accordingly

commonly,

not

invariably,
it

happens

that,

when

the

new thing
few,

appears,

is

welcomed

at first

by the

and only gradually— by the force of fashion

and otherwise
the many.

— conquers
by a

the genuine admiration of

The
his

artist,

on the other hand,
desire that his

is

moved

in

no

small measure

work should be

own, no pale reflection of another's methods,

but an expression of himself in his

own

language.

He
for

will

vary for the better

if

he can,
will

yet, rather

than
;

be conscious of repetition, he

vary for the worse

vary he must, either in substance or
is
;

in form,

unless he

to

be

in his

own

eyes, not a creator, but

an imitator
It

not an

artist,

but a copyist. 1
I

will

be observed that
dividing-line
;

am

not obliged to
originality

draw

the

between

and
is

plagiarism

to distinguish

between the
of a

man who
It

one of a school, and the man who has done no more
than merely catch
the
trick

master.

is

enough that the
1

artist

himself draws the distinction,
this feeling that

No

doubt

it

is

an echo of

makes purchasers

commonly
justify.

prefer a

bad
in

original to the best

a preference which

argument

it

copy of the best original would be exceedingly difficult to

56

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
will
first

and
the

never consciously allow himself to sink from
category into the second.

We

have here, then, a general cause of change,

but not a cause of change in any particular direction,
or of any particular amount.

These
relation

I

believe to be

determined
artists

in

part

by the
for

between the
in

and the public

whom

they produce, and

part

by the condition of the

art itself at the time the
first, it is

change occurs.

As

regards the

commonly
to

said that the artist

is

the creation of his age, and the
is

discovery of this fact

sometimes thought

be a
the

momentous
ever,
is

contribution

made by

science

to

theory of aesthetic evolution.
unfortunately

The statement, howworded. The action of the
it it

age

is,

no doubt, important, but
I

would be more
as destructive

accurate,

imagine, to describe
;

than as creative
select.
'

it

does not so

much produce
developing,
its

as

It

is

true,
'

of course, that the influence of
in

the environment

moulding,

and

stimulating genius within the limits of
capacity
is

original

very great, and

may

seem, especially in
all-

the humbler walks of artistic production, to be
powerful.

But innate and original genius
It is

is

not the

creation of any age.

a biological accident, the
sets

incalculable product of

two

of ancestral tento these biological

dencies

;

and what the age does
is

accidents

not to create them, but to choose from

them, to encourage those which are in harmony with
its spirit,

to crush out

and

to sterilise the rest.

Its

action

is

analogous to that which a plot of ground

;

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
exercises on the seeds which
thrive,
fall
;

57
it.

upon

Some

some
is

languish,

some

die

and the resulting

vegetation

sharply characterised, not because few

kinds

of seed

have there sown themselves, but

because few kinds have been allowed to grow up.

Without pushing the
derives

parallel

too

far,

it

may
from

yet

serve to illustrate the truth that, as a stained
its

window
the

character
of a
to pass

and

significance

absorption

large portion

of the

rays which
is

endeavour

through

it,

so an age
fosters,

what

it is,

not only by reason of what

it

but as much,

perhaps, by reason of what
ceive, then, that

it

destroys.

We may conunknown

from the

total

but wholly

number of men
generation, those

of productive capacity born in any

whose

gifts are in

harmony with the
will

tastes of their contemporaries will

produce their best
be

those

whose

gifts are
or,

wholly out of harmony
is

extinguished,
will

which

very nearly the same thing,

produce only

for the benefit of the critics in suc;

ceeding generations
termediate position

while those
will,

who occupy an

in-

indeed, produce, but their

powers

will,

consciously or unconsciously, be warped
their creations
fall

and thwarted, and

short of what,

under happier circumstances, they might have been
able to achieve.

Here,

then,

we have
on

a tendency to change

arising out of the artist's insistence

on

originality,

and

a

limitation

change

imposed

by

the

character of the age in which he lives.
of

The

kind

change

will

be largely determined by the con-

I

UNIVERSITY J

58

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
which he
full
all
is

dition of the art

practising.

If

it

be

in

an early phase,
bilities,

as yet of

undeveloped possi-

then in

probability he will content him-

self

with improving on his

predecessors,

without

widely deviating from

the lines

they have laid
:

down.
here
is

For

this

is

the direction of least resistance

no public

taste to

be formed, here are no
tried,

great experiments to

be

here the pioneer's

rough work of discovery has already been accomplished.

But

if

this particular
its

fashion of art has
;

culminated, and be in
the artist feels

decline

if,

that

is

to say,

more and more
it,

difficulty in express-

ing himself through
his predecessors

without saying worse what

have said already, then one of

three things happens

— either
;

originality

is

perforce
style
is

sought

for
;

in

exaggeration

or
is

a

new

invented
field is

or artistic

creation

abandoned and the

given up to mere copyists.

Which
I

of these

events shall happen depends, no doubt, partly on
the accident of genius, but
it

depends,
If,

think,

still

more on the prevailing
of past ideals
public
follow
if

taste.

as has frequently

happened, that taste be dominated by the
;

memory
the big

the

little

public

whom

are

content with nothing that does

not conform to certain ancient models, a period of
artistic sterility is

inevitable.

But

if

circumstances
;

be more propitious, then art continues to move
the direction and character of
its

movement being

due partly to the special turn of genius possessed

by the

artist

who

succeeds in producing a public

NATURALISM AND AESTHETIC
taste in

59

harmony with

his powers,

and partly

to the

reaction of the taste thus created, or in process of
creation,

upon the general
in

artistic

talent

of the

community.

Even, however,

those

periods
it

when

the

movement
to

of art

is

most

striking,

is

dangerous

progress be meant increase in the
czsthetic emotion.
It

assume that movement implies progress, if by power to excite
would be rash
to

assume

this

even as regards Music, where the movement has
been more remarkable, more continuous, and more
apparently progressive over a long period of time

than

in

any other

art

whatever.

In music,

the

artist's desire

for originality of expression

has been

aided generation after generation by the discovery
of new methods,

new forms, new

instruments.

From

the bare simplicity of the ecclesiastical chant or the
village

dance to the ordered complexity of the modern
has passed through successive stages

score, the art

of development, in each of which genius has dis-

covered devices of harmony, devices of instrumentation,

and devices of 'rhythm which would have been
paradoxes to preceding generations, and

musical

became musical commonplaces to the generations that followed after. Yet, what has been the net
gain
?

Read through

the

long catena of
(if

critical

judgments, from
Plato,

Wagner back

you please)
its

to

which every age has passed on

own

per-

formances, and you will find that to each of them
its

music has been as adequate as ours

is

to us.

It

;

60

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
not less deeply, nor did
it

moved them
differently
lost their
;

move them
us have
as at best

and compositions which

for

magic, and which

we regard

but agreeable curiosities, contained for them the
secret of
all

the unpictured beauties

which music

shows

to her worshippers.
is

Surely there

here a great paradox.
is

history of Literature and Art
to us
for

tolerably well

The known
that

many hundreds

of years.

During

period

Poetry and

Sculpture and

Painting have
;

been subject

to the usual mutations of fashion
sterility

there
;

have been seasons of

and seasons of plenty
;

schools have arisen and decayed

new

nations and

languages have been pressed into the service of Art
old nations have fallen out of
line.

But
of of the

it

is

not
are

commonly supposed that at the end much better off than the Greeks
artist,

it all

we

age of

Pericles in respect of the technical dexterity of the

or of the resources which he has at his com-

mand.

During the same

period,

and measured by the
think, easy to ex-

same external standard, the development of Music
has been so great that
it is

not,

I

aggerate
position

it.

Yet, through

all this

vast revolution, the

and importance of the
I

art as

compared with

other arts seems, so far as
suffered no sensible change.

can discover, to have
It

was as great four
it

hundred years before Christ as

is

at the present

moment.
teenth, teenth.

It

was as great
then, can

in the sixteenth, sevenit is

and eighteenth centuries as

in the nine-

How,

we

resist

the conclusion

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
that this

61

amazing musical development, produced

by the expenditure of so much genius, has added
little

to the felicity of

mankind

;

unless, indeed,

it

so happens that in this particular art a steady level

of aesthetic sensation can only be

maintained by

increasing doses of aesthetic stimulant.

These somewhat desultory observations do
it

not,

must be acknowledged, carry us very

far

towards
theory
Yet, on

that of which

we

are in search, namely, a
naturalism.

of aesthetics in

harmony with

recapitulation, negative conclusions of

some importIt

ance
is

will,

I

think,

be seen to follow from them.

clear, for instance,
'

that those who, like Goethe,

long to dwell
else they

among permanent relations,' wherever may find them, will at least not find them in
Such permanent
unchang-

or behind the feeling of beauty.

relations do, indeed, exist, binding in their

ing framework

the various

forms of energy and
;

matter which
it

make up
stirs

the physical universe

but

is

not the perception of these which, either in
in art,

Nature or

within us aesthetic emotion

— else
in

should

we

find our surest guides to beauty

an astronomical chart or a table of chemical

equivalents,
less

and

nothing would

seem

to

us of

aesthetic

significance

than a symphony or a
is

love-song.
object as

That which

beautiful

is

not

the

we know

it

to

be

—the vibrating molecule

62

NATURALISM AND ^ESTHETIC

and the undulating ether

— but

the object as

we
last
it

know

it

not to be

—

glorious with qualities of colour
its

or of sound.

Nor can

beauty be supposed to

any longer than the transient reaction between and our
special

senses,

which are assuredly not
in the constitution

permanent or important elements
of the world in which

we

live.

But even within these narrow
vision

limits

— narrow,

I

mean, compared with the wide sweep of our

scientific

—there seemed
is

to

be no ground for supposing
to

that there

in

Nature any standard of beauty
tastes tend to conform,
all

which
ful

all

human

any beauti-

objects which

normally constituted individuals

are

moved

to admire,

any

aesthetic

judgments which

can claim to be universal.
different tastes
is,

The

divergence between
is

indeed, not only notorious, but

what we should have expected.
feelings are not

As

our aesthetic
natural

due

to

natural

selection,

selection

will

have

no

tendency to

keep them
differ,

uniform and stable.
I

In this respect they

as

have

said,

from ethical sentiments and

beliefs.

Deviations from sound morality are injurious either
to the individual or to the

community

— those

who

indulge in them are at a disadvantage in the struggle
for existence
;

hence, on the naturalistic hypothesis,

the approximation to identity in the accepted codes
of different nations.
natural

But there

is,

fortunately,

no

punishment

annexed

to

bad

taste

;

and

accordingly the variation between tastes has passed
into a proverb.

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
Even
different
in those cases

63

where some slender thread
persons,
further

of similarity seemed to bind together the tastes of

times

or

different

conto

sideration

showed

that

this

was largely due

causes which

can by no possibility be connected

with any supposed permanent element in beauty.

The agreement,
far as
it

for

example, between

critics, in

so

exists, is to

no small extent an agreement

in

statement and in analysis, rather than an agreein feeling
;

ment
eat

they have the same opinion as to
all

the cooking of the dinner, but they by no means
it

with the same

relish.

In few cases, indeed, do

their estimates of excellence correspond with the

living facts of aesthetic

emotion as shown either
else.

in

themselves or in anybody
cedure, necessary though
tive estimate of the
it

Their whole probe for the comparaartists,

may

worth of individual
1

unduly

conceals the vast and arbitrary
the taste of one generation
another.
to
is

changes by which

divided from that of

And when we
aesthetic

turn from critical tradition

the
;

likes

and

dislikes

of

men and
we
find

women
in vast

when we

leave the admirations which are
felt,

professed for the emotions which are

multitudes of cases that these are not con-

nected with the object which happens to excite them

by any permanent
determining cause

aesthetic
is

bond

at

all.

Their true

to

be sought

in fashion, in that

'tendency to agreement' which plays so large and
1

'Arbitrary,'

i.e.

not due to any causes which point to the existence

of objective beauty.

64

NATURALISM AND ^ESTHETIC
Nor, in conrise

beneficent a part in social economy.
sidering the
fall

causes

which
all

produce the

and

of schools, and

the smaller mutations in the

character of aesthetic production, did

we

perceive
is

more room
where
to
beautiful.

for

the

belief

that

there

somein

be found a permanent element

the

There

is

no evidence that these changes

constitute stages in

any process of gradual approxi;

mation to an unchanging standard

they are not
;

born of any strivings after some ideal archetype
us ever nearer to central and immutable truth.

they do not, like the movements of science, bring

On

the contrary, though schools are born, mature, and
perish,

though ancient forms decay, and new ones

are continually devised, this restless

movement

is,

so far as science can pronounce, without meaning
or purpose, the casual product of the
novelty, determined
forces,

quest after

in

its

course by incalculable

by accidents of genius, by accidents of public

humour, involving change but not progress, and
predestined, perhaps, to end universally, as at

many
in a

times and in

many

places

it

has ended already,
in

mood

of barren acquiescence

the

repetition of
artistic

ancient models, the very
nation, without desire

Nirvana of

imagi-

and without
theory

pain.

And
beautiful

yet

the

persistent

and almost pathetic
to

endeavours of
is

aesthetic

show

that

the
in

a necessary and unchanging element

the general
else,

scheme of

things,

if

they prove nothing

may

at least convince us that

mankind

will not

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
easily reconcile themselves
naturalistic

65

to the

view which the

theory of the world would seemingly
to accept.

compel them
haps,
in

We
full

feel

no

difficulty, per-

admitting the

consequences of that
scale,
in

theory at the lower end of the aesthetic

the region, for instance, of bonnets and wall-papers.

We

may

tolerate

it

even when

it

deals with impor-

tant elements in the highest art, such as the sense

of technical excellence, or sympathy with the craftsskill. But when we look back on those too moments when feelings stirred in us by some beautiful object not only seem wholly to absorb us,

man's
rare

but to raise us to the vision of things far above the

ken of bodily sense or discursive reason, we cannot
acquiesce in any attempt at explanation which confines itself to the bare

enumeration of psychological
effects.

and physiological
composer only
deals
in

causes and

We

cannot

willingly assent to a
differ

theory which makes a good

from a good cook
relations,

in that

he
a

more complicated
associations,

moves

in

wider
ings

circle of

and arouses our

feellittle,

through a different sense.

However
to accept

therefore,
ticular

we may be prepared

any par-

scheme of metaphysical

aesthetics

—and most
—

of these appear to
believe that

me

to

be very absurd
for

somewhere and
in

we must some Being there

shines an unchanging splendour of beauty, of which
in

Nature and

Art we

see,

each of us from our

own

standpoint, only passing gleams

and stray reflecco-

tions,

whose

different

aspects

we cannot now
F

66

NATURALISM AND ESTHETIC
whose import we cannot
is

ordinate,

fully

comprehend

but which at least

something other than the chance
such mystical creed can, how-

play of subjective sensibility or the far-off echo of
ancestral lusts.

No

ever, be squeezed out of observation

and experiit

ment Science cannot give
;

it

us

;

nor can

be forced

into

any

sort of consistency with the

Naturalistic

Theory of the Universe.

67

CHAPTER
I

III

NATURALISM AND REASON

Among
cation

those
the

who

accept without substantial modifi-

naturalistic

theory of the universe are

some who

find a

compensation for the general nonin the fact that, after
all,

rationality of

Nature

reason,

human reason, is Nature's final product. is not made by Reason, Reason is at all
by the world
;

If the

world

events

made

and the unthinking interaction of

causes and effects has at least resulted in a consciousness wherein that interaction

may be

reflected

and understood.
is

This

is

not Teleology.

Indeed,

it

a doctrine which leaves no room for any belief

in

Design.

But

in the

minds of some who have but

imperfectly grasped their

own

doctrines,

it

appears

capable of partially meeting the sentimental needs to

which teleology gives a
things,
in

fuller satisfaction,

inasmuch

as reason thus finds an assured place in the

scheme of

and

is

enabled, after the fashion of the Chinese,
its

some

sort to ennoble

ignoble progenitors.

This theory of the non-rational origin of reason,

which

is

a necessary corollary of the

naturalistic

scheme,

has philosophical consequences of

great

F 2

68
interest, to

NATURALISM AND REASON
some of which
I

have alluded elsewhere, 1
in

and which must occupy our attention
chapter of these Notes.
are

a later

In

the meanwhile, there

other aspects

of the subject which deserve a

moment's consideration.

From
there
is

the

point of view of organic evolution
distinction,
I

no

imagine,

to

be drawn
any-

between the development of reason and that of

other faculty, physiological or psychical, by which
the interests of the individual or the race are pro-

moted.
bility at

From

the humblest form of nervous
scale,

irrita-

one end of the

to

the reasoning

capacity of the most advanced races at the other,

everything, without
desire, volition
directly,

exception

—has

—sensation,
for the

instinct,
in-

been produced, directly or

by natural causes acting

most part

on

strictly utilitarian principles.

Convenience, not

knowledge, therefore, has been the main end to

which

this

process has tended.

'

It

was not

for

purposes of research that our senses were evolved,'
nor was
it

in

order to penetrate the secrets of the

universe that

we

are

endowed with
it

reason.
is

Under

these

circumstances

not surprising
are but

that the faculties thus laboriously created

imperfectly fitted to satisfy that speculative curiosity

which

is

one of the most curious by-products of the
process.

evolutionary
intellect,

The inadequacy

of

our
it is

indeed, to resolve the questions which
is

capable of asking
1

acknowledged
iii.,

(at least in
ch.
xiii.

words)

Philosophic Doubt, Pt.

NATURALISM AND REASON
both by students of science
theology.

69

and by students of
Yet,
the

But they do not seem so much impressed
if

with

the inadequacy of our senses.

current doctrine of evolution be true,

we have no

choice but to admit that with
natural fact
relation at

the great mass of

we
all.

are probably brought into no sensible
I

am

not referring here merely to

the limitations
possess,

imposed upon such senses as we

but to the total absence of an indefinite

number of senses which conceivably we might possess, There are sounds which the ear cannot but do not.
hear, there are sights

which the eye cannot see.

But

besides

all

these there must be countless aspects of

external Nature of which

we have no knowledge

;

of

which, owing to the absence of appropriate organs,

we can form no conception

;

which imagination can-

not picture nor language express.

Had

Voltaire

been acquainted with the theory of evolution, he

would not have put forward
as an illustration of a

his

Micromegas so much
dis-

paradox which cannot be

proved, as of a truth which cannot be doubted.
to

For
out,

suppose that a course of development carried

not with the object of extending knowledge or satisfying curiosity, but solely with that of promoting
life,

on an area so insignificant as the surface of the

earth,

between

limits

of

temperature and

pressure

so

narrow, and under general conditions so exceptional,

should have ended in supplying us with senses even

approximately adequate

to

the
is

apprehension

of

Nature

in all

her complexities,

to believe in a co-

70

NATURALISM AND REASON
more astounding than the most audacious employed to cut the knot of some
tale.

incidence

novelist has ever

entangled

For
forces

it

must be recollected that the same natural
to the evolution of organs

which tend

which

are useful tend also to the suppression of organs that
are useless.
in

Not only does Nature take no
is

interest
indif-

our general education, not only

she quite

ferent to the

growth of enlightenment, unless the
in the struggle

enlightenment improve our chances
for existence,

but she positively objects to the very

existence of faculties

by which these ends might,

perhaps, be attained.

She regards them

as

mere

hindrances in the only race which she desires to see

run

;

and not content with refusing
faculty

directly to create

any

except for a practical

purpose,

she

immediately proceeds to destroy faculties already
created

when

their practical

purpose has ceased

;

for

thus does the eye of the cave-born fish degenerate

and the

instinct of the

domesticated animal decay.

Those, then,

who

are inclined to the opinion that
its

between our organism and
general knowledge,

environments there

is

a correspondence which, from the point of view of
is

even approximately adequate,
samples or sugges-

must hold,

in thejirst place, that

tions of every sort of natural manifestation are to

be

found in our narrow and limited world
place, that these

;

in the second

samples are of a character which
tissue being so modified
;

would permit of nervous

by
in

selection as to respond specifically to their action

NATURALISM AND REASON

71

the third place, that such specific modifications were

not only possible, but would have proved useful at
the period of evolution during which our senses in
their

present shape were

developed

;

and

in

the

fourth place, that these modifications would have

proved useful enough to make
up,
for the

it

worth while to use

purpose of producing them, material

which might have been, and has been, otherwise
employed.
All these propositions

seem

to
1

me
It is

improbable,
impossible,

the

first

two of them

incredible.

therefore, to resist the conviction that there

must be

an indefinite number of aspects of Nature respecting

which science never can give us any information,
1

It

may

specifically affected

perhaps be said that it is not necessary that we should be by each particular kind of energy in order either
its

to discover its existence or to investigate

character.

It is

enough

should be some which are cognisable by our actual senses, that it should modify in some way the world we know, that it should intervene perceptibly in that part of the general system This to which our organism happens to be immediately connected.
that
its effects

among

no doubt true, and our knowledge of electricity and magnetism (among other things) is there to prove it. But let it be noted how slender and how accidental was the clue which led us to the first beginnings, from which all our knowledge of these great phenomena is derived. Directly they can hardly be said to be in relation with
is

our organs of perception at all (notwithstanding the fact that light is as an electro-magnetic phenomenon) and their i?idirect relation with them is so slight that probably no amount of mere observation could, in the absence of experiment, have given us a notion of They were not sought for to fill a their magnitude or importance. gap whose existence had been demonstrated by calculation. Their

now regarded

discovery was no inevitable step in the onward march of scientific knowledge. They were stumbled upon by accident and few would
;

be bold enough to assert that
itself

if,

for example, the

human

race had

not happened to possess iron, magnetism would ever have presented
as a subject requiring investigation at
all.

72

NATURALISM AND REASON
in

even

our dreams.

We

must conceive ourselves as

feeling our

way about

this

dim corner of the

illimit-

able world, like children in a darkened room, en-

compassed by we know not what a little better endowed with the machinery of sensation than the protozoon, yet poorly provided indeed as compared
;

with a being,

if

such a one could be conceived,
to the infinite variety

whose senses were adequate
of material Nature.

It is true,

no doubt, that we are
are
not.

possessed of reason, and that protozoa

But even reason, on the
of phenomena.
process, the roof
trary,
it is,

naturalistic theory, occupies
in the

no elevated or permanent position
It is

hierarchy
of a great the con-

not the

final result

and crown of
said,

things.

On

as

I

have

no more than one of many

experiments for increasing our chance of survival,
and,

among

these,

by no means the most important

or the most enduring.

People sometimes
difficult

talk, indeed, as if

it

was the
But

and complex work connected with the mainlife

tenance of

that

was performed by

intellect.

there can be no greater delusion.

The management

of the humblest organ would be infinitely beyond

our mental capacity, were
entrusted with
it
;

it

possible for us to be
fact, it is
is

and as a matter of

only
per-

in the simplest jobs that discursive reason

mitted to have a hand at

all

;

our tendency to take

a different view being merely the self-importance of

;

NATURALISM AND REASON
a child who, because
letters,
it

73

is

allowed to stamp the

imagines that

it

conducts the correspondence.

The

best

way
is,

of looking at mind on the naturalistic
perhaps, to regard
it

hypothesis

as an instrument

for securing a flexibility of adaptation

which
is

instinct

alone

is

not able to attain.

Instinct

incompar-

ably the better machine in every respect save one.
It

works more smoothly, with

less friction,

with far

greater precision and accuracy.
able.

But

it is

not adapt-

Many

generations and
it

required to breed

into a race.

much slaughter are Once acquired, it

can be modified or expelled only by the same harsh

and tedious methods.

Mind, on the other hand,

from the point of view of organic evolution,

may be
to note,

considered as an inherited faculty for self-adjustment

and though, as

I

have already had occasion
which such adjustment
within
is

the limits within

permitted
it

are

exceedingly narrow,

those limits

is

doubtless exceedingly valuable.

But even here one of the principal functions of

mind
fully

is

to create habits
it is

by which, when they are
If the

formed,

itself

supplanted.

conscious

adaptation of
in

means

to

ends was always necessary

order to perform even those few functions for the

first

performance of which conscious adaptation was

originally required, life

would be

frittered

away

in

doing badly, but with deliberation, some small
tion

frac-

of that which
at
all.

deliberation

we now do well The formation
been pointed

without any
of habits
is,

therefore, as has often

out,

a necessary

74

NATURALISM AND REASON
'
'

preliminary to the higher uses of mind
alone, sets attention

;

for

it,

and

it

and

intelligence free to

do work

from which they would otherwise be debarred by
their absorption in the petty needs of daily existence.

But while
habits
is
it

it

is

thus plain that the formation of

an essential pre-requisite of mental develop-

ment,
step in

would

also

seem
if

that

it

constitutes the

first

a process which,

thoroughly successful, would
if

end
self,

in the destruction,

not of consciousness

it-

at least of the higher manifestation of conscious-

ness, such as will, attention,

and discursive reason. 1
be gradually

All these,

as
in

we may

suppose, will

superseded
of

an increasing number of departments

human

activity

by the growth of

instincts or

inherited habits,

by which even such adjustments

between the organism and its surroundings as now seem most dependent on self-conscious mind may be
successfully effected.

These are prophecies, however, which concern
themselves with a very remote future, and for
part
I

my
if

do not ask the reader

to

regard their
It
is

fulfil-

ment
Mind,

as an inexorable necessity.

enough

they mark with sufficient emphasis the place which
in
its

higher manifestations, occupies in the
is

scheme of

things, as this

presented to us by the

naturalistic hypothesis.

Mr. Spencer, who pierces the
I

future with a surer gaze than

can make the least

1 Empirical psychologists are not agreed as to whether the apparent unconsciousness which accompanies completed habits is real or not. It is unnecessary for the purpose of my argument that this point

should be determined.

NATURALISM AND REASON
pretence
to,

75

looks confidently forward to a time

when
be so

the relation of

man

to his surroundings will

happily contrived that the reign of absolute right-

eousness will prevail
sary,
will

;

conscience,

grown unnecespath of least
;

be dispensed

with

;

the

resistance will be the path of virtue
1

and not the

broad,' but the

'

narrow way,'

will

'

lead to destruc-

tion.'

These

excellent

consequences seem to

me
his

to flow

very smoothly and satisfactorily from his

particular doctrine of evolution,

combined with
I

particular doctrine of morals.

But

confess that
is

my

own

personal gratification at the prospect

some-

what dimmed by the reflection that the same kind of causes which make conscience superfluous will
relieve us

from the necessity of intellectual
all

effort,

and that by the time we are
shall also
I

perfectly

good we
but
at

be

all

perfectly idiotic.

know

not

how it may

strike the reader

;

I

least

am

left

sensibly poorer by this deposition of
its

Reason from
all

ancient position as the

Ground
life

of

existence, to that of an expedient

among

other
;

expedients for the maintenance of organic
expedient,

an

moreover,

which
in

is

temporary
effects.

in its

character and insignificant
rational

its

An

ir-

Universe which accidentally turns out a few
it,

reasoning animals at one corner of

as a rich

man

may experiment
and herds,
if is

at

one end of his park with some

curious 'sport' accidentally produced

a Universe which

among his flocks we might well despise
degradation.

we

did not ourselves share

its

But

76

NATURALISM AND REASON
it ?

must we not inevitably share

Pascal
is

somewhere

observes that Man, however feeble,

yet in his very

feebleness superior to the blind forces of Nature;
for

he knows himself, and they do
on the
naturalistic hypothesis
If,

not.
I

I

confess

that

see

no such

superiority.

indeed, there were a Rational Author
if

of Nature, and
significant,

in

any degree, even the most

in-

we

shared His attributes,

we might

well

conceive ourselves as of finer essence and more
intrinsic

worth than the material world which we
immeasurable though
it

may be. But if we made us what we how then ? The are, and will again unmake us sense of humour, not the least precious among the
inhabit,

be the creation of that world

;

if it
;

gifts

with which the clash of atoms has

endowed
airs

us,

should surely

prevent

us assuming any
of the

of

superiority over

members

same

family of

'phenomena,' more permanent and more powerful
than ourselves.

77

CHAPTER
have now completed
important

IV
I

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART
I

my

survey of certain opinions
to

which

naturalism seems

require

us

to

hold

respecting

matters

connected

with

Righteousness, Beauty, and Reason.

The survey
though
it

has necessarily been concise has been,
it

;

but, concise

has, perhaps, sufficiently indicated the

inner antagonism which exists between the Naturalistic

system and the feelings which the best among

mankind, including

many who may be counted
race.

as

adherents of that system, have hitherto considered
as the

most valuable possessions of our
or, rather, if it

If

naturalism be true,

be the whole

truth,

then

is

morality but a bare catalogue of utilitarian
;

precepts

beauty but the chance occasion of a pass;

ing pleasure

reason but the dim passage from one
All that gives

set of unthinking habits to another.

dignity to

life, all

that gives value to effort, shrinks
pitiless glare of

and fades under the
this
;

a creed like

and even

curiosity,

the hardiest

among

the

nobler passions of the soul, must languish under the
conviction that neither for this generation nor for

any that

shall

come

after

it,

neither in this

life

nor

78

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART

I

in another, will the tie

be wholly loosened by which
is

reason, not less than appetite,

held in hereditary

bondage
I

to the service of our material needs.

am

anxious,

however, not to overstate

my

case.

It is

of course possible, to take for a

moment

aesthetics as our text, that

whatever be our views
still

concerning naturalism,

we

shall

like

good poetry

and good music, and that we
if

shall not, perhaps, find

we sum up our

pleasures at the year's end, that the

total satisfaction

derived from the contemplation of
is

Art and Nature
fact

very largely diminished by the
to

that

our philosophy allows us

draw no

important distinction between the beauties of a sauce

and the beauties of a symphony.
to afford the

Both may continue

man

with a good palate and a good ear
;

a considerable amount of satisfaction
desire
is

and

if all

we

to find in literature
'

and

in art
life

something

that will help us either
it,'

to enjoy

or to endure

I

do not contend

that,

by any theory of the
a loss not lightly

beautiful, of this

we

shall
is,

wholly be deprived.

Nevertheless there
to

even

so,

be underrated, a

loss that falls alike

on him that
artists

produces and on him that enjoys.

Poets and

have been wont

to consider themselves,

and

to

be
the

considered by others, as prophets and seers,

revealers under sensuous forms of hidden mysteries,

the symbolic preachers of eternal truths.
is,

All this

of course, on the naturalistic theory, very absurd.
minister,

They

no doubt, with success

to

some phase,
;

usually a very transitory phase, of public taste

but

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART
though

I

79
tell

they have no mysteries to reveal, and what they
us,
it

may be may

very agreeable,

is

seldom

true,

and never important.

This

is

a conclusion which,
is

howsoever

it

accord with sound philosophy,
artist,

not likely to prove very stimulating to the

nor

does
to

it

react with less unfortunate effect

upon those
their feeling

whom

the artist appeals.
is

Even

if

of delight in the beautiful

not marred for them in
suffer in

immediate experience,
reflection.
its

it

must

memory and
it,

For such a feeling

carries with

at

best,

an inevitable reference, not
it

less inevitable
is

because

is

obscure, to a Reality which
;

eternal

and unchanging
suffering

and we cannot accept without
that
in

the conviction

making such a

reference

we were merely
some

the dupes of our emotions,

the victims of a temporary hallucination induced, as
it

were, by

spiritual drug.

But

if

on the

naturalistic

hypothesis the senti-

ments associated with beauty seem like a poor jest
played on us by Nature for no apparent purpose,
those that gather round morality are, so to speak, a deliberate fraud perpetrated for

a well-defined end.

The

consciousness of freedom, the sense of responsibility,
the authority of conscience, the beauty of holiness,

the admiration for self-devotion, the
suffering
feelings

sympathy with
of
beliefs

—these
if

and

all

the train

and

from which spring noble deeds and generous

ambitions are seen to be mere devices for securing
to societies,

not to individuals,

some competitive

advantage

in the struggle for existence.

They

are

8o

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART

I

not worse, but neither are they better, than the

thousand-and-one appetites and
them, as
I

instincts,

many

of

have

said, cruel,

and many of them

dis-

gusting, created

by

similar causes in order to carry

out through

all

organic Nature the like unprofitable

ends

flecting

if we think them better, as in our unremoments we are apt to do, this, on the Naturalistic hypothesis, is only because some delusion
;

and

of the kind

is

necessary in order to induce us to perin

form actions which

themselves can contribute

nothing to our personal gratification.

The
sees,

inner discord

which

finds

expression

in

conclusions like these largely arises, as the reader

from a want of balance or proportion between

the range of our intellectual vision and the circumstances of our actual existence.

Our

capacity for

standing outside ourselves and taking stock of the
position which

we occupy

in the universe of things
it

has been enormously and,
nately, increased

would seem, unfortu-

by recent scientific discovery.

We

have learned too much.
that position in
to place us.
criticism
life in

We
it

are

educated above

which

has pleased Nature
it

We

can no longer accept

without
insist

and without examination.

We

on

interrogating that material system which, according
to naturalism,
is

the true author of our being as to
go,

whence we come and whither we
causes which have

what are the
and what

made

us what

we

are,

are the purposes which our existence subserves.
it

And

must be confessed that the answers given

to this

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PARTI

81

question by our oracle are extremely unsatisfactory.

We
ing

have learned
with

to

measure space, and we perceive
is

that our dwelling-place
its

but a mere point, wander-

companions,

apparently at
stars.

random,

through the wilderness of
to

We

have learned
life

measure time, and we perceive that the

not

merely of the individual or of the nation, but of the

whole

race, is brief,

and apparently quite unimportant. and we perceive
realities of

We
that

have learned

to unravel causes,

emotions and
to

aspirations

whose very being
which
origin
in

seems

hang on the existence of
takes

naturalism

no account, are

their

contemptible and in their suggestion mendacious.

To me
between
fatal

it

appears certain that this

clashing

beliefs

and feelings must ultimately prove
other.

to

one or the

Make what

allowance

you please
fullest

for the stupidity of

mankind, take the

account of their really remarkable power of
opinions follow one line of
practical ideals another, yet

letting their speculative

development and their
the

time must come when

reciprocal

action will of
to

perforce bring opinions and ideals into

some kind
is

agreement and congruity.
hold the
with
field,

If,

then, naturalism

the feelings and opinions inconsistent

naturalism
;

must

be

foredoomed

to
shall

suffer

change
about,

and how, when that change
can do otherwise than eat
all

come

it

nobility out

of our conception of conduct and

all

worth out of
to

our

conception

of

life,

I

am

wholly unable

understand.

82

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART
I

I

am aware
by pointing
hold, in

that

many persons

are in the habit

of subjecting these views to an experimental refutation

to a great
less

many
purity,

excellent people

who

more or
who,

the
offer

naturalistic

creed,

but

nevertheless,

prominent
I

examples of that habit of mind with which, as

have
is

been endeavouring

to show, the naturalistic creed

essentially inconsistent.

Naturalism

—so

runs

the

argument

— co-exists

in the case of Messrs. A., B.,

C,

&c, with the most admirable
virtue.
If this

exhibition of unselfish

be so

in the case of

a hundred indi?

viduals,

why

not in the case of ten thousand
thousand,

If

in the case of ten

why

not in the case of

humanity

at large

?

Now,
I

to the facts

on which
I

this

reasoning proceeds

raise

no objection.

desire

neither to ignore the existence nor to minimise the

merits of these shining examples of virtue unsup-

ported by religion.

But though the

facts

be

true,

the reasoning based on

them
tell

will

not bear close

examination.
live,

Biologists
live,

us of parasites which

and can only

within the bodies of animals
they.

more highly organised than
convert
it

For them
it,

their

luckless host has to find food, to digest
into

and to

nourishment which they can consume
difficulty.

without exertion and assimilate without

Their structure
sees for

is

of the simplest kind.
;

Their host he hears
for for

them so they need no eyes
;

them, so they need no ears

he works

them and

contrives for them, so they need but feeble muscles

and an undeveloped nervous system.

But are we

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART
to conclude

I

83

from

this that for the

animal kingdom

eyes and ears, powerful limbs and complex nerves,
are superfluities
?

They

are

superfluities for the
first

parasite only because they
for the host,

have

been necessities
parasite,

and when the host perishes the

in their absence, is

not unlikely to perish also.

So
their

it is

with those persons

who

claim to

show by

example that naturalism is

practically consistent

with the maintenance of ethical ideals with which
naturalism has no natural
life is

affinity.

Their

spiritual

parasitic

:

it

is

sheltered

by convictions which

belong, not to them, but to the society of which they

form a part

;

it

is

nourished by processes in which

they take no share.
decay, and
alien
life

And when

those convictions
to

those processes

come

an end, the

which they have maintained can scarce be
not aware

expected to outlast them.
I

am

that

anyone has as yet en-

deavoured

to construct the catechism of the future,

purged of every element drawn from any other
source than the naturalistic creed.
It
is

greatly to

be desired that
impartial spirit
;

this task

should be undertaken in an
to such

and as a smail contribution

an object,

I

offer the following pairs of contrasted
first

propositions, the

members

of each pair repre-

senting current teaching, the

second representing
it if

the teaching which ought to be substituted for
the naturalistic theory be accepted.

A.
all

The

universe

is

the creation of Reason, and

things work together towards a reasonable end.
G
2

;

84

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART
B.

I

So

far as

we can

tell,

reason

is

to

be found
;

neither in the beginning of things nor in their end

and though everything
fore-ordained.

is

predetermined, nothing

is

A. Creative
love.

reason

is

interfused

with

infinite

B.

As

reason
is
is

is

absent,

so also

is

love.

The

universal flux

ordered by blind causation alone.

A. There
in
its

a moral law,
all

immutable, eternal

governance

spirits find their true

freedom
it

and

their

most perfect
infinite

realisation.

Though

be

adequate to
it

goodness and

infinite intelligence,

may be
B.

understood, even by man, sufficiently for

his guidance.

Among

the causes by which the course of

organic and social

development has been blindly
instincts, appetites,
;

determined are pains, pleasures,

disgusts, religions, moralities, superstitions

the senti;

ment of what is noble and instrinsically worthy the sentiment of what is ignoble and intrinsically worthless.
all

From a

purely scientific point of view these
;

stand on an equality

all

are action-producing

causes developed, not to
perpetuate, the species.

improve, but simply to

A. In the possession of reason and

in the enjoys

ment of beauty, we

in

some remote way share the

nature of that infinite Personality in

Whom

we

live

and move and have our being.
B.

Reason

is

but the psychological expression
processes
in

of certain

physiological

the cerebral

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART
hemispheres
;

I

85

it is

no more than an expedient among

many
the

expedients by which the individual and the
;

race are preserved

just as

Beauty

is

no more than

name

for

such varying and accidental attributes

of the material or moral worlds as

may happen

for

the

moment

to stir our aesthetic feelings.

A. Every
free
;

human
his

soul

is

of infinite value, eternal,
is

no human being,

therefore,
in

so placed as not

to

have within

reach,

himself and others,

objects adequate to infinite endeavour.
B.

The

individual perishes

;

the race itself does

not endure.

Few

can

flatter

themselves that their

conduct has any appreciable
destinies
;

effect

upon

its

remoter

and of those few, none can say with
the one which they desire.

reasonable assurance that the effect which they are
destined to produce
is

Even make

if

we were

free, therefore,
;

our ignorance would almost a consolation

us helpless

and

it

may be

to reflect that our

conduct was determined for us by
in

unthinking forces

a remote past, and that
its

are impotent to foresee

consequences,
its

if we we were

not less impotent to arrange

causes.

The
at

doctrines

embodied

in the

second

member

of each of these alternatives
least represent

may be

true, or

may

the nearest approach to truth of
Into this question

which we are at present capable.
I

do not yet

inquire.

But

if

they are to constitute

the dogmatic scaffolding

by which our educational
;

system
with

is

to

be supported
like

if it is

to

be

in

harmony
is

principles

these that the child

to

be

86

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION OF PART
its

I

taught at
build

mother's knee, and the young
life,

man
I

is

to

up

the ideals of his
it

then, unless

greatly

mistake,

will

be found that the inner discord
itself,

which

exists,

and which must gradually declare

between
those

the

emotions proper to naturalism and
the

which have actually grown up under
traditional

shadow of

convictions, will at

no distant

date most unpleasantly translate

itself into practice.

PART

II

SOME REASONS FOR BELIEF

CHAPTER
THE PHILOSOPHIC

I

BASIS OF NATURALISM

I

So

far

we have been
and

occupied

in

weighing certain

indirect

collateral

consequences which seem

likely to flow
in

from a particular theory of the world

which we

live.

The

theory

itself

was taken
examine

for
its

granted.

No
its

attempt was

made
;

to

foundations or to test their strength

no comparison
for the

between

different parts

was
far

instituted

purpose of determining
stituted

how
it,

they really conwhole.

a coherent and
it

intelligible

We

accepted

as

we found

turning with averted

eyes even from the speculative problems which lay
closest to the track of our

immediate investigation.
;

This course
appear

is

not the most logical

and

it

might

a more fitting procedure

to

reserve our

consideration of the consequences of a system until

some conclusion had been arrived
truth.

at concerning

its

Such, however,

is

not the ordinary habit of
in

mankind in dealing with problems
of abstract

which questions
are
closely

theory and
;

daily practice

intertwined

and even philosophers show a kindly
examine the claims of creeds
in strict

reluctance too closely to

whose consequences are

accord with contem-

9°

THE PHILOSOPHIC
I

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

porary sentiment.

have a better reason, however,
here selected than can be de-

to offer for the order

rived from precedent or example, a reason based on

the fact that, had

I I

begun these Notes with the

dis-

cussion on which

am

about to embark, their whole

character would probably have been misunderstood.

They would have been regarded
interest the specialist
;

as contributions to

philosophical discussion of a kind which would only

and the general reader,

to

whom

I

desire

particularly to appeal,

would have
I

abandoned

their perusal in disgust.
I

For

cannot

deny, either that

am

about to ask him to accompany
first

me

in

a search after

principles
is

;

or (which

is,

perhaps, worse) that the search
effectual.

destined to be in-

He

will

not only have to occupy himself

with arguments of a remote and abstract kind, and
for

a

moment
will

to disturb the placid depths of ordinary

thought with unaccustomed soundings, but the argu-

ments

be to

all

appearance barren, and the
bottom.

soundings

will not find

The full
futile

justification

for a procedure seemingly so

can only

be

found in the chapters which follow, and in the general
drift

of the discussion taken as a whole

;

but in the

meanwhile the reader will be able to appreciate
immediate object
point at which
if

my

he

will

bear in mind the precise

we have

arrived.

Let him remember, then, that the result of the
inquiry
instituted
into the
is

practical

tendencies of
to

the naturalistic theory

to

show them

be wellfor all

nigh intolerable.

The

theory, no doubt,

may

:

THE PHILOSOPHIC
that

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

91

be

true, since

it

must candidly be admitted
truth

that

there

is

no

naturalistic reason for anticipating

any
ex-

pre-established

harmony between
upon
to

and

pediency
at least

in the

higher regions of speculation.

But

we

are called

make a very searching
it is

inquiry before

we admit

that

true.

We

are not

here concerned with any mere curiosity of

dialectics,

with the quest for a kind of knowledge which, how-

ever interesting to the few, yet bears no
ordinary
that
is

fruit for

human
to

use.

On

the contrary, the issues
practical,
if

have

be decided are

anything

practical.

They touch
interests of
is

at

every point the most
social

permanent

man, individual and

and any procedure

preferable to a complacent
all

acquiescence in the loss of
in

the fairest provinces

our spiritual inheritance.

This
the

is

a fact which has long been perceived by
of
all

defenders

the

creeds,

philosophical or

theological, with

which the pretensions of naturalism

are in conflict.

You
for

will

not open a modern work
finding
in
it

of apologetics,

instance, without

some endeavour
is

to

show

that the naturalistic theory
it

insufficient,

and that

requires

to

be supplein

mented
interests

by precisely the very system
that particular
is

whose
This,

work was
;

written.
this plan

no doubt,

as

it

should be

and on

a great

deal of valuable criticism

and interesting speculation
.not,

has been produced.
plan which

It

is

however, exactly the
partly

can

be here pursued,

because

these Notes contain, not a system of theology, but

; ;

92

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
;

only an introduction to theology cause
I

and partly be-

have always found

it

easier to satisfy

my-

self of the insufficiency of naturalism than of the

absolute sufficiency of any of the schemes by which
it

has been sought to modify or to complete
In this chapter, however,
I

it.

shall follow

an easier
will

line of

march, the nature of which the reader
if

readily understand

he considers the two elements
:

composing the
consisting,

naturalistic creed

the one positive,

broadly speaking, of the teaching con-

tained in the general

body of the natural sciences
to

the other negative, expressed in the doctrine that

beyond these
lie,

limits,

wherever they may happen
be,

nothing

is,

and nothing can
have
it

known.

Now,

the usual practice with those

who

dissent from this

general view

is,

as

I

said, to

choose the second,

or negative, half of

for attack.

They

tell us,

for

example, that the knowledge of phenomena given

by science

carries with

it

by necessary implication
is

the knowledge of that which
or,

above phenomena

again, that the moral nature of

man

points to the

reality of

ends and principles which cannot be ex-

hausted by any investigation into a merely natural

world of causally related objects.
least

Without the
investigation,
I

underrating

such

lines

of

purpose here to consider, not the negative, but the
positive half of the naturalistic system.
for
I

shall leave

the

moment unchallenged

the

statement

that
;

beyond the natural sciences knowledge is impossible
but
I

shall venture, instead, to

ask a few questions as

;

THE PHILOSOPHIC
to the character of the

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
is

93

knowledge which
limits.
I

thought

to

be obtained within those

shall not en-

deavour to prove that a scheme of merely positive
beliefs,

admirable, no doubt, as far as
it

it

goes,

is

yet

intellectually insufficient unless

be supplemented

by a metaphysical or theological appendix.
shall

But

I

examine the foundations of the scheme
criticisms

itself

and though such

on

it

as

I

shall

be able

to

offer can never be a substitute for the real

work
to be

of
its

philosophic construction, they would
fitting

seem

preliminary,

and a preliminary which

the

succeeding chapters
profit of its

may show

to

be not without a

own.
the system

One great metaphysician has described
of another as
that
it
'

shot out of a

pistol,'

meaning thereby
without introtrue not only of

was presented

for acceptance

ductory proof.

The

criticism

is

the particular theory of the Absolute about which
it

was

first

used, but about every system, or almost

every system, of belief which has ever passed current

among mankind.
doctrines,

Some subtle analogy with accepted

some general harmony with existing sentiments and modes of thought, has not uncommonly been deemed sufficient to justify the most audacious
conjectures
;

and the history of speculation

is

littered

with theories

whose authors seem never
they advanced.
least,

to

have

suffered under any overmastering need to prove the

opinions

which

No
felt in

such

over-

mastering need has, at
'positive

been

the case of

knowledge,'

and the very circumstance

94

1HE PHILOSOPHIC
practically agreed

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

that, alike in its

methods and

in its results, all
it
it,

men

are

to accept

without demur
too,

has blinded them to the fact that
4

has been

shot out of a

pistol,"
it

and
still

that,

like

some more

questionable beliefs,
justification.
1

is

waiting for a rational

[For our too easy acquiescence
I

in this state of

things
is

do not think science
its
is
it

is itself

to blame.

It

no part of
business
;

duty to deal with
to

first

principles.

Its

provide

us

with

a theory of

Nature

and

should not be required, in addition,

to provide us with

a theory of

itself.

This

is

a task

which properly devolves upon the masters of speculation
;

though

it

is

one which,

for various reasons,

they have not as yet
I

satisfactorily

accomplished.

doubt, indeed, whether any metaphysical philo-

sopher before Kant can be said to have made contributions to this subject

which

at the present
;

day

need be taken into serious account
endeavour
doctrines,
not, so
'

and, as

I

shall

to indicate in the next chapter, Kant's

even as modified by

his successors,

do
an

it

seems

to me, provide a

sound basis

for

epistemology of Nature.'

But

if

in this

connection

metaphysical philosophers,
in

we owe we owe still
to trust,

little

to

the

less to those

whom we

had a better right
If the

namely the

empirical ones.

former have to some extent

1 The remarks on the history of philosophy which occupy the remainder of this section are not essential to the argument, and may be omitted by readers uninterested in that subject. The strictly necessary discussion is resumed on p. ioo.

;

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

95

neglected the theory of science for theories of the
Absolute, the latter have always
to sacrifice the theory of

shown an

inclination

knowledge

itself to theories

as to the genesis or

growth of knowledge.

They

have contented themselves with investigating the primitive elements from which have been developed
in

the

race

and

in the

individual

the completed

consciousness of ourselves and of the world in which

we

live.

of what

They have, therefore, dealt with the origins we believe rather than with its justification.
substituted psychology for philosophy
us, in short,

They have

they have presented
particular branch or

with studies

in

a

department of science, rather

than with an examination into the grounds of science
in general.

And when

perforce they are brought
the problems connected

face to face with

some of

with the philosophy of science which most loudly

clamour for solution, there

is

something half-pathetic

and half-humorous

in their

methods of cutting a knot
to untie.

which they are quite unable
for

Can

anything,

example, be more naive than the undisturbed

serenity with which Locke, towards the

end of
'

his

great work, assures his readers that he
that natural philosophy
is

suspects

not capable of being

made
that

a science
natural

'

;

or,

as
is

I

should prefer to state
not capable of being

it,

science
?

made a
rather
little

philosophy
than
the

Or can anything be more

characteristic
this

moral which he draws from

surprising admission, namely, that as
fitted to

we

are so

frame theories about

this present world,

we

—
96

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
for the

had better devote our energies to preparing
next
?

This remarkable display

of

philosophic

resignation in the father of

modern empiricism has
by a long
for
line of dis-

been imitated, with

differences,

tinguished successors.
naturally

Hume,

example, though

enough he declined
Locke's

to

draw

Locke's
else to
his

edifying conclusion, did
establish

more than anyone
;

despairing premise
are
at

and

inferences

from

it

least
in

equally singular.
the

Having reduced
born of habit
to

our

belief

fundamental

principles of scientific interpretation to expectations ;

having reduced the world which

is

be interpreted to an unrelated series of impres

sions

and ideas

;

having by

this

double process
science into

made experience impossible and turned
foolishness,

he quietly informs

us,

as

the issue of

the whole matter, that outside experience and science

knowledge
'

is

impossible,

and
'

that
'

all

except

mathematical
'

demonstration
'

and
'

experimental

reasoning
illusion
I
!

on

matters of fact

is

sophistry

and

think too well of
ill

Hume's
he

speculative genius

and too
in

of his speculative sincerity to doubt that
this

making

statement

spoke,

not

as

a

philosopher,

but as a

man

of the world,

making

formal obeisance to the powers that be.

But what

he said half

ironically, his followers

have said with
in the history of

an unshaken seriousness.
speculation
is

Nothing

more astonishing, nothing if I am to speak my whole mind is more absurd than the way

—

—

THE PHILOSOPHIC
in

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

97

which Hume's philosophic progeny

—a most
is

dis-

tinguished race

—have,

in spite of all their differences,

yet been able to agree, both that experience
tially

essen-

as

Hume

described

it,

and

that from such an

experience can be rationally extracted anything even
in

the remotest degree resembling the existing system

of the natural sciences.

Like Locke, these gentle-

men, or some of them, have, indeed, been assailed

by momentary misgivings.
have occurred
to

It
if

seems occasionally
their theory of

to

them
was

that

knowand

ledge were adequate, 'experimental

reasoning,' as
;

Hume
that,

called

it,

in

a very parlous state

on the

merits, nothing less deserved to

be held

with a positive conviction than what some of them
are

wont

to describe as

'

positive

'

knowledge.

But

they

have

thoughts.

away such unwelcome The self-satisfied dogmatism which is so
soon
thrust
life,

convenient, and, indeed, so necessary a habit in the
daily routine of

has resumed

its

sway.

They
and
their

have forgotten that they were philosophers,
with
1

true

practical

instincts
'

have reserved

obstinate questionings

exclusively for the benefit

of opinions from which they were already predis-

posed to

differ.

Whether
I

these historic reasons fully account for

the comparative neglect of a philosophy of science
will

not

venture to pronounce.
I

But that the

neglect has been real

cannot doubt.

Admirable
scientific
'

generalisations of the actual
research, usually

methods of

under some such name as

InducH

98

THE PHILOSOPHIC
Logic,'
full

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
in

tive

we have no doubt had
first

abundance.

But a

and systematic attempt, seems

to enumerate,

and then

to justify, the presuppositions
it

on which
still

all

science finally rests, has,

to

me,

to

be

made, and must form no insignificant or secondary
portion of the task which philosophy has

yet to

perform.

To
if

some, perhaps to most,

it

may, indeed,

appear as
futility
;

such a task were one of perverse

not more useful and

much less dignified than
the opinion of the
it

metaphysical investigations into the nature of the
Absolute.
objector

However profitless in these may be, at least

seems better
to

to

strain after the transcendent than

demonstrate

the obvious.
is

And

science,
its

it

may

well be thought,
to

quite sure

enough of

ground

be justified

in

politely
it

bowing out those who thus

officiously tender

a perfectly superfluous assistance.

This
will

is

a contention on the merits of which

it

only be possible to pronounce after the
into

critical

examination

the

presuppositions of

science

which
It

I

desiderate has been thoroughly carried out.

may

then appear that nothing stands more in need
;

of demonstration than the obvious

that at the very
lie

root of our scientific system of belief

problems

of which no satisfactory solution has hitherto been

devised

;

and

that,

so far from

its

being possible

to ignore the difficulties

which these involve,

no

general theory of knowledge has the least chance of

being successful which does not explicitly include
within the circuit of
its

criticism, not

only the beliefs

THE PHILOSOPHIC
which seem which
to us to

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

99

be dubious, but those also
the

we

hold

with

most

perfect

practical

assurance.

So much,
blish in

at least,

I

have endeavoured

to esta-

another work to which reference has been

already made. 1
refer

And

to

this

I

must venture
to

to
this

those

readers

who
in

either wish

see
are

position

elaborately
that
I

developed,
the

or

who

of

opinion

have

preceding

remarks

treated the philosophy of the empirical school with

too scant a measure of respect.
discussion, however,
think,
to

The very

technical
I

which

it

contains could not,

be made interesting, or perhaps
of those for
it

intelligible,

the majority

whom

this

book

is

intended, and, even were

otherwise, they could not

appropriately be introduced into the body of these

Notes.
not,
I

Yet,
think, to

though

this

is

impossible,

it

ought

be quite impossible to convey some

general notion of the sort of difficulty with which

any empirical theory of science would seem
beset,

to

be

and

this

without requiring on the part of the

reader any special knowledge of philosophic terminology, or, indeed,

of

any knowledge at all, except that some few very general scientific doctrines. If I could succeed, however imperfectly, in such a task, it might be of some slight service even to the reader
conversant with empirical theories in
forms.
all

their various

For though he

will,

of course, recognise in

what follows the familiar faces of many old contro1

Cf. Prefatory

Note.

H

?.

too

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF
that

NATURALISM

versies, the circumstance

they are here ap-

proached, not from the accustomed side of the psy-

chology of perception, but from that of physics and
physiology,

may perhaps

give

them a freshness

they would not otherwise possess.]

In order to

fix

our ideas

let

us

recall, in

however

rough and incomplete a form, the broad outlines of
scientific

doctrine as

it

at

present exists, and as

it

has been developed from that unorganised knowledge of a world of objects
planets, trees, water,
fire,

and so forth
possess.

—animals, mountains, men, —which some
in

degree or other

all

mankind

These

objects

science conceives as ordered and mutually related in

one unlimited space and one unlimited time
their true reality

;

all

in

independent of the presence or
all

absence of

any observer,
these

governed

in

their

behaviour by rigid and unvarying laws.
its

These are
their

material

;

it

is

its

business to describe.
constitution,

Their

appearance,

their

inner

environment, the process of their development, the

modes
and

in

which they act and are acted upon
subjects

—such
the

such-like

of

inquiry

constitute

problems which science has set

itself to investigate.
is

The

result of its investigations
if

now embodied

in a general,

provisional,
is

view of the (phenomenal)

universe which
tion

practically accepted without ques-

by

all

instructed persons.

According

to

this

view, the world consists essentially of innumerable

THE PHILOSOPHIC
small particles

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

iot

of definite

and unchanging mass,

endowed with a
tion
see,

variety of mechanical, chemical, and

other qualities, and forming by their mutual associathe various bodies which

we can handle and
particles

and many others which we can neither handle

nor see.

These ponderable

have

their

being in a diffused and all-penetrating medium, or
ether,

of which

we know
if

little,
it

except that

it

possesses, or

behaves as

possessed,

certain

mechanical properties of a very remarkable character
;

while

the

whole of

this

material
alike, is

1

system,
(if

ponderable particles and ether
the phrase

animated

may be

permitted me) by a quantity of
it

energy which, though
place of
total
its

varies in the

manner and
its

manifestation,
It

yet never varies in

amount.

only remains to add, as a
to

fact of

considerable
little

importance

ourselves,

though

of

apparent importance to the universe at large,

that a few of the material particles above alluded to

are arranged into living organisms, and that

among

these organisms are a small minority which have
the remarkable power of extracting from the changes

which take place

in certain of their tissues psychical
;

phenomena

of various kinds

some

of which

are

1 This ambiguity in the use of the word 'matter' is apt to be a nuisance in these discussions. The term is sometimes, and quite properly, used only of ponderable matter, and in opposition to ether. But when we talk of the material universe,' it is absurd to exclude from our meaning the ether, which is the most important part of that universe, or to deny materiality to a substance which behaves as if it were an elastic solid. The context will, I hope, always show in which
'

sense the word

is

used.

;

102

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

the reflection, or partial reproduction in perception

and

in

thought, of fragments and aspects of that

material world to which they

owe

their being.

Secure

in this general

view of things, the great
investigation

co-operative
swiftly on.

work of

scientific

moves
if

The

experimental psychologist,
scale,

we

are

to

begin at that end of the

measures

'time reactions,' and other equally important matters
illustrating

the

relations of

mind and body

;

the

physiologist endeavours to surprise the secrets of

the living organ

;

the biologist traces the develop-

ment of the
species
;

individual

and the mutations of the

the chemist searches out the laws which

govern the combination and reactions of atoms and
molecules
;

the astronomer investigates
life-histories

the move-

ments and the
matter and

of suns and planets

while the physicist explores the inmost mysteries of
energy,

not

unprepared

to

discover

behind the invisible particles and the insensible

movements with which he
the
kind.

familiarly deals, explana-

tions of the material universe yet

more remote from
of ordinary

unsophisticated perceptions

man-

The philosophic reader is of course aware that many of the terms which I have used, and been
obliged to use, in this outline of the scientific view
of the universe

may

be,

and have been, subjected

to philosophic analysis,
results.

and often with very curious
mention no others, are

Space, time, matter, energy, cause, quality,

idea, perception

—

all

these, to

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

io 3

expressions without the aid

of which

no account
;

could be given of the circle of the sciences

though

every one of them suggests a multitude of speculative problems, of

which speculation has not as yet
final

succeeded

in

giving us the
for the

and decisive
however,
find

solution.
I

These problems,
one
side.
I
is,

most

part,
I

put on
in the

take these terms as

them
to

;

sense, that

which everybody attributes

them until

he begins

to puzzle himself with too curious inquiries

into their precise meaning.

No

such embarrassing

investigations do
reader.

I

here wish to impose upon

my

It shall for

the present be agreed between us
is,

that the as
it

body of doctrine summarised above
;

so far

goes, clear and intelligible

and

all I

shall

now

require of

him

is

to look at
it,

it

from a new point of

view, to approach
to

as

it

were, from a different side,

study

it

with a

new

intention. \ Instead, then, of

asking what are the beliefs which science inculcates,
let

us ask why, in the last resort,

we

hold them to be
p*

how a thing happens, or what it is,(fet us inquire how we know that it does thus happen, and|SWhy we believe that so in truth it
trueT\ Instead of inquiring
isTT/Jnstead of enumerating causes, let us set ourselves to investigate reasons.

in

Now
general

it

is

at

once evident that the very same
doctrines,
'

body of

the
'

very same set of
world,

propositions

about the

natural

arranged

according to the principles suggested by these ques-

ro 4

THE PHILOSOPHIC
would
fall

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

tions,

into a wholly different order from
if

that

which would be observed
convenience of

its

distribution

were governed merely by considerations based upon
the
scientific

exposition.

Indeed,

we may say that
mixed up
This

there are at least four quite different

orders, theoretically distinguishable,
in practice,
in

though usually

which

scientific truth

may
but
indi-

be expounded.
is

There

is, first,

the order of discovery.
principle,

governed by no rational
historic causes,

depends on

on the accidents of

vidual genius and the romantic chances of experiment and observation. There is, secondly, the
rhetorical order, useful

enough

in its

proper place,

in

which, for example,
the
difficult,

we proceed from

the simple to

or from the striking to the important,

according to the needs of the hearer.
thirdly, the scientific order, in which,

There

is,

could

we

only

bring

it

to perfection,

we

should proceed from the

abstract to the concrete,

and from the general law
whole world of

to the particular instance, until the

phenomena was gradually presented to our gaze as a closely woven tissue of causes and effects, infinite
in
its

complexity,

incessant in
to

its

changes, yet at

each

moment proclaiming

those

who

can hear

and understand the certain prophecy of its future and the authentic record of its past. Lastly, there
is

what,

according to the terminology here emcalled the philosophic order, in

ployed,

must be

which
are, or

the various scientific propositions or

dogmas

rather should be, arranged as a series of premises

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

105

and conclusions, starting from those which are axiomatic,
i.e.

for

which proof can be neither given

nor required, and moving on through a continuous
series of binding inferences, until the

whole of know-

ledge

is

caught up and ordered

in the

meshes of

this

all-inclusive dialectical network.

In

its

perfected shape
it

it is

evident that the philo-

sophic series, though

reaches out to the farthest

confines of the known, must for
its

each

man

trace

origin to something which he can regard as axio-

matic and self-evident truth.

There

is

no theoretical
'

escape for any of us from the ultimate
'

I.'

/What
by some

-

I

'

believe as conclusive must be drawn,
'

process which

I

'

accept as cogeftQ from something
self-

which

'

I

'

am

obliged to regard as intrinsically
criticism or the

sufficient,

beyond the reach of

need

for proof.

The

philosophic order and the scientific
therefore,

order of

statement,

cannot

fail

to

be

wholly

different.

While the

scientific

order

may

start with the

dogmatic enunciation of some great

generalisation valid through the whole

unmeasured

range of the material universe, the philosophic order
is

perforce compelled to find

its

point of departure in

the humble personality of the inquirer.
of belief, not the things believed
in,

His grounds
if

are the subject-

matter of investigation.
to
in

His

reason, or,

you

like

have

it

so, his

share of the Universal Reason, but
is his,

any case something which

must

sit in

judg-

ment, and must try the cause.
tribunal are
inalienable,
its

The

rights of this

authority incapable of

xo6

THE PHILOSOPHIC
;

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
by which
sort

delegation

nor
it

is

there any superior court

the verdict
If

pronounces can be reversed.

now

the question were asked,
rests
?
'

'On what

of premises
of the world

ultimately

the

scientific

theory

science

and empirical philosophy,
answering,
It is

though they might not agree on the meaning of
terms,

would

agree

in

'

On

premises

supplied by experience.'

experience which has

given us our
laws.
It
is

first real

knowledge of Nature and her

experience, in the shape of observa-

tion

and experiment, which has given us the raw
elaborated

material out of which hypothesis and inference have

slowly

that

richer

conception

of

the

material world which constitutes perhaps the chief,

and certainly the most

characteristic, glory of the

modern mind.
What,
then,
is

this experience

?

or, rather, let

us

ask (so as to avoid the appearance of trenching on

Kantian ground) what are these experiences
experiences,

?

These
alike

the

experiences on

which are

founded the practice of the savage and the theories
of the

man

of science, are for the most part observa-

tions of material things or objects,

and of

their be-

haviour
other.

in the

presence of or in relation to each

These, on the empirical theory of knowledge,

supply the direct information, the immediate data

from which

all

our

wider knowledge

ultimately

draws
to

its
;

sanction.

Behind these

it

is

impossible

go
'

impossible, but also unnecessary.
'

For

as
its

the

evidence of the senses

does not derive

THE PHILOSOPHIC
to dispute its full

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
it

107

authority from any higher source, so

is

useless

and indefeasible
to
this

title

to

command
which
is

our assent.
thoroughly

According
in

view,

accordance

with

common-sense,

the main & ments we form about
science rests in
seeing,
solid,
if

upon the immediate judgThis
the

natural objects in the act of
is

hearing, and handling them?)

somewhat narrow, platform which provides us with a foothold whence we may reach upward into regions where the senses convey to us no
'
'

direct knowledge,

where we have

to

do with laws

remote

from our personal observation, and with

objects which can neither be seen, heard, nor handled.

IV

But although such a theory seems simple and
straightforward enough, in perfect
habitual

harmony with the
to rest satisfied

sentiments and
it

the universal practice of

mankind,
with
least
it

would evidently be rash

as a philosophy of science until
itself

we had

at

heard what science

has to say upon the

subject.

What,
'

then,

is

the account which science
'

gives of these

immediate judgments of the senses

?

Has it anything to tell us about their nature, or the mode of their operation ? Without doubt it has
;

and

its

teaching provides a curious, and at

first

sight an even startling,

commentary on the commonphilosophy of
just

sense version

of

that

experience

whose general character has
above.

been indicated

ioS

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF
tells

NATURALISM
us that our ex-

For whereas common-sense
their nature which, so far as

perience of objects provides us with a knowledge of
it

goes,

is

immediate

and

direct, science
is itself

informs us that each particular

experience

but the

final link in

a long chain
is

of causes and

effects,

whose beginning

lost

amid

the complexities of the material world, and

whose
'

ending

is

a change of some sort
It

in the

'

mind of

the percipient.

informs

us, further, that
'

among
one
it

these innumerable causes, the thing

immediately

experienced

'

is

but one
'

;

and

is,

moreover,
'

separated from the

immediate experience

which

modestly

assists in

producing by a very large number

of intermediate causes which are never experienced
at
all.

Take, for example, an ordinary case of

vision.

What

are the causes which ultimately produce the

apparently immediate experience of (for example) a

green tree standing
(to

in the

next

field

?

There are,

first

go no further back), the vibrations among the
Conse-

particles of the source of light, say the sun.

quent on these are the ethereal undulations between
the sun and the object seen, namely, the green tree.

Then

follows the absorption of

most of these undu'

lations

by the object; the
;

reflection of the

green'

residue

the incidence of a small fraction of these on
;

the lens of the eye

their

arrangement on the retina
;

;

the stimulation of the optic nerve

and, finally, the

molecular change in a certain tract of the cerebral

hemispheres by which,

in

some way or other wholly

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
in part

109

unknown, through predispositions
generations of ancestors,

acquired by

the individual, but chiefly inherited through countless
is

produced the complex
'

mental

fact

which we describe by saying that

we

have an immediate experience of a tree about
yards
off.'

fifty

Now
of which
all

the experience, the causes and conditions
I

have thus rudely outlined,

is

typical of
is

the experiences, without exception, on which

based our knowledge

of

the

material

universe.

Some of these experiences, no doubt, are incorrect. The 'evidence of the senses,' as the phrase goes, proves now and then to be fallacious. But it is
proved
the
to

be fallacious by other evidence of precisely
;

same kind and
far

if

we

take the trouble to trace
for believing

back
tific

enough our reasons

any

scien'

truth whatever, they always
'

end

in

some im-

mediate experience
scribed above.

or experiences of the type de-

But the comparison thus inevitably suggested
between
'

immediate experiences considered as the
'

ultimate basis of

all scientific

belief,

and immediate

experience considered as an insignificant and, so to
speak, casual product of natural laws, suggests
curious reflections. of understanding
I

some

do not allude

to the

difficulty

how
I

a mental effect can be pro-

duced by a physical cause
mind.

—how matter
is

can act on
is

The problem
It is

wish to dwell on

of quite

a different kind.
of the laws

concerned, not with the nature

by which the world

governed, but

no THE PHILOSOPHIC BASIS OF NATURALISM
with their proof.
It arises,

not out of the

diffi-

culty of feeling our

way

slowly along the causal
to

chain from physical antecedents

mental conse-

quents, but from the difficulty of harmonising this

movement with the opposite one, whereby we jump by some instantaneous effort of inferential activity
from these mental consequents to an immediate
conviction as to the reality and character of
their

some
'

of

remoter physical antecedents.

I

am
I

expe-

riencing' (to revert to our illustration) the tree in

the

next

field.

While looking
I

at

it

begin to

reflect
I

upon the double process
the
physiological,

have just described.
series

remember

long-drawn

of

causes,

physical and
tion

by which

my
I

perceprealise

of the object

has been produced.

that

each

one of these causes might have been

replaced by

some other cause without

altering the
;

character of the consequent perception
it

and that

if

had been so replaced,
though
it

my judgment

about the

object,

would have been as confident and
at present,

as

immediate as
for

would have been wrong.
which

Anything,

instance,

would

distribute

similar green rays

on the retina of

my

eyes in the
or any-

same pattern

as that produced

by the

tree,

thing which would produce a like irritation of the
optic nerve or a like modification
tissues,

of the cerebral
in itself quite
tree,

would give

me

an experience

indistinguishable

from

my

experience of the

although

it

had the unfortunate peculiarity of being

wholly incorrect.

The same message would be

THE PHILOSOPHIC
delivered, in the
thority,

BASIS OF

NATURALISM in
au-

same terms and on the same
false.

but

it

would be

And

though we are

quite familiar with the fact that illusions are possible

and that mistakes
tion, yet

will

occur

in

the simplest observa-

we can

hardly avoid being struck by the

incongruity of a scheme of belief whose premises are

wholly derived from witnesses admittedly untrustworthy, yet which
is

unable to supply any

criterion,

other than the evidence of these witnesses
selves,
in

them-

by which the character of
fact that

their evidence can

any given case be determined.

The
veracity
culties

even the most immediate experifar the smallest of the diffi-

ences carry with them no inherent guarantee of their
is,

however, by

which emerge from a comparison of the causal
object to perception, with the cogni-

movement from
tive leap

through perception to object.

For a very
merely

slight consideration of the teaching of science as to

the nature of the

first is sufficient

to prove, not

the possible, but the habitual inaccuracy of the second.

In other words,

we need only

to consider carefully
results, in

our perceptions regarded as psychological

order to see that, regarded as sources of information,

they are not merely occasionally inaccurate, but
habitually mendacious.

We

are dealing, recollect,

with a theory of science according to
ultimate stress of scientific proof
is

which the

thrown wholly
objects.

upon our immediate experience of
are visual

But

nine-tenths of our immediate experiences of objects
;

and

all

visual experiences, without excep-

UNIVER:-

ii2

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
As
every-

tion, are,

according to science, erroneous.
is

body knows, colour
seen
:

not a property of the thing

it is

a sensation produced in us by that thing.
itself consists

The

thing

of uncoloured particles, which

become

visible solely in

consequence of their power

of either producing or reflecting ethereal undulations.

The

degrees of brightness and the qualities of colour
in virtue of

perceived in the thing, and

which alone

any visual perception of the thing is possible, are, therefore, according to optics, no part of its reality,
but are mere feelings produced in the mind of the
percipient by the complex

movements of

material
to

molecules, possessing mass and extension, but which it is not only incorrect but unmeaning
attribute either brightness or colour.

to

From From the

the

side

of science

these

are

truisms.

side of a theory or philosophy of science,
It

however, they are paradoxes.

was

sufficiently

embarrassing to discover that the message conveyed to us by sensible experiences which the observer
treats as

so direct and so
in
transit,

certain are,

when
at

con-

sidered

at

one moment nothing
particles,
in

but

vibrations

of

imperceptible

another

nothing but periodic changes
ether, at a third nothing but

an unimaginable

unknown, and perhaps unknowable, modifications of nervous tissue and that none of these various messengers carry with them any warrant that the judgment in which they
;

finally issue will

prove to be

true.

But what are we

to say about these same experiences

when we

dis-

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
wholly
false,

113

cover, not only that they

may be
?

but

that they are never wholly true

What
to

sort of a
its

system

is

that which

makes haste

discredit

own premises? In what entanglements of contradiction do we not find ourselves involved by the
attempt to rest science upon observations which
science itself asserts to
possible
title

be erroneous

?

By what
the inde-

do we proclaim the same immediate

experience to be right

when

it

testifies to

pendent
to

reality of

something
it

solid

and extended, and
independent
?

be wrong when

testifies

to the

reality of

something illuminated and coloured

There
enough
be
said,
if

is,

of course, an answer to
it

all this,

simple
it

only

be

true.

The whole

theory,

may
un-

on which we have been proceeding

is

tenable, the undigested product of crude

commonis

sense.

The bugbear which
creation.

frightens us

of our

own
rience

We

have

no

immediate
as
tells

expe-

of

independent things such

has been
us of the

gratuitously supposed.

What

science

colour element
that
it

in

our visual perceptions, namely,
is

is

merely a feeling or sensation,
in

true of

every element

every perception.

We
:

are directly
all

cognisant of nothing but mental states
a matter of inference
;

else

is

a

hypothetical

machinery

devised for no other purpose than to account for the
existence
of the only realities of which

we have
1

ii 4

THE PHILOSOPHIC
knowledge

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
mental states

first-hand

— namely,
first

the

themselves.

Now

this

theory does at

sight undoubtedly
of

appear to harmonise with the general teaching
science on the subject of mental physiology.

This

teaching, as ordinarily expounded, assumes through-

out a material world of objects and a psychical world
of feelings and ideas.

The
In

latter is in all cases the

product of the former.

some

cases

it

may be
I

a

copy or partial

reflection of the former.

In no case

is it

identified with the former.

When,
is

therefore,
field,

am

in

the act of experiencing a tree in the next
this

what on

theory

I

am

really

doing

inferring from the

fact of

my

having certain feelings the existence of a
so rapid and
it.

cause having qualities adequate to produce them.
It is

true that the process of inference

is

habitual that
It
is

we

are unconscious of performing
is

also true that the inference

quite differently

performed by the natural man

in his natural

moments

and the

scientific

man

in his scientific

moments.

For, whereas the natural

man

infers the existence

of a material object which in
his idea of
it,

all

respects resembles
well that
it

the scientific

man knows very
solidity,

the material object only resembles his ideas of
certain particulars

in

—extension,
is

and so

forth

— and that in respect of such attributes as colour and
illumination there

no resemblance

at

all.

Never-

theless, in all cases,

whether there be resemblance
is

between them or
from the mental

not, the material fact
fact,

a conclusion^

with which last alone

we cany

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF
in

NATURALISM

115

be said to be, so to speak,
relation.

any immediate empirical

As

this

theory regarding the sources of our
fits

knowledge of the material world

in

with the
it

habitual language of mental physiology, so also
fits

in with the first instincts of speculative analysis.
is,
I

It

suppose, one of the earliest discoveries of
if

the metaphysically minded youth that he can,
so wills
it,

he

change

his point of view,
in

and thereby

suddenly convert what

ordinary

moments seem
moving
in

the solid realities of this material universe, into an

unending pageant of feelings and

ideas,

long procession across his mental stage, and having

from the nature of the case no independent being
before they appear, nor
vanish.

retaining any after

they

But however plausible be
common-sense,
place,
it it

this

correction

of
first

has

its

difficulties.

In the

involves a complete divorce between the
its

V practice of science and

theory.

It is all

very well

to say that the scientific account of mental physiology
in general,

and of sense-perception
to hold

in

particular,

requires us

that
facts,

what

is

immediately ex-

perienced are mental
physical facts
is is

and that our knowledge of

but mediate and inferential.
quite out of

Such
its

a conclusion

harmony with

own

premises, since the propositions on which, as a matter
of historical verity, science
is

ultimately founded are

not

propositions
things.

about states of mind, but about

material

The

observations

on which are

n6 THE PHILOSOPHIC BASIS OF NATURALISM
built, for

example, our knowledge of anatomy or our
not, in the opinion of

knowledge of chemistry were
those

who

originally

made them

or have since con-

firmed them, observations of their

own

feelings, but

of objects thought of as wholly independent of the
observer.

observations

They may have been may be impossible.
believed
belief

mistaken.

Such

But, possible or

impossible, they were

to

have occurred,

and on

that

depends the whole empirical
scientific

evidence of science as
selves conceive
it.

discoverers them-

The

reader

will, I

hope, understand that

I

am
now own

not here arguing that the theory of experience

under consideration, the theory, that
fines the field of

is,

which conto

immediate experience

our

states of mind,

is

inconsistent with science, or even

that

it

supplies

an inadequate empirical basis for
I

science.

On
is

these points

may have a word

to
is,

say presently.
that
it

My

present contention simply

not experience thus understood which

has supplied

men

of science with their knowledge

of the physical universe.

They have never

sus-

pected that,

while

they

supposed themselves to

be perceiving

independent material objects, they
perceiving
quite

were
things,

in

reality

another set of

namely, feelings and sensations of a par-

ticular kind,

grouped
in

in particular

ways, and suc-

ceeding each other
this idea

a particular order.
to them,

Nor,

if

had ever occurred

would they have

admitted that these two classes of things could by

THE PHILOSOPHIC
So

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

117

any merely verbal manipulation be made the same.
that
if

this particular

account of the nature of

experience be accurate, the system of thought represented by science presents the singular spectacle of a

creed which

is

believed in practice for one set of
it

reasons, though in theory

can only be justified by
acci-

another

;

and which, through some beneficent
true,

dent, turns out to be

though

its

origin

and each

subsequent stage

in its

gradual development are the

product of error and

illusion.

Yet an even stronger We must not experiences on which science is that the only say founded have been invariably misinterpreted by those who underwent them, but that, if they had not been
This
is

perplexing enough.
to

statement would seem

be

justified.

so

misinterpreted,

science

as

we know
and
illusion,

it

would

never have existed.

We have

not merely stumbled

on the truth
odder.
realised

in spite of error

which
is

is

odd, but because of error and illusion, which

even

For

if

the scientific observers of Nature had
all

from the beginning that

they were observ-

ing was their

own

feelings

and

ideas, as empirical

idealism and mental physiology alike require us to
hold, they surely
to invent a

would never have taken the trouble
{i.e.

Nature

an independently existing
for

system of material things)
to provide a

no other purpose than

machinery by which the occurrence of
through so much to get so

feelings
for.

and ideas might be adequately accounted
little,

To go

to

bewilder themselves in the ever-increasing intricacies
of this hypothetical

wheel-work,

to pile world on

nS THE PHILOSOPHIC BASIS OF NATURALISM
world and add infinity to
infinity,

and

all

for

no

more important object than
for

to find

an explanation
resist-

a few fleeting impressions, say of colour or

ance, would, indeed, have

seemed
is it

to

them a most

superfluous labour.
this task

Nor

possible to doubt that

has been undertaken and partially accom-

plished only because humanity has been, as for the

most part

it

still

is,

under the belief not merely

that there exists a universe possessing the independ-

ence which science and common-sense alike postulate,
but that
it

is

a universe immediately,

if

imperfectly,

revealed to us in the deliverances of sense-perception.

VI

We

can scarcely deny, then, though the paradox
that,

be hard of digestion,
the theory
its

historically speaking,

if

we

are discussing be true, science

owes

being to an erroneous view as to what kind of
it is

information
to us.

that our experiences directly

convey

But a much more important question than

the merely historical one remains behind, namely,

whether, from the kind of information which our experiences do thus directly convey to us, anything at
all

resembling the

scientific

theory of Nature can be
revised conception

reasonably extracted.

Can our
of

of the material world really be inferred from our
revised

conception
?

the

import

and

limits

of

experience

Can we by any

possible treatment of

sensations and feelings legitimately squeeze out of

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

119

them trustworthy knowledge of the permanent and
independent material universe of which, according
to science, sensations

and feelings are but transient
?

and evanescent
I

effects

cannot imagine the process by which such a

result

may be

attained, nor has

it

been

satisfactorily

explained to us by any apologist of the empirical

theory of knowledge.
that sensations

We

may, no doubt, argue
everything
else,

and

feelings, like

must

have a cause

;

that the hypothesis of a material world
is

suggests such a cause in a form which
to our natural beliefs
;

agreeable

and that

it is

a hypothesis
it

we

are justified in adopting
us to anticipate the order

when we

find that

enables

and character of that stream
called into existence to ex-

of perceptions which
plain.
will

it is

But

this is

a line of argument which really

not bear examination.
it

Every one of the three
is,

propositions of which

consists

if

we

are to

go

back to fundamental principles, either disputable or
erroneous.

The

principle of causation cannot be

extracted out of a succession of individual experiences,
as
is

implied by the
is

first.

The world

described by
beliefs, as

science
is

not congruous with our natural

alleged by the second.
effect

Nor can we
to

legitimately

reason back from

cause in the manner

required by the third.

A
to

very brief comment
this clear,

will,

I

think, be sufficient
it

make

and

I

proceed to offer

on each of

the three propositions, taking them, for convenience,
in

the reverse order, and beginning, therefore, with

i2o

THE PHILOSOPHIC
This

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

the third.

in effect declares that as the material
if
it

world described by science would,

existed,

produce sensations

and

impressions in the very-

manner
exists.

in

which our experiences assure us that they

actually occur,

But may we
which

we may assume that such a world ? Even supposing that there
is

was
and

this
fact,

complete correspondence between theory
far,

unfortunately, from being at
in

present the case, are

a logical leap

we justified from the known to
that

making so bold

the

unknown

?

I

doubt
strictly

it.

Recollect

by hypothesis we are
of sensations or im-

imprisoned, so far as direct experiences are
the circle

concerned, within
pressions.

It is in this self-centred

universe alone,

therefore, that

we can

collect the
it

premises of further

knowledge.

How

can

possibly supply us with

any principles of selection
anything
in its

by which

to

decide
for

between the various kinds of cause that may,

we know
?

to the contrary,

have had a hand

production

None

of these kinds of cause are

open

to observation.

All must, from the nature of

the case, be purely conjectural.

Because, therefore,

we happen
little

to

have thought of one which, with a
we, oblivious of

goodwill, can be forced into a rude corresponfacts, shall

dence with the observed

the million possible explanations which a superior
intelligence

might be able to devise, proceed to
title

decorate our particular fancy with the
*

of the

Real World

'

?

If

we do

so,

it is

not, as the

candid

reader will be prepared to admit, because such a

THE PHILOSOPHIC
conclusion
is

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

121

justified

by such premises, but because
to

we

are predisposed
instinctive

a conclusion of this kind
which, in unreflective

by those
In such

beliefs

moments, the philosopher shares with the savage.

moments

all

men

conceive themselves (by

hypothesis erroneously) as having direct experiences
of an independent material universe.
fore, science,

When,

there-

or philosophers on behalf of science,

proceed to infer such a universe from impressions
of extension, resistance, and so forth, they find themselves, so far, in

an unnatural and quite

illegitimate

alliance with common-sense.

By

procedures which

are different, and essentially inconsistent, the two
parties

have found

it

possible to reach results which

at first sight look

very much the same.

Immediate

intuitions

wrongly interpreted come to the aid of
illegitimately

mediate inferences
find

constructed

;

we

ourselves quite prepared
of bad

to

accept the con-

clusions

reasoning,
I

because they have a
to show, an
uncriti-

partial though, as

shall

now proceed

illusory

resemblance to the deliverances of

cised experience.

This,
in the

it

will

be observed,

is

the subject dealt with
I

second of the three propositions on which
in

am engaged
natural beliefs

commenting.
is

It

alleges that the

world described by science
;

congruous with our
in itself,

a thesis not very important

which

I

only dwell on

now because

it

affords a

convenient text

from which to preach the great
science requires us to

oddity of the creed which

i22

THE PHILOSOPHIC
evidently in

BASIS OF
in

NATURALISM
live.

adopt respecting the world
creed
is

which we

This
or

its

origin an

amendment
are

modification of the
things,

natural or instinctive view of

a compromise to which

we

no doubt
force,

compelled by considerations of conclusive
a compromise, nevertheless, which,
if

but

we

did not
it

know

it

to

be

true,

we

should certainly find

difficult

not to abandon as absurd.
it is

For, consider what kind of a world

in

which
far as
all

we

are asked to believe

—a

world which, so

most people are
but which in

concerned,

can only be at

adequately conceived in terms of the visual sense,
its

true reality possesses neither of the

qualities characteristically associated with the visual

sense, namely, illumination

and
it

colour.

A

world

which

is

half like our ideas of
it,

and half unlike them.

Like our ideas of
called

that

is

to say, so far as the so-

primary qualities of matter, such as extension
are concerned
;

and

solidity,

unlike our ideas of

it

so far as the so-called secondary qualities, such as

warmth and

colour, are concerned,

A

hybrid world,

a world of inconsistencies and strange anomalies.

A
the

world one-half of which
empirical

may commend

itself to

philosopher,

and the other half of
the plain man, but
itself to neither.
first

which may commend
world which
arbitrarily

itself to

which as a whole can commend
is

A
it

rejected

by the

because

selects

what he regards as modes of
into

sensation,
realities
;

and hypostatises them
while
it

permanent
to

is

scarcely

intelligible

the

THE PHILOSOPHIC
second, because
it

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

123

takes what he regards as perinto

manent

realities,

and evaporates them
world,
in

modes of
seems
to
critical

sensation.

A

short,

which

harmonise neither with the conclusions of
empiricism nor with the
the senses
' '

unmistakable evidence of

;

which outrages the whole psychology
is

of the one, and

in direct contradiction

with the

deliverances of the other.

So
deal

far as

the leading philosophic empiricists are
it

concerned — and

is

only with them that

we need
to

—

the result of these difficulties has been extra-

ordinary.

They have found

it

impossible

swallow this strange universe, consisting partly of

microcosms furnished with impressions and ideas
which, as such, are of course transient and essentially
mental,
material
partly

of

a

macrocosm
qualities

furnished

with

objects

whose

exactly resemble

impressions and ideas, with the embarrassing exception

that

they are neither transient nor mental.

They

have, therefore, been compelled by one device

or another to

sweep the macrocosm as conceived by
In the

science altogether out of existence.

name

of

experience

itself

they have destroyed that which

professes to be experience systematised.

And we

are presented with the singular spectacle of thinkers

whose claim to our consideration largely consists in their uncompromising empiricism playingunconscious havoc with the most solid results which empirical
methods have hitherto
I

attained.

say

'

unconscious

'

havoc, because, no doubt, the

;

i2 4

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

truth of this indictment

would not be admitted by

the majority of those against

whom

it

is

directed.
its
;

Yet there
truth.

can,

I

think,

be no

real question as to

In the case of

Hume it will hardly be denied
John
be
Mill, of

and Hume, perhaps, would himself have been the
last to

deny

it.

But

in the case of

Mr.
an

Herbert Spencer, 1 and of Professor Huxley,
allegation

it is

which would
for
it

certainly

repudiated,

though the evidence

seems- to

the surface of their speculations.
it

me to lie upon The allegation, be

observed,

is

this

—

that while each of these thinkers

has recognised the necessity for some independent
reality

in

relation to the

ever-moving stream of

sensations which constitute our immediate experiences, each of
reality

them has

rejected the independent

which

is

postulated and explained by science,
for
it

and each of them has substituted
reality

a private
for

of

his

own.

Where
but

the

physicist,

example, assumes actual atoms and motions and
forces,
sibilities

Mill

saw

nothing

permanent
Spencer

pos-

of
'

sensation,

and Mr.

knows

nothing but

the unknowable.'

Without discussing

the place which such entities
in the general

may
I

properly occupy
content myself

scheme of
I

things,

with observing, what

have elsewhere endeavoured

1 It is probably accurate to describe Mr. Spencer as an empiricist though he has added to the accustomed first principles of empiricism certain doctrines of his own which, while they do not strengthen his

system,
in

make

it

somewhat

difficult to classify.

The

reader interested

such matters will find most of the relevant points discussed in Philosophic Doubt, chaps, viii., ix., x.

THE PHILOSOPHIC
to

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

125

demonstrate

at length,

that they cannot occupy
as conceived
possibility,'

the place

now

filled

by material Nature
is

by science.
but
is

That which
is

a 'permanent

nothing more,

permanent only

in

name.

It

represents no enduring reality, nothing which persists,

nothing which has any being save during the brief
intervals

when, ceasing to be a mere

'possibility,'

it

blossoms into the actuality of sensation.
tient beings were,
exist,
it

Before sen-

it

was

not.
If

When

they cease to

will

vanish away.
it

they change the chasympathetically vary

racter of their sensibility,
its

will

nature.

How

unfit

is

this unsubstantial

shadow

of a phrase to take the place

material universe, of
dents,

now occupied by that which we are but fleeting acciis

whose attributes are for the most part absolutely
us,

independent of

whose duration
Mr.

incalculable

!

A

different but not a less

conclusive

criticism

may be

passed on
I

Spencer's 'unknowable.'

For anything
contrary, this
nately,
it

am may

here prepared to allege to the

be

real

enough

;

but,

unfortu-

has not the kind of reality imperatively

required
in time.

by
It

science.

It

is

not in space.

It is

not
;

possesses neither mass nor extension
Its

nor
that

is it
it

capable of motion.

very name implies

eludes the grasp of thought, and cannot be

caught up into formulae.
fore,

Whatever purpose,
subserve
'

there-

such an
it is

'

object

'

may

in

the universe
possibility
'

of things,
itself to

as useless as a

permanent

provide subject-matter for
If these

scientific treat-

ment.

be

all

that truly exist outside the

i

26

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
is all

circle

of impressions and ideas, then

science

turned to foolishness, and evolution stands confessed

mere figment of the imagination. Man, or 'I,' become not merely the centre of the Beyond me and my ideas world, but am the world.
as a

rather

there

is

either nothing, or nothing that can be

known.
of their
its

The problems

about which

we

disquiet ourselves in

vain, the origin

of things and the

modes

development, the inner constitution of matter and

relations to mind, are questionings about nothing,

interrogatories shouted into the void.
fabric

The

baseless
itself,

of the sciences, like the great globe

dissolves at the touch of theories like these, leaving

not a wrack behind.

Nor does

there

seem

to

be

any course open

to the consistent agnostic,

were such
patience

a being possible, than to /contemplate in
I

the long procession of his- sensations, without dis-

turbing himself with futile inquiries into what,
anything,

if

may

lie

beyond. /

VII

There remains but one problem
which
is
I

further

with
It

need trouble the readers of

this chapter.

that raised

by the only remaining proposition of
I

the three with which

promised just now to

deal.

This

asserts,

it

may be

recollected, that the principle

of causation and, by parity of reasoning, any other
universal principle of sense-interpretation,

may by

some

process of logical alchemy be extracted, not

THE PHILOSOPHIC

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
1

127

merely from experience

in general,

but even from

the experience of a single individual.

But who,
to

it

may be
it

asked,

is

unreasonable enough

demand

that

should be extracted from the ex?

perience of a single individual

What

is

there in

the empirical theory which requires us to impose so
arbitrary a limitation

upon the sources of our knowto count
for

ledge

?

Have we
?

not behind us the whole experience
it

of the race

Is

nothing that for

numberless generations mankind has been scrutinising the
face

of Nature,

and storing up
of
to

for

our

guidance

innumerable
?

observations
I

the laws

which she obeys
nothing
this
;

Yes,

reply,

it is

count

for

and

for

a most simple reason.

In making

appeal to the testimony of mankind with regard

to the world in

which they

live,

we

take for granted

that there

is

such a world, that mankind has had
it,

experiences of

and

that, so far as is

necessary for

our purpose,
been.
for

we know what They

those experiences have

But by what right do we take those things
?

granted
;

are not axiomatic or intuitive
;

truths
that

they must be proved by something

and
in

something must, on the empirical theory, be
resort

the last

experience, and
?

experience alone.
it

But whose experience
experience, for that
is

Plainly

cannot be general

the very thing

whose

reality
is

has to be established, and
question.
It

whose character

in

must, therefore, in every case and for

each individual
1

man be

his

own

personal experience.
ch.
i,

See Philosophic Doubt,

i28

THE PHILOSOPHIC
this,

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

This, and only
for those
it is

can supply him with evidence
beliefs,

fundamental

without whose guidance

impossible for him either to reconstruct the past

or to anticipate the future.

Consider, for example, the
one, but

law of causation

;

by no means the only one, of those general
as
I

principles of interpretation which,

am

con-

tending, are presupposed in any appeal to general

experience, and cannot, therefore, be proved by
If

it.

we endeavour
number

to analyse the reasoning

by which

we

arrive at the conviction that

any particular event

or any

of particular events have occurred

outside the narrow ring of our
ceptions,

own immediate

per-

we

shall find that not

a step of this process

can we take without assuming that the course of

Nature

is

uniform

x
;

or, if

not absolutely uniform, at

least sufficiently

uniform to allow us to argue with
if

tolerable security from effects to causes, or,
be,

need

from causes to

effects,

over great intervals of time
of what
is

and space.
evidence
is,

The whole
in its

called historical

most

essential parts, nothing

more
their
or,

than an argument or series of arguments of this
kind.

The
to

fact

that

mankind have given
can

testimony to the general uniformity of Nature,
indeed,

anything

else,

be established by

the aid of that principle
1

itself,

and by

it

alone

;

so

will find, some observations on the meaning of the Uniformity of Nature,' in the last chapter of this Essay. In this chapter I have assumed (following empirical usage) that the Uniformity of Nature and the Law of Causation are different expres-

The reader
'

phrase,

sions for the

same

thing.

THE PHILOSOPHIC
that
if

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

129

we abandon
of

it,

we

are in a

moment deprived
usufruct

of

all

logical access to the outer world, of all coo-ni-

sance

other

minds,

of

all all

of

their
in-

accumulated

knowledge, of

share in

the

tellectual heritage of the

race.

While

if

we
like

cling
it

to

it

(as, to

be sure,

we

must, whether

we

or

not),

we can do

so only on condition that
it

we

forego

every endeavour to prove
experience
less
;

by the

aid of general

for such a

procedure would be nothing
is

than to compel what

intended to be the configure also

clusion of our

argument
its

to

among
this

the

most important of

premises.
is

The
we

problem, therefore,

reduced to

:

Can

find in our personal experience adequate evidence

of a law which, like the law of Causation, does,

by the

very terms

in

which

it

is

stated,

claim universal

jurisdiction, as of right, to the

utmost verge both of
such a

time and space.
question
is

And

surely, to enunciate

to suggest the inevitable answer.
in the petty

The
re-

sequences familiar to us
life,

round

of daily

the

accustomed recurrence of something

sembling a former consequent, following on the heels
of something resembling a former antecedent, are
sufficient to

generate the expectations and the habits
to

by which we endeavour, with what success we may,

accommodate our behaviour to the unyielding
ments of the world around
experiences
1

require-

us.
1

But

to

throw upon

such as these
of

the whole

burden of

At

them.

least in the absence See next chapter.

any transcendental interpretation of

K

i

3o

THE PHILOSOPHIC
quite
It

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
of the

fixing our

opinions as to the constitution
absurd.
It

universe
in

is

would be

absurd
the

any

case.

would be absurd even

if all

phenomena

of which

we have immediate knowledge
for the contrast

succeeded each other according to some obvious and
undeviating order
;

between

this

microscopic range of observation and the gigantic
induction which
it

is

sought to rest thereon, would
all

rob

the

argument of

plausibility.

But

it

is

doubly and trebly absurd when
our experiences really
indicating,
are.

we

reflect

on what

So

far are

they from

when taken

strictly
all

by themselves, the
regularity

existence of a world where

things small and great

follow with the most exquisite

and the

most minute obedience the bidding of unchanging
law,

that they indicate precisely the reverse.

In

certain

regions

of experience,

no doubt,
:

orderly

sequence appears to be the rule
with night,

day alternates
;

and summer follows upon spring

the

sun moves through the zodiac,
bodies
fall

and unsupported

usually, though, to

be sure, not always, to

the ground.

Even
facts,

of such elementary astronomical
it

and physical
tained
that

however,

could hardly be mainright,

any man would have a

on the

strength of his personal observation alone, confidently
to assert their undeviating regularity.

But when we come to the more complex phenomena with which we have to deal, the plain lesson taught by personal
is

observation
of

not the regularity, but the irregularity,

Nature.

A

kind

of

ineffectual

attempt

at

THE PHILOSOPHIC
uniformity, no doubt,

BASIS OF
is

NATURALISM

X

3T

commonly
will

apparent, as of

an ill-constructed machine that
for a time,

run smoothly
to

and then
;

for

no apparent reason begin

jerk and quiver

or of a drunken

man who, though
But

he succeeds
along
of
it

in

keeping to the high-road, yet pursues
adjustment,
lies at

a most wavering and devious course.
perfect
that

that

all-penetrating

governance by law, which
inference

the root of scientific

we

find not a trace.

In

many
:

cases sensaafter event,

tion follows sensation, to all

and event hurries
ever repeated,

appearances absolutely at random
succession
is is

no observed
nor
is
it

order of

pretended that there

any

direct causal connection
series as they

between the members of the
one after the
individual.

appear
of the

other in

the

consciousness

But even when these conditions are
perfect

reversed,

uniformity

is

never

observed.

The most

careful series of experiments carried out

by the most accomplished investigators never show
identical results
;

and as

for

the general mass of
in their

mankind, so
personal

far are

they from finding, either
or elsewhere,
in
its

experiences
for

any

sufficient

reason

accepting

perfected

form the

principle of Universal Causation, that, as a matter

of

fact, this

doctrine has been steadily ignored by

them up

to the present hour.

This apparent irregularity of Nature, obvious

enough when we turn our attention
our habitual notice, of course, because
attribute

to

it,

escapes

we

invariably
to

the

want of observed uniformity

the

1

32

THE PHILOSOPHIC
But what does
the
principle

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
we do

errors of the observer.
well.

And
this

without doubt
?

imply

It

implies that

we

bring to the interpretation of our sense-percepof causation

tion

ready made.

It

implies that

we do
;

not believe the world to be

governed by immutable law because our experiences
appear to be regular
but that

we

believe that our

experiences, in spite of their apparent irregularity,
follow
first

some (perhaps) unknown
But
this is as

rule because

we

believe the world to be governed by immutable

law.
is

much
light

as to say that the principle
is

not proved by experience, but that experience
in

understood

the

of the

principle.
in

Here,

again, empiricism fails us.

As

the case of our
fact,

judgments about particular matters of
in the case of these
is

so also

other judgments, whose scope

co-extensive with the whole realm of Nature,
that

we

find

any endeavour
for

to

formulate a rational

justification

them based on experience alone
all

breaks down, and, to
hopelessly.

appearance, breaks

down

VIII

But even
harvest are

if

this

reasoning be sound,
is it

reader exclaim,

What

that

we

gain by

it

may the What ?
it

we

likely to reap
this
?

from such broadcast

sowing of scepticism as
us to

What
truths

does

profit

show

that a great

many
still

which every-

body
will

believes,

and which no abstract speculations
waiting for a philo-

induce us to doubt are

THE PHILOSOPHIC
sophic proof
?

BASIS OF
it

NATURALISM

133

Fair questions,

must be admitted
I

,

questions, nevertheless, to which
full

must reserve

my
Yet

answer

until

a later stage of our inquiry.
said,

even now something may be
bear to the

by way of con-

clusion to this chapter, on the relation which these
criticisms
practical

scheme of thought whose
traced out in the
first

consequences

we

part

of these Notes.
I

begin by admitting that the criticisms them-

selves are, from the nature of the case, incomplete.

They

contain

but the concise and even meagre

outline of an

argument which

is itself

but a portion
space, or to

only of the whole case.

For want of

avoid

unsuitable

technicalities,

much has been

omitted which would have been relevant to the
issues raised,

and have

still

further strengthened the

position

which has been taken up.
said,
;

Yet, though
said
is,

more might have been
in

what has been
I

my

opinion, sufficient

and

shall, therefore,

not

scruple henceforth to

assume that a purely empirical
its

theory of things, a philosophy which depends for

premises in the

last

resort

upon the

particulars
is

revealed to us in perceptive experience alone,
that cannot rationally

one

be accepted.
adverse to Naturalism
?

Is this conclusion, then,

And,

if so,

must

it

not
it

tell
is

with equal force against

Science, seeing that

solely against that part of
is

the naturalistic teaching which

taken over bodily
?

from Science that
these two questions,

it
I

appears to be directed

Of

answer the

first in

the affirm-

134

THE PHILOSOPHIC
the second
in

BASIS OF
negative.

NATURALISM
Doubtless,
if

ative,

the
it

empiricism be shattered,

must drag down
all,

natural-

ism

in its fall

;

for,

after

naturalism

is

nothing

more than the
valid,

assertion that empirical
so.
is

methods are

and that no others are

But because any
the destruction of

effectual criticism of empiricism

naturalism,
also
?

is it

therefore the destruction of science

Surely not.

empiricist from necessity

be an empiricist,

is

The adherent of naturalism is an the man of science, if he so only from choice. The latter
;

may,

if

he please, have no philosophy
a different one.

at

all,

or he

may have
appeal to
take his

He
still

is

not obliged, any

more than other men,
first first

to justify his conclusions
;

by an

principles

less is

he obliged to

principles

from so poor a creed as the
Science preceded the
it.

one we have been discussing.
theory of science, and
is

independent of
will

Science

preceded naturalism, and

survive

it.

Though
theoretic
all

the convictions involved in our practical conception
of the universe are not

beyond the reach of
stake

doubts, though

we

habitually

our

upon

assumptions which

we never attempt to justify, and which we could not justify if we would, yet is our scientific certitude unshaken and if we still strive
;

after

some

solution of our sceptical difficulties,
is

it

is

because this

necessary for the satisfaction of an

intellectual ideal, not

because

it is

required to fortify

our confidence either in the familiar teachings of
experience or

m

their

utmost

scientific

expansion.
against

And

hence arises

my

principal complaint

—
THE PHILOSOPHIC
naturalism.

BASIS OF

NATURALISM

135

With Empirical philosophy, considered
to

as a tentative contribution to the theory of science,
I

have

no desire
fail
is

pick

a quarrel.

That

it

should
failed.

nothing.
is,

Other philosophies have
the

Such

after

all,

common
all

lot.

That
doubt

it

should have been contrived to justify conclusions
already accepted
at least a
it
is, if

a fault at

—which

I

most venial one, and one, moreover, which
should derive some moderate degree of

has committed in the best of philosophic company.
it

That

imputed credit from the universal acceptance of the
scientific beliefs

which

it

countersigns,
interests

may be borne
of speculative

with,

though

for the real
I

inquiry this has been,
that
it

think, a misfortune.

But

should develop into naturalism, and then, on
it

the strength of labours which
victories

has not endured, of

which

it

has not won,
it

and of

scientific

triumphs in which

has no

right to share, presume,

in despite of its speculative insufficiency, to dictate

terms of surrender to every other system of
altogether intolerable.
attention to naturalism

belief, is

Who would pay the
if it

slightest

did not force itself into

the retinue of science, assume her livery, and claim,
as a kind of poor relation, in

some

sort to represent

her authority and to speak with
itself
it is

her voice

?

Of

nothing.

It

neither ministers to the needs
it

of mankind, nor does
if,

satisfy their reason.

And
is

in

spite

of

this,

its

influence has increased,

increasing,
if

and as yet shows no signs of diminution more and more the educated and the half-educated

;

136

THE PHILOSOPHIC
acquiescing in
its

BASIS OF

NATURALISM
however
is,

are

pretensions and,
its

reluctantly, submitting to
least
in part,

domination, this

at

because they have not learned to
practical

distinguish

between the

and

inevitable

claims which experience has on their allegiance, and
the speculative but quite illusory empirical
title

by which the
to

school

have

endeavoured

associate

naturalism and science in a kind of joint supremacy

over the thoughts and consciences of mankind.

137

CHAPTER
IDEALISM
;

II

AFTER SOME RECENT ENGLISH WRITINGS l

THE

the way of an empirical philosophy of which we dealt in the last chapter, largely arise from the conflict which exists between two parts of a system, the scientific half of which requires us to
difficulties in

science, with

1 The reader who has no familiarity with philosophic literature is advised to omit this chapter. The philosophic reader will, I hope, Transcendental Idealism is, if I mistake regard it as provisional.

not, at this

moment
its

in rather a singular position in this country.
I

In

the land of

In informed) it is but little considered. English-speaking countries it is, within the narrow circle of professed philosophers, perhaps the dominant mood of thought ; while without This that circle it is not so much objected to as totally ignored.
birth (as

am

anomalous

state of things
;

is

no doubt due
I

in part to the inherent

difficulty of the subject

but even more,

think, to the fact that the

energy of English Idealists has been consumed rather in the production of commentaries on other people's systems than in expositions of
their own.
are, that

result of this is that we do not quite know where we more or less in a condition of expectancy, and that both learners and critics are placed at a disadvantage. Pending the appearance of some original work which shall represent the con-

The
are

we

structive views of the

younger school of thinkers, I have written the following chapter, with reference chiefly to the writings of the late Mr. T. H. Green, which at present contain the most important exMr. I know, of this phase of English thought. noteworthy work, Appearance and Reality, published some time after this chapter was finished, is written with characteristic independence but I know not whether it has yet commanded any large measure of assent from the few who are competent to pronounce
Bradley's
;

position, so far as

a verdict upon

its

merits.

133

IDEALISM

regard experience as an effect of an external and independent world, while the philosophic or epistemological half offers this same experience to us as the sole groundwork and logical foundation on which any knowledge whatever of an external and independent world may be rationally based. These difficulties and the arguments founded on them require to be urged, in the first
explicitly hold what I and then to that general body of educated opinion which, though reluctant to contract its beliefs within the narrow circuit of naturalism,' yet habitually assumes that there is presented to us in science a body of opinion, certified by reason, solid, certain, and impregnable, to which theology adds, as an edifying supplement, a certain number of dogmas, of which the well-disposed assimilate as many, but only as many, as their superior allegiance to positive knowledge will permit them to digest. These two classes, however, by no means exhaust the kinds of opinion with which it is necessary to deal. And

instance, in opposition to those

who
;

have called the

'naturalistic' creed

'

'

'

in particular there is a

metaphysical school, few indeed
less

in

numbers, but none the
tive,

important
is

in

matters specula-

whose general position
;

wholly distinct and indepen-

dent

who would,

indeed, not perhaps very widely, dissent

from the negative conclusions already reached, but who have their own positive solution of the problem of the universe. In their opinion, all the embarrassments which

may be shown to attend on the empirical philosophy are due to the fact that empirical philosophers wholly misunderstand the essential nature of that experience on which they profess to found their beliefs. The theory of perception evolved out of Locke, by Berkeley and Hume, which may be traced without radical modification through
their

modern
I

successors,

is,

according to the school of
all

which

speak, at the root of

the mischief.

Of

this

theory they

make

short work.

They

press to the utmost
it

the sceptical consequences to which

inevitably leads.

;

IDEALISM
They show,
scientific

139

sible

;

or profess to show, that it renders not only knowledge, but any knowledge whatever, imposand they offer as a substitute a theory of experience,

very remote indeed from ordinary modes of expression, by which these consequences may, in their judgment, be entirely
avoided.

The dimensions and
impossible, even were
I

character of these Notes render

it

adequately equipped for the task,

to deal fully with so formidable a subject as

TRANSCENmeta-

DENTAL IDEALISM,
physical
aspect.

either in

its

historical or in its

modes of thought, which, in some recent English works, it supplies us concerning Nature and God is, however, absolutely necessary
and
I

Remote though it be from ordinary some brief discussion of the theory with

therefore here present the following observations to

the philosophic reader with apologies for their brevity, and
to the unphilosophic reader with apologies for their length.

From what

I

have already said

it

is

clear that the

theory to which Transcendental Idealism

may

be,

from

our point of view, considered as a reply, is not the theory of experience which is taken for granted in ordinary
scientific statement,

but the closely allied
'

'

psychological

theory of perception

evolved by thinkers usually classed

rather as philosophers than as

men

of science.

The

differ-

ence

not wholly immaterial, as will appear in the sequel. What, then, is this psychological theory of perception ?
is
' '

Or, rather, where
to attack

is

the

weak point

in

it

at

which

it is

open
the

by the transcendental
'

idealists ?
real.

It lies in

account given by that theory of the
this

According to

account the
it is

real

'

in external experience, that which,

not due to any mental manipulation by the percipient, such as abstraction or comparison, may be considered as the experienced fact, is, in ultimate analysis,

because

either a sensation or a

sations

group of sensations. These senand groups of sensations are subjected in the mind to a process of analysis and comparison. Discrimination is made between those which arc unlike. Those which have

i

4o

IDEALISM

by a common name. The among them are noted the laws by which they are bound together are discovered and the order in which they may be expected to recur is foreseen and understood. Now, say the idealists, if everything of which external
points of resemblance are called

sequences and co-existences which obtain
;

;

reality can be predicated is thus either a sensation or a group of sensations, if these and these only are given in
' '

external experience, everything

else,

including relations,
to the absurd
is

being mere fictions of the mind,

we are reduced
is

position of holding that the real
also

not only unknown, but

For a brief examination of the nature of experience is sufficient to prove that an unrelated thing (be that thing a sensation or a group of sensations), which is not qualified by its resemblance to other things, its difference from other things, and its connection with other things, It is at all. is really, so far as we are concerned, no thing not an object of possible experience its true character must
unknowable.
'

'

'

'

'

'

;

be for ever hid from us or, rather, as character consists simply in relations, it has no character, nor can it form part of that intelligible world with which alone we have to
;

deal.

Ideas of relation are, therefore, required to convert the
real of external experience into something of which experience can take note. But such ideas themselves are unintelligible, except as the results of the intelSelf or I.' They must be lectual activity of some if only for the somebody's thought, somebody's ideas purpose of mutual comparison, there must be some bond of union between them other than themselves. Here again,

supposed

'

'

'

'

;

therefore, the psychological analysis of experience breaks

down, and
experience

it

becomes plain that just as the
real

real in external

is

only

in virtue

of an intellectual element,
it

namely, ideas

of relation (categories), through which
in

was apprehended, so
conscious unity, which

internal

experience
of an
'

ideas
I,'

and
self-

sensations presuppose the
is

existence

or

neither sensation nor idea, which

IDEALISM

141

sidered as having

ought not, therefore, on the psychological theory to be conany claim to reality at all, but which, nevertheless, is presupposed in the very possibility of

phenomena appearing

as elements in a single experience.

to face with a

by the idealist theory face mind (thinking subject) which is the source of relations (categories), and a world which is constituted by relations with a mind which is conscious of itself, and a world of which that mind may without metaphor be described
are thus apparently left
:

We

as the creator.
tion

We
we

have, in short, reached the central posi-

of transcendental idealism.

But before we proceed
us

to subject the

system to any

critical observations, let

ask what
of view. In the
it

it is

are supposed to gain

by endeavouring

thus to rethink the universe- from so unaccustomed a point

first

place, then,

it is

claimed for this theory that
in

frees us

from the scepticism which,

matters scientific

as well as in matters theological, follows inevitably

upon
:

the psychological doctrine of perception as just explained
a scepticism which not only leaves no

room
'

for

God and

the soul, but destroys the very possibility of framing any

general proposition about the
otherwise, in which

'

external

world,
'

by destroy'

ing the possibility of there being any world,

external

or

permanent relations shall exist. In the second place, it makes Reason no mere accidental
;

excrescence on a universe of material objects
to

an element
'

be added

to,

or subtracted from, the

sum of things
decide.
all

as

the blind shock of unthinking causes

may

Rather
is

does

it

make Reason
goal.

the very essence of

that
;

or can
origin

be

:

the (immanent) cause of the world-process
its

its

and

In the third place,

it

professes to establish on a firm

moral freedom of self-conscious agents. That 'Self which is the prior condition of there being a
foundation the
natural world cannot be the creature of that world.
It
;

stands above and beyond the sphere of causes and effects
it is

no mere object among other

objects, driven along its

M2
laws.

IDEALISM

predestined course by external forces in obedience to alien

On

the contrary,

it is

a

free,

autonomous

Spirit,

not

only bound, but able, to
^ire

fulfil

the moral

commands which

but the expression of

its

own most

essential being.

1

am
all

reluctant to

suggest objections to any theory

which promises
that

results so admirable.
it

Yet
is

I

cannot think

the difficulties with which

surrounded have

been

fairly faced, or, at

any

rate, fully

explained,

by those
all

who

accept

its

main

principles.

Consider, for example,

the crucial question

of the analysis which reduces
or,

experience to an experience of relations,

in

more
the

technical language, which constitutes the universe out of
categories.

We may

grant without

difficulty

that

contrasted theory, which proposes to reduce the universe
to an unrelated chaos of impressions or sensations,
is

quite

untenable.

But must we not
is

also grant that

in

all

exit

perience there

a refractory element which, though
in

cannot be

presented
its

isolation,
in

nevertheless

refuses

wholly to merge
necessary as these
as thinking beings

being
If so,

a

network of
it
'

relations,

may
'

be to give

significance for us
this irreducible
is

?

whence does
are told,

element arise
relation.
'

?

The mind, we
is

the source of
is

What

the source of that which

related

?

A

thing-in-itself which,
'

by impressing the percipient mind,
'

shall furnish the
'

matter for which categories provide the
(if difficulty

form,'

is

a

way

out of the difficulty
it

there be)

which

raises

more doubts than
which
lies
is
'

solves.

The

followers of

Kant themselves make haste
thetical cause of that

to point out that this hypo-

given

'

in

experience cannot,

beyond experience, be known as a cause, or even as existing. Nay, it is not so much unknown and unknowable as indescribable and unintelligible not so much a riddle whose meaning is obscure as mere absence and vacuity of any meaning whatever. Accordingly, from the speculations with which we are
since ex hypothesi
it
;

;

IDEALISM
here concerned
it

143

it has been dismissed with ignominy, and need not, therefore, detain us further. But we do not get rid of the difficulty by getting rid His dictum still seems to me to of Kant's solution of it.

remain

true, that
it is

'

without matter categories are empty.'

And, indeed,

hard to see

how

it is

possible to conceive

a universe in which relations shall be all in all, but in which nothing is to be permitted for the relations to
subsist

between.
is

Relations

surely

imply a something
is,

which
of

related,
'

and

if

that something

in the

absence
so

relations,
in

nothing for

us

as

thinking

beings,'

something are mere symbols emptied of their signification they are, in short, an illegitimate abstraction.' Those, moreover, who hold that these all-constituting relations are the work of the mind would seem bound also to hold that this concrete world of ours, down to its
relations

the

absence of

that

;

'

'

'

minutest
the

detail,
'

must
there

evolve

itself

a priori out of the
is

movement of pure
'

thought.'
is

There

no room
it

in
'

it

for
'

contingent

'

;

experience

itself

no room in would seem to be a
therefore,

for the

given

superfluity.

And
that
so

we

are

at

a

loss,

to

understand
I

why
say

dialectical

process

which
at
least
'

moves,
so

will

not

convincingly,
abstract

but

smoothly,
'

through
'

the

categories
forth,

of

being,'

not-being,'

becoming,'

it comes Nature which is, after all, one of the principal subjects about which we desire information. No explanation which I remember to have seen

and so

should stumble and hesitate when

to deal with that world of

makes

it

otherwise than strange that

we

should, as the

idealists claim,

be able so thoroughly to identify ourselves

with those thoughts of
liminary
to

God which
but
should

are the necessary preso
little

creation,

understand

creation itself; that

we should out

of our unaided mental

resources

be competent

to reproduce the whole ground-

plan of the universe, and

should yet
its

lose

ourselves

so

hopelessly in the humblest of

ante-rooms.

'

144

IDEALISM

This difficulty at once requires us to ask on what ground it is alleged that these constitutive relations are the work of the mind.' It is true, no doubt, that ordinary usage would describe as mental products the more abstract thoughts (categories), such, for example, as being,' notbeing,' causation,' reciprocity,' &c. But it must be
'
'
'

'

'

recollected, in the

first

place, that transcendental idealism

does not, as a

rule, derive its inspiration

from ordinary

usage
alters

;

and
its

in the

second place, that even ordinary usage
it

procedure when
of
relation

comes
for

to

such more con'

crete
'

cases

as,

instance,

shape

'

and

position,' which, rightly or

wrongly, are always considered
'

as belonging to

the

'

external

world, and presented

by

the external world to thought, not created by thought for
itself.

Are the transcendental

idealists, then,

bound by
to

their

own most
arguments

essential principles, in opposition both to their

against

Kant's 'thing-in-itself' and

the

ordinary beliefs of mankind, to invest the thinking 'self
with this attribute of causal or guasz-ca.usa\ activity
certainly appears to
?

It

me

that they are not.

Starting,

it

will

be recollected, from the analysis (criticism) of experience, they arrived at the conclusion that the world of objects
exists
(subject),
in
is

and has a meaning only for the self-conscious I and that the self-conscious I only knows itself Each contrast and in opposition to the world of objects.
'

'

'

necessary to the other

;

in

the absence of the other
then, can
?

neither has

any significance.
is its

How,

we venture

to

say of one that the other
either,

both
ciple

?

must we not in Thus, though the presence of a self-conscious
be necessary to constitute the universe,
;

and if we say it of consistency insist on saying it of
product
prinit

may

cannot

be considered as the creator of that universe or if it be, then must we acknowledge that precisely in the same way

and precisely

to the

same extent

is

the universe the creator

of the self-conscious principle.
All, therefore, that the transcendental

argument requires

IDEALISM
or even allows us to accept,
is

'45
'

a

manifold

'

of relations

on the one
connected

side,

on the other,

and a bare self-conscious principle of unity by which that manifold becomes inter'

in the

field

of a single experience.'

We
'

are

not permitted, except by a process of abstraction which is purely temporary and provisional, to consider the manifold
'

'

apart from the

'

unity,'

nor the

'

unity

'

apart from the

manifold.'

The thoughts do not make
;

the thinker, nor

the
that

thinker the thoughts

but together they constitute
as they are

Whole

or Absolute

whose elements,

mere

no-sense apart from one another, cannot in strictness be

even said to contribute separately towards the total
Ill

result.

Now
upon
1.

let

us consider what bearing this conclusion has

(i)

As

Theology, (2) Ethics, and (3) Science. regards Theology, it might be supposed that
provided us with a universe which,
if

at

least idealism

not

created or controlled

by Reason

(creation

and control imply-

ing causal action),

may

yet properly be said to be through-

out infused by Reason and to be in necessary
it.

harmony with

But on a closer examination difficulties arise which somewhat mar this satisfactory conclusion. In the first place, if theology is to provide us with a groundwork for religion, the God of whom it speaks must be somethingmore than the bare principle of unity required to give coherence to the multiplicity of Nature. Apart from Nature He is, on the theory we are considering, a mere meta' '

physical abstraction, the geometrical point through which

pass

all

the threads which
:

make up

the

web

of possible

experience

no

fitting object, surely, of either love, rever-

ence, or devotion.
'

In combination with Nature
unity,'

He
is

is

no

doubt the principle of
reality besides
;

and

all

the fulness of concrete

but every quality with which

He

thus

associated belongs to that portion of the Absolute

Whole
com-

from which, by hypothesis,

He

distinguishes Himself; and
find in these qualities,

were

it

otherwise,

we cannot

L

;

146

IDEALISM

pacted, as they are, of good and bad, of noble and base, the
Perfect

Goodness without which

religious

feelings

can

never find an adequate object.
principle alone, nor the
its

Thus, neither the combining
in

combining principle considered
it

union with the multiplicity which
a barren abstraction
it

combines, can satisfy

the requirements of an effectual theology.

Not the

first,

because

it is

;

not the second, because

in its all-inclusive universality

holds in suspension, with-

out preference and without repulsion, every element alike of
the knowable world.

Of these

none, whatever be

its

nature,

good or bad, base or noble, can be considered as alien to the Absolute all are necessary, and all are characteristic. Of these two alternatives, I understand that it is the first which is usually adopted by the school of thought with which we are at present concerned. It may therefore be
be
it
:

desirable to reiterate that a

'

unifying principle

'

can, as such,

have no
for

qualities,

moral or otherwise.

Lovingkindness,
all attri-

example, and Equity are attributes which, like
constitutes.

butes, belong not to the unifying principle, but to the world

of objects which

it

belong to the realm of empirical psychology.

They are conceptions which Nor can I see
to be hitched

any method by which they are
character.
2.

on to the
essential

'pure spiritual subject,' as elements making up

its

But

if this
is
I
'

be

so,

freedom which
self-conscious
'

attributed
?

It
all

what is the ethical value of that by the idealistic theory to the is true that this I as conceived by
'
'

idealism

is

above

the 'categories,' including, of course,
It is

the category of causation.
It is

not in space nor in time.

subject neither to mutation nor decay.
it

The

stress of

material forces touches

not,

nor

is it in

any servitude
it

to

chance or circumstance, to inherited tendencies or acquired
habits.
in virtue
fact,

But
of

all
its

these immunities and privileges

possesses

being, not an agent in a world of concrete
'

but a thinking

subject,' for
Its

whom alone, as

it is

alleged,

such a world exists.
for

freedom is metaphysical, not moral moral freedom can only have a meaning at all in refer-

IDEALISM
ence to a being

147
wills,

who

acts

and who

and

is

only of real

importance
but
is

for us in relation to a

being

acted on,

who

not only

wills,

but

who not only acts, who wills against
nor
is

the opposing influences of temptation.
not,
it is

Such freedom can'subject,'

plain,

be predicated of a mere
'

the
as

freedom proper to a
'

subject

'

of any worth to

man

object,' to

man

as

known

in experience, to

man

fighting

his

way with varying

fortunes against the stream of adverse

circumstances, in a world

made up

of causes and effects.

1

These observations bring

into sufficiently clear relief the

1 This proposition would, probably, not be widely dissented from by some of the ethical writers of the idealist school. The freedom which they postulate is not the freedom merely of the pure self-con-

scious subject.
qualities,

On

the contrary,

it

is

the individual, with

all his

passions, and emotions, who in their view possesses free But the ethical value of the freedom thus attributed to selfwill. conscious agents seems on further examination to disappear. Mankind, it seems, are on this theory free, but their freedom does not

exclude determinism, but only that form of determi7iismivhich consists in external constraint. Their actions are upon this view strictly prescribed by their antecedents, but these antecedents are nothing other
than the characters of the agents themselves.

Now
free

himself alone. But without quarrelling over words, it is, I think, plain that, whether it be proper to call him free or not, he at least lacks freedom in the sense in which freeis

it may seem whose behaviour

at first sight plausible to describe that

man

as

due

to

'

dom
to

is

necessary in order to constitute responsibility.
'

It is

impossible

he can.' For at any life his next action is by hypothesis strictly determined. This is also true of every previous moment, until we get back to that point in his life's history at which he cannot, in any inAntetelligible sense of the term, be said to have a character at all. cedently to this, the causes which have produced him are in no special sense connected with his individuality, but form part of the general complex of phenomena which make up the world. It is evident, therefore, that every act which he performs may be traced to pre-natal, and possibly to purely material, antecedents, and that, even if it be true that what he does is the outcome of his character, his character itself is the outcome of causes over which he has not, and cannot by any Such a theory destroys repossibility have, the smallest control. sponsibility, and leaves our actions the inevitable outcome of external U conditions not less completely than any doctrine of controlling fate, /
ought,'

say of him that he given moment of his

and

therefore

'

;

whether materialistic or theological.

L 2

'

i

48

IDEALISM
which
exists,

difficulty

on the

idealistic theory, in

bringing
'

together into any sort of intelligible association the
'
'

I

'

as

supreme principle of unity, and the I of empirical psychology, which has desires and fears, pleasures and pains, faculwhich was not a little time since, and ties and sensibilities which a little time hence will be no more. The I as prinit can have, therefore, no ciple of unity is outside time of experience, which learns and forgets, history. The I which suffers and which enjoys, unquestionably has a history. What is the relation between the two ? We seem equally precluded from saying that they are the same, and from
;
'

'

;

'

'

saying that they are different.

We

cannot say that they
divided by the whole

are the same, because they are, after

all,

chasm which distinguishes
cannot say they are
desires
different,

'subject'

from

'object.'

We

because our feelings and our

ourselves than a
after
all,

seem a not less interesting and important part of mere unifying principle whose functions,
are of a purely metaphysical character.
'

We

can-

two aspects of the same thing,' because there is no virtue in this useful phrase which shall empower it on the one hand to ear-mark a fragment of the world of objects, and say of it, this is I,' or, on the other, to take the pure subject by which the world of objects is constituted, and say of it that it shall be itself an object in that world from which its essential nature requires it to be self-disnot say they are
'
' '

tinguished.

But as

it

thus seems difficult or impossible intelligibly to
'

unite into a personal whole the
Self, so it is difficult or

pure

'

and the

'

empirical

impossible to conceive the relations

between the pure, though limited, self-consciousness which is 1 and the universal and eternal Self-consciousness which is God. The first has been described as a mode or 'mani1 ' '
'

festation' of the second.

But are we

not, in using such lan-

guage, falling into the kind of error against which, in other
connections, the idealists are most careful to warn us

we not importing

a category which has

its

Are ? meaning and its

use in the world of objects into a transcendental region

'

IDEALISM
where
it

i

49

really has neither

meaning nor use
it

at all

?

Grant,
;

however, for the sake of argument, that
grant that
'

has a meaning
'

we may legitimately describe one pure subject mode or manifestation of another how is this as a partial identity to be established ? How can we, who start from the basis of our own limited self-consciousness, rise to
'

'

'

—

the knowledge of that completed and divine self-consciousness

of which,
?

according to

the theory,

we

share the

essential nature

evaded but not solved in those statetheory which always speak of Thought without specifying whose Thought. It seems to be thus assumed that the thought is God's, and that in rethinking it we share His being. But no such assumption would seem to be justifiable. For the basis, we know, of the whole theory is a criticism or analysis of the essential elements of experience. But the criticism must, for each of us, be necessarily of his ozun experience, for of no other experience can he know anything, except indirectly and by way of inference from his own. What, then, is this criticism
difficulty is

The

ments

of

the

idealist

'

'

supposed to establish (say) for me ? Is it that experience depends upon the unification by a self-conscious I of a world constituted by relations ? In strictness, No. It can only establish that my experience depends upon a unification by my self-conscious I of a world of relations present To this I,' to this particular to me, and to me alone. including God, self-conscious subject,' all other I's,' must be objects, constituted like all objects by relations, rendered possible or significant only by their unification
' ' '

'

'

'

'

in

the

'

content

of a single experience
(if it

'

— namely,

my
is

own.

In other words, that which
'

exists at all)
of,

essentially

subject
'

'

can only be known, or thought

or

spoken about, as
clusion.
It

object'

Surely a very paradoxical conin talking

may

perhaps be said by way of reply, that
'

of particular

I's'

and particular experiences we are using
'

language properly applicable only to the

self dealt with

;

150

IDEALISM
'

by the empirical psychologist, the
'subject,'

self

'

which
I

is

not the

but the 'object,' of experience.
;

will

not dispute

about terms
'

pure ego

said,

and the relations which exist between the and the empirical ego are, as I have alreadyso obscure that it is not always easy to employ a
'
'
'

perfectly

accurate terminology in endeavouring to

deal
If
all,

with them.
the words
'

Yet
self,'
'

this
ego,'

much would seem
'

to be certain.

I,'

are to be used intelligibly at

they must mean, whatever else they do or do not mean, a

'somewhat' which is self-distinguished, not only from every other knowable object, but also from every other possible
'

self.'

What we

are

'

in ourselves,' apart

from the flux of

thoughts and feelings which
have, indeed, found
said
is,

move

in

never-ending pageant

through the chambers of consciousness, metaphysicians
it

hard to say.

Some

of

them have
I

we

are nothing.

But

if this

conclusion be, as
beliefs

think

it

conformable neither to our instinctive
;

nor to a

sound psychology if we are, as I believe, more than a mere series of occurrences, yet it seems equally certain
that the very notion of Personality excludes the idea of

any one person being a
tolerable at
all,

'

mode

'

of any other, and forces
if it

us to reject from philosophy a supposition which,

be

can find a place only in mysticism.
theory pressed to
it

But the
more than
sciousness

idealistic

its

furthest conclu-

sions requires of us to reject, as
this.

appears to me, even

We

are not only precluded

by

it

from

identifying ourselves, even partially, with the Eternal Con:

we

are also precluded from supposing that either

the Eternal Consciousness or any other consciousness exists,

save only our own.
Consciousness,

For, as

I

if it is

to be

have already said, the Eternal known, can only be known on
It
it

the same conditions as any other object of knowledge.

must be constituted by
'

relations
'

content of experience
'

must form part of the of the knower it must exist as
;
;

part of the

multiplicity

'

reduced to
it it

'

unity

'

by

his self-

consciousness.
these terms,
is

But to say that
to say that

can only be known on
it

cannot be known as

exists

'

IDEALISM
for if
it

151

exists at

all,

it

exists

by hypothesis as Eternal
is

Subject, and as such
tions,
'

it
'

clearly

not constituted by rela-

nor

is

it

either a

possible object of experience,' or

anything for us as thinking beings.'

No

consciousness, then,

is

a possible object of know:

ledge for any other consciousness
the idealistic theory of knowledge,
that for

a statement which, on
is

equivalent to saying

any one consciousness all other consciousnesses are less than non-existent. For as that which is critically shown to be an inevitable element in experience has thereby conferred on it the highest possible degree of reality, so that which cannot on any terms become an
'

element

in

experience
is

falls in

the scale of reality far below

mere not-being, and
idealists

reduced, as

we have
'

seen, to

mere

meaningless no-sense.

By

this

kind of reasoning the
I
'

themselves demonstrate the

to be necessary

;

the unrelated object and the thing-in-itself to be impossible.

Not

less,

by

this

kind of reasoning, must each one of us

severally be driven to the conclusion that in the infinite

variety of the universe there
subject,
1

is is
'

room

for but
l

one knowing

and that

this subject

himself

Prof. Caird, in his

most

interesting

and suggestive

lecture

on

the Evolution of Religion, puts forward a theory essentially different

In his view, a multiplicity from the one I have just been of objects apprehended by a single self-conscious subject does not The world of objects and suffice to constitute an intelligible universe. the perceiving mind are themselves opposites which require a higher
dealing with.
unity to hold them together. This higher unity is God ; so that by the simplest of metaphysical demonstrations Prof. Caird lays deep

and proves not only that God exists, but that His Being is philosophically involved in the very simplest of our experiences. I confess, with regret, that this reasoning appears to me inconclusive. Surely we must think of God as, on the transcendental theory, we think of ourselves that is, as a Subject distinguishing itself from, but giving unity to, a world of phenomena. But if such a Subject
the foundations of his theology,
;

and such a world cannot be conceived without also postulating some higher unity in which their differences shall vanish and be dissolved, then God Himself would require some yet higher deity to explain His existence. If, in short, a multiplicity of phenomena presented to

IDEALISM

That the transcendental solipsism which is the natuoutcome of such speculations is not less inconsistent with science, morality, and common-sense than the psychological, or Berkeleian form of the same creed, is obvious. But without attempting further to press idealism to results which, whether legitimate or not, all idealists would agree
3.
'
'

ral

1

in repudiating, let

me, in conclusion, point out
is

how

little

assistance this theory
afford us
in

able under any circumstances to

solving important problems connected with

the Philosophy of Science.

The psychology
upon the very

of

Hume,

as

we have

seen, threw

doubt

possibility of legitimately framing general

propositions about the world of objects.

The

observation
is

of isolated and unrelated impressions of sense, which
effect

in

what experience became reduced to under

his process

of analysis,

may

generate habits of expectation, but never
beliefs.

can justify rational
tion, for

The law

of universal causa-

tion,

example, can never be proved by a mere repetihowever prolonged, of similar sequences, though the

may, through the association of ideas, gradually compel us to expect the second term of the sequence whenever the first term comes within the field of our obserrepetition
vation.
idealists.

So

far

Hume

as interpreted

by the transcendental

I form together an intelligible and hard to see by what logic we are to get beyond the solipsism which, as I have urged in the text, seems to be the necessary outcome of one form, at least, of the transcendental argument. If, on the other hand, subject and object cannot form such an intelligible and self-sufficient whole, then it seems impossible to imagine what is the nature of that Infinite One in which the multiplicity of things and persons find their ultimate unity. Of such a God we can have no knowledge, nor can we say that we are formed in His image, or share His essence. Of course I do not mean to suggest that Berkeley was a
' '

and apprehended by a conscious
self-sufficient

whole, then

it is

1

'

solipsist.'

On

the scientific bearing of psychological idealism, see
ix.

Philosophic Doubt, chap.

;

IDEALISM
Now, how Somewhat in
(so to speak)
is

153

this difficulty

this

way.

met on the idealistic theory? These categories or general prin-

ciples of relation

have not, say the idealists, to be collected from individual and separate experiences (as the empirical philosophers believe, but as Hume, the chief among empiricists, showed to be impossible) neither are
;

they, as the a priori philosophers

supposed, part of the

original furniture of the observing mind, intended

by Provi-

dence to be applied as occasion arises to the world of experience with which by a beneficent, if unexplained, adaptation they find themselves in a pre-established har-

mony.

On

the contrary, they are the

'

necessary priusj the

antecedent condition, of there being any experience at all so that the difficulty of subsequently extracting them from
experience does not
truth their creation
arise.
;

The world
surprise.

of

phenomena

is

in

so that the conformity between the

two need not be any subject of
the

Thus, at one and
set

same time does idealism vindicate experience and
rest.
I

the scepticism of the empiricist at

doubt, however, whether this solution of the problem

will really

stand the test of examination.
is

Assuming
constituted

for

the sake of argument that the world
'

by

categories,' the old difficulty arises in a

new shape when

we ask on what
versal

principle those categories are in

case to be applied,
application
;

any given For they are admittedly not of unithe idealists themselves are

and, as

careful to

remind

us, there is

no more

fertile

source of error

than the importation of them into a sphere wherein they have no legitimate business. Take, for example, the cate-

gory of causation, from a
important of
'

scientific point of

view the most

all.

By what
'

right does the existence of this

principle of relation

enable us to assert that throughout

the whole world every event must have a cause, and every

cause must be invariably succeeded by the same event? Because we can apply the category, are we, therefore, bound
to apply
it ?

Does any absurdity

or contradiction ensue
is

from our supposing that the order of Nature

arbitrary

154

IDEALISM
casual,

and

and

that,

repeat the antecedent with what
is

no security that the accustomed must confess that I can perceive none. Of course, we should thus be deprived of one of our most useful principles of unification but this would by no means result in the universe resolving itself into that unthinkable chaos of unrelated atoms which is the idealist bugbear. There are plenty of categories left and if the final aim of philosophy be, indeed, to find the Many in One and the One in Many, this end would be as completely, if not as satisfactorily, accomplished by conceiving the world to be presented to the thinking subject in the haphazard multiplicity of unordered succession, as by any more elaborate method. Its various elements lying side by side in one Space and one Time would still be related together in the content of a single experience they would still form an intelligible whole their unification would thus be effectually accomplished without the aid of the higher categories. But it is evident that a universe so constituted, though it might
accuracy
there
?

we may,

consequent

will follow

I

'

'

;

;

'

'

;

;

not be inconsistent with Philosophy, could never be interpreted by Science.

As we saw
tuted
the

in the earlier portion of this chapter,
if

it is

not very easy to understand why,

the universe be consti-

by relations, and relations are the work of the mind, mind should be dependent on experience for finding out anything about the universe. But granting the necessity of experience,
it seems as hard to make that experience answer our questions on the idealist as on the empirical

hypothesis. Neither on the one theory nor on the other does any method exist for extracting general truths out of particular observations, unless some general truths are
first

assumed.

On

the empirical hypothesis there are no

such general truths.

Pure empiricism has, therefore, no

claim to be a philosophy.
the whole intelligible world

On

the

idealist

hypothesis

there appears to be only one general truth applicable to

—a

world which, be

it

recol-

lected, includes everything in respect to

which language

IDEALISM
can

155
therefore,

be

significantly

used

;

a world which,

includes the negative as well as the positive, the false as
well as the true, the imaginary as well as the real, the

This single allas well as the possible. embracing truth is that the multiplicity of phenomena, whatever be its nature, must always be united, and only
impossible
exists in virtue of being united, in the experience of a

single self-conscious Subject.

But
I

this general proposition,

whatever be

its

value, cannot,

conceive, effectually guide
It supplies

us in the application of subordinate categories.

us with no method for applying one principle rather than

another within the
information
as to

field

of experience.

It

cannot give us
field,
if

what portion of that
tell

any,

is

subject to the law of causation, nor
perceptions,
if

us which of our

any,

may be

taken as evidence of the
is

existence of a permanent world of objects such as
in
all

implied
the
old

scientific

doctrine.

Though,

therefore,

come upon us in a new form, clothed, I will not say shrouded, in a new terminology, they come upon us with all the old insistence. They are restated, but they
questions
are not solved
;

and

I

am

unable, therefore, to
difficulties

find

in

idealism any escape

from the

which, in the

region of theology, ethics, and science, empiricism leaves

upon our hands.
1

1

have made in this chapter no reference to the idealistic theory Holding the views I have indicated upon the general import of idealism, such a course seemed unnecessary. But I cannot help thinking that even those who find in that theory a more satisfactory basis for their convictions than I am able to do, must feel that there is something rather forced and arbitrary in the attempts that have been made to exhibit the artistic fancies of an insignificant fraction of the human race during a very brief period of its history as essential and important elements in the development and manifestation
I

of aesthetics.

of the

'

Idea.'

i 56

CHAPTER

III

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
I

Briefly,

if

not adequately,

I

have now endeavoured

to indicate the

weaknesses which seem to

me

to

be

inseparable from
verse,

any empirical theory of the unito
it

and almost equally

beset the
its

idealistic

theory in the form given to

by

most systematic

exponents
feel

in this country.

The reader may perhaps
I

tempted to ask whether

propose, in what

purports to be an Introduction to Theology, to pass

under similar review all the metaphysical systems

which have from time to time held sway
schools,

in

the
of

or have

affected

the

general

course

speculative opinion.

He
is

need, however, be under
strictly practical
;

no alarm.

My

object

and

I

have no concern with
sophic power

theories,

however admirable,
to

which can no longer pretend to any living philo-

—which

have no de facto claims
their importance

present us with a reasoned scheme of knowledge,

and which cannot prove
supplying

by

actually

grounds

for

the

conviction

of

some

—
PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
fraction, at least, of those
157

by

whom

these pages

may

conceivably be read.
In saying that this condition
the great historic
is

not satisfied by
their

systems

which mark with

imperishable ruins the devious course of European
thought,
I

must not be understood as suggesting that
interest.

on that account these lack either value or
All
I

say

is,

that their interest

is

not of a kind which

brings

them properly within the scope of these Notes. Whatever be the nature or amount of our debt to

the great metaphysicians of the past, unless here and

now we go
on

to

them not merely

for stray

arguments

this or that question, but for

a reasoned scheme

of knowledq-e which shall include as elements our

own

actual beliefs, their theories are not, for the pur-

poses of the present discussion, any concern of ours.

Now,

of

how many
?

systems, outside the two that
on, can this
in

have already been touched
bly be asserted

even

plausi-

Run

over

memory some

of the

most important.
tion, for

Men

value Plato for his imagina-

the genius with which he hazarded solutions

of the secular problems which perplex mankind, for

the finished art of

his dialogue, for

the exquisite

beauty of his

style.

But even
he
left

if it

could be said
it

which

it

cannot
as

—that
It

a system, could
as

be

described
effectual

a system which,

such,
difficult,

has

any
But
touch

vitality?

would be

perhaps

impossible, to

sum up our
Stoic

debts to Aristotle.

assuredly they do not include a tenable theory of the
universe.

The

scheme of

life

may

still

i53

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
;

our imagination

but

who

takes any interest in their
of the world,

metaphysics

?

Who cares for their Soul
The
is,

the periodic conflagrations, and the recurring cycles
of

mundane events?
;

Neo-Platonists
I

were

mystics

and mysticism
in

as

suppose, an undying
is

element

human

thought.

But who

concerned

about their hierarchy of beings connecting through
infinite

gradations the Absolute at one end of the

scale with

Matter

at the other
it

?

These, however,

may be
;

said,

were systems

belonging to the ancient world

and mankind have

not busied themselves with speculation for these two

thousand
advance.

years
I

and more without making some
;

agree

but in the matter of providing

us with a philosophy

knowledge

—has

—with

a reasoned system of
?

this

advance been as yet substantial

If the ancients fail us,

do we, indeed,

fare

much

better

with the moderns
cartes

?

Are the metaphysics of Des?

more

living than his physics

Do

his

two

substances or kinds of substance, or the single substance of Spinoza, or the innumerable substances of
Leibnitz, satisfy the searcher after truth
?

From the

modern English form of the empiricism which dominated the eighteenth century, and the idealism which
disputes
its

supremacy

in

the

nineteenth,

I

have

already ventured to express a reasoned dissent.

Are

we, then, to look to such schemes as Schopenhauer's

philosophy of Will, and Hartmann's philosophy of the Unconscious, to supply us with the philosophical

metaphysics of which

we

are in need

?

They have

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
admirers
herents.
in this country,

159

but hardly convinced ad-

Of

those

their pessimism,

who are quite prepared to accept how many are there who take seri?

ously

its

metaphysical foundation

In truth there are but three points of view from

which

it

seems

worth while to make ourselves

acquainted with the growth, culmination, and decay
of the various metaphysical dynasties which

have

successively struggled for supremacy in the world of
ideas.

The first

is

purely historical.

Thus

regarded,

metaphysical systems are simply significant pheno-

mena
his

in the general history of

spiritual

condition,

aids,

it

man symptoms of may be, to his
:

.spiritual

growth.

The

historian of philosophy, as

such,

is

therefore quite unconcerned with the truth

or falsehood of the opinions

whose evolution he

is

expounding.
their

His business
to

is

merely to account for
in

existence,

exhibit

them

their

proper

historical setting,

and

to explain their character

and
it

their consequences.
difficult

But, so considered,
that these opinions

I

find

to believe

have been

elements of primary importance to the advancement
of mankind.
intellectual

All ages, indeed, which have exhibited

vigour have

cultivated
;

one or

more

characteristic systems of metaphysics
it

but rarely, as

seems

to

me, have these systems been in their

turn

important elements in determining the cha-

racter of the periods in

which they

flourished.
;

They

have been
the

effects rather
in

than causes

indications of

mood

which, under the special stress of their

160

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM

time and circumstance, the most detached intellects

have faced the eternal problems of humanity
of the unresting desire of
beliefs into

;

proofs

mankind
always

to bring their

harmony with
have
;

speculative reason.

But
the
;

the

beliefs

almost

preceded

speculations

they have frequently survived them

and

I

cannot convince myself that

among

the just

titles to

our consideration sometimes put forward on

behalf of metaphysic

we may count her we come

claim to

rank as a powerful instrument of progress.

No

doubt

—and
it

here

to the second

point of view alluded to above

—the constant discusto
their
in

sion of these high problems has not been barren

merely because
solution.

has not as yet led
for

Philosophers have mined

truth

many

directions,

and the whole

field

of speculation

seems cumbered with the dross and lumber of their But though they have not abandoned workings.
found the ore they sought
follow that their labours
is

for,

it

does not therefore
vain.
It It is

have been wholly

something

to

have realised what not

to do.
failure,

something to discover the causes of

even
or

though we do not attain any positive knowledge
the

conditions

of success.

It

is

an even more

substantial gain to

have done something towards
creating

disengaging the questions which require to be dealt
with,

and

towards

and

perfecting

the

terminology without which they can scarcely be
adequately stated,

much
yet

less satisfactorily

answered.

And

there

is

a third point of view from

;

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM

161

which past metaphysical speculations are seen to
retain
their value, a
I

point of view which
little

may be

called (not,

admit, without some
(esthetic.

violence to

accustomed usage) the
ing occupies
treatises

Because reasonin

so

large

a

place

metaphysical

we

are apt to forget that, as a rule, these are
at least as

works of imagination

much

as of reason.

/

Metaphysicians are poets

who

deal with the abstract

and the super-sensible instead of the concrete and
the sensuous.
difference.
gifts are

To

be sure they are poets with a
appropriate

Their

and

characteristic
is

not the vivid realisation of that which
;

given in experience
as
it

their genius does not prolong,

were, and echo through the remotest regions of

feeling the shock of

create for us no

some new worlds

definite

emotion

;

they
;

of things and persons

nor can
labours

it

be often said that the product of their
a thing of beauty.

is

Their

style,

it

must

be owned, has not always been

their strong point

and even when

it

is

otherwise,

mere graces of pre-

sentation are but unessential accidents of their work.

Yet, in spite of

all

this,

they can only be justly
are

estimated by those
to

who

prepared
;

to

apply

some other standard, at all events, than that supplied by purely It may perhaps be shown argumentative comment.
them a
quasi-aesthetic

standard

that their metaphysical constructions are faulty, that
their

demonstrations do not convince,
dialectical

that

their

most permanent

triumphs have fallen to

them

in the paths of criticism

and negation.

Yet

M

162

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
last

even then the

word

will

not have been said.
still

For claims
occasional

to our admiration will
intuitions,
in in

be found

in

their brilliant

the subtlety of their

arguments,

their

passion

for

the

Universal and the Abiding, in their steadfast faith
in

the rationality of the world, in the devotion with
live

which they are content to
of
abstract

and move
far

in realms

speculation

too

removed

from

ordinary interests to excite the slightest genuine

sympathy
If,

in the breasts

even of the cultivated few.

therefore,

we

are for a

moment tempted,

as surely
re-

may sometimes

happen, to contemplate with

spectful astonishment

some of the arguments which

the illustrious authors of the great historic systems

have thought good enough to support their case, let it be remembered that for minds in which the critical
intellect

holds undisputed sway, the creation of any
in the present state of

system whatever
ledge
is,

our knowin

perhaps, impossible.

Only those

whom

powers of philosophical criticism are balanced, or more than balanced, by powers of metaphysical
imagination can be
fitted to

undertake the task.
impossible, at
;

Though even
least for

to

them success may be
is

the illusion of success
fall

permitted
in

and but

them mankind would
its

away

hopeless dis-

couragement from

highest intellectual ideal, and
its birth.

speculation would be strangled at

To
would

some, indeed,
not, after
all,

may appear What be great.
it

as
use,

if

the loss

they

may

exclaim, can be found for any system which will not

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
stand
critical

163

examination

?

What

value has reason?

ing which does not satisfy the reason

How

can

we know

that these abstruse investigations supply
final

even a fragmentary contribution towards a
philosophy, until

we

are able to look back

upon them

from the perhaps inaccessible vantage ground to be
supplied by this final philosophy itself?

To

such

questionings

I

do not profess to find a completely

satisfactory answer.

Yet even those who

feel in-

clined to rate extant speculations at the lowest value
will

perhaps admit that metaphysics, like

art,

give

us something

we

could

ill

afford to spare.

Art may

not have provided us with any reflection of immortal

beauty

;

nor metaphysics have brought us into cometernal
truth.

munion with
historic

Yet both may have
art,

value.

In speculation, as in

we

find

a vivid expression of the changeful mind of man.

and the interest of both, perhaps,

is

at its highest

when they most clearly reflect the spirit of the age which gave them birth, when they are most racy of
the soil from which they sprung.

To

this point

I

may have

to return.

But

my

home to the more immediate business is reader's mind the consequences which may be drawn from the admission supposing him disposed to make it that we have at the present time neither a
to bring

—

—

satisfactory

system of metaphysics nor a satisfactory

theory of science.

Many

persons

—perhaps

it

would

1

64

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
much
to say

not be too

most persons, are prepared
first

contentedly to accept the

of these propositions
I

;

but

it is

on the truth of the second that

desire to

lay at least an equal stress.
in the street

The
is

first

man one meets

thinks

it

quite natural to accept the

opinion that sense-experience
rational conviction
;

the only source ot
it

that everything to which
if

does
the

not

testify is

untrue, or,

true,

falls

within

domain, not of knowledge, but of
criticism of

faith.

Yet the

knowledge indicated

in the
is

two preced-

ing chapters shows
If faith

how

one-sided

such a view.

be provisionally defined as conviction apart
in

from or
the

excess of proof, then
of daily
life,

it is

upon

faith that

maxims

not less than the loftiest

creeds and the most far-reaching discoveries, must
ultimately lean.

The ground on which
predispositions
is

constant

habit and

inherited

enable

us

to

tread with a step so easy and so assured,

seen on

examination to be not
than the dim

less

hollow beneath our feet
regions

and

unfamiliar
is
;

which

lie

beyond.

Certitude

found to be the

child,

not of

Reason, but of Custom

and

about the beliefs on which
to act than about those

if we are less perplexed we are hourly called upon

which do not touch so closely
it is

our obvious and immediate needs,

not because

the questions suggested by the former are easier to

answer, but because as a matter of fact
less inclined to

we

are

much

ask them.

Now,

if

this
It

be

true,

it is

plainly a fact of capital
attitude

importance.

must revolutionise our whole

;

'

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM

165

towards the problems presented to us by science,
ethics,

tests

and theology. It must destroy the ordinary and standards whereby we measure essential truth. In particular, it requires us to see what is commonly,
if

rather absurdly,

called
in

the conflict

between
aspect.

religion

and

science

a

wholly

new

We

can no longer be content with the

simple view, once universally accepted, that when-

ever any discrepancy, real or supposed, occurs be-

tween the two, science must be rejected as heretical nor with the equally simple view, to which the
former has long given place, that every theological
statement,
if

unsupported by science,
is

is

doubtful

;

if

inconsistent with science,

false.

Opinions like

these are
thesis

evidently tolerable

only on the hypoof

that

we

are
is

in

possession

a

body of

doctrine

which

not

only

itself

philosophically

established, but to

doctrines are

bound

whose canons of proof all other But if there is to conform.
?

no such body of doctrine, what then
bitrarily to

Are we

ar-

erect
all

one department of
the others
?

belief into a
to say that

law-giver for

Are we

though no scheme of knowledge
first

exists, certain in its

principles,

and coherent
that

in its elaborated con-

clusions,

yet

from

among

the

provisional
to accept
limits,

schemes which we are inclined practically

one

is

to be selected at random, within

whose

and there alone, the spirit of
fident security
? is

man may range

in con-

Such a position

speculatively untenable.

It

1

66

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
a use of the Canon of Consistency not

involves
justified
in

by any philosophy
so
it

;

and as

it is

indefensible

theory,

is

injurious in practice.

For, in
in-

truth,

though
is

the contented

acquiescence in

consistency

the abandonment of the philosophic
all

quest, the determination to obtain consistency at

costs has
lectual

been the

prolific

parent of

many
has

intelIt

narrownesses and
itself in

many

frigid bigotries.
;

has shown

various shapes

it

stifled

and stunted
different ages
its

the

free

movement
traced in
in

of

thought in
;

and diverse schools of speculation

unhappy

effects

may be

which professes to be orthodox,

much theology much criticism
is,

which delights

to

be heterodox.

It

moreover,

the characteristic note of a not inconsiderable class
of intelligences
specially

who

conceive themselves

to

be

reasonable

because they are constantly

employed

in reasoning,

and who can

find

no better

method of advancing the cause of knowledge than
to press to their

extreme

logical conclusions princi-

ples of which, perhaps, the best that can

be said

is

that they contain,

as

it

were

in

solution,

some

element of truth which no reagents at our
will as

command

yet permit us to isolate.

in

That
will,
I

I

am

here attacking no imaginary evil
recalls

think,

be evident to any reader who

the general trend of educated opinion during the
last

three centuries.

It

is,

of course, true that in

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
dealing with
object
as
'

167

so

vague

and
'

loosely

outlined

an

educated opinion

attributing to large masses of

we must beware of men the acceptance
articulated
for

of

elaborate
are,

and

definitely
be,

systems.

Systems

and must

the

few.

majority of mankind are content with

The a mood or
reasoned

temper of thought, an impulse not
out,

fully

a habit guiding them to the acceptance and

assimilation of
others,

some opinions and the

rejection of

which acts almost as automatically as the

processes of physical digestion.
realised

Behind these
association
'

half-

motives,

and

in

closest

with

them,

may
'

sometimes, no doubt, be found a

theory
ex-

of things
pression.

which

is is

their

logical

and

explicit

But

it

certainly not
this

necessary,

and

perhaps not usual, that
formulated by those

theory should be clearly
to

who seem
is

obey

it.

Nor

for
dis-

our present purpose
tinction to

there

any important

be made between the case of the few

who

find a reason for their habitual judgments,

and

that of the

many who do

not.

Keeping

this caution in

mind,

we may

consider

without risk of misconception an illustration of the

misuse of the Canon of Consistency provided for us

by the theory corresponding

to

that

tendency of
in

thought which has played so large a part

the
is is

development of the modern mind, and which

commonly known
Rationalism
it

as Rationalism.

Now, what

?

Some may be

disposed to reply that

is

the free and unfettered application of

human

168

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
problems of
life

intelligence to the

and of the world

;

the unprejudiced examination of every question in the dry light of emancipated reason.

This may be

a very
-

ideal

;

good account of a particular intellectual an ideal which has been sought after at many
it

'

periods of the world's history, although assuredly

has been

attained

in

none.

Usage,

however,

permits and even encourages us to employ the word as indicating a in a much more restricted sense
:

special

form of

that

reaction

against

dogmatic

theology which
to

may
its

be said with sufficient accuracy
Renaissance, to have

have taken and
its

rise in the

increased in

teenth

and volume during the seveneighteenth centuries, and to have
force

reached

most

complete

expression

in

the

Naturalism which occupied our attention through
the
sort
first

portion of these Notes.

A

reaction of

some

Men found themwas no doubt inevitable. selves in a world where Literature, Art, and Science
were enormously extending the range of human Religion seemed approachin which interests
;

able

only through

the

languishing
fierce

controversies

which had burnt with so
sixteenth

a flame during the
;

and

seventeenth

centuries

in

which

accepted theological methods had their roots in a

very different period of intellectual growth, and were ceasing to be appropriate to the new developments.

At such a time
of

there was, undoubtedly, an important,

and even a necessary, work to be done.

The mind
in

man

cannot, any

more than the body, vary

one

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
direction
gains,
alone.

169

The whole organism

suffers,

or

from the change, and every faculty and every

limb must be somewhat modified in order successfully

to

meet the new demands thrown upon

it
it

by the altered balance of the remainder.
also in matters intellectual. that
It is

So

is

hopeless to expect

new
in

truths

and new methods of investigation
reconsidered

can be acquired without the old truths requiring to

be

some

respects

and

restated,

surveyed under a new aspect, measured, perhaps, by
a different standard.

Much

had, therefore, to be

modified, and something

—

let

us admit

it

— had to be
by the old

destroyed.
its

The new system
until

could hardly produce
left

best

results

the
;

refuse

system had been removed

until the

waste products
a muscle too
in

were eliminated which,

like those of

long exercised, poisoned and clogged the tissues

which they had once played the part of living and
effective elements.

The

world, then, required enlightenment, and the

rationalists

proceeded after their own fashion to
Unfortunately, however, their whole

enlighten

it.

procedure was tainted by an original vice of method

which made
if

it

impossible to carry on the honourable,

comparatively humble,
without,

purification

at the

work of clearance and same time, destroying

much that ought properly to have been preserved. They were not content with protesting against
practical

abuses, with

vindicating

the freedom of

science from theological bondage, with criticising the

iyo

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM

and explaining the limitations of the somewhat cumbrous and antiquated apparatus of prevalent apparatus, no doubt, much theological controversy
defects

—

better contrived for dealing with the points on which

theologians

differ

than

for

defending

against

a

common enemy
for the to

the points on which theologians are

most part agreed.

These

things,
;

no doubt,
to the

the

best of their power, they did

and

The doing of them no objection need be raised. things the which objection is to the principle on
were done.
disguises,

That

principle appeared

under many

and was called by many names. Sometimes describing itself as Common-sense, sometimes
as Science, sometimes as Enlightenment, with infinite
varieties of application

and great diversity of doctrine,

Rationalism consisted essentially in the application,
consciously or unconsciously, of one great

method

to

the decision of every controversy, to the moulding
of every creed.

Did a

belief square with a

view of

the universe based exclusively upon the prevalent

mode
might

of interpreting sense-perception
survive.
it ?

?

If so,

it

beyond
scientific
it

Did it was It

clash with such mode, or
superstitious
; ;

lie

it

was

un-

;

it

neither in

was harmony with nor
ridiculous
it
it ?

was

incredible.

Was
until

antagonistic to such
It

a view, but simply beside
it

might
use,

live

on

became atrophied from lack of
dead
past.

a mere

sur-

vival of a

These judgments were

not, as a rule,

supported

by any very profound arguments.

Rationalists as

'

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
such
are

171

not

philosophers.

They

are

not pan-

theists nor
if

speculative materialists.

They

ignore

they do not despise metaphysics, and in practice
for first
principles.

eschew the search
judge as
criticise

But they
so

men
too
in

of the world, equally reluctant to

closely

methods
affairs,

which succeed

admirably

everyday

or to admit that any

other methods can possibly be required by
sense.

men

of

Of
led
at

course, a principle so loosely conceived has
different

times and in different stages of

knowledge

to very different results.

Through the
'

greater portion of the world's history the

ordinary

mode

of interpreting sense-perception
consistent
It

'

has been

perfectly

with

so-called

'

supernatural

phenomena.
the case,

may become

so

again.

And

if

during the rationalising centuries this has not been
it

is

because the interpretation of sense-

perceptions has during that period been more and

more governed by
world to which
is
it

that Naturalistic theory of the
It

has been steadily gravitating.

true that the process of eliminating incongruous

beliefs

has been gradual.

The

general

body of
to

rationalisers

have been slow
that

to see

and reluctant

accept the

full

consequences of their own principles.
the

The assumption
knowledge did not
it

kind of

'

experience

which gave us natural science was the sole basis of
at
first,

or necessarily, carry with

the further inference that nothing deserved to be

called

knowledge which did not come within the

1

72

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
the natural
sciences.

circle of

But the inference
Theism,

was

practically, if not logically, inevitable.

Deism, Design, Soul, Conscience, Morality, Immorthese and cognate words tality, Freedom, Beauty

—

associated with the

memory
at

of great controversies
rationalists

mark the

points

which

not also naturalists

have sought
spirit,

to to

with the rationalising
against
its

or
It

who are come to terms make a stand
hung long in may yet seem
still

onward movement.
at others

has been in vain.

At some
doubtful.

places the fortunes of battle
;

the balance

the issues

Those who have given up God can
fight for

make a

conscience

;

those

who have
console

abandoned moral
themselves with

responsibility

may
But, to

still

artistic

beauty.

my thinking,

at least, the struggle

can have but one termination.

Habit and education may delay the inevitable conFor these clusion they cannot in the end avert it.
;

ideas are

no native growth of a

rationalist epoch,

strong in their harmony with contemporary
of thought.
age,

moods

They

are the products of a different
as

survivals

from,

some

think,

a decaying
they

system.

And howsoever

stubbornly

may

resist the influences of an alien environment, if this undergoes no change, in the end they must

surely perish.

Naturalism, then, the naturalism whose practical

consequences have already occupied us so long,
nothing

is

more

than

the

result

of

rationalising
to

methods applied with

pitiless

consistency

the

'

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM
whole
of
1

173

circuit of belief.

It is

the completed product the

rationalism,

the

final

outcome of using

current methods of interpreting sense-perception
the universal

as

instrument for

determining the

nature and fixing the limits of

human knowledge.
this

What
What,

wealth
us

of

spiritual
I

possession

creed

requires

to give up
it

have already explained.
in

then, does

promise us

exchange?

It

promises us Consistency.
its

Religion

may

perish at

touch,

it

may

strip

Virtue and Beauty of their
;

most

precious

attributes

but

in

exchange
is

it

promises us Consistency.

True, the promise
kept.

in

any circumstances but imperfectly
be made consistent with
consistent with
itself.

This creed,
is

which so arrogantly requires that everything
it,

to

is

not, as

we have

seen,

The humblest
unquestioning

attempts to

co-ordinate and to justify the assumptions on which
it

proceeds

with

such

confidence

bring to light speculative perplexities
dictions

and contra-

whose
were
test
it

solution

whose very existence seems unsuspected, But even is not even attempted.

otherwise

we should

still

be bound to prois

against the assumption that consistency
life,

a
if

necessity of the intellectual

to be purchased,
It
is

need

be,

at

famine
it

prices.

a

valuable

commodity, but

may

be bought too dear.
is

No
to
fit,

doubt a principal function of Reason

to

smooth
proper

away

contradictions, to

knock

off corners,

and
its

as far as

may

be,

each separate belief into

place within

the

framework of one

harmonious

174

PHILOSOPHY AND RATIONALISM

creed.

No

doubt, also,

it

is

impossible to regard
either
far

any theory which lacks self-consistency as
satisfactory

or

final.

But

principles

going

beyond admissions
us
to

like these are required to
in

compel

acquiesce

rationalising

methods

and

naturalistic results, to the destruction of

every form

of belief with which they do not happen to agree.

Before such terms of surrender are accepted,

at

least the victorious system must show, not merely

that

its

various parts are consistent with each other,
is

but that the whole
Until
this
it is

authenticated

by Reason.

task

is

accomplished

(and

how

far at

present

from being accomplished
it

in the case of

naturalism the reader knows)

would be an act of

mere blundering Unreason

to set

up

as the universal
itself

standard of belief a theory of things which

stands in so great need of rational defence, or to

make a

reckless

and unthinking application of the
first

canon of consistency when our knowledge of
principles
is

so manifestly defective.

•75

CHAPTER
At
however,

IV

RATIONALIST ORTHODOXY
this point,
I
it

may perhaps
to

occur to the

reader that

have somewhat too
is

lightly

assumed

that Rationalism

the high-road
is

Naturalism.

Why,
shall

it

may be

asked,

there any insuperable

difficulty in

framing another scheme of belief which
satisfy the

permanently

requirements of congeneral procedure
are

sistency,

and yet harmonise

in its
?

with the rationalising spirit

Why
this

we

to as-

sume that the extreme type of
is

mode

of thought

the only stable type

?

Such doubts would be the
is

more

legitimate because there

actually in existence

a scheme

of great

historic importance,
it

and some

present interest, by which

has been sought to run

modern Science and Theology together into a single coherent and self-sufficient system of thought, by the simple process of making Science supply all the
premises on which theological conclusions are
after-

wards based.

If this device

be really adequate, no

and much that

doubt much of what was said in the last chapter, will have to be said in future chapters,

becomes superfluous.

If

'

our ordinary method of

176

RATIONALIST ORTHODOXY
sense-perception,'

interpreting

which

gives

us

Science,

is

able also to supply us with Theology,

then at
not,

least,

whether

it

be philosophically valid or

the majority of mankind
it

may very
come
it

well rest
to

content with

until

philosophers
If

some

agreement about a
philosophic
else
;

better.
will

does not satisfy the

critic, it

probably satisfy everyone
critic

and even the philosophic
its

need not quarrel

with

practical outcome.

The system by which
to

these results are thought
It

be attained pursues the following method.

divides

Theology

into

Natural

and

Revealed.

Natural Theology expounds the theological beliefs

which may be arrived

at

by a consideration of the
is

general course of Nature as this

explained to us

by Science.
less

It

dwells principally upon the numberin

examples of adaptation

the organic world,
in-

which apparently display the most marvellous
dications of ingenious contrivance,

and the

nicest
like

adjustment of means to ends.
these
it

From

facts

is

inferred that Nature has an intelligent

and a powerful Creator.

From

the further fact that

these adjustments and contrivances are in a large

number of
Creator
is

cases designed for the interests of beings
it is

capable of pleasure and pain,

inferred that the

not only intelligent and powerful, but also
;

benevolent

and the inquiring mind
sufficiently

is

then sup-

posed to be

prepared to consider without

prejudice the

evidence for there having been a

special Revelation

by which further truths may have

RATIONALIST ORTHODOXY
been imparted, not otherwise accessible
assisted
to

177

our un-

powers of speculation.
evidences of Revealed Religion are not

The

drawn, like those of Natural Religion, from general
laws and widely disseminated particulars
profess
;

but they
facts

none the

less to

be solely based upon
I

which, according to the classification
to

have adhered
scientific

throughout these Notes, belong to the

order.

According

to this theory, the logical
is

burden

of the entire theological structure
the evidence
for

thrown upon

certain events

which took place

long ago, and principally in a small district to the
east of the Mediterranean, the occurrence of which
it

is

sought to prove by the ordinary methods of

historical investigation,

and by these alone

—

unless,

indeed,

we

are to regard as an important ally the

aforementioned presumption supplied by

Natural

Theology.

It is true,

of course, that the immediate

reason for accepting the beliefs of Revealed Religion
is

that the religion is revealed.
it

But

it is

thought to

be revealed because

was promulgated by teachers
the
teachers are thought to
;

who were

inspired

;

have been inspired because they worked miracles
and they are thought
because there
is

to

have worked miracles
evidence of the
fact,

historical

which
to

it

is

supposed would be more than
in

sufficient

produce conviction

any unbiassed mind.
if

Now

it

must be conceded that

this general

train of reasoning

be assumed to cover the whole
it

ground of

'

Christian Evidences,' then, whether

N

;

1

78

RATIONALIST ORTHODOXY
it

be conclusive or inconclusive,

does at least attain

the desideratum of connecting Science on the one

hand, Religion
other,

—

'

Natural

'

and

'

Revealed

'

—on the
in
;

into one single scheme of interconnected pro-

positions..

But

it

attains

it

by making Theology

form a mere annex or appendix to Science
footnote to history
;

a mere

a series of conclusions inferred

from data which have been arrived at by precisely
the

same methods

as those which enable us to proin

nounce upon the probability of any other events

the past history of man, or of the world in which he
lives.

We
real
It

are

no longer dealing with a creed
lie

whose
things.
tion,

premises
is

deep

in

the

nature of

no question of metaphysical speculawith which

moral

intuition, or mystical ecstasy

we

are concerned.

We

are asked to believe the
for the

Universe to have been designed by a Deity

same
and

sort

of reason

that

we

believe

Canterbury

Cathedral to have been designed by an architect
to believe in the events narrated in the

Gospels

for the

same

sort of reason that

we

believe in the

murder of Thomas a Becket.

Now
opinion

I

am

not concerned to maintain that these
;

arguments are bad
is that,

on the contrary,

my

personal

as far as they go, they are good.
I

The
have

argument, or perhaps

should say an argument,
other, will always

from design,
value
;

in

some shape or
the

while

argument

from

history

must

always form a part of the evidence for any
cal religion.

histori-

The

first

will, in

my

opinion, survive

RATIONALIST ORTHODOXY

179

any inferences from the doctrine of natural selection

;

the second will survive the consequences of critical
assaults.

But more than
is,

this is desirable

;

more

than this

indeed, necessary.
this sort are, or

For however good
they are

arguments of

may be made,

not equal by themselves to the task of upsetting so

massive an obstacle as developed Naturalism.

They
ill

have

not,

as

it

were, sufficient intrinsic energy to

effect so

great

a change.

directed, but they lack

momentum.
but

They may not be They may not
they are
assuredly

be technically defective,
practically inadequate.

To many who doubt it
if

this
will,

may appear
I

self-evident.

Those
its

think, be convinced of

truth

they put themselves for a
a

moment

in the

position

of

man
;

trained

on the

strictest

principles

of

Naturalism

acquainted with the general methods
;

and

results of Science

cognisant of the general course

of secular
the
critic

human

history,

and of the means by which
to extort

and the scholar have endeavoured

the truth from the records of the past.

To

such a

man

the growth and decay of great religions, the

legends of wonders worked and suffering endured

by holy men
are
familiar

in

many ages and

in different countries,

facts

— to

be

fitted

general scheme of knowledge.
to

somehow into his They are phenomena

be explained

by anthropology and sociology,

instructive

examples of the operation of natural law

at a particular stage of

human development

—

this

and nothing more.
N2

180

RATIONALIST ORTHODOXY

Now
Religion,

present to one whose mind has been so
first this

prepared and disciplined,

account of Natural
evidences
is

and then

this version of the
far as

for Revelation.

So

Natural Religion

con-

cerned he
that

will

probably content himself with saying,

to argue

from the universality of causation

within the world to the necessity of First Cause
outside
validity
:

the world

is

a process of very doubtful

that to argue from the character of the
its

world to the benevolence of

Author

is

a process

more doubtful
not
disturb

still

:

but that, in any case,

we need
so
little
if

ourselves

about matters

we

understand, inasmuch as the Deity thus inferred,

He

really

exists,

completed the only task which

Natural Religion supposes

Him

to

have undertaken

when, in a past immeasurably remote, he set going
the machinery of causes and effects, which has ever
since been
in

undisturbed

operation,

and

about

which alone

we have any real
however,

sources of information.

Supposing,
Naturalistic

you

have induced your
if

philosopher to accept,

only for the

sake of argument, your version of Natural Religion,

what
tory

will

he say to your method of extracting the

proofs of Revealed Religion from the Gospel his?

Explain to him that there

is

good

historic

evidence of the usual sort for believing that for one
brief interval during the history of the Universe,

and

in

one small corner of
chain
;

this planet,

the con-

tinuous

of

universal

causation

has

been

broken

that in an insignificant country inhabited by

RATIONALIST ORTHODOXY

181

an unimportant branch of the Semitic peoples events
are alleged to have taken place which,
if

they really

occurred, at once turn into foolishness the

whole

theory

in the light of

which he has been accustomed
experience, and convey to

to interpret

human

us

knowledge which no

mere contemplation of the
His reply

general order of Nature could enable us even dimly
to anticipate.

What would be his reply ?
in

would

be, nay, is (for

our imaginary interlocutor has
the world about us), that

unnumbered prototypes
mere accumulation of
that

questions like these can scarcely be settled by the
historic proofs.

Granting

all

was asked, and more, perhaps, than ought
;

to

be conceded

granting that the evidence for these
far

wonders was
produced
in

stronger than any that could be

favour of the apocryphal miracles which
;

crowd the annals of every people
that the evidence

granting even
sufficient to

seemed

far

more than

establish

any

incident,

however

strange, which does
;

not run counter to the recognised course of Nature

what then
no doubt

?

We
full

were face

to face with a difficulty,

;

but the interpretation of the past was
of
difficulties.

necessarily

Conflicts of testimony
conflicts

with

antecedent probability,

of different

testimonies with each other, were the familiar perplexities

of the historic inquirer.

In thousands of cases

no absolutely satisfactory solution could be arrived
at.

Possibly the Gospel histories were

among these.
nor

Neither the theory of myths, nor the theory of con-

temporary fraud, nor the theory of

late invention,

182

RATIONALIST ORTHODOXY
devise,

any other which the ingenuity of critics could
the phenomena.

might provide a perfectly clean-cut explanation of

But

at least

it

might be said with
on the strength

confidence that no explanation could be less satisfactory than

one which required
four ancient

us,

of three
written

or

documents
little

—

at the best

by eye-witnesses of

education and no

scientific

knowledge, at the worst spurious and of

no authority
principle

— to
in

remodel and revolutionise every

which governs us with an unquestioned
our judgments on the Universe at

jurisdiction
large.

Thus, slightly modifying Hume, might the disciple
of Naturalism reply.

And

as against the rationalis?

ing theologian,

is

not his answer conclusive

The

former has borrowed the premises, the methods,

and

all

the positive conclusions of Naturalism.

He
he

advances on the same strategic principles, and from
the

same base

of

operations.
to

And though

professes

by these means

have overrun a whole
he permanently retain

continent of alien conclusions with which Naturalism
will

have nothing
Is
it

to do, can

it?

not certain that the huge expanse of his
tie

theology, attached by so slender a

to the

main

system of which
will

it is

intended to be a dependency,
;

sooner or later have to be abandoned

and that

the

weak and
it

artificial

connection which has been
first

so ingeniously contrived will snap at the
to

strain

which

shall

be subjected by the forces either of
?

criticism or sentiment

PART

III

SOME CAUSES OF BELIEF

CHAPTER

I

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE
I

So

far the results at

which we have arrived may be
In the
that
first

not unfairly described as purely negative.
rirst

part of these Notes

I

endeavoured
insufficient.

to

show

Naturalism was practically
chapter
it

In the

of

Part

II.

I

indicated

the view

that

was speculatively incoherent. was
therefore
it

The
that

obvious con-

clusion

drawn,

under

these

circumstances
to

was

in the highest

degree absurd

consistency as
in

employ with an unthinking rigour the canon of if Rationalism, which is Naturalism
embryo,
or

Naturalism,

which

is

Rationalism

developed, placed us in

the secure possession of
to

some unerring standard of truth beliefs must be made to conform.
of one theological scheme,

which

all

our

A

brief criticism
it

by which

has been

sought to avoid the narrownesses of Naturalism
without breaking with Rationalising methods, confirmed the conclusion that any such

procedure

is

1

86

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE
ineffectual,

predestined to be
inferences

and

that

no mere

of

the

ordinary

pattern,

based

upon

ordinary experience, will enable us to break out of
the Naturalistic prison-house.

But

if

Naturalism by

itself

be practically
its

in-

sufficient, if

no conclusion based on

affirmations
its

will

enable us to escape from the cold grasp of

negations,

and

if,

as

I

think, the contrasted

system
the

of Idealism
difficulty,

has not as yet

got us out of
?

what remedy remains
in

One

such remedy

consists

simply setting up side

by side with

the creed of natural science another and supple-

mentary set of

beliefs,

which may minister to needs
science cannot

and aspirations which

meet,

and

may speak amid silences which science is powerThe natural world and the spiritual less to break.
world, the world which
is

immediately subject to

causation

and the

world

which

is

immediately

subject to God, are, on
real,

this

view, each of
real

them
knoware

and each of them the objects of
us

ledge.

But the laws of the natural world
to

revealed

by the

discoveries

of

science;

while the laws of the spiritual world are revealed
to us

through the authority of

spiritual intuitions,

inspired witnesses, or divinely

guided
lie

institutions.

And

the two regions of knowledge

side

by

side,
dif-

contiguous but not connected, like empires of
ferent

race and

language, which

own no common
other,

jurisdiction nor hold

any intercourse with each

except along a disputed and wavering frontier where

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE
no superior power exists to
determine their respective

187

settle their quarrels or

limits.

To

thousands of persons
it

this

patchwork scheme
less sharply
itself;
I

of belief, though
defined, has, in

may be in a form substance, commended
it

and

if

and

in so far as

really
it,

meets their needs

have

nothing to say against
of bettering
its
it.

and can hold out small hope
satisfactory as regards
it

It is

much more
;

content than Naturalism
its

is
;

not

much
it

less

philosophical as regards

method and

has the

practical merit of supplying a

rough-and-ready ex-

pedient for avoiding the consequences which follow

from a premature endeavour to force the general

body of
system.

belief into the rigid limits of

one too narrow-

It has,

however, obvious inconveniences.

There

many persons, and they are increasing in number, who find it difficult or impossible to acquiesce
are
in

this

unconsidered division
into

of the

'Whole' of

knowledge

two or more unconnected fragments. But Naturalism may be practically unsatisfactory.
least

at

the

positive teaching
;

of

Naturalism has

secured general assent

and

it

shocks their philo-

sophic instinct for unity to be asked to patch and
plaster this accepted creed with a

number of hetero-

geneous propositions drawn from an entirely different source, and on behalf of which no such

common agreement can be claimed. What such persons ask for, and

rightly,

is

a

philosophy, a scheme of knowledge, which shall give

188

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE
an adequate creed.
it

rational unity to

But, as the
it

reader knows,

I

have

not to give

;

nor does

even

seem

to

me

that

we have any

right to flatter our-

selves that

we

are on the verge of discovering

some
the

all-reconciling theory

by which each inevitable claim

of our complex nature

may be harmonised under
Unity, then,
for,
if
it

supremacy of Reason.
attained at
all,

is

to be

must be sought
level.

so to speak, at

some lower

speculative

We

must

either

pursue the Rationalising and Naturalistic method
already criticised, and compel the desired unification
of belief by the

which does not

fit

summary rejection of everything into some convenient niche in the
or
if,

scheme of things developed by empirical methods
out of sense-perception
;

either for the reasons

given
others,

in the earlier chapters of these Notes, or for

we

reject this

method, we must turn for assist-

ance towards a new quarter, and apply ourselves to
the problem by the aid of

some more comprehensive,
principle.

or at least

more manageable,

in

To
of
all

this

end

let

us temporarily divest ourselves
preoccupation.
Provisionally

philosophic

restricting ourselves to the scientific point of view,
let

us forbear to consider beliefs from the side of

proof,

and

let

us survey them for a season from the

side of origin only,

and

in their relation to the causes

which gave them

birth.

Thus considered they

are,

;

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE
of
course,

189

mere products of natural conditions
objects of which

psychological growths comparable to the flora and

fauna of continents or oceans

;

we

may
rare,

say that they are useful or harmful, plentiful or but not,

except parenthetically and with a

certain irrelevance, that they are true or untrue.

How,

then,

would these
another

beliefs

appear to an

investigator

from

planet

who, applying

the ordinary methods of science, and in a spirit of

detached curiosity, should survey them from the
outside, with

no other object than to discover the

place they occupied in the natural history of the earth

and

its

inhabitants

?

He

would

note,

I

suppose, to

begin with, that the vast majority of these beliefs

were the short-lived offspring of sense-perception, instinctive judgments on observed matter-of-fact.

'The sun
room,'
'

is

shining,'

'there

is

somebody

in

the
;

I

feel tired,'

would be examples of

this class

whose members, from the nature of the case, refer immediately only to the passing moment, and die as
soon as they are born. If

now our investigator turned
in the first place,

his attention to the causes of these beliefs of perception,

he would, of course, discover,

that,

when

normal, they were invariably due to the

action of external objects

upon the organism, and
though

more

particularly
;

upon the nervous system, of the
in

percipient

and

the second place, that
all

these beliefs were thus

due

to

a certain kind of
is

neural change, the converse of the proposition

by

no means

true, since,

taking the organic world at

i

9o
it

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE
was by
this

large,

no

means the case
or,

that neural

changes of

kind invariably, or even usually,
of perception, indeed, in

issued in beliefs

any

psychical result whatever.

For consider how the case must present
our supposed observer.

itself to

He

would see a

series of

organisms possessed of nervous systems ranging

from the most rudimentary type to the most complex.

He

would observe that the action of the

exterior world

upon those systems
irritation

varied, in like

manner, from the simple
tissue

of the

nerve-

to

the

multitudinous

correspondences

and

adjustments involved in some act of vision by
or one of the higher
clude,

man

mammals.

And

he would con-

and

rightly, that

between the upper and the

lower members of the scale there were differences
of degree, but not of kind
;

and that existing gaps
filled

might be conceived as so
insensible gradations.
If,

in that

each type
it

might melt into the one immediately below

by

however, he endeavoured to draw up a scale

of psychical effects

whose degrees should correspond

with this scale of physiological causes, two results

would make themselves apparent.

The

first is,

that

the lower part of the psychical scale would be a blank,

because in the case of the simple organisms nervous

changes carried with them no mental consequents.

The second
physiological

is,

that even

when mental consequents
series like their
but,

do appear, they form no continuous
antecedents
;

on

the

contrary,

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE

191

those at the top of the scale are found to differ in

something

more

than

degree from those which

appear lower down.

We

do

not, for

example, supfeel,

pose that protozoa can properly be said to

nor

that every animal which feels can properly be said
to

form judgments or to possess immediate

beliefs

of perception.

One

conclusion our observer would,
facts

I

suppose,
neural

draw from

like

these

is,

that while
is

sensibility to

external

influences

a widespread

benefit to organic Nature, the feelings,

and

still

more

the beliefs,
relatively

to which

in certain cases

it

gives rise are
supple-

insignificant

phenomena,

useful

ments

to the purely physiological apparatus, neces-

sary, perhaps, to its highest
if

developments, but
in

still,

operative

at

all,

1

rather

the nature of final

improvements
tial

to the

machinery than of parts essen-

to

its

working.

A

like result

would attend
might
fall

his study of the next
his notice, those,

class of beliefs that

under

namely, which, though they do not relate to things
or events within the field of perception, like those

we
\

have just been considering, are yet not
diate in their character.

less

imme-

Memories of the past are
I

examples of
though
I

this

type

;

should be inclined to add,
to justify

do not propose here

my

opinion,
{

certain instinctive and, so to speak, automatic expectations about the future or that part of the present

which does not come within the reach of direct ex1

See Note on Chapter

V.,

page 304.

1

92

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE
Like the
beliefs of perception of

perience.

which
be the

we have been

speaking, they would

seem

to

psychical side of neural changes which, at least in
their simpler forms,

need be accompanied by no
Physiological co-ordinato

psychical

manifestation.

tion is sufficient

by

itself

perform services for

the lower animals similar in kind to those which, in

the case of man, are usefully, or even necessarily,

supplemented by their
pectation.

beliefs of

memory and

of ex-

These two
to

classes of belief, relating respectively

the present and
is

the

absent, cover

the whole

ground of what

something more.
in

commonly called experience, and They include, therefore, at least
all

rudimentary form,

particulars which,

on any
;

theory, are required

for

scientific induction
its

and,

according to empiricism in

older forms, they

supply not this only,

but also the whole of the

raw

material, without

any exception, out of which
needful for mankind to

reason

must subsequently fashion whatever stock
it

of additional beliefs
entertain.

is

Our Imaginary Observer, however, quite indifferent to mundane theories as to what ought to
produce conviction, and intent only on discovering

how

convictions are actually produced, would soon

find out that there

were other influences besides
supplement
the
relatively

reasoning required to

simple physiological and psychological causes which
originate the immediate beliefs of perception,

memory,

CAUSES OF EXPERIENCE
and expectation.

193

These immediate

beliefs

belong to

They involve no commerce between mind and mind. They might equally exist, and would equally be necessary, if each man stood

man

as an individual.

face to face with material
tion.

Nature

in friendless isola-

But they neither provide, nor by any merely
can be made to provide, the appa-

logical extension

ratus of beliefs which

we

find actually connected
life

with the higher scientific social and spiritual
the race.

of

These
in

also are, without doubt, the product

of antecedent causes

—causes

most diverse

character.

many They

in

number and
to

presuppose,

begin with, the beliefs of perception,
expectation in
their

memory, and
;

elementary shape

and they

also imply the existence of an organism fitted for
their hospitable reception
ration.

by ages of ancestral prepa-

But these conditions, though necessary, are

clearly not
also to

enough

;

the appropriate environment has

be provided.

And though

I

shall not

attempt

to analyse with the least

approach to completeness

the elements of which that
yet
it

environment

consists,

contains

one group of causes so important

in their collective operation,

and yet

in

popular dis-

course so often misrepresented, that a detailed notice
of
it

seems

desirable.

194

CHAPTER

II

AUTHORITY AND REASON

This group
Authority, a

is

perhaps best described by the term
transition trans-

word which by a sharp

ports us at once into a stormier tract of speculation

than

we have been

traversing in the last few pages,

though, as
that

my

readers

reason, perhaps,

may be disposed among others, a
However
this

to think, for
tract

more

nearly adjacent to theology and the proper subject-

matter of these Notes.
I am afraid, am about to

may

be,

it is,

the fact

that the discussion on which

I

enter must bring us face to face with
at least, of which, so far as
I

one problem,

am aware,
;

no entirely satisfactory solution has yet been reached which certainly
I

cannot pretend to solve

;

which can,
in

therefore, for the present only

be treated

a man-

ner provisional, and therefore unsatisfactory.

Nor

are these perennial and inherent difficulties the only
obstacles
is,

we have

to

contend with.

For the subject

unfortunately, one familiar to discussion, and, like
topics

all

which have been the occasion of passionate

AUTHORITY AND REASON
debate,
it is

195

one where party watchwords have exer-

cised their perturbing
It

and embittering influence.
an exaggeration to assert been
for three cen-

would

be, perhaps,

that the theory of Authority has
turies

the main

battlefield

whereon have met the
old.

opposing forces of new thoughts and
it

But

if so, is

is

only because, at this point at
to

least,

victory

commonly supposed long ago
that the rival

have declared

itself

decisively in favour of the new.

The very statement
is

and opponent of authority

reason

1

seems

to

most persons equivalent

to a declaration

that the latter

must be

in the right,

and the former in

the

wrong

;

while popular discussion and speculation

have driven deep the general opinion that authority
serves no other purpose in the

economy of Nature
that
is

than to supply a refuge for

all

most bigoted

and absurd.

The

current theory by which these views are sup-

ported appears to be something of this kind.

Every-

one has a
It is his
'

'

right

'

to adopt any opinions he pleases.
'

duty,' before exercising this

right, 'critically

to sift the reasons

by which such opinions may be

supported, and so to adjust the degree of his convictions that they shall accurately correspond with the

evidences adduced in their favour.
fore,

Authority, there-

has no place
If
is,
I

belief.
1

it

among the legitimate appears among them, it is
its

causes of
as an inthis

It

perhaps, hardly necessary to note that throughout

chapter

use Reason in

ordinary and popular, not in

its

transcen-

dental, sense.

There

is

no question here of the Logos or Absolute

Reason.

O

2

1

96

AUTHORITY AND REASON
be jealously hunted down and mercilessly
Reason, and reason only, can be safely

truder, to

expelled.

permitted to mould the convictions of mankind.
its

By
boast

inward counsels alone should beings

who

that they are rational submit to

be controlled.

Sentiments

like these are

among

the

commonmerely

places of political and social philosophy.
at scientifically, they

Yet, looked

seem

to

me

to be, not

erroneous, but absurd.

Suppose

for a

moment a comset

munity of which each member should deliberately
prejudices due to education
it

himself to the task of throwing off so far as possible
all
;

where each should

consider

his duty critically to

examine the grounds

whereon
obey

rest

every positive enactment and every

moral precept which he has been accustomed to
;

to dissect all the great loyalties

which make

social life possible,

and
it

all
;

the minor conventions

which help

to

make

easy

and

to

weigh out with

scrupulous precision the exact degree of assent which
in

each particular case the results of this process
justify.

might seem to
nity, if
it

To

say that such a

commuat,

acted upon the opinions thus arrived

would stand but a poor chance
existence
is

in the struggle for
It
it

to say far too
;

little.

could never even

begin to be

and

if

by a miracle

was

created,

it

would without doubt immediately resolve
its

itself into

constituent elements.

For consider by way of
Morality.
If the

illustration the case of

right
it

and the duty of private
must be both the privilege

judgment be

universal,

AUTHORITY AND REASON
and the business of every man
unless the examination
to to subject the

197

maxims
;

of current morality to a critical examination
is

and

be a
little

farce,

every

man

should bring to

it

a mind as

warped

as possible bias of

by habit and education, or the unconscious
foregone conclusions.

Picture, then, the condition of

a society in which the successive generations would
thus in turn devote their energies to an impartial
criticism of the
'

traditional

'

view.

What

qualifica-

tions, natural or acquired, for

such a task

we

are to

attribute to the

members
not.

of this emancipated comlet

munity
highest.

I

know
or

But

us put them at the

Let us suppose that
rather

every
girl

man and
(for

woman,

every boy and

ought

Reason to be ousted from her rights
twenty-one years of age
? ), is

in

persons under

endowed with the apti-

tude and training required to deal with problems
like these.

Arm them
and
set

with the most recent methods

of criticism,

them down

to

the task

of

estimating with open minds the claims which charity,

temperance and honesty, murder,
respectively have of mankind.

theft

and adultery

upon the approval or disapproval
the result of such an experiment

What

would
from

be,

this
it

what wild chaos of opinions would result fiat of the Uncreating Word, I know not.

But

might well happen that even before our
they might find themselves

youthful critics got so far as a re-arrangement of the

Ten Commandments,

entangled in the preliminary question whether judg-

ments conveying moral approbation and disapproba-

i 98

AUTHORITY AND REASON
were of a kind which reasonable beings should be
;

tion

asked to entertain at all

whether

'right'

and 'wrong'
which

were words representing anything more permanent

and important than certain

likes

and

dislikes

happen

to

be rather widely disseminated, and more

or less arbitrarily associated with social and legal
sanctions.
I

conceive

it

to

be highly probable that

the conclusions at which on this point they would
arrive
ethical

would be of a purely negative character.

The

systems competing for acceptance would by

their very

numbers and variety suggest suspicions
and
origin.

as to their character

Here, would our

students explain,

is

a clear presumption to

be found

on the very

face of these moralisings that they

were

contrived, not in the interests of truth,
interests of traditional

but in the
else explain

dogma.
is

How

the

fact,

that while there

no great difference of
is

opinion as to what things are right or wrong, there

no semblance of agreement as to why they are right
or

why

they are wrong.

All authorities concur, for
it is

instance, in holding that
der.

wrong

to

commit murit

But one philosopher
it is

tells

us that

is

because
kind,

inconsistent with the happiness of
to

wrong manus

and that

do anything inconsistent with the
is

happiness of mankind
that
it is

wrong.

Another

tells

contrary to the dictates of conscience, and

that everything

which

is

contrary to the dictates of

conscience
against the

is

wrong.

A

third tells us that

it

is

commandments of God, and that everyis

thing which

against the

commandments

of

God

is

AUTHORITY AND REASON
wrong.

199

A

fourth

tells

me that

it

leads to the gallows,

and

that,

inasmuch as being hanged involves a sencreatures

sible

diminution of personal happiness,
like

who,

man, are by nature incapable of doing

otherwise than seek to increase the
personal pleasures and diminish the personal pains cannot,
situation,
if

sum sum

of their

of their

they really comprehend the

do

anything

which

may

bring

their

existence to so distressing a termination.

Now

whence,

it

would be asked,

this
?

curious

mixture of agreement and disagreement

How

account for the strange variety exhibited in the

premises of these various systems, and the not less
strange uniformity exhibited in their conclusions
?

Why
the

does not as great a divergence manifest

itself

in the results arrived at as

we undoubtedly

find in
all

methods employed
explorers

?

How
same

comes
goal,

it

that

these

reach the

when
?

their

points of departure are so widely dispersed

Plainly

but one plausible method of solving the difficulty
exists.

The conclusions were in every case determined before the argument began, the goal was in
out.

every case settled before the travellers set

There
coerced

is

here no surrender of belief to the inward

guidance of unfettered reason.
to

Rather

is

reason

a foreordained issue by the external
prejudice

operation

of

and education, or by the
social

rougher machinery of
penalty.

ostracism

and

legal

The framers of ethical systems are either philosophers who are unable to free themselves from

2oo

AUTHORITY AND REASON
who

the unfelt bondage of customary opinion, or advocates
find
it

safer to exercise their liberty of

speculation in respect to premises about which no-

body

cares, than

in

respect
conflict

to

conclusions which

might bring them into

with the police.

So might we imagine
cipated

the members of our emancommunity discussing the principles on which
is

morality
task to

founded.

But, in truth,
detail

it

were a vain
results

work out

in further

the

of

an experiment which,
it is,

human
is

nature

being what

can never be seriously attempted.
not,

That
it

it

can

never be seriously attempted
because
it

be

observed,

is

of

so
its

dangerous a character that

the community in

wisdom would

refuse to

em-

bark upon
indeed.

it.

This would be a

frail

protection
its

Not the danger of the adventure, but
is

impossibility,

our security.

To

reject all convic-

tions

which are not the products of free speculative
is,

investigation

fortunately,

an exercise of which

humanity
societies

is

in the strictest sense incapable.

Some
incli-

and some individuals may show more
it

nation to indulge in
dition of society

than others.
in

But

in

no conincli-

and

no individual

will the

nation be

more than very

partially satisfied.

Always

and everywhere our Imaginary Observer, contemplating

from some external coign of vantage the

course of

human

history,

would note the immense,
production of

the inevitable, and on the whole the beneficent, part

which Authority plays

in the

belief.

AUTHORITY AND REASON

II

This truth finds expression, and

at first sight

we
the
'

might feel inclined to say recognition also, in such
familiar
1

commonplaces

as

that

every
lives,'

man

is

product of the society in which he
vain to expect him to rise

and that

it

is

much above

the level

of his age.'
ful

But aphorisms

like these,

however usedo
not,

as aids to a correct historical perspective,

as ordinarily employed,

show any
I

real

apprehension
insist.

of the verity on which

desire

to

They
influ-

belong to a theory which regards these social

ences as clogs and hindrances, hampering the free

movements
truth

of those

who might under

happier

cir-

cumstances have struggled successfully towards the
;

or as perturbing forces which drive
for
it

mankind

from the even orbit marked out
Reason, according to this view,
is

by reason.

a kind of

Ormuzd

doing constant battle against the Ahriman of tradition

and

authority.

Its

gradual triumph over the opposis

ing powers of darkness

what we mean by Progress.
hasten the hour of that

Everything which
triumph
is

shall

a gain

;

and
it

if

by some magic stroke we
in

could extirpate, as

were

a moment, every cause

of belief which was not also a reason,

we

should,

it

appears, be the fortunate authors of a reform in the

moral world only to be paralleled by the abolition of
pain and disease in the physical.
dicated
I

have already

in-

some of the grounds which induce me

to

202

AUTHORITY AND REASON
human
Our
whose

form a very different estimate of the part which
reason plays in
errors
affairs.

ancestors,

we

palliate

on account of

their

environment

with a feeling of satisfaction, due partly to our keen
appreciation of our

own

happier position and greater

breadth of view, were not to be pitied because they

reasoned

little

and believed much

;

nor should

we
it

necessarily
lation
if
it

have any particular cause

for self-gratu-

were true that we reasoned more and,

may

be, believed less.

Not thus has the world been
good among the causes of
all

fashioned.

But, nevertheless, this identification of
all

reason with
belief,

that

is

and authority with
the

that

is

bad,

is

a delusion

so gross and yet so prevalent that a moment's ex-

amination

into

exaggerations and confusions
it

which

lie at
first

the root of

may

not be thrown away.

The

of these confusions
It arises

may be

dismissed

almost in a sentence.

out of the tacit

assumption that reason means right reason.

Such

an assumption,
point at issue.
sion,

it

need hardly be

said,

begs half the
this discus-

Reason, for purposes of

made to mean right reason than authority can be made to mean legitimate authority. True, we might accept the first of these
can no more be
definitions,
fruit

and yet deny that
that

all

right belief

was the

of reason.

But we could hardly deny the conreason thus defined must

verse proposition,

always issue in right

belief.

Nor need we be

con-

cerned to deny a statement at once so obvious and
so barren.

AUTHORITY AND REASON
The
be

203

source of error which has next to be noted

presents points of
true, as
I

much

greater interest.

Though it

am

contending, that the importance of

reason

among

the causes which produce and main-

tain the beliefs, customs,

and

ideals

which form the

groundwork of

life

has been

much

exaggerated, there
or appears to be,

can yet be no doubt that reason
the cause over which
or rather the

is,

we have the most direct control, one which we most readily identify
free

with our

own

and personal
It

action.

We

are

acted on by authority.

moulds our ways of

thought
to

in spite of ourselves,

and usually unknown
the

ourselves.

But when we reason we are

authors of the effect produced.
set the

We
its

have ourselves
proper working
;

machine

in motion.

For

we
is

are ourselves immediately responsible

so that

it

both natural and

desirable that
this

we
be

should concen-

trate our attention

on

particular class of causes,

even though we should thus
magnify their importance
things.
I

led

unduly to

in

the general scheme of

have somewhere seen
its

it

stated that the steam-

engine in
the

primitive form required a boy to

work

valve by which
It

steam was admitted to the

cylinder.

was

his business at the proper period

of each stroke to perform this necessary operation

by pulling a
far

string

;

and though the same object
have

has long since been attained by mechanical methods
simpler and more trustworthy, yet
until the
I

little

doubt that

advent of that revolutionary

2o 4

AUTHORITY AND REASON
who
so tied the string to one of the

youth

parts of the engine that his personal supervision

moving was
magni-

no longer necessary, the boy
fied his functions,

in office greatly

and regarded himself with pardon-

able pride as the most important, because the only
rational, link in the chain of causes

and

effects

by

which the energy developed

in

the

furnace was

ultimately converted into the motion of the flywheel.

So do we stand

as reasoning beings in the presence

of the complex processes, physiological and psychical,

out of which are manufactured the convictions necessary to the conduct of
life.

To
it

the results attained
its

by

their co-operation reason
;

makes

slender contriso effectively,

bution
it is

but in order that

may do

beneficently decreed that, pending the evolution
better device, reason should appear to the

of

some

reasoner the most admirable and important contri-

vance

in the

whole mechanism.
in

The manner
and
social,

which attention and

interest are

thus unduly directed towards the operations, vital

which are under our direct

control, rather

than those which

we

are unable to modify, or can

only modify by a very indirect and circuitous procedure,

may be

illustrated

by countless examples.

Take one from

physiology.

Of

all

the complex

causes which co-operate for the healthy nourishment
of the body, no doubt the conscious choice of the

most wholesome rather than the
forms of ordinary food
important.
is
is

less

wholesome
immediate

far

from being the most
our

Yet,

as

it

within

AUTHORITY AND REASON
competence,
generally

205

we attend to it, moralise about it, and make much of it. But no man can by taking
they go

thought directly regulate his digestive secretions.

We never, therefore, think of them at all until
wrong, and then, unfortunately, to very
little

purpose.

So

it is

with the body

politic.

A

certain proportion

(probably a small one) of the changes and adaptations
required by altered surroundings can only be effected

through the solvent action of criticism and discussion.

How

such discussion shall be conducted, what are
side,

the arguments on either

how a

decision shall

be arrived

at,

matters which
effort

and how it shall be carried out, are we seem able to regulate by conscious
to ends.

and the deliberate adaptation of means

We

therefore unduly magnify the part they play in

the furtherance of our interests.

We

perceive that

they supply business to the practical politician, raw
material to the political theorist
;

and we forget amid
cois

the buzzing of debate the multitude of incomparably

more important

processes,
life

by whose undesigned

operation alone the

and growth of the State

rendered possible.
in

There
who,
like

is,

however, a third source of

illusion,

which well deserves the attentive study of those
our Imaginary Observer, are interested in
the purely external and scientific investigation of the

causes which produce

belief.

I
'

have already
spirit of

in this
'

chapter

made

reference to the

the age as

2o6

AUTHORITY AND REASON
in

one form
itself
;

which authority most potently manifests
it

and undoubtedly

is so.
1

Dogmatic educa-

tion in early years

may do much.

The immediate
may

pressure of domestic, social,

scientific, ecclesiastical

surroundings in the direction of specific beliefs

do even more.

But the power of authority
effective than
'

is

never

more

subtle

and
'

when
'

it
'

produces a
favourable

psychological

atmosphere

or

climate
belief,

to the life of certain

modes of
life

unfavourable,
'

and even fatal,

to the

of others.

Such

climates

'

may be widely diffused, or the reverse. Their range may cover a generation, an epoch, a whole civilisation, or it may be narrowed down to a sect, a family, even an individual. And as they may vary infinitely
in respect to the

extent of their influence, so also

they

may

vary

in respect to its intensity

and

quality.

But whatever be

their limits

and whatever

their
life,

character, their importance to the conduct of
social

and

individual, cannot easily

be overstated.

Consider, for instance, their effect on great classes
of belief with which reasoning, were
it

only on acIf

count of their mass,
all

is

quite incompetent to deal.
all

credible propositions,
at

propositions which someable to believe, were

body

some time had been
by a

only to

be rejected after their claims had been
strictly logical

impartially tested

investigation,

the

intellectual
its

machine would be overburdened,

and
1

movements hopelessly choked

by mere

I

may

in these

again remind the reader that the word dogmatic as used Notes has no special theological reference.

AUTHORITY AND REASON
excess of material.
turn out would, as
I

207
it

Even such

products as

could

conjecture (for

the experiment
collection,

has never been

tried),

prove but a motley

so diverse in design, so incongruous and ill-assorted,
that they could scarcely contribute the fitting furniture of a well-ordered mind.
in

What
is

actually happens

the

vast

majority of cases

something very

different.

To

beodn with, external circumstances,
place, limit the
is

mere conditions of time and
which, therefore,

number

of opinions about which anything
it is

known, and on

(so to speak) materially possibJe

that reason can be called

upon

to

pronounce a judgless

ment.

But there are internal limitations not

universal and not less necessary.

Few
for

indeed are
his

the beliefs, even

among

those which

come under
a

observation, which any individual

moment

thinks himself called upon seriously to consider with

a view to their possible adoption.

The

residue he

summarily disposes
rather treats as
if

of,

rejects without a hearing, or

they had not even that prima facie

claim to be adjudicated on which formal rejection

seems

to imply.

Now, can this process be described as a rational one ? That it is not the immediate result of reasoning
for
is,
I

think, evident enough.

All would admit,
is
'

example, that

when

the
'

mind

closed against

the reception of any truth by

bigotry

or

'

inveterate

prejudice,' the effectual cause of the victory of error
is

not so

much bad reasoning

as something which,
all.

in its essential nature, is

not reasoning at

But

2o8

AUTHORITY AND REASON
is

there
as
'

really

no ground

for

drawing a distinction

regards their

mode
'

of operation

between the
like

psychological climates

which we happen to

and those of which we

happen to disapprove.
all,

How-

ever various their character,
their results

very much

in the

I take it, work out same kind of way.

For good or

for evil, in ancient times

and

in

modern,
ever by

among savage

folk

and among

civilised,

it is

an identic process that they have

sifted

and selected
reason has
;

the candidates for credence, on which

been afterwards called upon
that
little

to pass

judgment

and

process

is

one with which ratiocination has

or nothing directly to do.
' '

But though these psychological climates

do not
in

work through reasoning, may they not themselves,

many cases, be the products of reasoning ? May
not, therefore,
it

they

be causes of belief which belong, though

be only at the second remove, to the domain of
?

reason rather than to that of authority

To

the

first

of these questions the answer must doubtless be in the
affirmative.

Reasoning has unquestionably a
climates

great deal to do with the production of psychological
climates.

As

'

'

are

produce

beliefs,
'

so are

beliefs

among the causes which among the causes
therefore,
be,

which produce

climates,'

and all reasoning,

which culminates

in belief

may

and indeed must
which
?

be, at least indirectly

concerned

in the effects

belief develops.

But are these
I

results

rational
;

Do

they follow,

mean, on reason qua reason

or

are they, like a schoolboy's tears over a proposition

AUTHORITY AND REASON
of Euclid, consequences of reasoning,
clusions from
it ?

209

but not con-

In order to answer this question

it

may be worth

while to consider
I

it

in the light of
in

an example which

have already used

another connection and under

a different aspect.

It will
I

be recollected that

in a

preceding chapter

considered Rationalism, not as

a psychological climate, a well-characterised

mood

of
in

mind, but as an explicit principle of judgment,

which the rationalising temper

may

for

purposes of
Rationalism

argument

find definite expression.

To

in the first of these senses

—

to Rationalism, in other

words, considered as a form of Authority
revert
;

—

I

now
well

taking

it

as an instance specially suited to
its

our purpose, not only because
understood, but because
of intellectual
it is

meaning

is

found at our own level

development, and

we can

therefore

study
quite
'

its

origin

and character with a kind of insight

impossible
'

when we

are

dealing with

the

climates

which govern

in so singular a fashion the

beliefs of primitive races.

These,

too,

may be, and

I

suppose
ing.

are, to

some
'

extent, the products of reasonto us as arbitrary

But the reasoning appears
the
resulting

as

climates

'

are

repugnant

;

and

though we can note and

classify the facts,

we can

hardly comprehend them with sympathetic understanding.

With Rationalism
coveries
of science,

it

is

different.

How

the dis-

the growth of criticism,

and

the diffusion of learning should have fostered the

;

210

AUTHORITY AND REASON
temper seems
intelligible to
all,

rationalising
all,

because
to

in

their different degrees,

have been subject
is

these very influences.

Not everyone

a rationalist
prepared to

but everyone, educated or uneducated,
reject without further

is

examination certain kinds of
in,

statement which, before the rationalising era set

would have been accepted without
wisest

difficulty

by the

among mankind.
this

Now

modern mood, whether
(i.e.

in its qualified
is

or unqualified

naturalistic) form,

plainly

no
the

mere product of non-rational
enumeration
ous causes
I

conditions,
its

as

have just given of
sufficient to prove.

most conspicuNatural science
built

is

and

historical criticism

have not been

up with-

out a vast expenditure of reasoning, and (though
for present

purposes

this

is

immaterial) very good
to say

reasoning, too.

But are we on that account
Surely not.
if

that the results of the rationalising

temper are the
rationalist
re-

work

of reason
;

?

The

jects miracles

and

you force him

to a discussion,

he may no doubt produce from the ample stores of
past controversy plenty of argument in support of
his
belief.
is

But do not therefore assume

that his

belief

the result of his argument.

The odds

are

strongly in favour of argument and belief having

both grown up under the fostering influence of his
1

psychological climate.'

For observe
rejects

that precisely
also

in

the

way

in

which he

miracles he

rejects

witchcraft.

Here there has been no con-

troversy worth mentioning.

The

general belief

in

AUTHORITY AND REASON
witchcraft has died a natural death,

211

and

it

has not

been worth anybody's while to devise arguments
against
it.

Perhaps there are none.

But, whether

there be or not, no logical axe was required to cuf

down

a plant which had not the least chance of

flourishing in a mental

atmosphere so rigorous and
;

uncongenial as that of rationalism

and accordingly

no

logical

axe has been provided.

The

belief in

mesmerism, however, supplies
Like these,

in

some ways a more
in rationalism
it

instructive case than the belief
it

either in miracles or witchcraft.

found

a hostile influence.

But, unlike these,

could

call in

almost at will the assistance of what

would now be regarded as ocular demonstration.

For two generations, however,
ficient.

this

was found

insuf-

For two generations the

rationalistic bias

proved

sufficiently strong to pervert the

judgment

of

the most distinguished observers, and to incapacitate

them from accepting what under more favourable
circumstances

they would

have

called

the 'plain

evidence of their senses.'

So

that

we

are here pre-

sented with the curious spectacle of an intellectual

mood

or temper,

whose

origin

was largely due

to
it

the growth of the experimental sciences,

making

impossible for those affected to draw the simplest
inference,

even from the most conclusive experian interesting case of the
it

ments.

This

is

conflict

between

authority and reason, because
truth for which
I

illustrates the general

have been contending, with an

;

2i2

AUTHORITY AND REASON
if

emphasis that would be impossible

we took

as our

example some worn-out vesture of thought, threadbare from use, and strange to eyes accustomed to

newer
while

fashions.

Rationalism, in
;

its

turn,

may be

predestined to suffer a like decay
it

but in the meanpart

forcibly

exemplifies

the

played by

authority in the formation of beliefs.

If rationalism

be regarded as a non-rational

effect of

reason and a
will
;

non-rational cause of belief, the
readily be

same admission

made about

all

other intellectual climates
is

and that rationalism should be so regarded
I

now,

trust, plain to

the reader.

The

only results which
title

reason can claim as hers by an exclusive
the nature of logical conclusions
;

are of
is

and rationalism

not a logical conclusion, but an intellectual temper.

The

only instruments which reason, as such, can
;

employ are arguments

and rationalism
belief,
'

is

not an

argument, but an impulse towards

or disbelief.

So

that,

though rationalism,
is

like other

psychological

climates,'

doubtless due,

among

other causes, to

reason,

it is

not on that account a rational product
in its turn
it

and though

produces

beliefs,

it is

not

on that account a rational cause.

IV

The most

important source of error on this sub;

ject remains, however, to be dealt with

and

it

arises

directly out of that jurisdiction
belief

which

in matters of

we

can hardly do otherwise than recognise as

AUTHORITY AND REASON

213

belonging to Reason by a natural and indefeasible
title.

No

one finds

(if

my

observations

in

this

matter are correct) any

serious difficulty in attributif

ing the origin of other people's beliefs, especially

he

disagree with them, to causes which are not reasons.

That
cases

interior assent should

be produced

in countless

by custom, education, public

opinion, the con-

tagious convictions of countrymen, family, party, or

Church, seems natural, and even obvious.

That but

a small number, at least of the most important and

fundamental

beliefs, are

held by persons

who
in

could

give reasons for them, and that of this small

number
conse-

only an inconsiderable fraction are held

quence of the reasons by which they are nominally
supported,

may

perhaps be admitted with no very

great difficulty.
this

But

it

is

harder to recognise that

law

is

not merely, on the whole, beneficial, but
it

that without

the business of the world could not
;

possibly be carried on

nor do

we

allow, without

reluctance and a sense of shortcoming, that in our

own persons we supply
of the world.

illustrations of its operation

quite as striking as any presented to us by the rest

Now
nor
of

this reluctance is not the result of vanity,

any fancied
to the
rest

immunity
of the

from
It

weaknesses
is,

common
a direct

of mankind.

rather,

consequence

view we find our-

selves compelled to take of the essential character

of
at

reason

and of

our relations

to

it.

Looked
complex

from the outside, as one among the

2i 4

AUTHORITY AND REASON
which
produce"
belief,

conditions
relatively

reason
;

appears
not only

insignificant

and

ineffectual
if

appears
to

so,

but umst be

so,

human

society
inside,

is
it

be made possible.

Looked
title

at

from the

claims by an inalienable

to

be supreme.
;

Meaits

sured by
rights

its

results

it

may be

little
is

measured by
it

it is

everything.

There
not

no problem
it

may

not investigate, no belief which

may
It

not

assail,

no principle which

it

may
act,

test.

cannot, even
of universal

by

its

own

voluntary

deprive

itself

jurisdiction, as,

according to a once fashionable theory,

primitive man, on entering the social state, contracted

himself out of his natural rights and liberties.
the contrary, though
its
;

On

claims

may be
sin,
is
;

ignored, they

cannot be repudiated

and even those who shrink
would probably
an act forbidden

from the criticism of dogma as a
admit that they do so because
it

by those they are bound
say,

to

obey

do

so,

that

is

to

nominally at
if
it

least,

for a reason which, at
fit,

any

moment,
reverse.

should think

reason

itself

may

Why, under

these circumstances,

we

are

moved

to regard ourselves as free intelligences,

forming our

opinions solely in obedience to reason

;

why we come
be

to regard reason itself, not only as the sole legitimate

source of belief

—which,

perhaps,

it

may

—but the
is

sole source of legitimate beliefs
not,

—which
It is

it

assuredly

must now,

I

hope, be tolerably obvious, and needs

not to be further emphasised.
for

more

instructive

our present purpose to consider for a

moment

AUTHORITY AND REASON
certain consequences of this
equities of

215

antinomy between the Reason and the expediencies of Authority
into

which

rise

prominence whenever, under the
society, the forces of the latter

changing conditions of
are

being

diverted

into

new and unaccustomed
full

channels.
It
is

true,

no doubt, that the

extent and

difficulty of the

problems involved have not com-

monly been

realised

by the advocates

either

of

authority or reason, though each has usually

had a

sufficient sense of the strength of the other's position

to induce

him

to

borrow from

it,

even

at the cost of

some

little

inconsistency.

The

supporter of autho-

rity, for

instance,

may

point out

some of the more
in its influence

obvious evils by which any decrease
is

usually accompanied

:

the comminution of sects,

the divisions of opinion, the
co-operation,

weakened powers
strife,

of

the increase of
I

the

waste of

power.

Yet, so far as

am

aware, no nation, party,

or church has ever courted controversial disaster by

admitting that,

if its

claims were impartially tried at
it.

the bar of Reason, the verdict would go against
In the

same way, those who have most clamorously
if

upheld the prerogatives of individual reason have
always been forced to recognise by their practice,
not by
their theory, that the right of every
for himself
is

man

to

judge on every question
of every
to

like the right

man who
its

possesses a balance at his bankers
in
it

require
right

immediate payment
;

sovereigns.

The

may be undoubted

but

can only be

«i6

AUTHORITY AND REASON
on condition that too many persons
it

safely enjoyed

do not take

it

into their heads to exercise

together.

Perhaps, however, the most striking evidence, both
of the powers of authority and the rights of reason,

may be found
beliefs

in the fact already

alluded

to,

that
first,

which are
challenged,

really the offspring of the

when

invariably

claim

to

trace

their

descent from the second, although this improvised

pedigree
of a

may be

as imaginary as

if it

were the work
this

college of heralds.
its

To

be sure, when
it is

contrivance has served
silently aside, while

purpose
it

usually laid
to

the belief

was intended
until, in

support remains quietly in possession,
course of time,
illusory, title

the
less

some

other,

and perhaps not

has to be devised to meet the pleas of

a new claimant.
If the

reader desires an illustration of this prois

cedure, here

one taken at random from English

Among the results of the movement which culminated in the Great Rebellion was of necessity a marked diminution in the universality and efficacy of that mixture of feelings and beliefs
political history.

which constitute loyalty to national government.

Now

loyalty, in

some shape

or other,

is

necessary
It is

for the stability of

any form of

polity.

one

of the most

valuable

products of authority, and,

whether
or
not,

in
is

any

particular case conformable to reason
Its

essentially unreasoning.
little

theoretical

basis therefore excites but

interest,

and
it

is

of

very subordinate importance so long as

controls

AUTHORITY AND REASON
the hearts of

217

men

with undisputed sway.
is

But as
begin to

soon as

its

supremacy

challenged,

men
it

cast about anxiously for reasons

why

should con-

tinue to be obeyed.

Thus, to some of those
troubles which preceded

who

lived through the

and accompanied the Great
that
it

Rebellion,

it

became suddenly apparent

was

above

all

things necessary to bolster up by argu-

ment the creed which authority had been found
temporarily insufficient to sustain
;

and of the argufamous

ments thus called into existence two, both of extraordinary absurdity, have

become

historically

— that

contained in Hobbes' 'Leviathan,' and that

taught for a period with
clergy under the

much vigour by the Anglican name of Divine right. These in any case they theories may have done their work had their day. It was discovered that, as is the way
;

of abstract
difficulty,

arguments dragged

in to

meet a concrete

they led logically to a great
less

many
in

conclu-

sions

much

convenient than the one
originally

whose

defence they had been
crisis

invoked.

The
age

which called them forth passed gradually away.
to the taste of a different
'

They were repugnant
'

;

Leviathan

'

and

'

passive obedience

were handed

over to the judgment of the historian.

This

is

an example of
it

how an

ancient principle,

broadly based though
of

be on the needs and feelings
again to

human

nature,

may be thought now and
it

require external support to enable
special stress of circumstances.

to

meet some
stress

But often the

—
218
is

AUTHORITY AND REASON
new

found to be brief; a few internal alterations meet
the necessities of the case
;

all

to a

generation

the

added buttresses seem useless and unsightly.
are soon

They
time,
selves.

demolished,

to

make way

in

due

no doubt,

for others as

temporary as them-

Nothing so quickly waxes old as apoloit

getics, unless, perhaps,

be

criticism.

A
nition.

precisely analogous process

commonly goes on

in the case of

new

principles struggling into recog-

As

those of older growth are driven by the
to
call

instincts

of self-preservation

reasoning to

their assistance, so these claim the aid of the
ally for purposes of attack and aggression
;

same

and the

incongruity between the real causes by which these

new

beliefs are sustained,

and the

official

reasons by

which they are from time to time

justified, is often

not less glaring in the one case than in the other.

Witness the ostentatious
'

futility

of the theories the aid of which

rights of man,'

and so

forth

— by

the

modern
its

democratic

movement

was

nursed

through

infant maladies.

Now

these things are true, not alone in politics,
field

but in every

of

human

activity

where authority

and reason co-operate to serve the needs of mankind
ai large.

And

thus

may we

account for the singular

fact that in

many

cases conclusions are

more

per-

manent than

premises,

and

that

the

successive

growths of apologetic and
not more seriously affect
beliefs

critical literature

do often
sue-

the enduring outline of the

by which they are occasioned than the

AUTHORITY AND REASON
cessive forests of beech and
fir

219

determine the shape

of the everlasting hills from which they spring.

Here, perhaps,
of

I

might

fitly

conclude this portion

my

task,

were

it

not that one particular
call in
itself,

mode

in

which Authority endeavours to
its

reasoning to

assistance

is

so important in

and has led and
its

to

so

much

confusion

both

of

thought

of

language, that a few paragraphs devoted to
sideration

con-

may

help the reader to a clearer underAuthority, as
I

standing of the general subject.

have been using the term,
causes, moral, social
its

is

in all cases contrasted

with Reason, and stands for that group of non-rational

and educational, which produces

results

by psychic processes other than reasoning.
is

But there
phrase,

a simple operation,

-a

mere turn

of

by which many of these non-rational causes
be converted into reasons without
thereby to change their function
;

can, so to speak,

seeming

at first sight

as channels of Authority

and so convenient

is

this

method of bringing these two sources of conviction
on to the same plane, so perfectly does
to
it

minister

our instinctive desire to produce a reason for
belief,

every challenged

that

it

is

constantly reits

sorted to (without apparently any clear idea of
real import),

both by those

as

upholders

and those

who who

regard themselves
regard

themselves

as opponents of Authority in

matters of opinion.

220

AUTHORITY AND REASON
say that
I

To

believe a statement because
or

I

have
it

been taught
before
believes

it,

because

my

father believed
in

me, or because everybody
it,

the village

is is

to

announce what everyday experience

informs us
not,

a quite adequate cause of belief
se,

—

it

is

however, per

to give

a reason for belief at
at

all.

But such statements can be turned
explicitly recognising that

once into

reasons by no process more elaborate than that of

my

teachers,

my

family,
in the

or

my

neighbours, are truthful persons,

happy

possession of adequate means of information
positions

—pro-

which

in

their

turn,

of

course,

require

argumentative support.

Such a procedure may, I need hardly say, be quite legitimate and reasons of this kind are probably the principal ground on which
;

in

mature

life

we

accept the great mass of our sub-

ordinate

scientific

and

historical

convictions.
falls in

I

believe, for instance, that the

moon

towards

the earth with the exact velocity required by the force of gravitation, for no other reason than that
I

believe

in

the competence and trustworthiness

of the persons
lations.

who have made
this

the necessary calcu-

In

case

the

reason for
it

my
its

belief
;

and the immediate cause of
cause, indeed,
first
is

are identical

the

a cause only in virtue of
in the

being

a reason.

But

former case

this is not so.

Mere
sons

early training, paternal authority,

or public

opinion, were causes of belief before they were rea-

they continued to act as non-rational causes and it is not improbable after they became reasons
;

;

AUTHORITY AND REASON
that to the very

221

end they contributed

less to

the

resultant conviction in their capacity as reasons than

they did in their capacity as non-rational causes.

Now
reasons

the temptation thus to convert causes into

seems under certain circumstances
irresistible,

to

be

almost

even when
is

it

is

illegitimate.
\

Authority, as such,

from the nature of the case
It is

dumb
be,

in the

presence of argument.

only by
It

reasoning that reasoning can be answered.

can
that

and has often been, thrust

silently aside

by

instinctive feeling of repulsion

which we
it.

call

preit
it

judice

when we happen

to disagree with
its

But
so
belief

can only be replied to by

own

kind.

And

comes about that whenever any system of
seriously questioned, a

is

method of defence which
is

is

almost certain to find favour

to select

one of the
the system
I

causes by which the belief has been produced, and
forthwith to erect
it

into a reason

why

should continue

to

be accepted.
is

Authority, as

have been using the term,

thus converted into
It

'an authority,' or into 'authorities.'
the opposite or correlative

ceases to be
It

of reason.
reason.
It

can

no

longer be contrasted with

becomes a
it

species of reason, and as a species of reason

must

be judged.

So judged,
In

it

appears to

me

that

two things
said of
it.

pertinent to the present discussion

may be

the

first

place,

it

is

evidently an argument of

immense

utility

and of very wide application.
it

As

I

have just noted,

is

the proximate reason for an

?22

AUTHORITY AND REASON
beliefs as to matters of

enormous proportion of our
fact,

past and present, and for that very large

body

of scientific knowledge which even experts in science

can have no opportunity of personally verifying.
But, in the second place,
*

it

seems not
'
'

less clear that

the argument from an authority or

authorities

'

is

almost always useless as a foundation for a system
of belief.

The

deep-lying principles which
be,

alone

deserve this

name may

and frequently
to

are, the

product of authority.

But the attempt

ground

them

dialectically

upon an authority can scarcely be

attempted, except at the risk of logical disaster.

Take
beliefs

as an

example the general system of our

about the material universe.

The
'

greater

number of these are, as we have seen, quite legitimately based upon the argument from authorities
'

;

not so those which

lie

at the root of the system.

These
they
rities
'

also

are

largely

due

to

Authority.

But
authois

cannot be
;

rationally

derived
to

from

'

though the attempt so
to

derive them
'universal

almost certain

be made.

The

ex-

perience,' or the 'general consent of mankind,' will

be adduced as an authoritative sanction of certain
fundamental presuppositions of
physical

science

;

and of

these, at least,

it

will

be

said, securus

ptdicat
is

orbis terrarum.

But a very
have pointed

little

consideration
is

sufficient to show that this procedure

illegitimate,

and

that,

as

I

out,

we can

neither

know that the verdict of mankind has been given, nor, if it has, that anything can properly be inferred

AUTHORITY AND REASON
from
it,

223

unless

we

first

assume the

truth

of the

very principles which that verdict was invoked to
establish. 1

The

state of things

is

not materially different

in the case of ethics

and theology.
'

There

also the
'

argument from
legitimate

'

an authority

or

'

authorities
;

has a
also

and most important place

there

there

is

a constant inclination to extend the use of

the argument so as to cover the fundamental portions
of the system
;

and there also
can hardly

this
in

endeavour,

when

made, seems predestined to end
reasoning.
I

a piece of circular
this

illustrate
;

statement

without mentioning
will

dogma
I

though, as the reader

readily
to

understand,

have not the
little

slightest
to

desire

do anything so

relevant

the

purposes of this
either for

Introduction
it.

in

order to argue

or against
in

As

to the reality of an
this

infallible guide,

whatever shape

has been
I

accepted by various sections of Christians,
not a

have
quite

word

to say.

As

part of a creed
inquiry.
it
I

it

is

outside the scope of
it

my

have

to

do with

only

if,

and

in so far as,

is

represented, not as

part of the thing to be believed, but as one of the

fundamental
position
I

reasons
it

for believing

it

;

and

in that

think

inadmissible.

Merely as an
a

illustration, then, let

us consider for
Infallibility,

moment

the particular case of Papal

an example which
1

may be regarded

with the greater

Cf. for

a development of this statement, Philosophic Doubt, chap.

—
AUTHORITY AND REASON
I

; ;

224

impartiality as

am
I

not,

I

suppose, likely to have

among
is

the readers of these Notes
If

many by whom

it

accepted.

rightly understand the teaching of

the

Roman

Catholic theologians upon this subject,
least,

the following propositions, at

must be accepted

before the doctrine of Infallibility can be regarded as
satisfactorily

proved or adequately held
art Peter,

:

—

(i)

That

the words
and, again,

'

Thou

and upon

this rock,' &c.,

Feed my sheep,' were uttered by Christ
fail.

and

that,

being so uttered, were of Divine authorship,
(2)

and cannot
words
is

That the meaning of these
Peter was endowed with a
;

(a) that St.

primacy of jurisdiction over the other Apostles
that

{b)

he was

to

have a perpetual
were

line of successors,
;

similarly

endowed with a primacy of jurisdiction
to be Bishops of

(c)

that these successors
(d) that the

Rome
it

primacy of jurisdiction carries with
'

the certainty of Divine
this
'

assistance

' ;

(e)

that though

assistance

'

does not ensure either the morality,

or the wisdom, or the general accuracy of the Pontiff
to

whom

it

is

given,

it

does ensure his absolute

inerrancy whenever he shall, ex cathedra, define a
doctrine of faith or morals
;

{/) that no pronounce-

ment can be regarded as 6x cathedra unless it relates to some matter already thoroughly sifted and considered by competent divines.

Now
six

it is

no part of
can

my
in

business to ask
the

how

the

sub-heads contained

second

of

these
of
in

propositions

by

any

legitimate

process

exegesis be extracted from the texts mentioned

AUTHORITY AND REASON
the
first
;

225
full,

nor how,

if

they be accepted to the

they can obviate the necessity for the complicated
exercise of private

judgment required

to

determine

whether any particular decision has or has not been

made under
to

the conditions necessary to constitute

it

a pronouncement ex cathedra. be discussed between

These are questions
Catholic and nonI

Roman
point

Roman

Catholic controversialists, with which

have
first

nothing here to do.
proposition alone
is

My

is,

that the

so absolutely subversive of any

purely naturalistic view of the universe, involves so

many fundamental elements
supernatural
character
first

of Christianity

(e.g.

the

of Christ

and

the

trustall

worthiness of the

and fourth Gospels, with
that
if
it

that this carries with

it),

does not require
authority
for
its

the argument from an infallible
support, necessity
it

seems hard
stage
of

to

understand where the
in at

for that

argument can come
apologetic

any

fundamental

demonstration.

And
that

that this proposition does not require infallible
its

authority for
it

support seems plain from the fact

does

itself

supply the main ground on which
is

the existence of infallible authority

believed.

This

is

not,

and

is

not intended to be, an objection
;

to the doctrine of Papal Infallibility

it is

not,

and

is

not intended to be, a criticism by means of example
directed against other doctrines involving the exist-

ence of an unerring guide.

But

if

the reader will
I

attentively consider the matter he will,

think, see

that whatever

be the truth or the value of such

Q

226

AUTHORITY AND REASON
never be used to supply any

doctrines, they can

fundamental support to the systems of which they

form a part without being open to a reply

like that
Infalli-

which
bility.

I

have supposed
Indeed,

in the case of
reflect

Papal

when we

upon the character
been
built

of the religious books and of the religious organisations through which Christianity has

up

;

when we

consider the variety in date, in occasion,

in authorship, in context, in spiritual

development,

which mark the

first

;

the stormy history and the in-

evitable division which
further, reflect

mark the second when we,
;

on the astonishing number of the procritical,

blems, linguistic,

metaphysical, and historical

which must be

settled, at least in

some preliminary

fashion, before either the

books or the organisations

can be supposed entitled by right of rational proof to
the position of infallible guides,

we can

hardly supthe

pose that

we were

intended to find

in these

logical foundations of our

system of religious

beliefs,

however important be the part (and can it be exaggerated ?) which they were destined to play in producing, fostering, and directing
it.

VI

Enough has now,
production of
belief.

perhaps, been said to indicate

the relative positions of Reason and Authority in the

To Reason

is

largely due the

growth of new and the

sifting of old

knowledge

;

the

AUTHORITY AND REASON
ordering, and in part the discovery, of that vast

227

body

of systematised conclusions which constitute so large

a portion of

scientific, philosophical, ethical, political,

and theological learning.
measure beholden, though

To Reason we are in some
not, perhaps, so

we

suppose, for hourly aid in managing so

much much
to

as

of

the trifling portion of our personal affairs entrusted
to our care

by Nature as we do not happen
to

have

already surrendered

the control

of habit.

By

Reason

also

is

directed, or misdirected, the public

policy of communities within the narrow limits of deviation permitted

by accepted custom and

tradition.
it

Of

its

immense

indirect consequences, of the part

has played in the evolution of
disintegration of ancient creeds,

human
by the
life,

affairs

by the

alteration of

the external conditions of

human

by the proas
I

duction of

new moods

of thought,

or,

have
in this

termed them, psychological climates, we can
connection say nothing.
effects of

For these are no
no
logical aspect
it

rational

reason

;

the causal nexus by which they
;

are

bound

to reason has

and

if
it

reason produces them, as in part
is

certainly does,
in

in

a manner indistinguishable from that

which

similar consequences are blindly
distribution
fertility

produced by the

of continent

and ocean, the varying

of different regions, and the other material

surroundings by which the destinies of the race are
modified.

When we

turn,

however, from the conscious

work of Reason

to that

which

is

unconsciously per-

228

AUTHORITY AND REASON
for us

formed

by Authority, a very

different specfirst,

tacle arrests

our attention.

The

effects of the

prominent as they are through the dignity of their
origin,

are

trifling

compared with the all-pervadthe
second.

ing influences which flow from

At
as

every

moment of our members of a family, of

lives,

as

individuals,

a party, of a nation, of a
silent,

Church, of a universal brotherhood, the
tinuous, unnoticed influence of Authority
feelings,

con-

moulds our

our aspirations, and, what

we

are

more imfrom

mediately concerned with, our

beliefs.
its

It is

Authority that
premises.

Reason

itself

draws

most important

It is in
its

unloosing or directing the forces of

Authority that

most important conclusions

find

their principal function.

And even

in those cases

where we may most

truly say that our beliefs are

the rational product of strictly intellectual processes,

we

have, in

all

probability, only got to trace
its

back the

thread of our inferences to
perceive that
it

beginnings in order to
itself in

finally loses
it

some general
is

principle which, describe
to

as

we may,

in fact

due

no more defensible origin than the influence of

Authority.

Nor
i

is

the comparative pettiness of the role thus

played by reasoning in
egret.

human

affairs

a matter for

Not merely because we
in organic

are ignorant of the

data required for the solution, even of very simple

problems

and

social

life,

are

we

called

on

to acquiesce in an arrangement which, to be sure,

AUTHORITY AND REASON
;

229

we have no power to disturb nor yet because these we possess them, are too complex to be dealt with by any rational calculus we possess or
data, did

are ever likely to acquire
to these difficulties,

;

but because, in addition
is

reasoning
;

a force most apt to
dis-

divide and disintegrate
integration

and though division and

may

often be the necessary preliminaries
still

of social development,
forces

more necessary are the
without which there

which bind and

stiffen,

would be no society
It is true,

to develop.

no doubt, that we can, without any

great expenditure of research, accumulate instances in

which Authority has perpetuated error and retarded
progress;
least of
for,

unluckily,

none of the

influences,

Reason

by which the history of the race has been moulded have been productive of unmixed good.
all,

The

springs

at

which we quench our
Yet,
if

thirst

are

always turbid.

we

are to judge with equity

between these
that
it

rival claimants,

we must

not forget
to which, in

is

Authority rather than Reason

the

main,

we
;

owe,
that
it

not religion only, but ethics
is

and

politics

Authority which supplies
in

us with
science
;

essential

elements

the

premises

of

that

it

is

Authority rather than Reason
social life
;

which lays deep the foundations of
is

that

it

Authority rather than Reason which cements

its

superstructure.

And
is

though

it

may seem

to savour
if

of paradox,

it

yet no exaggeration to say, that

we would

find the quality in

which we most notably

230

AUTHORITY AND REASON
we
should look for
it,

excel the brute creation,

not

so

much

in our faculty of convincing and being

convinced

by the

exercise

of

reasoning,

as

in

our capacity for influencing and being influenced

through the action of Authority.

PART

IV

SUGGESTIONS TOWARDS A PROVISIONAL PHILOSOPHY

CHAPTER

I

THE GROUNDWORK
I

We have now considered
classes of them,

beliefs, or certain

important
con-

under three aspects.

We have
;

sidered

them from the point of view of
;

their practical

necessity

from that of their philosophic proof
origin.

and

from that of their scientific
to

Inquiries relating
distinct in their

the

same subject-matter more
it

character

would

be

difficult

to
it

conceive.
is

It

remains for us to consider whether
extract from their

possible to

combined

results

any general view

which

may command

at least

a provisional assent.
if

It is evident,

of course, that this general view,

we

are fortunate

enough

to

reach

it,

will

not be of

the nature of a complete or adequate philosophy.

The

unification of
into

all

belief into

an ordered whole,

compacted

one coherent
is
is

structure under the

stress of reason,

an ideal which
also

we can never
in

abandon

;

but

it

one which,

the present

condition of our knowledge, perhaps even of our
faculties,

we seem incapable of attaining. For the moment we must content ourselves with something

234
less

THE GROUNDWORK
than
this.

The

best system

we can hope

to

construct will suffer from gaps and rents, from loose

ends and ragged edges.

It

does not, however, follow

from
value

this that
;

it

will

be without a high degree of
it

and, whether valuable or worthless,

may at

least represent the best within

our reach.
best in relation
to submit, as
I

By
to

the best

I,

of course,
If

reflective

reason.

mean we have

think
belief,

we

must, to an incomplete rationalisation of

this

ought not to be because

in

a

fit

of

intellectual despair

we

are driven to treat reason as

an

illusion

;

nor yet because

we have

deliberately

resolved to transfer our allegiance to irrational or
non-rational
inclination
;

but because reason
is,

itself

assures

us that such

a course

at
If

the lowest,

the least irrational one open to us.
find our

we have

to

way over

difficult

seas and under

murky

skies without

compass or chronometer, we need not
to drive at

on that account allow the ship
care every indication, be

random.

Rather ought we to weigh with the more anxious
it

negative or positive, and
help

from whatever quarter

it

may come, which can

us to guess at our position and to lay out the course

which

it

behoves us to
first

steer.

Now, the
scheme of
tinction

and most elementary principle
in

which ought to guide us

framing any provisional

unification, is to decline to

draw any

dis-

between

different classes of belief

where no

relevant distinction can as a matter of fact be dis-

covered.

To

pursue the opposite course would be

THE GROUNDWORK
gratuitously to

235

irrationalise (to coin a convenient
start
;

word) our scheme from the very

to destroy,
its

by a quite arbitrary treatment, any hope of
symmetrical
yet,
if

and

healthy

development.

And

there be

tained in the

any value in the criticisms conSecond Part of these Notes, this is which the advocates of
blundered.
invariably

precisely the mistake into

naturalism

have

Without

any preliminary

analysis, nay, without

any apparent

suspicion that a preliminary analysis
or
desirable,

was necessary
assume that
a
different,

they have chosen
stand

to

scientific beliefs

not only upon
solid,

but upon
others
;

a

much more

platform than any

that scientific standards supply the sole test

of truth, and scientific methods the sole instruments
of discovery.

The
to to

reader

is

already in possession of
it

some

of

the arguments which are, as

seems
not

to me, fatal

such
repeat

claims,

and

it

is
is

necessary here
to
in

them.
to

What

more

our present
the absence

purpose

is

find

out whether,

of philosophic

proof,

judgments about the

phe-

nomenal, and more particularly about the material,
world possess any other characteristics which,
in

our attempt at a provisional unification of knowledge,
forbid
classes

us

to

place

them on a
imagine,
will

level

with

other
of

of belief.

That there are
I

differences

some

sort

no one,

attempt to deny.

But are they of a kind which require us either
to give

any special precedence to science, or to

236

THE GROUNDWORK
?

exclude other beliefs altogether from our general

scheme

One
sight
beliefs

peculiarity there
to

is

which seems
certain
say,

at

first

effectually

distinguish

scientific

from any which belong,
;

to ethics

or

theology

a peculiarity which may, perhaps, be best
'

expressed by the word

inevitableness.'

Every-

body

has,

and everybody
in their

is

obliged to have,

some

convictions about the world in which he lives
victions
(as

—con-

which
I

narrow and particular form
called beliefs of perception,
all,

what

have before

memory, and expectation) guide us
savages,

children,

and philosophers

alike,
;

in

the ordinary

conduct of day-to-day existence
ralised

which,

when gene-

and extended, supply us with some of the

leading presuppositions on which the whole fabric
of science appears logically to depend.
tions quite

No

convicI

answering to
in

this description can,
aesthetics,

think,

be found either

ethics,
is,

or theology.
for the

Some

kind of morality

no doubt, required
social
life.
is,

stability

even of the rudest form of

Some

sense of beauty, some kind of religion,
to

perhaps,

be discovered (though

this

is

disputed) in every
is

human community.
in

But certainly there

nothing

any of these great

departments of

thought

quite corresponding to our habitual

judgments about

the things

we

see and handle
it,

;

judgments which,
practically

with reason or without

all

mankind are

compelled to entertain.

Compare,

for example, the central truth of theo-

THE GROUNDWORK

237

— 'There logy
—
'

is

a God'

— with one of the fundamental
(itself

presuppositions of science

a generalised state-

ment of what is given in ordinary judgments of perThere is an independent material world.' ception) disposed to doubt whether so good a myself am I

made out for accepting the second of these propositions as can be made out for accepting the
case can be
first.

But while

it

has been found by many, not only

possible, but easy, to

doubt the existence of God, 2

doubts as to the independent existence of matter

have assuredly been confined
of subjective
reflection,

to the rarest

moments
like

and have dissolved
touch
of what

summer

mists at the
call reality.

first

we

are

pleased to

opinion of
a

Now, what are we to make of many persons, perhaps
ground
for

this fact?

In the
it

of most,

affords
to

conclusive

elevating

science

a

different plane of certitude

from that on which other

systems of belief must be content to dwell.
evidence of the senses, as

The

we

loosely describe these

judgments of perception,
of
as
all

is

for

such persons the best
it is

evidence

:

it is

inevitable, so
it,

true

;

seeing

the proverb has

is

indeed believing.
is

This

somewhat crude view, however,
can accept.
of these beliefs
is

not one which we
the production

The coercion exercised in
not, as

has been already shown, a

rational coercion.
;

Even while we submit to it we may judge it and in the very act of believing we may be conscious that the strength of our belief is

238
far in excess of
justify.
I

THE GROUNDWORK
anything which mere reasoning can

am making no
belief

complaint of this disparity
reasons.

between

and

its

On

the contrary,

I

have already noted
view that
it

my

dissent from

the popular

is

our business to take care that, as far

as possible, these

two

shall in
I

every case be nicely

adjusted.

It

cannot,

contend, be our duty to do
if it

that in the

name

of reason which,

were done,
be
in

would bring any kind of
standstill.

rational life to

an immediate
it

And even
it

if

we

could suppose

to

our duty,

is

not one

which, as was

shown

the last chapter, perform.
beliefs
If

we

are practically
in

competent
case

to

this

be true

the

of those

which owe

their origin largely to Authority,

or the
less
is

non-rational
it

action of

mind on mind, not
of
of

true

in

the
arise

case

those elementary
sense-stimulation.

judgments which

out

Whether
or not
if
it

there be an independent material universe
to philosophic doubt.

may be open
it

But
which

that,

exists,

is

expedient that the belief
with
is

in

it

should
all

be

accepted

a

credence

for

practical purposes
I

immediate and unwavering,
If

admits,

think, of

no doubt whatever.

we

could
in

suppose a community to be called into being who,
its

dealings with the

'

external world,' should permit
all its

action to wait

upon speculation, and require

metaphysical
full

difficulties to

be solved before reposing

belief in

some such

material surroundings as those
its

which we habitually postulate,

members would

THE GROUNDWORK
complete than that which,

239

be overwhelmed by a ruin more rapid and more
in

a preceding chapter,

was prophesied
the causes of

for

those
its

who

should succeed in
position

ousting authority from
belief.

natural

among

But supposing
on

this

be

so, it follows necessarily,

accepted biological principles, 1 that a

kind of

credulity so essential to the welfare, not merely of

the race as a whole, but of every single
it,

member

of
its

will

be bred by elimination and selection into
If

we consider what must have 2 happened at that critical moment in the history of organic development when first conscious judgments of sense-perception made themselves felt as important
inmost organisation.
links
in

the chain connecting
action,
is
it

nervous
not plain

irritability

with

muscular

that

any

individual in
qualified

whom

such judgments were habitually

and enfeebled by even the most legitimate

scepticism would incontinently perish, and that those

only would survive

who

possessed, and could pre-

sumably transmit to

their descendants, a stubborn

assurance which was beyond the power of reasoning
either to fortify or to

undermine

?

No
other

such process would come to the assistance of

faiths,

however

true,

which were the growth of

higher and later stages of civilised development.
At the first glance, the reader may be disposed to think that to bring in science to show why no peculiar certainty should attach to scientific premises is logically inadmissible. But this is not so though
1
:

the converse procedure,
to establish scientific
in

by which scientific conclusions would be made premises, would, no doubt, involve an argument
•

a circle.

Cf.

Note,

p.

304.

24o

THE GROUNDWORK
first place,
all,

For, in the

such faiths are not necessarily,
in the struggle for

nor perhaps at
existence.

an advantage

In the second place, even where they are
it

an advantage,

is

rather to the

community

as a

whole

in its struggles

with other communities, than to

each particular individual in his struggle with other
individuals, or with the inanimate forces of Nature.

In the third place, the whole machinery of selection

and elimination has been weakened,

if

not paralysed,

by
it

civilisation itself.
still

And,
it

in the fourth place,

were

in full

operation,

could not, through the

mere absence of time and opportunity, have produced any sensible effect in moulding the organism for the reception of beliefs which, by hypothesis, are
the
recent
acquisition

of

a small and advanced

minority.

We are
is

now

in

a position to answer the question

put a few pages back.

What,

I

then asked,

if

any,

the import, from our present point of view, of the

universality

and inevitableness which unquestionably
judgments about the world of
to these

attach

to

certain

phenomena, and
answer must
import.

judgments alone
peculiarities

?

The
Faith
is

be, that these
exist,

have no

They

but they are irrelevant.
if

or assurance, which,
least

not in excess of reason,

at

independent of

it,

seems to be a necessity in
there

every great department of knowledge which touches

on action

;

and what great department

is

THE GROUNDWORK
which does not
teaches us that
?

241

The

analysis of sense-experience
it

we

require

in

our ordinary dealings
cursory examiit is

with the material world.

The most

nation into the springs of moral action shows that

an indispensable supplement to ethical speculation.
Theologians are for the most part agreed that without
it

religion

is

but the ineffectual profession of a barren
value, however, of these

creed.

The comparative

faiths is not to

be measured either by their intensity
their diffusion.
It is

or
all

by the degree of

true that

men, whatever their speculative opinions, enjoy

a practical assurance with regard to

what they see

and touch.

It is

also true that

few

men have an
of which
;

assurance equally strong about matters
their senses
tell

them nothing immediately
this

and

that
at

many men have on such
But as
if,

subjects no assurance

all.

is

precisely

what we should
need
for

expect
other

in the progress of evolution, the

faiths

had

arisen

under

conditions

very

different

from those which produced our innate and
in sense-perception,

long-descended confidence
can

how

we

regard

it

as a distinction in favour of the

latter?

We
that

can scarcely reckon universality and

necessity as badges of pre-eminence, at the

same

moment

we

recognise them as marks of the

elementary and primitive character of the beliefs to

which they give their all-powerful,
less irrational,

but

none the
for

sanction.

believing that the

The time has passed further we go back towards
R

the

242
•

THE GROUNDWORK
we
get to Virtue and to

state of nature,' the nearer

Truth.

We

cannot,

then, extract

out of the coercive

character of certain unreasoned beliefs any principle

of classification which
sional

shall help us to

the proviin

philosophy

of

which

we

are

search.

What
in

such a principle would require us to include

our system of beliefs contents us not.
to exclude
if,

What

it

would require us
part with.

we may
with

not willingly
this

And

dissatisfied

double

deficiency, we examine more closely into its character and origin, we find, not only that it is without
rational justification

—of which
right
it

at this stage of our

inquiry

we have no
it

to

complain

—but

that

the very account which

gives of

itself

precludes
intel-

us from finding in
lectual repose.
I

even a temporary place of

do

not,

be

it

observed,

make

it

a matter of

complaint that those

who

erect the inevitable judg-

ments of sense-perception into a norm or standard
of right belief have thereby
substituted (however

unconsciously) psychological compulsion for rational
necessity as
I
;

for,

as rational necessity does not, so far

can see, carry us at the best beyond a system of
'solipsism,'
if
it

mere

must,
are to

somehow

or other, be

supplemented

we

force an entrance into

any larger and worthier inheritance.
rather
is,

My

complaint

that having asked us to acquiesce in the

guidance of non-rational impulse, they should then
require us arbitrarily to narrow

down

the impulses

THE GROUNDWORK
which we

243

may

follow to the almost animal instincts

lying at the root of our judgments about material

phenomena.

It is

surely better

—

less

repugnant,

I

mean, to reflective reason

—

to

frame for ourselves
it

some wider scheme which, though
the last resort

be founded

in

upon our needs,

shall

at least take

account of other needs than those
brute progenitors.

we
I

share with our

And

here,

if

not elsewhere,

may

claim the

support of the most famous masters of speculation.

Though they have

not,

it

may

be,

succeeded

in

supplying us with a satisfactory explanation of the
Universe, at least the

Universe which they have

sought to explain has been something more than a

mere

collection of hypostatised
in space,

sense-perceptions,

packed side by side
architects of systems

and following each
All the great
to provide

other with blind uniformity in time.

have striven

accomwider

modation within their schemes

for ideas of

sweep and richer content
to support,

;

and whether they desired
to

to

modify, or

oppose the popular

theology of their day, they have at least given
hospitable

welcome

to

some

of

its

most important

conceptions.

In the case of such

men

as

Leibnitz,
I

Kant,
think,

Hegel, this

is

obvious enough.

It is true,

even

in

such a case as that of Spinoza.

Philosophers,

indeed,

may find

but small satisfaction in his methods

or conclusions.

They may

see but

little

to

admire
r

in

his elaborate but illusory

show of quasi-mathematical
2

244

THE GROUNDWORK
;

demonstration

in the

Nature which
feel

is

so unlike the
at

Nature of the physicist that we
its

no surprise

being also called

God

;

in the

unlike the
prise at

God of the

theologian

God Who is so that we feel no sur;

His

also being called

Nature

in the

a priori

metaphysic which evolves the universe from definitions
;

in the
;

freedom which

is

indistinguishable from
is

necessity

in the volition
;

which

indistinguishable
is

from

intellect

in the love

which
;

indistinguish-

able from reasoned

acquiescence

in

the universe

from which have been expelled purpose, morality,
beauty, and causation, and which contains, therefore,

but scant room for theology, ethics, aesthetics, and
science.

In the two hundred years and

more which
it

have elapsed since the publication of

his system,

may be doubted whether two hundred
been convinced by his reasoning.
to interest the

persons have

Yet he continues
?

world

;

and why

Not, surely, as a

guide through the mazes of metaphysics.
pioneer of
'

Not
all

as a

higher

'

criticism.

Least of

because

he was anything so commonplace as a heretic or an
atheist.

The

true reason appears to

me

to

be very

different.

It is partly,

at least, because in despite

of his

positive teaching

he was endowed with a

religious imagination which, in

however abstract and
which enabled

metaphysical a fashion, illumined the whole profitless

bulk of inconclusive demonstration

;

him

to find

in

notions

most remote from sense;

experience the only abiding realities

and

to convert

a purely rational adhesion to the conclusions sup-

THE GROUNDWORK
and unmoral substance,
into

245

posed to flow from the nature of an inactive, impersonal,

something not

quite inaptly termed the
It will,

Love

of God.

perhaps, be objected that

we have no
to

right to claim support

from the example of systemasked, can

makers with whose systems we do not happen
agree.

How,

it

may be
if

it

concern us

that Spinoza extracted something like a religion out

of his philosophy,

we do not
it

accept his philosophy
to

?

Or
of

that

Hegel found
Idea,'
It

possible

hitch

large

fragments of Christian
the
'

if

dogma into the development we are not convinced by his
us,
I

dialectic

?

concerns

reply,

inasmuch as
a truth

facts like these furnish fresh confirmation of

reached before by another method.
istic

The

natural-

creed, which merely systematises

and expands

the ordinary judgments of sense-perception,

we found

by

direct examination to be quite inadequate.

We

now note

that

its

inadequacy has been commonly

assumed by men whose speculative genius is admitted, who have seldom been content to allow
that the world of which they

had

to give

an account

could be narrowed down

to the naturalistic pattern.

in

But a more serious objection

to the point of

view
it

here adopted remains to be considered.
will

Is not,

be asked, the whole method followed throughout
?

the course of these Notes intrinsically unsound
it

Is

not substantially identical with the attempt, not

'

24b

THE GROUNDWORK
for the first time, to rest superstition

made now
scepticism,

upon

and

to

frame our creed, not
logic,

in accord-

ance with the rules of
of desire?
It

but with the promptings
it

begins (may
;

not be said

?)

by

disits

crediting reason

and having thus guaranteed
it

results against inconvenient criticism,

proceeds to
'

make

the needs of

man

the measure of

objective

reality, to erect his

convenience into the touchstone

of Eternal Truth, and to mete out the Universe on

a plan authenticated only by his wishes.

Now, on
to

this criticism
it

I

have, in the

first

place,

observe that

errs in assuming, either that the
is

object aimed at in the preceding discussion

to

discredit reason, or that as a matter of fact this has

been

its

effect.

On
at

the contrary, be the character
it

of our conclusions what

may, they have at
fullest

least

been arrived
free,

by allowing the
If

play to

rational

investigation.

one consequence

of this investigation has been to diminish the im-

portance
causes
the

commonly
by which
of

attributed to reason
belief
is

among
it

the

produced,
that
this

is

by
has

action

reason

itself

result

been brought about.

If another

consequence has
to

been that doubts have been expressed as
theoretic
validity
is

the

of

certain

universally accepted

beliefs, this

because the right of reason to deal

with every province of knowledge, untrammelled by
arbitrary restrictions or customary immunities, has

been assumed and acted upon.
this,

If,

in addition to all

we have been

incidentally compelled to admit

THE GROUNDWORK
that as yet

247

we

are without a satisfactory philosophy,

the admission has not been asked for in the interests
either of scepticism or of superstition.

Reason

is

not honoured by pretending that she has done what
as a matter of fact
is still

undone

;

nor need

we be

driven into a universal license of credulity by recognising that

we must for the

present put up with some
falls far

working hypothesis which
tive perfection.

short of specula-

But, further,

is it

true to say that, in the absence

of reason,
for

we have
?

contentedly accepted mere desire
the theory here advocated

our guide

No doubt

requires us to take account, not merely of premises

and
tion.

their conclusions, but of needs

and

their satisfac-

But

this is

only asking us to do explicitly and
naturalistic theory
is

on system what on the
stitution of

done

unconsciously and at random.

By

the very con-

our being

we seem
in

practically driven to

assume a

real

world

correspondence with our

A harmony of some kind between our inner selves and the universe
ordinary judgments of perception.
of which

we form

a part

is

thus the tacit postulate
'

at the root of
' ;

every belief we entertain about

phe-

nomena and all that I now contend for is, that a like harmony should provisionally be assumed between that universe and other elements
which are of a
later,

in

our nature

of a more uncertain, but of no

ignobler, growth.

Whether
as that

this

correspondence

is
'

best described

which obtains between a

need

'

and

its

24 8

THE GROUNDWORK
may be open
on the one
to question.
if

'satisfaction,'

But, at

all

events, let

it
is,

be understood that
side,

the relation so

described

something different
its

from that between a premise and

conclusion, so,

on the other,
that

it is

intended to be equally remote from
its

between a desire and

fulfilment.
I

That

it

has

not the logical validity of the first
admitted, or rather asserted.
casual,

have already
it

That
'

has not the
'

wavering, and purely
is

subjective

character

of the second

not less true.
is

For the correspon-

dence postulated

not between the fleeting fancies

of the individual and the immutable verities of an

unseen world, but between these characteristics of
our nature, which

we

recognise as that in us which,
is

though not necessarily the strongest,
which,

the highest

;

though not always the most universal,

is

nevertheless the best.

But because

this

theory

may seem

alike

remote

from familiar forms both of dogmatism and scepticism,

and because

I

am

on that account the more

anxious that no unmerited plausibility should be
attributed to
it

through any obscurity

in

my way

of

presenting

it,

let

me draw

out,

even

at the cost of

some
not,

repetition,

a brief catalogue of certain things

which may, and of certain other things which

may

be legitimately said concerning

it.

We

may
it

say of

it,

then, that

it

furnishes us with

no adequate philosophy of
not say of
that
it

religion.

But we may
or,

leaves religion worse,

indeed,

otherwise provided for in this respect than science.

THE GROUNDWORK

249

We
the
'

may

say of

it

that

it

assumes without proof
'

a certain consonance between the

subjective

'

and
to

objective

'

;

between what we are moved
in fact
is.

believe and

what

We

may

not say that

the presuppositions of science
solid, or,

depend upon any more
gives us a

indeed,

upon any
it,

different, foundation.

We

may

say of

if

we

please, that

it

practical,

but not a theoretic, assurance of the truths
it

with which

is

concerned.

But,

if so,

we must

describe in the

same

technical language our assur-

ance respecting the truths of the material world.

We

may

say of

it

that

it

accepts provisionally the

theory, based

on

scientific

methods, which traces back

the origin of

all beliefs

to causes which, for the

most

part, are non-rational,

and which carry with them no
But

warranty that they

will issue in right opinion.
it

we may not say

of

that the distinction thus

drawn

between the non-rational causes which produce the
immediate judgments of sense-perception, and those
which produce judgments
in the

sphere of ethics or

theology, implies any superior certitude in the case of
the former.

We We
to

may

say of

it

that

it

admits judgments of

sense-perception to

be

the

most

inevitable,

but

denies them to be the most worthy.

may

say of

it

generally, that as

it

assumes

the Whole, of which
include

we

desire a reasoned knowledge,
it

human

consciousness as an element,

refuses to regard

any system which,

like Naturalism,

leaves large tracts and aspects of that consciousness

250

THE GROUNDWORK
for

unaccounted

and
the

derelict as other than, to that
;

extent, at least, irrational
to circumscribe

and that it utterly declines
frontiers

Knowable by
itself

whose

delimitation

Reason

assures us can be justified

on no rational principle whatsoever.

25

]

CHAPTER
BELIEFS

II

AND FORMULAS

After

these hints towards the formation of a proit

visional philosophy,

may perhaps be
it

convenient,

before proceeding to say what remains to be said on the character of the beliefs for which

may provide
which

a foundation, to interpolate some observations on the
formal side of their historical development,
will

not only serve,

I

hope, to

general scheme here advocated,

make clearer the but may help to

solve certain difficulties which have sometimes been
felt in

the interpretation of theological and ecclesias-

tical history.

Assuming, as we
sumption that
grow.

do, that

can hardly do otherwise than
it

Knowledge exists, we make the further as-

has grown and must yet further

In what manner, then, has that growth been
?

accomplished

What
must

are the external signs of
its

its
?

successive stages,

the marks of
strike all

gradual evolution

One,

at least,

even with a careless eye, the
lation

who have surveyed, course of human specuformulas
in

—

I

mean

the recurring process by which the

explanations or explanatory

terms of
uni-

which mankind endeavour

to

comprehend the

252

BELIEFS

AND FORMULAS
some
tier to
its

verse are formed, are shattered, and then in

new shape are formed again.
times represent
tier that
it,

It is not,

as

we some-

by the steady addition of
not

the fabric of knowledge uprises from
It
is

foundation.
material, nor

by mere accumulation of

even by a plant-like development, that
Rather are we

our beliefs grow less inadequate to the truths which
they strive to represent.
like

one

who

is

perpetually engaged in altering

some ancient

dwelling in order to satisfy new-born needs.

The

ground-plan of
build here
in repair,
;

it is

being perpetually modified.

We
kept

we

pull

down
is

there.

One

part

is

another part

suffered to decay.

And
in

even those portions of the structure which may

themselves appear quite unchanged, stand in such

new

relations to the rest,

and are put

to such different

uses, that they

would scarce be recognised by

their

original designer.

Yet even

this

metaphor

haps misleading.

We

ceive the true history
it

inadequate, and permore accurately conof knowledge if we represent
is

shall

under the similitude of a

plastic

body whose shape
through

and

size are in constant process of alteration

the operation both of external and of internal forces.

The

internal forces are those of reason.

The

ex-

ternal forces correspond to those non-rational causes

on whose importance
of these agencies

I

have already dwelt.

Each
by

may be supposed
is

to act both

way

of destruction and of addition.

By

their joint

operation

new

material

deposited at one point,

BELIEFS
old

AND FORMULAS
at

253

material

is

eroded

another

;

and the whole
is

mass, whose balance
constantly changing

has been thus disturbed,
its

configuration and settling
it

towards a new position of equilibrium, which
approach, but can never quite attain.

may

We must not, however, regard this body of beliefs
as

being equally mobile
it

in

all

its

parts.

Certain

elements in

have the power of conferring on the
in

whole something
ture.

the nature of a definite strucas 'theories,' 'hypotheses,'

These are known
and

'generalisations,'

'explanatory
beliefs

formulas'

in

general.

They

represent

by which other
arranged.

beliefs are co-ordinated.
in

They supply the framework
is

which the

rest of
is

knowledge
the noblest
if it

Their
;

right construction

work of reason and

without their aid reason,
all,

could be exercised at

would

itself

be driven from particular to particular

in helpless

bewilderment.
action

Now
some

the

and reaction
is

between

these

formulas and their contents

the most salient, and in

respects the most interesting, fact in the history

of thought.
justify,

Called into being, for the most part, to

or at least to organise, pre-existing beliefs,
office

they can seldom perform their
ing part, at
precision to
least,

without modify-

of their material.

While they give

what would otherwise be indeterminate,
permanence
flux,

and a
be
in

relative

to

what would otherwise

a state of

they do so at the cost of some

occasional violence to the beliefs with which they
deal.

Some

of these are distorted to

make them

254
fit

BELIEFS
into
their

AND FORMULAS
Others,

predestined niches.

more
in

refractory,

are

destroyed
beliefs

or

ignored.

Even
to

science,

where the

that

have

be

ac-

counted for have often a native vigour born of the
imperious needs of sense-perception,
times disposed to see, not so
as

we are somemuch what is visible,
to

what theory informs us ought

be seen.

While

in the region of aesthetic (to take another example),

where

belief

is

of feebler growth, the inclination to

admire what squares with some current theory of
the beautiful, rather than with what appeals to any
real feeling for

beauty,

is

so

common

that

it

has

ceased even to amuse.

But

this

reaction

of formulas

on the
is

beliefs
first

which they co-ordinate or explain
stage in the process
is

but the

we

are describing.

The
it

next

the change, perhaps even the destruction, of the
itself

formula

by the victorious forces that

has prebelief,

viously held in check. or

The

plastic

body of

some portion of
and

it,

under the growing stress of
influences,

external
it

internal

breaks through,

may be
it

with destructive violence, the barriers by
at

which

was

one time controlled.

A

new theory

has to be formed, a

new arrangement
unfruitful

of knowledge

has to be accepted, and under changed conditions
the

same

cycle of not

changes begins

again.
I

do not know that any
is

illustration

of

this

familiar process

required, for in truth such examples

are abundant in every department of

Knowledge.

BELIEFS

AND FORMULAS

255

As chalk consists of little else but the remains of dead animalcule, so the history of thought consists
of
little

else but

an accumulation of abandoned ex-

planations.

In that vast cemetery every thrust of

the shovel turns up

some bone
;

that once

formed part

of a living theory

and the biography of most of
I

these theories would,

think, confirm the general
their birth, maturity,

account which

I

have given of

and decay.
II

Now we may
world as
it

well suppose that under existing
is

circumstances death
is

as necessary in the intellectual
It
it,

in the organic.

may

not always

result in progress, but without

doubtless, progress

would be impossible

;

and

if,

therefore, the constant

substitution of one explanation for another could be
effected smoothly,

and as

it

were

in silence,

without

disturbing anything beyond the explanations themselves,
regret.
this is
it

need cause

in general neither

anxiety nor

But, unfortunately, in the case of Theology,

not always the

way

things happen.

There,

as elsewhere, theories arise, have their day,

and

fall

;

but there, far more than elsewhere, do these theories
in their fall

endanger other

interests than their own.
for this differ-

More than one reason may be given
ence.

To

begin with,

in
I

Science the beliefs of sense-

perception, which, as

have implied, are commonly

vigorous enough to resist the warping effect of theory,

even when the

latter is in its full strength, are not im-

256

BELIEFS AND FORMULAS
by
its

perilled

decay.

They

provide a solid nucleus

of unalterable conviction, which survives uninjured

through

all

the mutations of intellectual fashion.

We

do not require the assistance of hypotheses
our
faith in

to sustain

what we see and

hear.

Speaking broadly,

that faith

is

unalterable and self-sufficient.
is

Theology
which
ness.

less happily situated.

There

it

often

happens that when a theory decays, the
it

beliefs to

refers are infected

by a contagious weakare animated as
is

The

explanation and the thing explained are

mutually dependent.
with a
lest

They

it

were

common

life,

and there

always a danger

they should be overtaken by a

common

destruc-

tion.

Consider

this

difference

between Science and

Theology

in the light of the following illustration.

The whole

instructed

world were quite recently

agreed that heat was a form of matter.
unanimity they

now hold

that

it is

a

With equal mode of motion.
inconsistent,
is

These opinions are not only absolutely
but the change from one to the other

revolutionary,

and involves the profoundest modification of our
general views of the material world.

Yet no one's

confidence in the existence of

some

quality in things

by which

his sensations of
;

thereby disturbed

warmth are produced is and we may hold either of these
in turn, or

theories, or both of

them

no theory

at

all,

without endangering the stability of our scientific faith.

Compare with

this

example drawn from physics

one of a very different kind drawn from theology.

BELIEFS
If

AND FORMULAS

257

there be a spiritual experience to which the history

of religion
tion with

bears witness,
If there
is

it

is

that of Reconcilia-

God.

be an 'objective' cause to
it is

which the feeling
found
in

confidently referred,

to

be

the central facts of the Christian story.
as the subject
is

Now, incommensurable
touched on in the
last

with that

paragraph, they resemble

each other at least in this

— that

both have been the

theme of

much

speculation,
satisfied

and that the accounts of
one generation,
to

them which have
the likeness ends.

an-

other have seemed profitless

and empty.

But there

In the physical case, the feeling
it is

of heat and the inward assurance that

really con-

nected with

some

quality in the external

body from
it,

which we suppose ourselves to derive

survive

every changing speculation as to the nature of that
quality'

and the mode of

its

operation.

In

the

spiritual case, the

sense of Reconciliation connected

by the Christian conscience with the life and death of Christ seems in many cases to be bound up with
the explanations of the mystery which from time to

time have been hazarded by theological theorists.

And

as these explanations have fallen out of favour,

the truth to be explained has too often been aban-

doned
and

also.
is

This
I

not the place to press the subject further
in

;

have neither the right

these Notes to assume
is

the truth of particular theological doctrines, nor
it

my

business to attempt to prove them.
I

But

this

much more

may perhaps be

allowed to say by
s

258

BELIEFS
of parenthesis.
is

AND FORMULAS
view which
this

way

If the point of

Essay
science

intended to
set, in

recommend be

accepted, the

precedent
is

the

first

of the above examples,

by

the one which ought to be followed by

theology.
as the

when a belief is only accepted conclusion of some definite inferential process,
doubt,
it

No

with that process
stance,

must stand or
is

fall.

If,

for in-

we

believe that there

hydrogen
forced

in the sun,

solely because that conclusion

is

upon us by

certain

arguments based upon spectroscopic observaarguments should ever be
be shaken
is

tions, then, if these

dis-

credited,

the belief in solar hydrogen would, as a

necessary

consequence,

or

destroyed.

But

in cases

where the

belief

rather the occasion
it,

of an hypothesis

than a conclusion from

the

destruction of the hypothesis

may be
in science

a reason for

devising a

new

one, but
belief.

is

certainly

no reason for

abandoning the
take

Nor

do we ever
example,

any other view.
the

We
to

do

not,

for

step over a precipice because

we

are

dissatisfied

with

all

attempts

account for gravitation.

In theology,
lean

however, experience does sometimes

too

timidly

on

theory,

and when
it

in

the

course of time theory decays,
perience in
its
fall.

drags down expersons are there

How many
say,

who, because they dislike the theories of Atone-

ment propounded,
or

by Anselm, or by Grotius,
which

the

versions
in the

of

these

have

imbedded
up the doc-

themselves

devotional literature of Western
'

Europe,

feel

bound

in

reason

'

to give

BELIEFS
trine itself
?

AND FORMULAS

259

Because they cannot compress within

the rigid limits of

some

semi-legal formula a mystery
for

which, unless

it

were too vast
mystery

our

full

intellectual

comprehension, would surely be too narrow for our
spiritual needs, the
itself is

to be rejected

!

Because they cannot contrive to their satisfaction a
system of theological jurisprudence which
clude
shall
inis

Redemption as a leading

case,

Redemption

no longer to be counted

among

the consolations of

mankind

!

in

There

is,

however, another reason beyond the

natural strength of the

judgments due

to sense-per-

ception which tends to

make

the change or abandon-

ment of explanatory formulas a smoother operation
in science

than

it is

in

theology

;

and

this

reason

is

to

be found
its

in the fact that
full

Religion works, and, to

produce

results,

must needs work, through
It has, therefore,

the agency of organised societies.

a social side, and from this
not,
I

its

speculative side can-

believe,
is

be kept wholly

distinct.
all

For although
these

feeling

the effectual bond of
it

societies,

feelings themselves,

would seem, cannot be pro-

perly developed without the aid of something which
is,

or which does duty as, a reason.
alien material
;

They

require

some

on which, so

to speak, they

may

be precipitated

round which they

may

crystallise

and coalesce.
reason
is

In the case of political societies this
race, of language,

founded on identity of

2 6o

BELIEFS AND FORMULAS

of country, or even of

mere material
on a

interest.

But

when

the religious society and the political are not,

as in primitive times, based

common

ground,

the desired reason can scarcely be looked for else-

where, and, in

fact,

never

is

looked for elsewhere,
religious formulas.

than in the acceptance of

common

Whence
fulfil

it

comes about

that these formulas

have

to

two functions which are not merely

distinct but

incomparable.

They

are both a statement of theo-

logical conclusions

and the symbols of a corporate

unity.

They

represent at once the endeavour to

systematise religious truth and to organise religious
associations
;

and they are therefore subject

to

two

kinds of influence, and involve two kinds of obligation,

which, though seldom distinguished, are never

identical,

and may sometimes even be opposed.
is

The

distinction
it

a simple one
prolific in

;

but the refusal

to recognise

has been

embarrassments,
the duty of con-

both for those

who have assumed
and
for those

triving symbols,

on

whom

has fallen the

burden of interpreting them.

The

rage for defining 1

which seized so large a portion of Christendom, both

Roman and non-Roman,
troubles,
definitions,

during the

Reformation
to turn the

and the fixed determination

when made,
not,

into impassable barriers be-

tween

hostile ecclesiastical divisions, are
I

among
the

the

most obvious, but
satisfactory, facts in

think,

among

most

modern

religious history.

To

the

definitions
1

taken
Note
at

simply as well-intentioned
end of next chapter.

Cf.

BELIEFS
efforts to

AND FORMULAS
raise

261

make

clear that

which was obscure, and
I

systematic that which was confused,
tions.

no objec-

Of

the practical necessity for
I

some formal
I

basis of Christian co-operation

am, as

have

said,

most firmly convinced.
age

But not every formula which
its

represents even the best theological opinion of
is

therefore fitted to unite

furtherance of

support of

men for all time in common religious objects, or in common religious institutions and
;

the
the

the

error committed in this connection

by the divines

of

the Reformation, and the counter-Reformation,

largely consisted in the

mistaken supposition that

symbols and decrees,
could

in

whose very elaboration

be read the sure prophecy of decay, were

capable of providing a convenient framework for a
perpetual organisation.
It is,

however, beyond the scope of these Notes

to discuss the

dangers which the inevitable use of

theological formulas as the
tical

groundwork of

ecclesias-

co-operation

may have upon

Christian unity,
is. I

important and interesting as the subject

am

properly concerned solely with the other side of the

same

shield,

namely, the dangers with which this

inevitable combination of theory

and practice may
the parallel case of
is

threaten the smooth development of religious beliefs

—dangers which do not follow
science,

in

where no such combination

to

be found.

The
they

doctrines of science have not got to be discussed
;

amid the confusion and clamour of the market-place
stir

neither hate nor love

;

the fortunes of no

202

BELIEFS

AND FORMULAS
;

living polity are

bound up with them

nor

is

there

any danger
watchwords.

lest

they become petrified into party
is

Theology

differently

situated.

There the explanatory formula may be so historically intertwined with the sentiments and traditions of the ecclesiastical organisation
;

the heat and
so welded

pressure of ancient conflicts

may have

them
even

together, that to modify one

and leave the

other untouched seems well-nigh impossible.
in

Yet

such cases

it is

interesting to note

how unexstill

pectedly the most
effected
;

difficult

adjustments are sometimes

how, partly by the conscious, and
;

more
little
;

by the unconscious, wisdom of mankind
kindly forgetfulness
;

by a

by a few happy inconsistencies

by methods which might not always bear the scrutiny
of the logician, though they

may

well be

condoned

by the philosopher, the changes required by the
general
tion

movement
might,

of belief are

made

with less

fric-

and

at a smaller cost

— even

to the enlightened

— than

perhaps,

antecedently

have

been

imagined.

263

CHAPTER
BELIEFS, FORMULAS,
I

III

AND REALITIES

The
were

road which theological thought

is

thus compelled
it is

to travel would, however, be rougher even than
it

not for the fact that large

changes and adapa fact to which
the reader's

tations of belief are possible within the limits of the

same unchanging
it

formulas.

This

is

has not been necessary hitherto to
It

call

attention.
not,
I

has been more convenient, and so far

think, misleading, to follow familiar usage,

and

to

identity of belief

assume that identity of statement involves that when persons make the same
;

assertions intelligently

and
this

in

good

faith

they

mean
is

the

same

thing.

But

on closer examination
all

seen not to be the case.

In

branches of know-

ledge abundant examples are to be discovered of

statements which do not
described in the

fall

into the cycle of

change

last section,

which no lapse of time
think, be found

nor growth of learning would apparently require us
to revise.

But

in

every case

it

will,

I

that, with the doubtful exception of purely abstract

propositions, these statements, themselves

unmoved,

represent a moving body of

belief,

varying from one

2

64

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES

period of life to another, from individual to individual,

and from generation

to generation.
I

Take an
an opinion at

instance at random.
it

suppose that

the world, so long as
all

thinks

it

worth while to have

upon the

subject, will continue to

accept without

amendment

the assertion that Julius
in the first

Caesar was murdered at
B.C.

Rome

century
this

But are we,

therefore,

to suppose that
in the
if

proposition must

mean

the

same thing

mouths
refuse

of

all

who

use

it ?

Surely not.

Even

we

to take account of the associated sentiments

which

give a different colour in each man's eyes to the

same

intellectual

judgment, we cannot ignore the

varying

positions

which the judgment
It is

itself

may

hold in different systems of belief.

manifestly

absurd to say that a statement about the

mode and
memoria

time of Caesar's death has the same significance for
the schoolboy
tcchnica,

who

learns

it

as a line in a
(if

and the historian

such there be) to

whom

it

represents a turning-point in the history of

the world.

Nor

is

it

possible to

deny that any

alteration in our views

on the nature of Death, or on
necessarily alter the import

the nature of

Man, must

of a proposition which asserts of a particular
that

man

he suffered a particular kind of death.
This may perhaps seem
to

be an unprofitable

subtlety
it

;

and

so, to

be sure,

in this particular case,
is

is.

But a similar

reflection

of obvious im-

portance

when we come
'

to consider, for example,
is

such propositions as

there

a God,' or

'

there

is

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,
a world of material things.'

AND REALITIES

265

Both these statements

might
may,

be,

and

are,

accepted by the rudest savage

and by the most
so
far

advanced philosopher.
tell,

They
the last

as

we can

continue to be actill

cepted by

men

in all stages of culture
is

inhabitant of a perishing world

frozen into un-

consciousness.

Yet

plainly the

savage
in

and

the

philosopher

use

these

words

very

different

meanings.

From

the tribal deity of early times to
or, if

the Christian God,

you prefer

it,

the Hegelian

Absolute

;

from Matter as conceived by primitive
it

man

to

Matter as

is

conceived by the modern
!

physicist,

how

vast the interval

The

formulas are

the same, the beliefs are plainly not the same.
so wide are they apart, that while to those

Nay,
hold

who

the earlier view the later would be quite meaningless, it

may

require the highest effort of sympathetic

imagination for those whose minds are steeped in
the later view to reconstruct, even imperfectly, the

substance of the
fully
child.

earlier.

The

civilised

understand the savage, nor the grown

man cannot man the

Now
this

a question of some interest

is

suggested by
the wide

reflection.

Can we,
at

in the face of

divergence of meaning frequently conveyed by the

same formula
endures
in

different
is

times, assert that

what
which

such cases
?

anything more than a mere
into

husk or

shell

Is

it

more than the mould

266

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES
at will
?

any metal, base or precious, may be poured

Does

identity of expression imply anything

which

deserves to be described as community of belief?

Are we here dealing with
some idea, in

things, or only with

words

?

In order to answer this question

we must have
Language

the first place, of the relation of

to Belief, and, in the second place, of the relation of

Belief to Reality.

That the

relation

between the

first
I

of these pairs

is

of no very precise or definite kind

have already indicated.
that
it

And

the fact

is

so obvious
insist

would hardly be worth while
it

to

on

it

were

not that Formal Logic

and conventional
relation
;

usage both proceed on exactly the opposite supposition.

They assume

a constant

between

the

symbol and the thing symbolised
is

and they
phrase

consider that so long as a word
is)
'

used

(as the

in the

same

sense,'

it

corresponds, or ought to

correspond, to the same thought.
artificial

But
;

this

is

an

simplification

of the facts

a convention,

most convenient
about concrete

for certain purposes, but

seldom or

never observed when we are expressing opinions
realities.

If

in

the sweat of our

brow we can secure that inevitable differences of meaning do not vitiate the particular argument in
hand,

we have done

all

that logic requires,

and

all

that lies in us to accomplish.

Not only would more
in

be impossible, but more would most certainly be
undesirable.

Incessant

variation

the
is

uses

to

which we put the same expression
necessary
if

absolutely
is,

the complexity of the Universe

even

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,
in the

AND REALITIES

267

most imperfect fashion,
If

to find a response in

thought.

terms were counters, each purporting

always to represent the whole of one unalterable
aspect of reality, language would become, not the

servant of thought, nor even

its ally,

but

its

tyrant.

The

wealth of our ideas would be limited by the

poverty of
flourish,

our

vocabulary.
exist.

Science

could

not
all

nor Literature

All play of mind,
;

variety, all

development would perish
its

and mankind

would spend

energies, not in using words, but in

endeavouring to define them.
It

was

this

logical

nightmare which oppressed

the intellect of the Middle Ages.

The schoolmen
all,

have been attacked

for

not occupying themselves

with experimental observation, which, after

was
a

no particular business of
excessive subtleties

theirs

;

for

indulging in
in

— surely
for

no great crime

metaphysician

;

and

endeavouring to combine

the philosophy and the theology of their day into

a coherent whole

—an attempt which seems
A
full

to

me

to

be entirely praiseworthy.

better reason for their

not having accomplished the

promise of their
lies at

genius

is

to

be found

in

the assumption which

the root of their interminable deductions, namely,
that language
is,

or can be made, what logic by a
it

convenient convention supposes
if it

to be,

and that

were so made,

it

would be an instrument better
to

fitted

on that account

deal

with

the

infinite

variety of the actual world.

2 6S

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES

III

If language,

from the very nature of the
it

case,

hangs thus loosely to the belief which
to

endeavours
fit

express,

how
which

closely does the belief
it is

to the
?

reality with

intended to correspond
really

To
those

hear some persons talk one would

suppose
i.e.

that the enlightened portion of mankind,

who happen
Universe.

to agree with them,

were blessed with

a precise knowledge respecting large tracts of the

They

are ready on small provocation to

embody

their beliefs,

whether

scientific or theological,

in a series

of dogmatic statements which,

as they

will tell you, accurately

express their

own

accurate

opinions,

and between which and any
is

differing state-

ments on the same subject
which divides
of Error.

fixed that great gulf

for ever the realms of
I

Truth from those

Now

would venture

to

warn the reader

against paying any undue

meed

of reverence to the

axiom on which
axiom,
not
I

this

view essentially depends, the

mean, that 'every belief must be either true or
It
;

true.'

is,

of course, indisputable.
it is

But

it is

also

unimportant
that
if

and

unimportant for

this reason,

we

insist

on assigning every
not

belief to

one or
it

other of these two mutually exclusive classes,

will

be found that most,

if

all,

the positive beliefs
beliefs, in

which deal with concrete
short,

reality

—the very
in
'

about which a reasonable
himself

man may be

expected
strictness
I

principally to interest

—would
not

have to be classed among the

true.'

do not

'

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,
say,

AND REALITIES
as

269

be

it

observed, that

all

propositions about the
;

concrete world must needs be erroneous

for,

we
of

have seen, every proposition provides the
verbal expression for

fitting

many
is,

different beliefs,

and

these

it

may be

that

one expresses the

full truth.

My

contention merely

that inasmuch as any frag-

mentary presentation of a concrete whole must, because
full
it

is

fragmentary, be therefore erroneous, the
will

complexity of any true belief about reality

necessarily transcend the comprehension of
intelligence.

any

finite

We

know

only in part, and

we

there-

fore

know
But
it

wrongly.

may perhaps be
incomplete.'

said that observations like
'

these involve

a confusion between the

'

not true

and the

'

A
it

belief,

as the

phrase
it

is,

may be

'true so far as
It

goes,'

even though

does

not go far enough.

may

contain the truth and

nothing but the truth, but not the whole truth.
should
it

Why

under such circumstances receive so severe
?

a condemnation

Why is

it

to

be branded, not only
?

as inadequate, but as erroneous

To
be,

this

I

reply

that the division of beliefs into the True, the Incom
plete,

and the Wholly False may
is,

and

for
in

many
first

purposes
place
it

a very convenient one.

But

the

is

not philosophically accurate, since that
is

which

is

incomplete
falsity.

touched throughout with some
in the

element of
not

And

second place

it

does

happen

to

be the division

on which we are

engaged.
dictories
'

We
'

are dealing with the logical contra'

True and

Not

True.'

And what makes

270
it

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES
is,

worth while dealing with them

that the partilies
all

cular classification of beliefs
at

which they suggest
controversy
in in

the

root

of

much
it

needless

branches of knowledge, and not least

theology

;

and that everywhere
of thought and,
It
is
it

has produced some confusion
be,

may
all

some

defect of charity.

not in

human

nature that those

who

start

from

the assumption that

opinions are either true or

not true, should do otherwise than take for granted
that
their

own
;

particular

opinions belong
all

to the

former category

and that therefore

inconsistent

opinions held by other people must belong to the
latter.

Now

this, in

the current affairs of

life,

and

in the

ordinary commerce between

not merely a pardonable but a
ing at things.

man and man, is necessary way of lookand even dangerous

But

it is

foolish

when we
vouring

are

engaged on the deeper problems of

science, metaphysics, or theology;
in solitude to

when we are endea-

take stock of our position in the

presence of the

Infinite.

our ignorance of our ignorance, at least
realise that to describe

However profound may be we should
false

(when using language strictly)
which has even
is

any scheme of belief as wholly

imperfectly met the needs of mankind,

the height

of arrogance

;

and that

to claim for

any

beliefs

which

we happen to approve that they are wholly
the height of absurdity.

true, is

Somewhat more, be
least

it

observed,

is

thus required

of us than a bare confession of ignorance.

The

modest of men would admit without

difficulty

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,
that there are a great

AND REALITIES

271

many

things which he does

not understand

;

but the most modest

may perhaps

be willing to suppose that there are some things

which he does.

Yet outside the
I

relations of abstract

propositions (about which

say nothing) this cannot

be admitted.

Nowhere

else

— neither
is

in

our know-

ledge of ourselves, nor in our knowledge of each
other, nor in our

knowledge of the material world,
there any belief

nor

in

our knowledge of God,
is

which

more than an approximation, any method
free

which
error.

is

from

flaw,

any
the

result not

tainted with

The

simplest intuitions
fall

and the remotest
condemnation.

speculations

under
is

same

And though

the fact

apt to be hidden from us

by the unshrinking
attained results,

definitions with
it

which alike

in

science and theology
it

is

our practice to register

would, as

we have

seen,

be a

serious mistake to suppose that

any complete correimpec-

spondence between Belief and Reality was secured

by the

linguistic

precision

and the

logical

cability of the propositions by which beliefs them-

selves are

communicated and recorded.
persons this train of reflection suggests

To some
despair.

nothing but sceptical

misgiving

and

intellectual

us from both.

To me it What

seems, on the other hand, to save

kind of a Universe would that

be which we could understand ? If it were inIf our telligible (by us), would it be credible?
reason could comprehend
it,

would
believe

it

not be too
it

narrow

for

our needs

?

'

I

because

is

272

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,
'

AND REALITIES
'

impossible

may be
is

a pious paradox.

I

disbelieve

because

it

simple'

commends
to

itself to

me

as

an axiom.
discretion
:

An

axiom doubtless

be used with be perverted
;

an axiom which

may

easily

in the interests of idleness

and superstition

an

axiom, nevertheless, which contains a valuable truth not always remembered by those who make especial
profession of worldly wisdom.
IV

However
advocated

this

may

be,

the

opinions

here

may

help us to solve certain difficulties

occasionally suggested

ing with the relation
It

by current methods of dealbetween Formulas and Beliefs.

has not always, for instance, been found easy to
the

reconcile

immutability claimed for theological
the

doctrines
logical

with

movement observed
them
can

in

theo-

ideas.

Neither of

readily

be

abandoned.
verities

The

conviction that there are Christian

which, once secured for the

human

race,
is

cannot by any lapse of time be rendered obsolete

one which no Church would willingly abandon.

Yet

the fact that theological thought follows the laws

which govern the evolution of
it

all

other thought, that

changes from age to age, largely as regards the
emphasis given to
regards
is

relative

its

various elements, not

inconsiderably as

the

substance

of those

elements themselves,
the

a fact written legibly across

pages of ecclesiastical history.

How
?

is

this

apparent contradiction to be accommodated

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES
quite

273

Consider
different kind.

another

difficulty— one

of

a

The common

sense of mankind has

been shocked

at the value occasionally attributed to

uniformity of theological profession,

when

it

is

per-

haps obvious from

many

of the circumstances of the
it

case that this carries with

no security

for

uni-

formity of inward conviction. or at least an which, to
religion, if

There

is

an unreality,

externality about

such professions

those
it is

who

think

(rightly

enough) that

to

be of any value, must come from
but a shallow form of

the heart,

is

apt not unnaturally to be repulsive.
it

Yet, on the other hand,
historical

is

criticism

which

shall attribute this desire

for conformity either to

differences

mere impatience of expressed of opinion (no doubt a powerful and What,
then,
it

widely distributed motive), or to the perversities of
Priestcraft.
to take
is

the view which
?

we ought
if

of

it ?

Is

good or bad
serve
?

and,

good,

what purpose does

it

Now
on which

these questions
if

at least in part,

may be answered, I think, we keep in mind two distinctions
I

in this

and the preceding chapter

have

ventured to
first place,

insist

— the

distinctions,

I

mean, in the

between the function of formulas as the

systematic expression of religious doctrine, and their
function as the basis of religious co-operation
;

and

the distinction,

in

the

second place,

between the

accuracy of any formula and the real truth of the
various beliefs which
it is

capable of expressing.

Uniformity of profession, for example, to take the
T

;

274

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES
while there

last difficulty first,

can be regarded as unimportant
forget that,
is

only by those

who

no

necessary connection whatever between the causes

which conduce to successful co-operation and those

which
truth

conduce to the
of these two

attainment of speculative
the
first

objects

may, under

certain circumstances, be

much more important than
is

the second.

A

Church

something more than a
persons engaged more
It

body of more or
or less

less qualified

successfully in the study of theology.

requires a very different equipment from that which
is

sufficient for a learned society.

Sornething more
It is

is

asked of

it

than independent research.

an

organisation charged with a great practical work.

For the successful promotion of
cipline,

this

work

unity, dis;

and self-devotion are the principal requisites

and, as in the case of every other such organisation

the most powerful source of these qualities

is

to

be

found

in the feelings

aroused by

common
;

memories,

common
in

hopes,
all

common
;

loyalties

by professions
all

which

agree

by a ceremonial which
all

share

by customs and commands which
therefore,

obey.

He,

who would wish
Church or
(as
alter

to expel such influences

either from

State,

on the ground that they
will) the

may

alter

they most certainly

members of the community, left to follow at will their own speculative devices, would otherwise form, may know
opinions which, in their absence, the

something of science or philosophy, but assuredly

shows very

little

of

human

nature.

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES

275
if it

But
is

it

will

perhaps be said that co-operation,

only to be had on these terms,
So, indeed,
it

bought too dear.
of the

may easily be may. The history
fact.

Church

is

unhappily there to prove the

But as
it

this is true of religious organisations, so also is

true of every other organisation

— national,

political,

military,

what you

will

—by which the

work

of the

world

is

rendered possible.

There are circumstances
justifiable, or

which

may make

schism

justifiable, as there are cir-

cumstances which make treason
justifiable.

mutiny

But without going into the ethics of

revolt,

without endeavouring to determine the exact

degree of error, oppression, or crime on the part of
those

who

stay within the organisation which

may

render innocent or necessary the secession of those

who

leave.it,

it is,

in

my judgment,
is,

perfectly plain that

something very different
in the

or ought to be, involved

acceptance or rejection of

common

formulas

than an announcement to the world of a purely
speculative

agreement

respecting the niceties

of

doctrinal statement.

This view

may

perhaps be more readily accepted

when

I have pointed out, no agreement about theological or any other doctrine

it is

realised that, as

insures, or, indeed,

is

capable of producing, sameness

of belief.

We

are no

more able

to believe

what

other people believe than to feel what other people
feel.

tion of a landscape.
stirs

same descripDoes anyone suppose that it within them precisely the same quality of sentifriends read together the

Two

!

276

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES
surely

ment, or evokes precisely the same subtle associations
?

And yet,

if

this

be impossible, as

it

is,

even
be

in the

case of friends attuned, so far as
key,

may

be, to the
it

same emotional
an

how

hopeless must

in the case of

artist

and a

rustic,

an Ancient

and a Modern, an But
if

Andaman islander and a European

no representation of the splendours of Nature

can produce in us any perfect identity of admiration,

why

expect the definitions of theology or science to
in

produce
not be.

us any perfect identity of belief?

It

may

This uniformity of conviction, which so many
attain for themselves,
is

have striven to

and

to

impose

upon

their fellows,

an unsubstantial phantasm, born

of a confusion between language and the thought

which language so imperfectly expresses.
world, at least,

In this
in the

we

are

doomed

to differ

even

cases where

we most

agree.

There
true.

is,

however, consolation to be drawn from
is,
I

the converse statement, which
If there are differences

hope, not less

where we most agree,

where we most human race, from whatever stock its members may have sprung, in whatever age they may be born, whatever creed they may profess, together in the presence of the One Reality, engaged, not wholly in vain, in
surely also there are agreements
differ.
I

like

to think of

the

spelling out

share

its

being
if

some fragments of to none are
;

its its

message.

All

oracles wholly
in the

dumb.
spiritual

And

both

in the natural

world and

the advancement

we have made on our

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES

277

forefathers be so great that our interpretation
indefinitely

seems

removed from

that which primitive

man

could alone comprehend, and wherewith he had to

be content,

it

may

be,

indeed

I

think
still

it

is,

the case

that our approximate guesses are

closer to his

than they are to their
as

common

Object, and that far

we seem

to

have

travelled, yet,

measured on the
is

celestial scale,

our intellectual progress
is

scarcely to

be discerned, so minute
Truth.

the parallax of Infinite

These

observations,

however,

seem

only to

render more distant any satisfactory solution of the
first

of the difficulties propounded above.
;

If
if

knowagree-

ledge must, at the best, be so imperfect

ment,

real

inner agreement,

about the object of
;

knowledge can thus never be complete
addition to
this,

and

if,

in
is,

the history of religious thought

like all other history,

one of change and develop-

ment, where and what are those immutable doctrines
which, in the opinion of most theologians, ought to

be handed on, a sacred
generation
?

trust,

from generation to
is, I

The answer

to this question

think,
ethics.

suggested by the parallel cases of science and

For

all

these things

may be
to

said of

them

as well as
state-

of theology,

and they also are the trustees of
be
preserved

ments which ought
through
all

unchanged

revolutions in scientific and ethical theory.
I

Of
a
are,

these statements
or a definition.

do not pretend

to give either

list

But without saying what they

it is

at least permissible, after the discussion in

278

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,

AND REALITIES
Rare indeed
if

the last chapter, to say what, as a rule, they are not.

They

are not Explanatory.

is

it

to

find explanations of the concrete which,

they ento

dure at

all,

do not require perpetual patching

keep
the

them

in repair.

Not among

these, but

among

statements of things explained, of things that want explanation, yes,

and of things that are inexplicable, we
about the real world
for

must search

for the propositions

capable of ministering

unchanged

indefinite

periods to the uses of Mankind.

Such propositions
is

may record a particular They may embody an
'

'

fact,'

as that 'Csesar

dead.'

ethical

imperative, as that

Stealing

is

wrong.'

They may convey some
Nature
is

great

principle, as that the order of

uniform, or
if

that

'

God

exists.'
I

All these statements, even

accurate (as

assume, for the sake of argument, that

they

are), will,

no doubt, as

I

have

said,

have a

dif-

ferent import for different persons ages.

and

for different

But

this is not

only consistent with their value

as vehicles for the transmission of truth
to
it.

—

it is

essential

meaning could be exhausted by one generation, they would be false for the next. It is
If their

because they can be charged with a richer and richer
content as our knowledge slowly grows to a fuller harmony with the Infinite Reality, that they may be

counted

among

the most precious of our inalienable

possessions.

NOTE
The permanent
tical

value which the results of the great ecclesiasfirst

controversies of the

four centuries have

had

for

Christ-

BELIEFS, FORMULAS,
endom,
as

AND REALITIES
by the more

279

compared with

that possessed

transitory

speculations of later ages, illustrates, I think, the suggestion con-

tained in the text.

For whatever opinion the reader may enterwhich the Church arrived on the doctrine
were not
in the nature

tain of the decisions at

of the Trinity,

it is

at least clear that they

of explanations.

They

were, in fact, precisely the reverse.

They
it

were the negation of explanations.

The
all

various heresies which

combated were, broadly speaking,
mystery as
far as possible into

endeavours to bring the

harmony with contemporary specuit

lations, Gnostic, Neo-platonic, or Rationalising, to relieve

from

this or that difficulty

:

in short, to

do something towards

'

explain-

ing'

it.

The Church

held that

all

such explanations or partial ex-

planations inflicted irremediable impoverishment on the idea of

lation.

Godhead which was essentially involved in the Christian reveThey insisted on preserving that idea in all its inexplicable fulness and so it has come about that while such simplifications
the
;

as those of the Arians, for example, are so alien

and impossible to

modern modes of thought
Christianity they

that

if

they had been incorporated with
it,

must have destroyed

the doctrine of Christ's

Divinity

still

gives reality

and

life

to the worship of millions of

pious souls,

who

are wholly ignorant both of the controversy to
its

which they owe
its

preservation,

and of the

technicalities

which

discussion has involved.

28o

CHAPTER
4

IV
'

ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS
unlikely,

If,

as

is

not

there

are

readers

who
know-

accept unwillingly this profession of all-pervading
error in so far as
it

applies to our scientific

ledge

—who are

disposed to represent Science as a
bright

Land

of Goshen,

beneath the unclouded
lies

splendours of the midday sun, while Religion

beyond, wrapped in the impenetrable darkness of the

Egyptian plague

—

I

would suggest

for their further

consideration certain arguments, not
in the

drawn
in

like those

preceding section from the nature of our
in general,

knowledge

nor like those

an

earlier

portion of this Essay from the deficiencies which

may be
sively

detected in scientific proof, but based excluscientific

upon an examination of fundamental
in themselves.

ideas considered

For these

ideas

possess a quality, exhibited no doubt equally by ideas
in

other departments of knowledge, which admirably

illustrates

our ignorance of what

we know

best,

our

blindness to what
indeed,
is

we

see most clearly.

This

quality,
;

not very easy to describe in a sentence
it

but perhaps

may be

provisionally indicated

by

saying

that,

although these ideas seem quite simple

'ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'
so long as

281

we

only have to handle them for the
life,

practical purposes of daily

yet,

when they
all

are

subjected to

critical

investigation,
;

they appear to
precision of

crumble under the process
outline
;

to lose

to vanish like

the magician

in

the story,

leaving only an elusive mist in the grasp of those

who would
involved
in

arrest them.

Nothing, for instance, seems simpler than the idea
the statement that

we are, each of us,

situ-

ated at any given

moment

in

some particular portion

of space, surrounded
things,

by a multitude of material
merely a

which are constantly acting upon us and upon

each other.

A

proposition of this kind

is

generalised form of the judgments which we make

every minute of our waking

lives,

about whose

meaning we entertain no manner of doubt, which, indeed, provide us with our familiar examples of all
that
is

most

lucid

and most certain.
it is

Yet the purport
clear only
;

of the sentence which expresses
is

till it

examined,

is

certain only
in
it

till it is

questioned

while

almost every word

suggests,
all

and has long sug-

gested, perplexing problems to
to consider them.

who
?

are prepared

What
be

are

'we'?
it

What
made
is
'

is

space

Can
is

'

we

'

in space, or is

only our bodies about which any
?

such statement can be
and, in particular, what
is

What
'

a
'

'

thing

'

?

a material thing

?

What
'

meant by saying
?

that

one
is

material thing

acts

upon another
'material

What
act

meant by saying
'us'?

that

things'

upon

Here

are six

282

'ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'
all

questions

directly

and obviously arising out of
Yet, direct and

our most familiar acts of judgment.

obvious as they
they involve

are,

it is

hardly too

much

to say that

all

the leading problems of
that
is

modern

philosophy, and

the the

man who
fortunate

has found an

answer

to

them

possessor of a

tolerably complete system of metaphysic.

Consider, for example, the simplest of the

six

questions enumerated above, namely, What is a Nothing could be plainer till material thing ?
'
'

you consider

it.

Nothing can be obscurer when
'

you

do.

A

'

thing

has qualities
Is
it

—hardness, weight,
?

shape, and so forth.
qualities, or is
it

merely the sum of these
If
it

something more

is

merely

the

sum

of
?

its qualities,

have these any independent
something more, what
'

existence

Nay,

is

such an independent existence
If
'

even conceivable?
is

it

is

the relation of the
'

qualities

to the

'

something
regard a
self-

more
'

?
'

Again,

can

we on
'

reflection

thing

as an isolated

somewhat,' an entity
solitary
?

sufficient

and potentially
it

Or must we

not

rather regard

as being
'

what

it is

in virtue of its

relation to other

somewhats,' which, again, are what
it,

they are in virtue of their relation to
other
latter
?

and

to each

And

if

we

take, as

I

think

we
by

must, the
it

alternative,

are

we

not driven

into a

profitless
telligible

progression through parts which are unin-

by themselves, but which yet obstinately any
fully intelligible whole. ?

refuse to coalesce into

Now,

I

do not serve up these cold fragments of

'ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'

283

ancient though unsolved controversies for no better purpose than to weary the reader who is familiar

with

metaphysical discussion,

and

to

puzzle

the

reader

who

is

not.

I

rather desire to direct atten-

tion to the universality of a difficulty

which many

persons seem glad enough

to

acknowledge when

they come across
it

it

in

Theology, though they admit

only with reluctance in the case of Ethics and

^Esthetics,
it
'

and

for the

most part completely ignore

when they

are dealing with our knowledge of

phenomena.'

Yet

in this respect, at least, all these

branches of knowledge would appear to stand very

much upon an
ture

equality.

In

all

of

them conclusions
In of

seem more certain than premises, the superstruc-

more

stable

than the foundation.
full

all

them we move with
security only

assurance and a practical

among
In
all

ideas which are relative

and
and

dependent.

of

them these

ideas, so clear

so sufficient for purposes of everyday thought and
action,

become confused and but dimly
in

intelligible

when examined
analysis.

the unsparing light of critical

We
it

need

not, therefore,

be surprised

if

we

find

hard to isolate the permanent element
it

in

Beauty,
;

seeing that
the ground
clear,

eludes us in material objects

that

of

Moral

Law

should not be wholly

seeing that the ground of Natural
;

Law

is

so

obscure

we do not adequately comprehend God, seeing that we can give no very satisfactory Yet I think account of what we mean by 'a thing.'
that

284

'ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'
is

a more profitable lesson

to be learnt

from admis-

sions like these than the general inadequacy of our

existing metaphysic.
to consider carefully

And

it is

the

more necessary
is,

what that lesson
it

inasmuch as

a very perverted version of

forms the basis of the

only modern system of English growth which, professing to provide

us with

a general philosophy,

has

received

any appreciable amount of popular

support.

Mr. Spencer's theory admits, nay,

insists,

that

what

it

calls

'

ultimate scientific ideas

'

are inconsistent

and, to use his

own

phrase,

'

unthinkable.'
forth, are

Space,

time, matter, motion, force,

and so

each in
it

turn

shown

to

involve contradictions which
to solve,

is
it

beyond our power
is

and obscurities which
;

beyond our power
dialectic of

to penetrate

while the once
is

famous
for the

Hamilton and Mansel

invoked

purpose of enforcing the same lesson with
the

regard to

Absolute and the

Unconditioned,

which those thinkers identified with God, but which
Mr. Spencer prefers to describe as the Unknowable.

So
at least,

far,

so

good.

Though

the

details

'

of the
I,

demonstration

may

not be altogether to our liking,
its

have no particular quarrel with
is in

general
that

tenor,
I

which
just

obvious harmony with

much

have

been insisting on.

But when we have

to consider the conclusion
trives to extract

which Mr. Spencer conhas proved, or supposes
'

from these premises, our differences

become

irreconcilable.

He

himself to have proved, that the

ultimate ideas

'

of

'ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'
science and

285

the

'ultimate

ideas' of theology are
is

alike 'unthinkable.'

What

the proper inference
?

to

be drawn from these statements

Why,

clearly,

that science

and theology are so

far

on an equality
are

that every proposition which considerations like these

oblige us to assert about the one,
assert
also about the other
;

we

bound

to

and

that our general

theory of knowledge must take account of the fact
that both these great departments of
it

are infected

by the same weakness.
This, however,
is

not the inference drawn by Mr.

Spencer.

The

idea that the conclusions of science
is

should be profaned by speculative questionings

to

him

intolerable.

He

shrinks

from an

admission

which seems to him
its train.

to carry universal scepticism in

And he
'

has, accordingly, hit

upon a device

for

'

reconciling

the differences between science and

religion

by which so lamentable a catastrophe may
His method
is

be avoided.

a simple one.

He

divides the verities which have to be believed into

those which relate to the
relate to the

Knowable and those which

Unknowable.

What

is

knowable he

appropriates, without exception, for science.
is

What
both

unknowable he abandons, without

reserve, to reli-

gion.

With

the

results

of

this

arbitration

contending parties should,
It
is

in his opinion,

be

satisfied.

true that religion
it is

may complain
it

that

by

this
all

arrangement
that that
is
it
'

made
'

the residuary legatee of

unthinkable

;

but then,

should remember
title

obtains in exchange an indefeasible

to

all

'

286

'ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'
is
'

that

real.'

Science, again,
'

may complain
relative
'

that
'

its

activities are confined to the

and the
it

de-

pendent

' ;

but then,
'

it

should remember that

has

a monopoly of the
all

intelligible.'
;

The one
all

possesses

known worth knowing. With
that can be
spoils

the other,

that

seems

so equal a partition of the

both disputants should be content.
fairness of this curious
its validity.
its

Without contesting the
arrangement,
I

am

compelled to question

Science cannot thus transfer the burden of
obscurities
religion
;

own

and contradictions
is

to

the

shoulders of

and Mr. Spencer

only, perhaps, misled

into supposing such a procedure to
his use of the

be possible by
'

word
the

'

ultimate.'
'

'

Ultimate

scientific
'

ideas may, in his opinion, be

unthinkable
'

without

prejudice

to

thinkableness

of

'

proximate

scientific ideas.

The one may
'

dwell for ever in the

penumbra of what he calls nascent consciousness,' in the dim twilight where religion and science are indistinguishable
;

while the other stands out, definite

and

certain, in the full light of

experience and

verifi-

cation.

Such a view

is

not,

I
'

think, philosophically

tenable.
' '

As soon

as

the
is

unthinkableness

'

of

ultimate scientific ideas

speculatively recognised,

the fact

must react upon our speculative attitudes
'

towards

proximate

'

scientific ideas.

That which
that

in

the order of reason

is

dependent cannot be unaffected

by the weaknesses and the obscurities of
which
it

on

depends.

If the

one

is

unintelligible, the

other can hardly be rationally established.

•ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'
In order to prove this

287

—

if

proof be required
limits

— we

need not travel beyond the ample
Spencer's

of Mr.

own

philosophy.

To be sure he obstinately
'

shuts his ears against speculative doubts respecting
the conclusions of science.
is

To
*

ask whether science

substantially true

is

[he observes]
light.'
It

much
is, I

like asking

whether the sun gives

admit, very
principles,

much we

like

it.

But then, on Mr. Spencer's
give light?
to admit,
if
I

does the sun
shall

After due consideration
think, that
it

have

does not.
not only

For the question,
and
force,

asked

intelligently,

involves the comprehension of matter, space, time,

which

are,

according to Mr. Spencer,
is

all

incomprehensible, but there
that, if his

the further difficulty
'

system

is

to

be believed,

what we are con-

scious of as properties of matter, even

down to weight

and

resistance,

are

but subjective affections pro-

duced by objective agencies, which are unknown and
unknowable.'
the sun
is
2

It

would seem, therefore, either that
it

a

'

subjective affection,' in which case
light'; or
it is

can hardly be said to 'give

'unknown'
re-

and 'unknowable,'
specting
it

in

which case no assertion

can be regarded as supplying us with any
scientific certitude.

very flattering specimen of

The
tions

truth

is

that Mr. Spencer, like

many

of his

predecessors, has impaired the value of his specula-

by the hesitating timidity with which he has

pursued them.
first
1

Nobody
;

is

required to

investigate

principles

but those
p. 19.
2

who

voluntarily undertake
ii.

First Principles,

Principles of Psychology,

493.

288

'ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'
its results.

the task should not shrink from

And

if

among

these

we have

to count a theoretical sceptic-

ism about

scientific

knowledge,

we make

matters,
it.

not better, but worse, by attempting to ignore

In

Mr. Spencer's case
ill

this

procedure has,

among

other

consequences, caused him to miss the moral which

at

one moment lay ready to

his hand.

He

has had

the acuteness to see that our beliefs cannot be limited
to the sequences

and the co-existences of phenomena
relies,

;

that the ideas

on which science

and

in

terms

of which

all

science has to be expressed, break
;

down
it,

under the
think
lies

stress of criticism
in

that

beyond what we

we know, and
infinite
field

closest relationship with

an

which we do not know, and
faculties

which with our present

we can never know,
making what
But he
in-

yet which cannot be ignored without

we do know unintelligible and
evitably lead him.

meaningless.

has failed to see whither such speculations must

He

has failed to see that

if

the

certitudes of science lose themselves in

depths of

unfathomable mystery,
these

it

may
the

well be that out of

same depths there should emerge the certitudes
;

of religion
'

and that

if

dependence of the
'

knowable

'

upon the

'

unknowable

embarrasses us

not in the one case, no reason can be assigned
it

why

should embarrass us in the other.

Mr. Spencer,
dividing
us,
all,

in short,

has avoided the error of

all

reality into a Perceivable

which concerns
if
it

and an Unperceivable which,
concerns us not.

exists

at

Agnosticism

so understood

'ULTIMATE SCIENTIFIC IDEAS'
he
explicitly repudiates

289

by

his theory,

if

not by his

practice.

But he has not seen

that, if this simpleis

minded creed be once abandoned, there
venient halting-place
till

no conto a
:

we have swung round
almost
its

theory of things which

is

precise opposite
its

a theory which, though
side from
its

it

shrinks on
critical

speculative

no severity of

analysis,

yet

.

on

practical side finds the source of its constructive
in the

energy

deepest needs of man, and thus recogin beauty,
in
reli-

nises, alike in science, in ethics,

gion, the halting expression of a reality

beyond our

reach, the half-seen vision of transcendent Truth.

290

CHAPTER V
SCIENCE

AND THEOLOGY

The
those

point of view

we have

thus reached
is

is

obviously

the precise

opposite of that which
either accept
simplicity, or

adopted by

who

the

naturalistic

view of

things in

its

who

agree with natural-

ism

in

taking our knowledge of Nature as the core
to

and substance of their creed, while gladly adding
it

such supernatural supplements as are permitted
their rationalising philosophy.

them by the canons of

Of

these last there are two varieties.

There are

those

who

refuse to

add anything

to the teaching

of science proper, except such theological doctrines
as they persuade themselves
scientific premises.

may be deduced from

And

there are those who, being

less fastidious in the

matter of proof, are prepared,
to admit so

tentatively

and provisionally,

much

of

theology as they think their naturalistic premises do
not positively contradict.
It

must,

I

think, be admitted that the
classes

of these two

are

at

members some disadvantage

compared with the

naturalistic philosophers proper.

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

291

To

be sure, the scheme of belief so confidently prolatter
is,

pounded by the
incoherent and
hid from

as

we have
But
its

seen, both
is

inadequate.

incoherence
its

them by the inevitableness of
;

positive
the,

teaching

while

its

inadequacy

is

covered by

as yet, unsquandered heritage
ideals

of sentiments

and

which has come down to us from other ages

inspired

by other

faiths.

set-off against this, they
principles,

On the other hand, may justly claim that

as a
their

such as they are, have been worked out

to their legitimate conclusion.

They have reached
at least rest,

their journey's end,
if it is
is

and there they may

not given them to be thankful.

Far

different

the fate of those

who

are reluctantly travelling the

road to naturalism, driven thither by a false philo-

sophy honestly entertained.

To them
much
'

each

new

discovery in geology, morphology, anthropology, or
the 'higher criticism,' arouses as
theological

anxiety as

it

does

scientific

interest.

They
This
is

are

perpetually occupied in the task of

reconciling,' as

the phrase goes,

'

religion

and

science.'

to

them, not an intellectual luxury, but a pressing and

overmastering necessity.
only on sufferance.
territories
It

For
rules

their theology exists

over

its

hereditary

as a tributary vassal

dependent on the
Province
its

forbearance of some encroaching overlord.
after province

which once acknowledged
its

sove-

reignty has been torn from

grasp

;

and

it

depends

no longer upon

its

own

action, but

upon the uncon-

trolled policy of its too powerful neighbour,

how long

292
it

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
shall

preserve a precarious authority over the

remainder.

Now, my reasons
this

for

entirely dissenting from

melancholy view of the relations between the
departments of belief have been one of

various

the chief themes of these Notes.

But

it

must not
it

be supposed that
our business to
sible, into
'

I

intend either to deny that
'

is

reconcile

all beliefs,

so far as pos-

a self-consistent whole, or to assert that, be-

cause a perfectly coherent philosophy cannot as yet be
attained,
it is,

in the

meanwhile, a matter of complete
contradictions and obscurities

indifference

how many

we admit
dictions

into our provisional system.

Some

contra(
I

and obscurities there needs must be. That we should not be able completely to harmonise the detached hints and isolated fragments in which alone
Reality comes into relation with us
;

that

we

should

but imperfectly co-ordinate what

we

so imperfectly
for
to.

comprehend,
the present

is what we might expect, and what we have no choice but to submit
I

jj

Yet
the

it

will,

think, be found

on examination that between
different

discrepancies

which

exist

departments

of belief are less in

number and import-

ance than those which exist within the various dethat the difficulties which partments themselves
;

science, ethics, or theology

have

to solve in

common

more formidable by far them from each other and
are
;

than any which divide
that, in particular, the

supposed

between science and religion,' which occupies so large a space in contemporary
'

conflict

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
literature, is the

293

theme of so much vigorous debate,

and seems

to so

many
is

earnest souls the one question

worth resolving,

either concerned for the

most part
trifling,

with matters in themselves comparatively

or

touches interests lying far
theology.
.

beyond the

limits of

pure

Of course,

it

must be remembered that

I

am now
differ-

talking of science, not of naturalism.

The
are,

ences between naturalism and theology
irreconcilable, since naturalism
is

no doubt,

by

definition the

negation of

all

theology.

But science must not be
Science

dragged into every one of the many quarrels which
naturalism has taken upon
in
its

shoulders.

is

no way concerned,

for instance, to

deny the

reality

of a world unrevealed to us in sense-perception, nor
the existence of a

God who, however
say,
is

imperfectly,

may
All

be known by those who diligently seek Him.
says, or
its

it

ought to
;

that these are matters

beyond

jurisdiction

to be

tried, therefore, in

other

courts, and before judges administering different laws.

But we may go

further.

The

being of

God may

be beyond the province of science, and yet it may be from a consideration of the general body of
scientific

knowledge that philosophy draws some

important motives for accepting the doctrine.

Any
I

complete survey of the

'

proofs of theism

'

would,
;

need not say, be here quite out of place
order to
lies in

yet,

in

make

clear

where

I

think the real difficulty
shall include

framing any system which
I

both

theology and science,

may be

permitted to say

294

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
to
It

enough about theism
difficulty

show where
does not
lie in

I

think the

does not
is

lie.

the doctrine

that there

a supernatural

or, let

us say, a meta-

physical
natural
to this

ground, on which the whole system of

phenomena depend

;

nor in the attribution
or,
it

ground of the quality of reason,
speak,
included.
is,

may
all

be,
is,

of something higher than reason, in which reason so
to

This

belief,

with

its

inherent

obscurities,
it

no

doubt,

necessary
so
far,

to

theology, but

is

at the

same time

in

my

judgment, from being repugnant to science
without
it,

that,

the scientific view of the natural world
less,

would not be
than
it is

but more, beset with

difficulties

at present.
fact

This
as the
to that

has been in part obscured by certain
the popular statements of what
Design.'
is

infelicities in
'

known
in-

Argument from
argument
it

In a famous answer

has been pointed out that the

ference from the adaptation of
rightly convinces
articles that

means

to ends,

which

us

in

the case of manufactured

they are not the result of chance, but

are produced

by

intelligent contrivance, can scarcely

be legitimately applied to the case of the universe as
a whole.
within

An

induction which

the

circle

of
it is

phenomena,

may be perfectly may be

valid

quite

meaningless when
circle
itself.

employed

to account for the

You

cannot infer a

God from

the

existence of the world as you infer an architect from
the existence of a house, or a mechanic from the

existence of a watch.

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

295

length, so
it

Without discussing the merits of this answer at much may, I think, be conceded to it that

—

suggests a doubt whether the theologians

thus rely upon an inductive proof of the being of
are not in a position

who God

somewhat

similar to that of the

empirical philosophers

who

rely

upon an inductive

proof of the uniformity of Nature.
of

The

uniformity

Nature, as

I

have before explained, cannot be
for
it

proved by experience,

is

what makes proof

from experience possible. 1

We

must bring
and we
But

it,

or

something

like

it,

to the facts in order to infer anyall.

thing from them at

Assume

it,

shall

no

doubt

find that, broadly
call
is

speaking and
it.

in the rough,

what we
formity

the facts conform to
inductive
it.

this con-

not

proof,

and must not be
I

confounded with
contend
that, if

In the
start

same way,
in

do not

we

from Nature without God,

we

shall

be logically driven to believe

Him

by

a mere consideration of the examples of adaptation

which Nature undoubtedly contains.
that

It is

enough

when we bring this belief with us to the study of phenomena, we can say of it, what we have just said
of the principle of uniformity, namely, that,
'

broadly

speaking and
it,

in the rough,' the facts

harmonise with

and that

it

gives a unity and a coherence to our
it

apprehension of the natural world which
otherwise possess.
1

would not

This phrase has a Kantian ring about

it

;

but

I

need not say that

not here used in the Kantian sense. The argument is touched on, as the reader may recollect, at the end of Chapter I., Part II. See, however, below a further discussion as to what the uniformity of
it

is

Nature means, and as

to

what may be properly inferred from

it.

296

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

But the argument from design,
it is

in

whatever shape
us. Nor The argument

accepted,

is

not the only one in favour of theism

with which scientific knowledge furnishes
is it,

to

my mind,

the most important.

from design rests upon the world as known.

But
fact

something also
that

may be

inferred from the

mere

we know
I

— a fact which, like every other, has to
for.

be accounted
for
?

And how

is

it

to be accounted
I

need not repeat again what

have already
it is

said about Authority
that,

and Reason

;

for

evident

whatever be the part played by reason among

the proximate causes of belief,

among

the ultimate
at
all.

causes

it

plays, according to science,

no part

On

the naturalistic hypothesis, the whole premises

of knowledge are clearly due to the blind operation

of material causes, and in the last resort to
alone.

these

On

that hypothesis

reason than

we

possess

we no more free will. As
all

possess free
all

our

voli-

tions are the inevitable product of forces

which are

quite alien to

morality, so

our conclusions are

the inevitable product of forces which are quite alien
to reason.

As

the casual introduction of conscience,
into the chain of causes
'

or a
in

'

good

will,'

which ends

a

virtuous action

ought not to suggest any idea
little

of merit, so the casual introduction of a

ratiocina-

tion as a stray link in the chain of causes
in

which ends

what we are pleased

to describe as a

'

demonstrated

conclusion,'

ought not to be taken as implying that

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
the conclusion
is

297

in

harmony with

fact.

Morality
air of

and reason are august names, which give an
respectability to certain actions

and certain argu-

ments
if

;

but

it is

quite obvious on examination that,

the naturalistic hypothesis be correct, they are but

unconscious tools in the hands of their unmoral and
non-rational antecedents, and that the real responsibility for all

they do

lies in

the distribution of matter
to prevail far

and energy which happened
the incalculable past.

back

in

These conclusions
the

are,

no doubt, as we saw

at

beginning of

this

Essay, embarrassing enough
to

to Morality.

But they are absolutely ruinous

Knowledge.
system as
the system

For

they

require

us

to

accept
is

a

rational,
itself

one of whose doctrines
is

that

the product of causes
truth

which

have no tendency
or
to

to

rather than falsehood,
truth.

falsehood

rather

than
is

Forget,

if

you
or

please, that reason itself

the result, like nerves

muscles,

of physical antecedents.
in

Assume
laws.

(a

tolerably

violent assumption) that

dealing with

her premises she obeys only her

own

Of

what value

is

this

autonomy
or

if

those premises are

settled for her
is

by purely

irrational forces,

which she
?

powerless to control,

even

to

comprehend

The

professor of naturalism rejoicing in the display
is

of his dialectical resources,
at his

like

a voyager, pacing

own

pleasure up and
that

who should suppose

down the ship's deck, his movements had some

important share in determining his position on the

I

TJNTVF.Rcittv

ft

—
2 9S

;

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

illimitable ocean.

And

the parallel would be com-

plete

if

we can

conceive such a voyager pointing to

the alertness of his step and the vigour of his limbs
as auguring well for the successful prosecution of his

journey, while assuring you in the very
that

the vessel, within
all

same breath whose narrow bounds he
activity,
is

displays

this

meaningless

drifting

he

knows not whence nor whither, without pilot or captain, at the bidding of shifting winds and incalculable currents.

Consider the following propositions, selected from
the naturalistic creed or deduced from
(i.)
it
:

My beliefs,
all,

in so far as

they are the result of

reasoning at

are founded on premises produced

in the last resort
(ii.)

by the

'

collision of atoms.'
in

Atoms, having no prejudices
likely
to turn out
likely,

favour of
as
is

truth, are as

wrong premises

right ones

;

nay,

more

inasmuch as truth

single

and error manifold.

(iii.)

My

premises, therefore, in the

first

place,

and

my
is

conclusions in the second, are certainly unfalse.

trustworthy, and probably
over,

Their

falsity,
;

more-

of a kind which cannot be remedied
it

since

any

attempt to correct
suffering

must

start

from premises not

under
exist.

the

same
again,

defect.

But no such
about the
it is

premises
(iv.)

Therefore,

my

opinion

original causes

which produced

my

premises, as

an inference from them, partakes of their weakness

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
so
that
I

299

cannot either securely doubt

my own
is

certainties or

be certain about

my own
;

doubts.

This
forced

is

scepticism indeed

scepticism which

by

its

own

inner nature to be sceptical even
kills belief nor lets it live.

about

itself;

which neither

may perhaps be suggested in reply argument, that whatever force it may have
But
it

to this

against

the

old-fashioned

naturalism,

its

edge

is

blunted

when turned against more recent growth
be,

the evolutionary agnosticism of
;

since the latter establishes the
it

existence of a machinery which, irrational though

does really tend gradually, and

in the

long run,

to

produce true opinions rather than
is,
I

false.

That

machinery

need not say, Selection, and the
other forces there be) which bring
into

other forces
the
'

(if
'

more and more perfect harmony Some harmony is necesits environment.' argument in order that any sary so runs the form of life may be possible and as life develops,
organism
'

with

—

—

;

the

harmony
in

necessarily

becomes more and more
is

complete.

But since there
this
is,

no more important
itself

form

which

harmony can show
between

than truth
for the
fact,

of belief, which
perfect

indeed, only another

name

correspondence

belief

and

Nature, herein acting as a kind of cosmic Inquisition, will repress

by judicious persecution any lapses

from the standard of naturalistic orthodoxy.
doctrine will be fostered
;

Sound

error will be discouraged

or destroyed

;

until at last,

by methods which are

!

S oo

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
origin,

neither rational themselves nor of rational

the cause of reason will be fully vindicated.

Arguments
them.
In the

like these are,

however, quite
is

insuffi-

cient to justify the conclusion which
first

drawn from
life

place,

they take no account of
in

any causes which were
appeared upon the planet.

operation before

Until there occurred the

unexplained leap from the Inorganic to the Organic,
Selection, of course,

had no place among the evoluwhile

tionary

processes

;

even

after that

date

it

was, from the nature of the case, only concerned to foster and perpetuate those chance-born beliefs which
minister to the continuance of the species.

But what

an utterly inadequate basis for speculation is here are to suppose that powers which were evolved

We
in

primitive

man and

his
kill

animal progenitors

in

order that they might
in security, are

with success and marry
fitted to

on that account on

explore the

secrets of the universe.

We are
which

to suppose that the

fundamental

beliefs

these

powers

ol

reasoning are to be exercised reflect with sufficient
precision

remote aspects of
in

reality,

though they
pro-

were produced
cesses

the main by physiological

which date from

a

stage

of development

when

the only curiosities which had to be satisfied

were those of fear and those of hunger.

To

say-

that instruments of research constructed solely for

uses like these cannot be expected to supply us with
a metaphysic or a theology,
is

to say far too

little.

They cannot be expected

to

give us any general

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

301

view even of the phenomenal world, or to do more
than guide us
faction of
in

comparative safety from the

satis-

one useful appetite

to the satisfaction of

another.

On
back

this theory,

therefore,
sceptical

we

are again
in

driven

to

the

same

position

which we found ourselves
of the
'

left

by the older forms
creed.

positive,'

or

naturalistic

On

this

theory, as on the other, reason has to recognise that

her rights of independent judgment and review are

merely
tive
is,

titular dignities, carrying with
;

them no

effec-

powers

and

that,

whatever her pretensions, she

for the

most

part, the

mere

editor

and interpreter

of the utterances of unreason.
I

do not believe that any escape from these peris

plexities
to the

possible, unless

we

are prepared to bring
it

study of the world the presupposition that
rational Being,

was the work of a
intelligible,

and

at the

who made it same time made us, in howit.

ever feeble a fashion, able to understand
conception does not solve
1

|This

all

difficulties
it

;

far

from

it.

But, at least,

it is

not on the face of

incoherent.

It

does not attempt the impossible task of extract;

ing reason from unreason

nor does
'

it

require us

1 According to a once prevalent theory, innate ideas were true because they were implanted in us by God. According to my way of putting it, there must be a God to justify our confidence in (what used I have given the argument in a form which to be called) innate ideas. avoids all discussion as to the nature of the relation between mind and body. Whatever be the mode of describing this which ultimately commends itself to naturalistic psychologists, the reasoning in the
'

text holds good. Cf. the purely sceptical presentation of the argument contained in Philosophic Doubt, chap. xiii.

302

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
accept

to

among

scientific

conclusions

any which

effectually shatter

the

credibility of scientific pre-

ni

Theism, then, whether or not

it

can in the

strict

meaning of the word be described as proved by
science,
is

a principle which science, for a double
its

reason, requires for

own

completion.

The
;

ordered

system of phenomena asks for a cause
ledge of that system
for
it

our know-

is

inexplicable unless

we assume

a rational Author.

Under

this head, at least,

there

should be no

'

conflict

between science and
theism smoothes away
raises,
its
it is

religion.'
It is true,

of course, that

if

some of the

difficulties

which atheism
difficulties
I

not

on that account without

of

own.

We
which

cannot, for example, form,

will

not say any adequate,

but even any tolerable, idea of the

mode
it,

in

God is
That

related

to,

and
it,

acts on, the world of phenomena.

He

created

to believe.
is

we are driven that He sustains How He created how He sustains
it, it,

impossible for us to imagine.

But let it be observed no peculiar

that the difficulties which thus arise are

heritage of theology, or of a science which accepts

among
in

its

presuppositions the central truth which

theology teaches.

Naturalism

itself

has to face them

a yet more embarrassing form.

For they meet

us not only in connection with the doctrine of God,
but in connection with the doctrine of man.

Not

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
Divinity

303

alone

intervenes
its

in the

world of things.

Each
same.

living soul, in

measure and degree, does the
which acts on
to,
its

Each

living soul

surround-

ings raises questions analogous

and in some ways

more perplexing than, those suggested by the action of a God immanent in a universe of phenomena.

Of course
roundings,
I

I

the connection between

am aware that, in man and

thus speaking of
his material sur-

am assuming the

truth of a theory which

some men of science (in this, however, travelling a beyond their province) would most energetically But their denial really only serves to deny.
little

emphasise the extreme
raised

difficulty

of the problem

by the

relation of the Self to

phenomena.

So

hardly pressed are they by these difficulties that, in

order to evade them, they attempt an impossible act
of suicide
;

and because the Self refuses

to figure as

a
to

phenomenon among phenomena,
fit

or complacently

in to

a purely scientific view of the world, they
of suppressing
it

set about the hopeless task

alto-

gether.
to permit

Enough has

already been said on this point
it

me

to pass

by.

I

will, therefore,

only

observe that those
viction entertained

who ask

us to reject the conus, that

by each one of

he does

actually and

effectually intervene

in

the material
to

world,

may have many grounds
that
it

of objection

theology, but should certainly not include

among

them the reproach
incredible.

asks us to believe the

But, in truth, without going into the metaphysics

3o 4

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
1

of the Self, our previous discussions

contain ample

material for showing

how

impenetrable are the mists
to matter,

which obscure the relation of mind
things to the perception of things.

of

Neither can be

eliminated from our system.

Both must perforce
has

form elements
reality.

in

every adequate representation of
artist
still

Yet the philosophic

to arise

who shall combine

the two into a single picture, with-

out doing serious violence to essential features, either
of the one or the other.
I

am
II.

myself, indeed, dis-

posed to doubt whether any concession made by the
1

Cf. ante,

Part

II.,

Chaps.

I.

and

It

may be worth
which
I

while re-

have made Every theory of the relation between Will, little reference in the text. or, more strictly, the Willing Self and Matter must come under one of (i) Either Will acts on Matter, or (2) it does not. If it two heads does act on Matter, it must be either as Free Will or as Determined Will. If it is as Free Will, it upsets the uniformity of Nature, and our most fundamental scientific conceptions must be recast. If it is as Determined Will, that is to say, if volition be interpolated as a necessary link between one set of material movements and another, then, indeed, it leaves the uniformity of Nature untouched but it violates mechanical principles. According to the mechanical view of the world, the condition of any material system at one moment is absolutely determined by its condition at the preceding moment. In a world so conceived there is no room for the interpolation even of Determined Will among

minding the reader of one

set of difficulties to

:

—

;

It is mere surplusage. Will does not act on Matter, then we must suppose either running in a parallel stream to the physiological changes of the brain, though neither influenced by it nor influencing it which is, of course, the ancient theory of pre-established harmony; or else we must suppose that it is a kind of superfluous consequence of certain physiological changes, produced presumably without the exhaustion of any form of energy, and having no effect whatever, either upon the material world or, I suppose, upon

the causes of material change.
(2.)

If the

that volition belongs to a psychic series

—

other psychic conditions. This reduces us to automata, and automata of a kind very difficult to find proper accommodation for in a world
scientifically conceived.

None

of these alternatives
to

seem very

attractive, but

one of them

would seem

be

inevitable.

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
1

305

subjective

'

to the 'objective,' or

by the 'objective'

to the 'subjective,' short of the total destruction of

one or the other,
scheme.

will avail to

produce a harmonious

And

certainly

no discord could be so

barren, so unsatisfying, so practically impossible, as a

harmony attained
it is

at

such a

cost.

We must acquiesce,
But
in-

then, in the existence of an unsolved difficulty.

a difficulty which meets

us, in

an even more

tractable form,

when we

strive to realise the nature
little

of our

own

relations to the

world

in

which we

move, than when we are dealing with a
in respect to the
all

like

problem
of

Divine

Spirit,
all

Who is the
change.

Ground

being and the Source of

IV

But though there should thus be no
between
theology and
science,
to

conflict

either

as

to

the

existence of

God

or

as
it

the possibility of

His
com-

acting on phenomena, idea of

by no means follows that the
is

God which

is

suggested by science

patible with the idea of

God which

is

developed by

theology.

Identical, of course,

they need not be.
if all

Theology would be unnecessary
of learning about

we

are capable

God
and

could be inferred from a study

of Nature.

Compatible, however, they seemingly
religion are to

must

be, if science

be at one.

And

yet

I

know

not whether those

who

are most

persuaded that the claims of these two powers are
irreconcilable rest their case willingly

upon the most
x

306

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
incongruity between

striking

them which can be
or,

produced

—

I

mean

the existence of misery and the

triumphs of wrong.

Yet no one

is,

indeed, could
arises.

be, blind to the difficulty

which thence

the world as presented to us by science
conjecture a

From we might
;

but

God of power and a God of reason we never could infer a God who was wholly
So
that

loving and wholly just.

what

religion pro-

claims aloud to be His most essential attributes are
precisely those respecting

which the oracles of science

are doubtful or are dumb.

One

reason,

I

suppose,

why

this insistent

thought

does not, so
favourite
ethics
is

far as

my

observation goes, supply a
attack,
is

weapon of
obviously as

controversial

that

much

interested in the moral

attributes of
to

God
shall

as theology can ever be (a point

which

I

presently return).
in

But another

reason,

no doubt, may be found

the fact that the

difficulty is

one which has been profoundly realised by

religious

minds ages before organised science can
;

be said to have existed

while,

on the other hand,

the growth of scientific knowledge has neither in-

creased nor diminished the burden of
weight.
I

it

by a

feather-

The

question, therefore, seems, though not,

think, quite correctly, to

be one which

is

wholly, as

it

were, within the frontiers of theology, and which
left

theologians may, therefore, be
best they may, undisturbed
plied
true,

to deal with as

by any arguments supin

by
it

science.
is in

If this

be not
little

theory

strictly

practice but

wide of the mark.

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

307

The facts which
life

raise the

problem

in its acutest

form

belong, indeed, to that portion of the experience of

which
;

is

the

common
is

property of science and

theology

but theology

much more deeply
be,

con-

cerned

in

them than science can ever

and has
these

long faced the unsolved problem which they present.

The weight which
centuries
is

it

has thus borne for

all

not likely
it

now
it

to
is

crush

it

;

and, para-

doxical though

seems,

yet surely true, that

what

is

a theological stumbling-block
;

may

also be a

religious aid
'

and that

it

is

in part the
in

thought of

all

creation groaning

and travailing

pain together,

waiting for redemption,' which creates in

man

the

deepest need for faith in the love of God.

I

conceive, then, that those

who

talk of the

'

con-

flict

between science and

religion'

do

not, as a rule,

refer to the difficulty presented

by the existence
opinion,
is
?

of Evil.

Where,

then,

in

their

the
It

point of irreconcilable difference to be found
will,
I

suppose, at once be replied, in Miracles.
in
it

But

though the answer has
though, without doubt,
real kernel of the
I

a measure of truth,

it is

possible to approach the

problem from the side of miracles,
to

confess this

seems
;

me

to

be

in fact
is

but seldom

accomplished

while

the very term

more sugFree

gestive of controversy, wearisome, unprofitable, and

unending, than any other in
Will alone being excepted.

the language,

Into this Serbonian

bog

3 o8

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

I

scarcely dare ask the reader to follow me, though
I

the adventure must,

am afraid,
is

be undertaken

if

the

purpose of
In the

this

chapter

to
it

be accomplished.

first place,

then,

seems

to

me unfortunate
Nature should
its

that the principle of the Uniformity of

so often be dragged into a controversy with which

connection

is

so dubious and obscure.

For what do

we mean by saying that Nature is uniform ? We may mean, perhaps we ought to mean, that (leaving
Free Will out of account) the condition of the world
at

one moment
next,

is

so
if

connected with

its
it

condition

at the

that

we

could imagine
position,
its

brought

twice into
history

exactly the same
in

subsequent

would
I

each case be exactly the same.

Now
this

no one,

suppose, imagines that uniformity in
quarrel

sense has any
is

with

miracles.
to

If

a

miracle

a wonder wrought by

God

meet the

needs arising out of the special circumstances of
a particular moment, then,

supposing the circumif

stances were to recur, as they would

the world
the

were twice
?niracle,

to

pass through the

same phase,

we cannot

doubt, would recur also.

It is

not possible to suppose that the uniformity of Nature

thus broadly interpreted would be marred by

Him

on

Whom
But
it

Nature depends, and

Who

is

immanent

in all its

changes.
will

be replied that the uniformity with

which miracles are thus said to be consistent carries
with
it

no important consequences whatever.
is

Its

truth or untruth

a matter of equal indifference to

;

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
the
practical

309

philosopher.

man, the man of science, and the It asserts in reality (it may be said) no
that
if

more than
itself,
it

this,

history once
so,

began repeating
like

would go on doing

a recurring

decimal.

But as history

in fact

never does exactly
is

repeat

itself,

as the universe never

twice over pre-

cisely in the

same

condition,

we

should no more be

able to judge the future from the past, cr to detect

the

operation

of particular laws
this

of Nature in a

world where only
prevailed, than

kind of theoretic uniformity
the misrule of chaos

we should under

and blind chance.

There

is

force in these observations, which are,

however, much more embarrassing to the philosophy
of science than to that of theology.
all

Without doubt
this

experimental inference, as well as the ordinary
of
life,

conduct
general
certain

depends on supplementing
the uniformity of

view of working hypotheses which are not always,
they

Nature with

though

ought
it.

to

be,

most

carefully
is,

dis-

tinguished from
is

One

of these

that

Nature
of a

not merely uniform as a whole, but
;

is

made up

bundle of smaller uniformities
that there
is

or, in

other words,

a determinate relation, not only between

the

successive phases of the whole universe, but
it

between successive phases of certain fragments of

which successive phases we commonly describe as Another of these working 'causes' and 'effects.'
hypotheses
is,

that though the universe as a whole
itself,

never repeats

these isolated fragments of

it

3io

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

do.

And

posal

a third is, that we have means at our diswhereby these fragments can be accurately

divided off from the rest of Nature, and confidently

recognised

when they

recur.

Now

I

doubt whether

any one of these three presuppositions
noted,
lie

—which, be

it

at the very root of the collection of empirical

maxims which we
logic

dignify with the

name

of inductive

— can,

from the point of view of philosophy, be
It is

regarded as more than an approximation.
to believe that the concrete

hard

Whole

of things can be
It
is is
still

thus cut

up

into independent portions.

harder to

believe

that

any such portion
;

ever

repeated absolutely unaltered

since
its

its

character
all

must surely

in part

depend upon

relation to

the other portions, which (by hypothesis) are not

repeated with

it.

And

it

is

quite impossible to

believe that inductive logic has succeeded of
its

by any

methods

in

providing a sure criterion for deterportion
is

mining,

when any such
all

apparently re-

peated, whether
all,

the elements, and not more than

are again present which on previous occasions did
it

really constitute
If this

a case of cause
'

'

and

'

effect.'

1

seems paradoxical,

it is

chiefly because

we
is

habitually use phraseology which, strictly interpreted,

seems to imply that a
called,
is is

'

law of Nature,' as

it

a sort of self-subsisting entity, to whose
confided

charge

some department
it

in the

world of

phenomena, over which

rules with undisputed sway.
fully

1 See some of these points more Doubt, Part I., Chap. II.

worked out

in Philosophic

—
SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
311

Of

course this

is

not so.

In the world of phenois

mena, Reality
happens.
'

is

exhausted by what
this

and what

Beyond

there

is

nothing.

These
for

laws

'

are merely abstractions devised

by us

own guidance through the complexities of fact. They possess neither independent powers nor And if we would use language actual existence. with perfect accuracy, we ought, it would seem,
our
either to say that the

followed by precisely the

same cause would always be same effect, if it recurred
that,

which

it

never does

;

or

in certain regions of

Nature, though only in certain regions,

we can

de-

tect subordinate uniformities of repetition which,

though not exact, enable us without sensible

in-

security or error to anticipate the future or reconstruct the past.

This hurried glance which
reader to take into

I

have asked the
inductive
that
it is

theory

is

some obscure corners of by no means intended to suggest
;

as easy to believe in a miracle as not

or even that
to,

on other grounds, presently
ought not
show,
in

to

be referred

miracles
it

to

be regarded as incredible.
judgment, that no
profit

But

does

my

can yet be ex-

tracted from controversies as to the precise relation
in

which they stand to the Order of the world.

Those engaged in these controversies have not uncommonly committed a double error. They have, in the first place, chosen to assume that we have a
perfectly clear

and generally accepted theory as

to

what

is

meant by the Uniformity of Nature, as

to

3 i2

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
is

what

meant by

particular

Laws

of Nature, as to

the relation in which the particular

Laws stand

to

the general Uniformity, and as to the kind of proof

by which each
committed

is

to

be established.

And, having

this philosophic error,

they proceed to

add

to

it

the historical error of crediting primitive

theology with a knowledge of this theory, and with
a desire to improve upon
that apostles
it.

They seem to suppose
in

and prophets were
its

the habit of

looking at the natural world in

ordinary course,
if

with the eyes of an eighteenth-century deist, as
it

were a bundle of uniformities which, once

set

going,

went on
;

for

ever automatically repeating
their

themselves

and that

message

to

mankind

consisted in announcing the existence of another,
or supernatural world, which occasionally upset one or two of these natural uniformities
miracle.

by means of a

No
;

such theory can be extracted from

their writings,

and no such theory should be read
this not

into

them

and
is

merely because such an
is

attribution

unhistorical, nor yet because there
for

any ground
'

doubting the interaction of
'

the

spiritual

'

and the
'

natural
'

'

;

but because this ac-

count of the
preted

natural

itself is

one which,

if

inter-

strictly,

seems open to grave philosophical
is

objection,
proof.

and

certainly deficient in philosophic

The
miracles

real difficulties
lie

connected with theological

elsewhere.
:

Two qualities

seem

to

be of

their essence

they must be wonders, and they must

;

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

313

be wonders due to the special action of Divine power

and each of these
its

qualities raises a special
first is

problem of

own.

That raised by the

the question of
if

evidence.

What amount

of evidence,
?

any,

is suffi-

cient to render a miracle credible

And on

this,

which
I

is

apart from the main track of

my
is,

argument,

may perhaps
by evidence

content myself with pointing out, that
is is

if

meant, as

it

usually

historical

testimony, this

not a fixed quantity, the

same

for

every reasonable man, no matter what
other opinions.
It varies,

may be

his

and must necessarily vary,
'

with the general views, the

psychological climate,'
It
is

which he brings to
to

its

consideration.
to agree
in

possible

get twelve plain

men

on the evidence

which requires them to bring

a verdict of guilty or

not guilty, because they start with a

common

stock

of presuppositions, in the light of which the evidence

submitted to them may, without preliminary discussion,

be interpreted.

But when, as
is

in the case of

theological miracles, there

no such

common

stock,

any agreement on a verdict can scarcely be looked
for.

One

of the jury

may

hold the naturalistic view

of the world.

To

him, of course, the occurrence of

a miracle involves the abandonment of the whole

philosophy
interpret

in

terms of which he

is

accustomed to
custom,
pre-

the universe.

Argument,

judice, authority

— every conviction-making machine,
by which
his

rational

and

non-rational,

scheme of

belief has

been fashioned

— conspire

to

make

this

vast intellectual revolution difficult.

And we need

3 i4

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
surprised
that

not be

even

the most excellent
is

evidence for a few isolated incidents
cient

quite insuffi-

to

effect his

conversion
to

;

nor that he occa-

sionally

shows a disposition

go very extraordinary

lengths in contriving historical or critical theories for
the purpose of explaining such evidence away.

Another may believe
quite superfluous.

in

'

verbal inspiration.'

To
its
it

him, the discussion of evidence in the ordinary sense
is

Every

miracle,

whatever

character, whatever the circumstances in

which

occurred, whatever

its relation,

whether essential or
religion, is to
it

accidental, to the general

scheme of

be accepted with equal confidence, provided
narrated in the works of inspired authors.
written
:

be
is

It

it is

therefore true.

And

in the light of this

presupposition alone must the results of any merely
critical

or historical discussion be finally judged.

A

third of our

supposed jurymen may reject both

naturalism and verbal inspiration.
the evidence alleged in favour of
'

He may appraise
Wonders due
to
'

the special action of Divine

altogether different
action therein.

power by the light of an theory of the world and of God's
consider religion to be as

He may
itself.

necessary an element in any adequate scheme of
belief as

science

Every

event, therefore,

whether
rence
is

wonderful or not, a belief in
involved in that religion,
religion

whose occurevery event by

whose disproof the

would be seriously imit

poverished or altogether destroyed, has behind

the whole combined strength of the system to which

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
it

315

belongs.
external

It is not,

indeed, believed independently

of

evidence,

any more
But

than the most

ordinary occurrences in history are believed independently of external evidence.
as
it

does not require,

some people appear

to suppose, the impossible

accumulation of proof on proof, of testimony on
testimony, before the presumption against
neutralised.
exist at
all.
it

can be

For, in truth, no such presumption

may

Strange as the miracle must seem, and

inharmonious when considered as an alien element
in

an otherwise naturalistic

setting,
it

it

may assume

a

character of inevitableness,

may

almost proclaim

aloud that thus
to those

it

has occurred, and not otherwise,
it

who

consider

in its relation,

not to the

natural world alone, but to the spiritual, and to the

needs of

man

as a citizen of both.

VI

Many
enough

other varieties of
;

'

psychological climate
I

'

might be described
to

but what

have said
it

is,

perhaps,

show how absurd

is

to expect

any
until

unanimity as to the value of historical evidence

some better agreement has been
evidence can be estimated.

arrived at respecting

the presuppositions in the light of which alone such
I

pass, therefore,

to

the difficulty raised by the second, and

much more
miracles
to

fundamental,

attribute

of

theological

which
to

I
'

have adverted, namely, that they are due
special action

the

of God.'

But

this,

be

it

3 i6

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
is,

observed,

from a religious point of view,

no

peculiarity of miracles.

Few schemes
I

of thought
all

which have any religious flavour about them at
wholly exclude the idea of what
call

will

venture to
power,'

the

'

preferential

exercise of Divine

whatever differences of opinion

may

exist as to the

manner

in

which

it is

manifested.

There are those

who reject miracles but who, at least in those fateful moments when they imaginatively realise their own
helplessness, will admit
is

what

in

a certain literature

called a

'

special Providence.'
'

There are those

who reject the notion of special Providence,' but who admit a sort of Divine superintendence over the
general course of history.

There are

those, again,

who

reject in its ordinary

shape the idea of Divine
conceive that they can

superintendence,

but

who

escape from philosophic reproach by beating out the
idea yet a
little

thinner,

and admitting that there
'

does exist somewhere a
righteousness.'

Power which makes
think
all

for

For
which
them.

my own

part,

I

these

various

opinions are equally open to the only form of attack
it is

worth while to bring against any one of
as (supposing religion in any
'

And if we allow,
action
'

shape to be true) we must allow, that the
ential
is

prefer-

of Divine

power

is

possible, nothing
all

gained by qualifying the admission with
limitations

those
dif-

fanciful

and distinctions with which

ferent

schools
it.

of thought

have seen
itself,

fit

to
is

en-

cumber

The admission

however,

one

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
which, in whatever shape
it

317

may be made, no doubt
difficulty.

suggests questions of great

How can
directs
all,

the

Divine Being
everything

Who is the Ground Who sustains all, that
is,

and Source of
pro-

duces

all,

be connected more closely with one part

of that which
If

He

has created than with another

?

every event be wholly due to Him,

how can we

say that any single event, such as a miracle, or any

tendency of events, such as
ness,' is specially

'

making

for righteous-

His

?

What room for difference

or

distinction

is

there within the circuit of His universal

power?
and

Since the relation between His creation
is

Him

throughout and

in

every particular one of

absolute dependence, what meaning can
to

we

attach

the metaphor which represents
it,

Him

as taking
?

part with one fragment of

or as hostile to another

Now
ethics
is

it

has, in the first place, to

be observed that
in

almost as

much concerned
itself.

dealing with
if

this difficulty as theology

For

believe

in

'

preferential

action,'

we cannot neither can we
'

believe in the moral qualities of which
action
'

preferential
qualities of

is

the sign

;

and with the moral

God is bound up
to

the fate of anything which deserves
all.
I

be called morality at

am

not

now arguing

that ethics cannot exist unsupported
this

by theism.

On
shall

theme

I

have already said something, and

have to say more.

My

present contention

is,

that
in

though history may show plenty of examples

heathendom of

ethical theory being far in
it

advance
to

of the recognised religion,

is

yet impossible

3 i8

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
that

suppose

morality

would not ultimately be

destroyed by the clearly realised belief in a

God

Who
evil.

was

either indifferent to

good or

inclined to

For a universe

in

which
all

all

the power was on the

side of the Creator,

and

the morality on the side

of creation, would be one compared with which the

universe of naturalism would shine out a paradise
indeed.

Even

the poet has not dared to represent

Jupiter torturing Prometheus without the

dim

figure

of

Avenging Fate waiting silently
if

in the

background.

But

the idea of an immoral Creator governing a

world peopled with moral, or even with sentient,
creatures,
is

a speculative nightmare, the case

is

not

materially

mended by

substituting for an immoral

Creator an indifferent one.

Once assume a God,
later, to

and we His

shall

be obliged, sooner or

introduce

harmony
duct.

into our

system by making obedience to
with the established rules of conto

will coincident

We cannot frame our advice
hypothesis
that
to

mankind on
is

the

defy Omnipotence

the
of

beginning of wisdom.
adjustment
tenance of
is

But

if

this

process

to

be done consistently with the maindistinction
will

any eternal and absolute

between right and wrong, then must His
'good
will,'

be a

and we must suppose

Him

to look with

favour upon

some

parts of this

mixed world of good
others.
If,

and

evil,

and with disfavour upon

on the

other hand, this distinction seems to us metaphysically

impossible

;

if

we cannot do

otherwise than

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY
regard

319

Him

as related in precisely the

same way

to
in-

every portion of His creation,
different

looking with

eyes upon

misery and happiness,
virtue,

truth

and

error, vice

and

then our theology must

surely drive us, under whatever disguise, to
ethics of
all

empty

ethical significance,

and

to reduce virtue

to a colourless acquiescence in the

Appointed Order. But
authors

Systems there are which do not shrink from
these
will,
I

speculative
think,

conclusions.

their

be found rather among those who

approach the problem of the world from the side of
a particular metaphysic, than those

from the side of science.

He who

sees in

who approach it God no

of

more than the Infinite Substance of which the world phenomena constitutes the accidents, or who

requires Subject,

Him

for

no other purpose than as
'

Infinite

to supply the

unity

'

without which the
'

world of phenomena would be an

unmeaning flux of

unconnected
to

particulars,'

may naturally suppose Him
But
I

be equally related to everything, good or bad, that
is,

has been,

or can be.
is

do not think that the
;

man

of science

similarly situated

for the doctrine

of evolution has in this respect

made

a change in his
it

position which, curiously enough, brings
that occupied in this matter

closer to
ethics
'

by theology and
'

than

it

was

in the

days when

special creation

was

the fashionable view.
I

am
is,

not contending, be

it

observed, that evolu-

tion strengthens the evidence for theism.

My

point

rather

that

if

the existence of

God

be assumed,

3 2o

SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY

evolution does, to a certain extent, harmonise with
that belief in

His 'preferential

action'

which religion

and morality

alike require us to

attribute to

Him.

For whereas the material and organic world was once supposed to have been created all of a piece,' and to show contrivance on the part of its Author
'

merely by the machine-like adjustment of its parts, so now science has adopted an idea which has always

been an essential part of the Christian view of the Divine economy, has given to that idea an undreamed-of extension, has applied
universe of
it

to the

whole

phenomena,
it

organic

and inorganic,
enriched,

and has returned

again

to theology

strengthened, and developed.

Can

we, then, think
attri-

of evolution in a God-created world without

buting to

Author the notion of purpose slowly worked out; the striving towards something which is not, but which gradually becomes, and in the fulness
its
?

of time will be

Surely not.

But,

if
I

not,

can

it

be

denied that evolution

—the evolution,

mean, which

takes place in time, the natural evolution of science,
as distinguished from

the dialectical

evolution

of

metaphysics
of that
'

—does

involve something in the nature
'

preferential action

which

it

is

so difficult
?

to understand, yet so impossible to abandon

;

321

CHAPTER

VI

SUGGESTIONS TOWARDS A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION

But
in

if I

confined myself to saying that the belief
is

a

God who
is,

not merely substance,' or
'

'

subject,'

but

in Biblical language,

'

a living God,' affords no
science,
I

ground of quarrel between theology and
should

much

understate

my

thought.

I

hold,
is

on the

contrary, that
tolerated, but
it

some such presupposition
is

not only
;

actually required,

by science
it

that

if

be accepted

in the case of science,

can hardly be

refused in the case of ethics, aesthetics, or theology

and that

if it

be thus accepted as a general

principle,
it

applicable to the whole circuit of belief,

will

be

found to provide us with a working solution of some,
at least, of the
difficulties

with which naturalism

is

incompetent to deal.

difficulties

For what was it that lay at the bottom of those Speaking broadly, it may be described ?
perpetual
collision,

as

the

the ineffaceable inconbeliefs, in so far as

gruity,

between the origin of our
This

these

can be revealed to us by science, and the
it

beliefs themselves.

was

that, as

I

showed
Y

in the first part of this

Essay, touched with the frost

322

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
showed
Second

of scepticism our ideals of conduct and our ideals of

beauty.
Part, cut
all

This

it

was

that, as

I

in the

down scientific philosophy

to the root.
I

And

the later discussions with which

have occupied

the attention of the reader serve but to emphasise
afresh the inextricable confusion which the naturalistic

hypothesis introduces into every department

of practice and of speculation,

by refusing

to allow

us to penetrate beyond the phenomenal causes by
which, in the order
of

Nature,

our beliefs

are

produced.

Review each of these departments
in the light of the

in turn, and,
its
it

preceding discussion, compare
that

position in a theological setting with

which

necessarily occupies in a naturalistic one.

Let the

case of science be taken

first,

for

it is

a crucial one.
ourselves

Here,

if

anywhere,

we might suppose
Here,
if

independent of theology.

anywhere, we

might expect to be able to acquiesce without embarrassment
in

the negations of naturalism.

But

when once we have
at the root of

realised the scientific truth that
lies

every rational process

an

irrational
is

one

;

that reason,

from a
;

scientific

point of view,

itself

a natural product
it

and that the whole material
to causes, physical, physioit

on which
logical,

works

is

due

and

social,

which
I

neither
just

creates

nor

controls,
in

we

shall (as

showed

now) be driven

mere

self-defence to hold that, behind these non-

rational forces,

and above them, guiding them by
it

slow degrees, and, as

were, with difficulty, to a

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
rational issue, stands that

323
in

Supreme Reason

whom

we must
thing.

thus believe,

if

we

are to believe in any-

Here, then, we are plunged
of theology.

at

once into the middle
to

The
'

belief in

God, the attribution
I

Him

of reason, and of what

have called
world which

'

prefer-

ential action

in relation to the

He

has

created,

all

seem forced upon us by the
is

single
that,
it

assumption that science
with the rest of
its

not an

illusion,

and

teaching,

we must

accept what

has to say to us about

itself as

a natural product.

At no

smaller cost can
its

we

reconcile the origins of

science with

pretensions, or relieve ourselves of

the embarrassments in which
naturalistic

we

are involved by a

theory of Nature.
if

But evidently the
It
is

admission,

once made, cannot stand alone.

impossible to refuse to ethical beliefs what

we have
For the

already

conceded

to

scientific
is

beliefs.

analogy between them
products.

complete.

Both are natural
remoter causes
as
it is

Neither rank

among

their

any which share their essence.
trace

And

easy to

back our back our

scientific beliefs to
is

sources which have
it is

about them nothing which
trace

rational, so

easy to

ethical beliefs to sources
is

which have

about them nothing which
us,

ethical.

Both require

therefore,

sources for
shall

phenomenal some ultimate ground with which they
to

seek behind

these

be congruous

;

and as we have been moved

to

postulate a rational

God

in the interests

of science,
Y 2

3 24

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
we can
scarcely decline to postulate a moral

so

God

in the interests of morality.

But, manifestly, those

who have gone

thus far

cannot rest here.
origin to the long

If

we

are to assign a 'providential'
train of events

and complex

which

have resulted

in the recognition of a

moral law,

we

must embrace within the same theory those
ments and
would tend
influences, without

senti-

which a moral law

to

become a mere catalogue of commandit

ments, possessed,

maybe, of an undisputed authority,
little

but obtaining on that account but

obedience.
in the
if

This was the point on which
first

I

dwelt at length

portion of this Essay.

I

then showed, that

the

pedigrees of conscience, of our ethical ideals, of our
capacity for admiration, for sympathy, for repentance,
for righteous indignation,

were

finally to lose

them-

selves

among

the
its

accidental

variations

on which
the creed

Selection does

work,

it

was inconceivable that

they should retain their virtue

when once

of naturalism had thoroughly penetrated and discoloured every

mood

of thought and belief.

But

if,

deserting naturalism,

we

regard

the evolutionary

process issuing in these ethical results as an instru-

ment

for carrying out a

Divine purpose, the natural
is

history of the higher sentiments

seen under a
due, doubtless

wholly different

light.

They maybe

they are in fact due, to the same selective mechanism

which produces the most cruel and the most disgusting of Nature's contrivances for protecting the species
of

some loathsome

parasite.

Between the two cases

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
science cannot, and naturalism will not,
valid distinction.

325

draw any

in, and by the conception of design revolutionises our point of view. The most unlovely germ of instinct or of

But here theology steps

appetite to which
is

we

trace back the origin of
report,

all

that

most noble and of good

no longer throws
Rather
is

discredit
it

upon

its

developed offshoots.

consecrated by them.
it is

For

if,

in

the region of

Causation,

wholly by the earlier stages that the
region of Design
it

later are determined, in the

is

only through the later stages that the earlier can be
understood.

But

if

these be the consequences which flow from

substituting a theological for a naturalistic interpretation of science, of ethics,

what changes
destroys
the

will

the

and of ethical sentiments, same process effect in our
Naturalism, as
of
objective

conception of aesthetics

?

we

saw,

possibility

beauty
;

— of
and

beauty as a

real,

persistent quality of objects

leaves nothing but feelings of beauty on the one side,

and on the other a miscellaneous assortment of
objects, called beautiful in their

moments of
in

favour,

by which, through the chance operation of obscure
associations, at

some

period,

and

some persons,

these feelings of beauty are aroused.

A

conclusion

of this kind no doubt leaves us chilled and depressed
spectators of our
it

own

aesthetic enthusiasms.

And
will

may be

that to put the scientific theory in a theo-

logical setting, instead of in

a naturalistic one,

not wholly remove the unsatisfactory effect which

326

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION

the theory itself

may

leave upon the mind.
If

And
that
fact,
'

yet

it

surely does something.
is

we cannot say
'

Beauty
in the

in

any

particular case an

objective

sense in which science requires us to believe
for
facts,

that 'mass,'

example, and

'configuration,' are

'objective'

we

are

not

precluded on that
it

account from referring our feeling of

to

God, nor

from supposing that

in

the

thrill

of

some deep
far-off
;

emotion we have for an instant caught a
reflection of

Divine beauty. This

is,

indeed,

my faith

and

in

it

the differences of taste which divide manall

kind lose

their harshness.

For we may

liken

ourselves to the
sion winding

members

of

some

endless proces-

along the borders of a sunlit lake.
individual there will shine along
its

Towards each
surface a

moving lane of splendour, where the ripples
;

catch and deflect the light in his direction
either

while on

hand the waters, which

to his neighbour's eyes

are brilliant in the sun, for

guished.
ness.

him lie dull and undistinSo may all possess a like enjoyment of loveliall

So do
if

owe

it

to

one unchanging CD O Source.
derive
it,

And
after

there be an endless variety in the immediate

objects from which
all,

we severally

I

know

not,

that this should furnish

any matter for regret.

And,

lastly,

we come

to theology,

denied by
all,

naturalism to be a branch of knowledge at

but

whose

truth

we have been

obliged to assume in

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION

327

order to find a basis for the only knowledge which
naturalism allows.

Those who are prepared
theory which
offers

to

admit

that, in

dealing the

with the causes of scientific and ethical
least
difficulty
'

belief,

is

that
'

which

assumes them to have been

providentially

guided,

are not likely to raise objections to a similar theory
in the case of religion.

For

here, at least,

might we

expect preferential Divine intervention, supposing

such intervention were anywhere possible.

Much

more, then,
of belief.

if it

be accepted as actual
this
is,

in other regions

And

in fact,

the ordinary view of

mankind.

They have

almost always claimed for
that they were due to God.

their beliefs about

God

The
it,

belief in religion has almost always carried with

in

some shape or

other, the belief in Inspiration.
is,

To
religion

this rule there

no doubt,
is

to be found an

apparent exception in what

known

as natural
as
attain,

—natural
to

religion

being

defined

the
in

religion

which unassisted reason may

contrast to that which can be reached only
aid of revelation.

by the
object

But, for

my own

part,

I

altogether to the theory underlying this distinction.
I

do not believe
'

that, strictly speaking, there

is

any
sure
'

such thing as
that
if

unassisted reason.'
'

And

I

am

there be, the conclusions of

natural religion

are not

among

its

products.

The
that,

attentive reader

does not require to be told

according to the
in

views here advocated, every idea involved
proposition as that
'

such a

There

is

a moral Creator and

328

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
the

Ruler of

world'

(which

I

may

assume, for

purposes of

illustration, to constitute
is

the substance

of natural religion)

due to a complex of causes, of
;

which human reason was not the most important and
that this natural religion never

would have been
approval,
it

heard

of,

much less have been received with
itself to

had

it

not been for that traditional religion of which

vainly supposes

be independent.

But
cepted
;

if this if

way

of considering the matter be ac-

we

are to apply unaltered, in the case

of religious beliefs, the procedure already adopted in

the case of

scientific,

ethical,

and

aesthetic beliefs,

and assume
cend the
'

for

them a Cause harmonious with

their

essential nature,

we must evidently in so doing transcommon division between natural and
'
'

supernatural.'

We cannot consent to

see the

'

pre-

ferential

working of Divine power' only

in those

religious manifestations

which refuse to accommodate

themselves to our conception (whatever that
of the strictly
'

may be)
nor can

natural

'

order of the world

;

we deny
explain.
'

a Divine origin to those aspects of religious

development which natural laws seem competent to

The
'

familiar distinction, indeed,
'

between

natural

and

supernatural

'

coincides neither with

that

between natural and
'

spiritual,
'

nor with that

between

preferential action
'

and

'

non-preferential,'
'
'

nor with that between
It
is,

phenomenal and noumenal.'
is

perhaps, less important than
;

sometimes supat
all

posed

and
is,

in
it

this particular

connection,

events,

as

seems

to me, merely irrelevant

and

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
confusing
lation.

329

—

a burden, not an

aid, to religious specu-

For, whatever difference there

may be between

the growth of theological knowledge and of other

knowledge, their resemblances are both numerous

and

instructive.

In both

we

note that

movement has
In both, that
it

been sometimes so rapid as to be revolutionary, sometimes so slow as to be imperceptible.

has been sometimes an advance, sometimes a retrogression.

In both, that

it

has been sometimes on lines

permittingalong, perhaps an indefinite, development,

sometimes

in directions

where farther progress seems
is,

barred for ever.

In both, that the higher

from the

point of view of science, largely produced by the lower.

In both, that, from the point of view of our provisional philosophy, the lower
is

only to be explained
final

by the higher.

In both, that the

product counts

among
which

its

causes a vast multitude of physiological,

psychological, political, and social antecedents with
it

has no direct rational or spiritual
then, can

affiliation.

How,
facts into

we most

completely absorb these
?

our theory of Inspiration

It

would, no
is

doubt, be inaccurate to say that inspiration

that,

seen from

its

Divine

side,

which we
side.

call
it

discovery
is

when seen from the human
ledge,

But

not,

I

think, inaccurate to say that every addition to

knowto a

whether

in the individual or the

community,
is

whether

scientific, ethical,

or theological,

due

co-operation between the
lates

human

soul which assimiinspires.

and the Divine power which

Neither

33°
acts,
or,

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
as
far

as

we can pronounce upon such
For
as
it
I

matters, could act, in independent isolation.

'unassisted reason'

is,

have already
is

said,

a fiction;

and pure receptivity

impossible to conceive.

Even
it

the emptiest vessel must limit the quantity and

determine the configuration of any liquid with which

may be

filled.

But because this view involves a use of the term
1

inspiration
it

'

which, ignoring

all

minor

distinctions,

extends
belief
is

to every case in to

which the production of
'

due

the

'

preferential action

of Divine
dis-

power,

it

does not, of course, follow that minor

tinctions
is,

do not

exist.

All

I

wish here to

insist

on

that the sphere of Divine influence in matters of

belief exists as a whole,

and may therefore be studied
improbably, to study
it

as a whole

;

and

that, not

as

a whole would prove no unprofitable preliminary to

any examination into the character of
portant parts.

its

more im-

So
this

studied,

it

becomes evident
is

that Inspiration,
is

if

use of the word

to

be allowed,

limited to no

age, to

no country,

to

no people.

It is

required by
teach.
truth,

those

who

learn not less than

by those who
to

Wherever an approach has been made
old discovery, or has forced the secret of a

wherever any individual soul has assimilated some

new
Its

one,

there

is its

co-operation to be discovered.

work-

ings are to be traced not merely in the later develop-

ment of

beliefs,

but far back

among

their

unhonoured

beginnings.

Its aid

has been granted not merely

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION

331

along the main line of religious progress, but in the
side-alleys to
for

which there seems no
full

issue.

Are we,
in

example, to find a

measure of inspiration

the highest utterances of

Hebrew prophet or psalmist,
had
in

and
tions

to

suppose that the primitive religious concepto the Semitic race
?

common

them no
'

touch of the Divine
it

Hardly,

if

we

also believe that

was these primitive conceptions which the
'

Chosen

People

were divinely ordained
until they

to purify, to elevate,
fitting

and

to

expand

became

elements in

a religion adequate to the necessities of a world.

Are we,

again, to

deny any measure of

inspiration

to the ethico-religious teaching of the great Oriental

reformers, because there

was

that in their general
still

systems of doctrine which prevented, and
vents, these from

pre-

merging

as a
?

whole

in the

main
are

stream of religious advance

Hardly, unless

we

prepared to admit that
thorns or figs from
are of

men may

gather grapes from

thistles.

These things assuredly
in

God

;

and whatever be the terms
faith, let

which we

choose to express our

us not give colour to

the opinion that His assistance to

mankind has been

narrowed down

to the sources,

however unique, from

which we immediately, and consciously, draw our

own

spiritual
If

nourishment.
is

a preference

shown by any

for

a more
in

limited conception

of the
it

Divine intervention
I

matters of

belief,
It

must,
in

suppose, be on one of
first

two grounds.

may,

the

place, arise out of

a natural reluctance to force into the same category

33 2

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
transcendent intuitions of prophet or apostle
earlier
faiths,

the

and the stammering utterances of

clouded as these are by human ignorance and marred by human sin. Things spiritually so far asunder ought not, it may be thought, by any system of They belong classification, to be brought together. They differ not merely infinitely to separate worlds.
in

degree, but absolutely

in

kind

;

and a
is

risk of

serious error

must

arise

if

the

same term

loosely

and hastily applied
nature,
lie

to things which, in their essential

so far apart.
rather, plainly are,

Now, that there may be, or, many modes in which belief is
co-operation
I

assisted

by Divine

have already admitted.
'

That the
to deny.

word
to
It is
I

'

inspiration

may, with advantage, be confined
I

one or more of these

do not desire
and

a question of theological phraseology, on which
not competent to pronounce
;

am

if

I

have
argu-

seized

upon the word
it is

for the purposes of

my

ment,

with no desire to confound any distinction

which ought to be preserved, but because there is no other term which so pointedly expresses that Divine
element
in the

formation of beliefs on which
This,
if

it

was

my

business to lay stress.
does, after
all,

my

theory be
it

true,

exist,

howsoever
I

may be
;

described, to the

full

extent which

have indicated

and though the
differ infinitely

beliefs

which

it

assists in

producing
nearness

from one another
is

in their

to absolute truth, the fact

not disguised, nor the

honour due to the most

spiritually perfect utterances

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
in

333

aught imperilled, by recognising
But, in the second place,

in all

some marks

of Divine intervention.
it

may be
is

objected that
incapable of

inspiration thus broadly conceived

providing mankind with any satisfactory criterion of
religious truth.
in so

Since
is

its

co-operation can be traced

much

that

imperfect, the

mere

fact of its co-

operation cannot in any particular case be a protection

even against gross

error.

If,

therefore,

we seek

in

it not merely a Divinely ordered cause of belief, but also a Divinely ordered ground for believing, there

must be some means of marking off those examples of its operation which rightfully command our full intellectual allegiance, from those which are no more
than evidences of an influence towards the truth

working out
This
is

its

purpose slowly through the ages.
dispute.
in

beyond

Nothing that

I

have said

about inspiration
affects in

general as a source of belief

of inspiration as an authority for belief.

any way the character of certain instances Nor was it
;

intended to do so
problems,

for the

problem, or group of

which would thus have been raised is altogether beside the main course of my argument. They belong, not to an Introduction to Theology,
but to Theology
in religious
itself.

Whether there

is

an authority
without
if it

matters of a kind

altogether
;

parallel in scientific or ethical matters
exists, is its character,

what,
its

and whence come

claims

to our obedience, are questions

on which theologians

have

differed,

and

still

differ,

and which

it

is

quite

—
334

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION

beyond
this

my

province to decide.
is

For the subject of
I

Essay

the 'foundations of belief/ and, as

have already indicated, 1 the kind of authority contemplated by theologians
the sense in which that
is

never
is

'

fundamental,' in

word

here used.

The

deliverances of no organisation, of no individual, of

no record, can

lie at

the roots of belief as reason,
It is

whatever they may do as cause.

always possible

to ask whence these claimants to authority derive
their credentials,

what

titles

the organisation or the

individual possesses to our obedience, whether the

records are authentic, and what
port.

is

their precise im-

And

the

mere

fact that

such questions

may

be

put,

and that they can neither be thrust aside as
answered without elaborate
critical

irrelevant nor be

and

historical discussion,

shows

clearly

enough

that

we have no

business with

them

here.

•

in

But although
this

it is

evidently beyond the scope of
discus-

work

to enter

sion of theological method,

upon even an elementary it seems right
strict

that

I

should endeavour, in

continuation of the argu-

ment of

this chapter, to

say something on the source

from which, according to Christianity, any religious
authority whatever must ultimately derive
tion.
its

jurisdicis

What

I

have so

far tried to establish

this

that the great
1

body of our

beliefs, scientific, ethical,

See ante, chapter on Authority and Reason.

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
theological,

335

form a more coherent and satisfactory
Theistic setting,
Naturalistic
one.

whole
than
if

if

we consider them in a we consider them in a

The
itself,

further question, therefore, inevitably suggests

Whether we can
if

carry the

process a step

further,

and say that they are more coherent and
considered in a Christian setting than
?

satisfactory
in a

merely Theistic one

The answer

often given

is

in the negative.

It is

always assumed by those

who do
it is
it

not accept the

doctrine of the Incarnation, and

not

uncommonly

conceded by those who do, that
additional burden
to reason.

constitutes an

upon

faith,

a

new stumbling-block

And many who

are prepared to accom-

modate
1

their beliefs to the requirements of (so-called)
difficulties

Natural Religion,' shrink from the

and

perplexities in which this central mystery of Revealed

Religion threatens to involve them.
these difficulties
?

But what are
scientific.

Clearly they are not

We

are here altogether outside the region where

scientific ideas possess

any worth, or
It

scientific cate-

gories claim any authority.

may be a realm
it

of

shadows, of empty dreams, and vain speculations.

But whether

it

be

this,

or whether
it

be the abiding:-

place of the highest Reality,

evidently must be

explored by methods other than those provided for
us by the accepted canons of experimental research.

Even when we
relation of our

are endeavouring to

comprehend the
to the material

own finite personalities

environment with which they are so intimately con-

336

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
we
of
find, as

nected,

we have

seen, that

all

familiar

modes

explanation

break down

and

become

meaningless.

Yet we
If,

certainly exist,

and presumably
devise formulae

we have
which

bodies.

then,

we cannot

shall elucidate the familiar

mystery of our

daily existence,

we need
lend

neither be surprised nor

embarrassed

if

the unique mystery of the Christian
itself to

faith refuses to

inductive treatment.

But though the very uniqueness of the doctrine
places
it

beyond the ordinary range of

scientific

criticism, the

same cannot be

said for the historical
least,
it

evidence on which, in part at
it

rests.

Here,

will

perhaps be urged,

we

are on solid and familiar
to

ground.
trary

We

have only got
between

ignore the arbi-

distinction

'sacred'

and

'secular,'

and apply the well-understood methods of
criticism to

historic

a particular set of ancient records, in
all

order to extract from them
satisfy

that

is

necessary to

our curiosity.

If they

break down under
ourselves

cross-examination,
further

we need

trouble

no

about the metaphysical dogmas to which

they point.

No

immunity or privilege claimed
support

for

the subject-matter of belief can extend to the merely

human evidence adduced
does evidently rest on

in its

;

and as

in

the last resort the historical element in Christianity

human

testimony,

nothing

can be simpler than to subject this to the usual
scientific tests,

and accept with what equanimity we
which they
elicit.
is

may any

results

But, in truth, the question

not so simple as

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
those

337

who make

use of arguments like these would
'

have us suppose.
tions.
is,

Historic

method has
'

its

limita-

It is self-sufficient

only within an area which

indeed, tolerably extensive, but which does not

embrace the universe.
deep plunge

For, without taking any very

into the philosophy of historical criticism,

we may

easily perceive that our

judgment

as to the

truth or falsity of

any particular

historic statement

depends, partly on our estimate of the writer's trustworthiness, partly on our estimate of his

means of
But

information, partly on our estimate of the intrinsic
probability of the facts to which he testifies.

these things are not

'

independent variables,' to be
their results are balanced
it

measuied separately before
and summed
that,

up.

On

the contrary,

is

manifest
trustis

in

many
and

cases,

our opinions on the

worthiness

competence of the witnesses
us

modified by our opinion as to the inherent

likeli-

hood of what they

tell

;

and that our opinion

as to the inherent likelihood of

what they

tell

us

may depend on
no
historical

considerations with respect to which
is

method

able to give us any con-

clusive information.

In most cases, no doubt, these

questions of antecedent probability have to be themselves decided solely, or mainly, on historic grounds,

and, failing anything
historic instinct.

more

scientific,

by a kind of
are,

But other cases there

though
bring

they be rare, to whose consideration
larger principles,

we must

drawn from a wider theory of the
first,

world

;

and among these should be counted as
z

338

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
in speculative interest and in ethical

both

importance,

the early records of Christianity.

That
point
of

this

has been done, and, from their
quite
rightly

own

view,

done,

by
a

various
criticism,

destructive

schools

of

New

Testament

everyone

is

aware.

Starting from
to accept

philosophy

which forbade them

much of the substance

of the Gospel narrative, they very properly set to

work

to devise a variety of

hypotheses which would
all its

account for the fact that the narrative, with
peculiarities,

was

nevertheless

there.

Of

these

hypotheses there are many, and some of them have
occasioned an admirable display of erudite ingenuity,
fruitful

of instruction from every point of view, and
time.

for all

But

it

is

a great, though common,

error to describe these learned efforts as examples

of the unbiassed application of historic methods to
historic

documents.
they are

It

would be more correct

to

say

that

endeavours,

by the unstinted
apparatus,
into

employment of an elaborate

critical

to

force the testimony of existing records

con-

formity with theories on the truth or falsity of which
it

is

for

philosophy,
I

not

history,

to

pronounce.

What view
which these

take of the particular philosophy to

critics

make appeal

the reader already
is

knows

;

and our immediate concern

not again to

discuss the presuppositions with which other people

have approached the consideration of

New

Testa-

ment

history, but to arrive at

some conclusion about

our own.

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION

339

How,

then, ought the general theory of things at
affect

which we have arrived to

our estimate of the

antecedent probability of the Christian views of
Christ
?

Or,
'

if

such a phrase

as

'

antecedent

probability

be thought to suggest a much greater
is

nicety of calculation than
like this, in

at

all

possible in a case

what temper

of mind, in

what mood of

expectation,

ought our provisional philosophy to

induce us to consider the extant historic evidence
for the Christian story
?

The
in a

reply must,

I

think,

depend, as

I

shall

show

moment, upon the view
;

we
its

take of the ethical import of Christianity
ethical import, again,

while

must depend on the degree

to

which

it

ministers to our ethical needs.

IV

Now
ethical

ethical needs, important

though they

are,

occupy no great space, as a
writers.
;

rule, in

the works of

I
I

do

not

say this by

way

of

criticism

for

grant that any examination

into

these needs would have only an indirect bearing on the essential subject-matter of ethical
philosophy,

since no inquiry into their nature, history, or value

would

help

either

to

establish

the

fundamental
its details.

principles of a moral code or to elaborate

But, after

all,

as

I

have said before, an assortment

of

'

categorical imperatives,'

however authoritative
of actual
z 2

and complete, supplies but a meagre outfit wherewith
to

meet the storms and

stresses

34 o

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
If

experience.

we

are to possess a practical system,
tell

which
to do,

shall

not merely

men what
it
;

they ought
if

but assist them to do

still

more,

we

are

to regard the spiritual quality of the soul as pos-

sessing an intrinsic value not to be wholly measured

by the external actions

to

which

it

gives

rise,

much

more than
aspirations
for their

this will

be required.

It will

not only be

necessary to claim the assistance of those ethical

and

ideals

which are not

less effectual

purpose though nothing corresponding to
exist,

them should

but

it

will also

be necessary,

if it

be possible, to meet those ethical needs which must work more harm than good unless we can sustain
the belief that there
is

somewhere

to

be found a

Reality wherein they can find their satisfaction.

These are

facts of

moral psychology which, thus
I

broadly stated, nobody,

think, will be disposed to

dispute, although the widest differences of opinion

may and do

prevail as to the character,

number and
It

relative importance of the ethical

needs thus called
is,

into existence
certain,

by

ethical

commands.
difficulty

further,
felt

though
it,

more

may be

in

admitting

that these needs can be satisfied in

many

cases but imperfectly, in

without
sanctions.
for

the

aid

of theology

some cases not at all, and of theological
interests of

One commonly
is

recognised ethical need,-

example,

for

harmony between the

and those of the community. In a fashion, and for a very narrow circle limited rude and
the individual of ethical commands, this
is

deliberately provided

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
by the prison and the
of
the
criminal
law.
scaffold, the
It
is

341

whole machinery
with less

provided,

deliberation, but with greater delicacy of adjustment,

and over a wider area of duty, by the operation of
public opinion.

But

it

can be provided, with any

approach to theoretical perfection, only by a future
life,

such as that which

is

assumed

in

more than

one system of religious

belief.
is

Now
tions,

the question

at

once suggested by cases
if so,

of this kind whether, and,

under what

limita-

we can argue from
it

the existence of an ethical

need to the
alone

reality of the conditions
satisfied.

under which

would be

Can

we, for example,

argue from the need for some complete correspondence between virtue and
another world than
will
this,
felicity,

to the reality of

where such a correspondence
?

be completely effected

A

great ethical philo-

sopher has,

in substance, asserted that

we

can.

He

held that the reality of the Moral
reality of a

Law
the

implied the

sphere where

it

could for ever be obeyed,
to
'

under

conditions
' ;

satisfactory

Practical

Reason
his

and
for

system

was thus that he found a place in Freedom, for Immortality, and for God.
it

The

metaphysical machinery, indeed, by which Kant
results
is

endeavoured to secure these

of a kind which

we cannot employ.
somewhat

But we may well ask whether

similar inferences are not fitting portions
I

of the provisional philosophy

am endeavouring

to

recommend

;

and, in particular, whether they do not
train of

harmonise with the

thought we have been

342

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
in the

pursuing

course of this Chapter.

If the reality

of scientific and of ethical knowledge forces us to

assume the existence of a

rational

and moral Deity,

by whose preferential assistance they have gradually

come into existence, must we not suppose that the Power which has thus produced in man the knowledge of right and wrong, and has added to
faculty of creating ethical ideals,
it

the

must have provided
the

some

satisfaction

for

the ethical needs which
spiritual
life

historical

development of the
?

has

gradually called into existence

Manifestly the argument in this shape

is

one

which must be used with caution.

To
to

reason purely

a priori from our general notions concerning the

working of Divine Providence

the

reality

of

particular historic events in time, or to the preva-

lence of particular conditions of existence through
eternity,

would imply a knowledge of Divine matters
remaining what they
not,
I

which we certainly do not possess, and which, our
faculties
are,

a revelation from
us.

Heaven could

suppose, communicate to
events,
is

My

contention, at
I

all

of a

much humbler
in

kind.

confine

myself to asking whether,

a

universe which,

by
is

hypothesis,

is

under

moral

governance, there
facts or

not a presumption in favour of
if

events which minister,
?

true, to

our highest
if

moral demands
it

and whether such a presumption,

exists, is

not sufficient, and more than
the

sufficient,

to

neutralise

counter-presumption which has
so

uncritically

governed

much

of

the

criticism

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION

343

directed in recent times against the historic claims

of Christianity

?

For

my own

part,

I

cannot doubt
in

that both these questions should be answered
affirmative

the

variety of

and if ways by which Christianity
;

the reader will consider the
is,

in

fact,
I

fitted effectually to minister to our ethical needs,

find

it

hard to believe that he

will

arrive at

any

different conclusion.

v
I

need not say that no complete treatment of
contemplated here.

this question is

Any

adequate

survey of the relation in which Christianity stands to
the moral needs of

man would
unsuited
to

lead us into the very

heart of theology, and would require us to consider
topics

altogether

these

controversial

pages.
illustrate

Yet

it

may, perhaps, be found possible to
without penetrating far into
;

my meaning
same

territories

more properly occupied by theologians
time, the

while, at the
shall

examples of which

I

make use may

serve to show that,

among

the

needs ministered to by Christianity,

are some which

increase rather than diminish with the growth of

knowledge and the progress of science
Religion
is

;

and that

this

therefore no

mere reform, appropriate

only to a vanished epoch in the history of culture

and

civilisation,

but a development of theism
to us than ever.

now

more necessary
I

am

aware, of course, that this

strange discord with opinions very

may seem in commonly held.

'

344

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
in addition

There are many persons who suppose that,
to

any metaphysical

or

scientific

objections

to

Christian doctrines, there has arisen

a legitimate

feeling of intellectual repulsion to them, directly
to our

due

more extended perception of the magnitude

and complexity of the material world.
of Copernicus,
Christianity
:

The discovery

it

has been said,

is

the death-blow to

in other

words, the recognition by the

human

race of the insignificant part which they and

their planet play in the cosmic

drama renders the
This

Incarnation, as
is

it

were, intrinsically incredible.

not a question of logic, or science, or history.

No
is

criticism of

documents, no haggling over

'

natural

or 'supernatural,' either creates the difficulty or
able to solve
it.

For

it

arises out of

what

I

may

almost
'

call

an

aesthetic

sense of

disproportion.
;

What is man,

that

son of man, that

Thou art mindful of him and the Thou visitest him ? is a question
'

charged by science with a weight of meaning

far

beyond what
lips first

it

could have borne for the poet whose
it.

uttered

And

those whose studies bring

perpetually to their
this material world,

remembrance the immensity of

utterly imperceptible
life

in general,

who know how brief and how is the impress made by organic and by human life in particular, upon
it

the mighty forces which surround them, find

hard to

believe that on so small an occasion this petty satellite

of no very important sun has been chosen as the
theatre of an event so solitary
Reflection, indeed,

and so stupendous.

shows that those who thus

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION

345

argue have manifestly permitted their thoughts about

God

to be controlled
to

by a singular theory of His
to

relations

man and

the world, based on an

unbalanced consideration of the vastness of Nature.

They have conceived
mass of His own works

Him
;

as

moved by

the

as lost in spaces of His

own
have

creation.
fallen

Consciously or unconsciously, they
the absurdity of supposing that
as
it

into

He

considers His creatures,
contractor or

were, with the
;

eyes of a

a

politician

that

He
by

measures their value according to their physical or
intellectual

importance

;

and that

He

sets store

the

number of square miles they
truth,

inhabit or the foot-

pounds of energy they are capable of developing.
In
is

the

inference

they should have drawn

of precisely the opposite kind.

The
in

very sense

of the place occupied in the material universe

by
the

man

the

intelligent

animal,

creates

man

moral being a new need for Christianity, which,
before science measured

out

the heavens for us,

can hardly be said to have existed.

Metaphysically

speaking, our opinions on the magnitude and complexity of the natural world should, indeed, have no

bearing on our conception of God's relation, either
to us or to
it.

Though we supposed
six
size

the sun to

have been created some and
yet
to

thousand years ago,
of the Peloponnesus,'

be 'about the
fundamental
matter

the

problems

concerning

time

and

space,

and

spirit,

God and man,
to

would not on that account have

be formally

346

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
But then, we are not creatures of pure

restated.

reason

;

and those who desire the assurance of
effectual relation with the

an intimate and
life,

Divine

and who look
find

to this for strength

and conso-

lation,

that
it

the progress

of scientific
difficult

knowtheism.

ledge makes
it

more and more
trusting

to obtain

by the

aid

of any merely speculative

The

feeling

of

dependence which was

easy for the primitive

tribes,

who regarded themand supposed

selves as their God's peculiar charge,

Him
is

in

some

special sense to dwell
;

among
their

them,

not easy for us

nor does
longer

it

tend to become
naive

easier.

We

can

no

share

anthropomorphism.

We

search out

God

with eyes

grown
with

old in studying Nature, with minds fatigued

by centuries of metaphysic, and imaginations glutted
material
infinities.

It

is

in

vain

that

we
to
it

describe

reduce

Him as immanent in creation, and refuse Him to an abstraction, be it deistic or be
The overwhelming
force

pantheistic.

and regularity
the sharp

of

the great natural

movements

dull

impression of an

ever-present Personality deeply

concerned

in

our spiritual well-being.

He

is

hidden,

not revealed, in the multitude of phenomena, and as

our knowledge of phenomena increases,
out of
all

He

retreats

realised connection with us farther

and yet

farther into the illimitable

unknown.
from
the

Then
doctrine,

it

is

that,

through the aid of Christian
distorting
in-

we

are saved

fluences of our

own

discoveries.

The

Incarnation

;

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
throws the whole scheme of things, as
easily

347

we
It

are too
into

apt

to

represent
far

it

to

ourselves,

a

different

and

truer

proportion.

abruptly

changes the whole scale on which we might be disposed to measure the magnitudes of the
universe.

What we should otherwise think great, we now perceive to be relatively small. What we should otherwise think trifling, we now know to be immeasurably important. And the
change
is

not only morally needed, but

is

philoso-

phically justified.
sufficient

Speculation by
that,

itself

should be
sight

to

convince us

in the

of a

righteous God, material grandeur and moral excellencies

are

incommensurable quantities

;

and that

an

infinite

accumulation of the one cannot compen-

sate for the smallest diminution of the other.

Yet

I

know
could

not whether, as a theistic speculation, this truth
effectually maintain
itself

against the brute

pressure of external Nature.
at

In the world looked

by the

light of simple theism, the evidences of
lie

God's material power
daily

about us on every

side,

added

to

by

science, universal, overwhelming.

The

evidences of His moral interest have to be
grain by
grain,

anxiously extracted,

through the

speculative analysis of our moral nature.

Mankind,
analysis

however, are not

given to

speculative

and

if it

be desirable that they should be enabled to
;

obtain an imaginative grasp of this great truth

if

they need to have brought

home

to

them

that, in the
is

sight of God, the stability of the heavens

of less

;

343

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
the moral

importance than
spirit,
I

growth of a human

know

not

how

this

end could be more

completely attained than by the Christian doctrine
of the Incarnation.

A

somewhat

similar train of thought

is

suggested

by the progress of one
investigation.

particular branch of scientific

Mankind

can

never

have

been

ignorant of the dependence of mind on body.

The

feebleness of infancy, the decay of age, the effects

of sickness, fatigue and pain, are facts too obvious

and too

insistent ever to

have passed unnoticed.

But the movement of discovery has prodigiously
emphasised our sense of dependence on matter.

We

now know
which
ties

that

it is

no loose or variable connection
body.

mind

to

There may, indeed, be
far as
tell us,

neural changes which do not issue in consciousness

but there

is

no consciousness, so

accepted

observations and experiments can
not associated with

which

is

neural changes.

Looked

at,

therefore, from the outside,

from the point of view
biologist,

necessarily
life

adopted by the
it

the psychic

seems, as

were, but an intermittent phosphor-

escence accompanying the cerebral changes in certain
highly organised mammals.
countless

And

science, through

channels,

with

irresistible

force

drives

home
body

to each

one of us the lesson that we are
in perpetual

severally
for

bound over

servitude

to a

whose existence and

qualities

we have no

responsibility whatever.

As

the reader

is

well aware, views like these

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
will

349
all

not stand
is

critical

examination.

Of

creeds,

materialism
inside

the one which, looked at from the

— from

the point of view of knowledge and

the knowing Self
sophically

—

is

least capable of

being philo-

defended,

or

even

coherently stated.
is

Nevertheless, the
practice, to

burden of the body

not,

in of

be disposed of by any mere process

critical analysis.

From
it

birth

to

death,

without

pause or

respite,

encumbers us on our path.
its

We

can never disentangle ourselves from
nor divide with
performances.
it

meshes,

the responsibility for our joint

may tell us that we But science, ought to control it, and that we can. hinting that, after all, we are but its product and
Conscience
its

plaything, receives

ominous support from our
Philosophy

experiences of mankind.

may

assure

us that the account of body and mind given by
materialism
is

neither consistent nor intelligible.

Yet

body remains the most fundamental and all-pervading fact with which mind has got to deal, the one
from which
it

can least easily shake

itself free, itself

the

one that most complacently lends
theory destructive of high endeavour.

to every

Now, what
lation

is

wanted here

is

not abstract specu-

or

negative dialectic.

These, indeed,

may
They

lend us their aid, but they are not very powerful
allies

in this particular

species of warfare.

can assure us, with a well-grounded confidence, that
materialism
is

wrong, but they have (as
its

I

think)

nothing satisfactory to put in

place,

and cannot

35o

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
shall

pretend to any theoretic explanation which

cover

all

the facts.

thing that shall

What we need, then, is someappeal to men of flesh and blood,
is

struggling with the temptations and discouragements

which
baffled

flesh

and blood
of

heir

to
;

;

confused and
sure
that

by theories
not sure

heredity

the

physiological view represents at least one aspect of

the truth
soling

;

how any

larger
to

and more conit
;

truth can

be welded on

yet swayed

towards the materialist side
materialist reasoning than

less,

it

may

be,

by

by the inner confirmation

which a humiliating experience gives them of their

own subjection to the body. What support does the belief in a Deity ineffably remote from all human conditions bring to men thus
hesitating whether

they are to count themselves

as beasts that perish, or

among

the Sons of

God

?

What

bridge can be found to span the immeasurable

gulf which separates Infinite Spirit from creatures

who seem

little
is

more than physiological accidents
there,

?

What
which

faith
will

other than the

Incarnation,

enable us to realise that, however far
?

apart, they are not hopelessly divided
lectual perplexities

The

intel-

which haunt us

in that

dim region
allayed.
it

where mind and matter meet may not be thus

But they who think with
likeness of
will

me

that,

though
are

is

a

hard thing for us to believe that

we

made

in the

God,

it

is

yet a very necessary thing,

not be anxious to deny that an effectual trust in

this great truth,

a

full

satisfaction of this

ethical

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
need, are

351

among

the natural fruits of a Christian

theory of the world.

One more

topic there

is,

of the same family as
just

those with which

we have
I

been dealing, to
briefly direct the

which, before concluding,
reader's attention.
I

must

have already said something
as the 'problem of
it

about what

is

known

evil,'

and

the immemorial difficulty which

throws

in the

way

of a completely coherent theory of the world on a
religious or moral basis.
I

do not suggest now that
content myself

the doctrine of the Incarnation supplies any philo-

sophic solution of this difficulty.

I

with pointing out that the difficulty

is

much

less op-

pressive under the Christian than under any simpler

form of Theism

;

and that though

it

may
it

retain units

diminished whatever speculative force

possesses,

moral grip

is

loosened, and

it

no longer parches up the

springs of spiritual hope or crushes moral aspiration.

For where precisely does the
lies in

difficulty lie

?

It

the supposition that an all-powerful Deity has
infinite,

chosen out of an

or at least an unknown,

number
pain
is

of possibilities to create a world in which

a prominent, and apparently an ineradicable,

element.
gratuitous.

His action on

this

view

is,

so to speak,
;

He

might have done otherwise

He

has done thus.

He

might have created sentient
;

beings capable of nothing but happiness
fact created

He
to

has in

them

prone to misery, and subject by

their very constitution
possibilities of

and circumstances

extreme

physical pain and mental affliction.

352

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
can

How
love
?

One

of

Whom
He

this

can be said excite our
?

How
be a
?

can

claim our obedience

How

can

He

fitting object

of praise, reverence, and

worship

So runs the

familiar argument, accepted
in their

by some as a permanent element
philosophy
;

melancholy

wrung from others
in

as a cry of anguish

under the sudden stroke of

bitter experience.

This reasoning

is

essence an explication of
in the attribute of

what

is

supposed to be involved
;

Omnipotence
His

and the sting of

its

conclusion

lies in

the inferred indifference of
creatures.
it

God

to the sufferings of

There

are, therefore,

two points

at

which
first

may be
it is

assailed.

We

may

argue, in the

place, that in dealing with subjects so far

above

our reach,

in general the height of philosophic

temerity to squeeze out of every predicate the last
significant

drop
all

it

can apparently be forced to yield

;

or

drive

the

arguments

it

suggests

to

their
it

extreme

logical

conclusions.
it is

And,

in particular,

may be urged
includes the

that

erroneous, perhaps even un-

meaning, to say that the universality of Omnipotence

power

to

do that which

is

irrational

;

and

that,

without knowing the Whole,
it is

we cannot say

of any part whether

rational or not.

These are metaphysical considerations which, so long as they are used critically, and not dogmatically,
to

negatively,

not positively, seem
is

to

me

have

force.
it

But there

a second

line of attack,
I

on which

is

more

my

business to

insist.

have

already pointed out that ethics cannot permanently

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
flourish side

353

by

side with a creed

which represents
;

God
its

as indifferent to pain
is

and

sin

so that,

if

our

provisional philosophy
circuit

to include morality within

(and what harmony of knowledge would
not
?),

that

be which did

the

conclusions

which

apparently follow from the co-existence of Omni-

potence and of Evil are not to be accepted.
this speculative reply
is,

Yet

after

all,

but a fair-weather

argument
large,

;

too abstract easily to
frail

move mankind

at

too

for the support,

even of a philo-

sopher, in
it

moments

of extremity.

Of what

use

is

to

those who, under the stress of sorrow, are
to

permitting themselves

doubt the goodness of
inevitably

God, that such doubts must
wither virtue at the root
frighten them.
?

tend

to
will
it.

No
is

such conclusion

They have
fall

already almost reached
virtue in a world

Of what

worth, they cry,

where

sufferings like theirs

alike

on the just and on
that

the unjust

?

For themselves, they know only
;

they are solitary and abandoned
too strong for

victims of a

them
to

to control, too callous

Power for them
certain

to soften, too far for
cation,

them

to reach, deaf to suppli-

blind

pain.
their

Tell

them,

with

theologians,

that

misfortunes are explained
taint
;

and

justified

by an hereditary
that,

tell

them, with

certain

philosophers,
its

could

they understand

the world in

completeness, their agony would

show
of

itself

an element necessary to the harmony

the

Whole,

and

they

will

think

you
A A

are

mocking them.

Whatever be the worth of specu-

354

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
it

lations like these,

is

not in the

moments when
is

they are most required that they come effectually
to

our rescue.
in

What

is

needed
to

such a living
shall

faith

God's relation
for that

Man
rise

as

leave

no place

helpless resentment against the

appointed Order so apt to
sight

within us at the
this
faith
is

of

undeserved

pain.

And

possessed by those

who

vividly realise the Christian

form of Theism.

For they worship One
they
?

Who
ills

is

no
is

remote contriver of a universe to whose
indifferent.
If
suffer,

He

did

He

not on

their

account suffer also

If

suffering

falls

not always
?

on the most

guilty,

was

He

not innocent
is

Shall

they cry aloud that the world
their convenience,

ill-designed for

when He
its

for their sakes
It
is

sub-

jected Himself to
beliefs like these

conditions?
in

true that

do not

any narrow sense resolve
But

our doubts nor provide us with explanations. they give us something better than
tions.

many

explana-

For they
to a

minister,

or

rather the Reality

behind them ministers, to one of our deepest ethical
needs
:

need which,

far

from showing signs of
civili-

diminution, seems to
sation,

grow with the growth of

and to touch us ever more keenly as the

hardness of an earlier time dissolves away.

Here, then, on the threshold of Christian Theology,
I

bring

my
felt

task to a conclusion.

I

feel,

on looking
the

back over the completed work, even more strongly
than
I

during

its

progress,

how hard was

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
task
I

355

have undertaken, and how
successfully
at to

far

beyond

my
a

powers

accomplish.

For

I

have

aimed

nothing

less

than to

show,

within

reasonable compass and in a manner to be under-

stood by

all,

how,

in face of the

complex tendencies
ours,

which sway

this strange

age of

we may

best

draw together our
visional stability.

beliefs

into a

comprehensive

unity which shall possess at least a relative and pro-

In so bold an attempt

I

may

well

have

failed.

Yet, whatever be the particular weak-

nesses and defects which

mar

the

success of

my

endeavours, three or four broad principles emerge

from the discussion, the essential importance of

which
I

I

find

it

impossible to doubt, whatever errors
in their application.

may have made
1.

It

seems beyond question that any system
it

which, with our present knowledge and,

may

be,

our existing
surfer

faculties,

we

are able to construct must

from obscurities, from defects of proof, and

from incoherences.

Narrow

it

down

to bare science to reduce
in plenty.
it

—and
further
2.

no one has seriously proposed

—

you

will still find all three,

and

No

unification of belief of the slightest theo-

retical

value can take place on a purely scientific
a basis,
I

basis

— on
No

mean, of induction from par'

ticular experiences,
3.

whether

external

'

or

'

internal.'

philosophy or theory of knowledge (epis-

temology) can be satisfactory which does not find

room within
can
tell

it

for the quite obvious, but not suffi-

ciently considered fact that, su far as empirical science

us anything about the matter, most of the

356

A PROVISIONAL UNIFICATION
all its

proximate causes of belief, and

ultimate causes,

are non-rational in their character.
4.

No unification of beliefs
;

can be practically ade-

quate which does not include ethical beliefs as well
as scientific ones
•

nor which refuses to count

among
also

ethical beliefs, not

merely those which have imme-

diate reference to moral

commands, but those

which make possible moral sentiments, ideals and
aspirations,

and which

satisfy

our ethical needs.
to
its

Any

system which,

when worked out
for the spirit of

legitimate

issues, fails to effect this

object can afford no per-

manent habitation

man.
principles

To

enforce, illustrate,

and apply these

has been the main object of the preceding pages.

How

far

I

have succeeded

in

showing that the

least

incomplete unification open to us must include the

fundamental elements of Theology, and of Christian

Theology,

I

leave

it

for

others to determine

;

re-

peating only the conviction, more

than once exit

pressed in the body of this Essay, that
explanations
are explained

is

not

which
;

survive, but the things which

not theories, but the things about
;

which

we

theorise

and

that, therefore,

no

failure

on

my
I

part r-m
ethical,

imperil the great truths, be

they

religious,

or

scientific,

whose interdepen-

dence

have endeavoured to

establish.

THE END

Spottiswoode &» Co. Printers, New-street Square, London

-.

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53
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'Diversity of California library

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