The Quest for Teaching Excellence

3

© Centre for Development of Academic Excellence(CDAE), Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), 2012
ISBN: 978-967-11270-0-1
Te Quest for Teaching Excellence
Editors:
Abd Karim Alias
Zainal Arifn Ahmad
See Ching Mey

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Centre for
Development of Academic Excellence(CDAE), Universiti Sains Malaysia
Centre for Development of Academic Excellence (CDAE)
Universiti Sains Malaysia
2nd Floor, Eureka Complex
11800, USM Pulau Pinang
Printed by Informatics for Community Health, National Poison Centre, USM
i
ii Foreword
iii Sekapur Sirih
iv Preface
vi Acknowledgement
vii About the Authors
PART 1
3 Teaching in Higher Education Institutions
21 Learning at Higher Education Institutions
39 Efectiveness of Teaching and Learning in Higher
Education
Part 2
57 Te Quest for Excellence in Teaching
81 Beyond Teory—What it Takes to be an Efective
Teacher: My Experiences as a Business Educator
99 Teaching the Pharmacy Student to Tink Like a
Pharmacist
117 Teaching Communications Skills to Pharmacy
Students
139 Teaching From the Heart
155 Teaching Undergraduate Physics at USM: A
Personal Account
173 My Aspiration to be a University Lecturer
Contents
ii
: woc:u ::xv 1o coNonn1c:n1v the Centre for Development
of Academic Excellence (CDAE), Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM) for the publication of their frst book titled Te Quest
for Teaching Excellence. It is with great pleasure and pride that I
write the foreword for this book.
Striving towards academic excellence has always been the
ultimate goal of education-based services throughout the world.
Providing quality education requires the establishment of a
systematic, coordinated, and well-balanced teaching and learning
environment that adapts to the continuous social, economic, and
technological changes that we face in today’s world. Trough
the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE), the Malaysian
government has made it a priority to create a higher education
environment that encourages the growth of premier knowledge
centers to ultimately turn the country into a center of excellence
for higher education. In this regard, USM has taken the necessary
course of action to meet the challenge by establishing the CDAE,
or Pusat Pembangunan Kecemerlangan Akademik. In addition
to improving teaching quality among educators, this centre is
involved in the planning and execution of activities that parallel
the National Higher Education Strategic Plan and the National
e-Learning Policy initiated by the MOHE. Te centre is equally
devoted to upholding the USM APEX Transformation Plan by
developing and conducting activities related to ‘Nurturing and
Learning’.
Te book Te Quest of Teaching Excellence is published by CDAE
with the aim of providing constructive and practical information
to educators about teaching and learning activities. It includes
excerpts describing real teaching environments written by
experienced lecturers from various felds. Te details in this
book will defnitely provide useful insights and novel ideas about
teaching methods and philosophies. I am sure that fellow readers
will gain valuable knowledge that will prove to be useful in facing
challenges posed by the vast educational environment.
I am confdent that readers will beneft by keeping a copy of this
book with them, and recommend this book to educators from all
felds.
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Vice Chacellor
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ii
iii
S
etinggi-tinggi tahniah saya ucapkan kepada Pusat Pembangunan
Kecemerlangan Akademik, Universiti Sains Malaysia atas penerbitan
sulung buku berjudul 'The Quest Ior Teaching Excellence¨. Saya
berbangga dan berbesar hati dapat mencoretkan sepatah dua kata untuk
mukadimah buku ini.
Usaha ke arah kecemerlangan akademik sememangnya sentiasa menjadi
matlamat paling utama bagi perkhidmatan berasaskan pendidikan di
serata dunia. Penyediaan pendidikan yang berkualiti mampu mencetuskan
persekitaran pengajaran dan pembelajaran (P&P) yang sistematik,
berkoordinasi dan seimbang yang dapat mendukung perubahan berterusan
dari segi sosial, ekonomi dan teknologi yang kita tempuhi sekarang ini.
Kerajaan Malaysia menerusi Kementerian Pengajian Tinggi (KPT) telah
meletakkan kepentingan yang paling atas pada kemajuan persekitaran
pendidikan tinggi yang akan menggalakkan pertumbuhan pusat-pusat ilmu
ulung, yang akhirnya mampu menjadikan negara ini pusat kecemerlangan
bagi pengajian tinggi. Berteraskan ini, USM telah mengorak langkah
yang perlu selaras dengan dasar kerajaan menerusi penubuhan Centre Ior
Development oI Academic Excellence (CDAE) atau Pusat Pembangunan
Kecemerlangan Akademik. Di samping memperbaiki mutu pengajaran
dalam kalangan tenaga pendidik, pusat ini terlibat dalam perancangan dan
pelaksanaan aktiviti-aktiviti yang sejajar dengan Pelan Strategik Pendidikan
Tinggi Nasional dan Dasar e-Pembelajaran Negara yang dipelopori oleh
KPT. Pusat ini juga sama-sama bertanggungjawab memperkasakan Pelan
TransIormasi APEX USM menerusi pembangunan dan pelaksanaan aktiviti-
aktiviti yang berkisar pada 'Pemupukan dan Pembelajaran¨.
Buku 'The Quest Ior Teaching Excellence¨ ini diterbitkan oleh CDAE
dengan matlamat untuk menyediakan maklumat yang membina dan
praktikal kepada para pendidik tentang aktiviti-aktiviti P&P. Terkandung di
dalamnya petikan-petikan daripada persekitaran sebenar pengajaran yang
diceritakan oleh pensyarah-pensyarah berpengalaman daripada pelbagai
bidang. Keterperincian buku ini pastinya akan memberikan pemahaman
yang mendalam untuk mencetuskan idea-idea baru serta bernas tentang
kaedah dan IalsaIah pengajaran. Saya pasti para pembaca akan memperoleh
ilmu yang tidak ternilai, yang akan terbukti berguna dalam mengharungi
cabaran-cabaran dalam persekitaran pendidikan yang luas.
Saya penuh yakin pembaca akan beroleh manIaat daripada buku ini dan
mengesyorkan buku ini kepada para pendidik daripada semua bidang.
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Naib Canselor
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iii
iv
!
s the quotation above suggests, we believe that most lecturers at higher learning institutions
(except those with a background in education) would humbly admit that, in the frst few years
of teaching at the university, they did not know much about the various learning theories
and pedagogical aspects of teaching-learning. Let us accept the fact that most of us are not trained
formally to teach. When we joined the university as an academic staf member, we did not have the
slightest idea how to teach adult students. Without sufcient knowledge of pedagogy and teaching
techniques, we had no choice but to use our intuition, and we developed our own approach based on
our limited understanding of what good and efective teaching means. However, not having formal
training in teaching is not an excuse for not doing anything to improve our teaching skills. Teachers,
especially lecturers in higher educational institutions, should not take it for granted that basic exposure
in teaching is adequate to help students to learn efectively.
We believe that our role as educators goes beyond transmitting knowledge; in fact, our role is to nurture
our students to become lifelong learners, to teach them to ‘learn how to learn’, and to teach them to
appreciate and love knowledge. Tis is the essence that will enable our students to become successful
lifelong learners. However, if students are to become better learners, it is essential for teachers to become
better at what they do. As teachers, we should not sit in our comfort zone but instead continue to grow
by challenging ourselves to acquire new skills and new knowledge.
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v
Te task of preparing teachers to teach using a proper pedagogical (andragogical) approach is complex
and challenging. Knowledge of the subject matter (or content) alone is not sufcient to be an efective
teacher. Tat said, as in any profession, developing mastery in teaching is not something that can be
achieved overnight—it is a continuous iterative learning process.
Tis book is a sincere efort to bring together the collective experience and wisdom of a group of
lecturers who have been recognised for their commitment, dedication, passion, and enthusiasm in
teaching. It is divided into two parts: Part 1 provides the general background and philosophy of teaching
and learning in chapters written by experts in their respective areas, and Part 2 describes the diferent
teaching practices, approaches, and strategies of distinguished lecturers who have received teaching
awards from the university and also at the national level. We have endeavored to capture the essence of
teaching within the wider context of nurturing our students by providing them with both knowledge
and various 21st century skills. We trust that this book will be a valuable resource for lecturers who
aspire to become great teachers and who continuously seek to improve their efectiveness in delivering
high-quality, meaningful, impactful, productive, and memorable learning experiences for all students.
We hope our readers will enjoy reading this book while refecting on their own teaching practices.
Finally, we would like to share the following quotation:
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PrnIcssnr Zaina! Arimn Ahmad
PrnIcssnr Datn' Dr. 5cc Ching Mcy
Acknnw!cdgcmcnts
On behalf of the editors, I would like to thank all the authors
for making this book possible. I would also like to thank
the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academic and International
Afairs) of Universiti Sains Malaysia, Professor Ahmad
Shukri Mustapa Kamal for his unwavering support and
Professor Dato’ See Ching Mey for initiating the eforts to
write the book.
I am most grateful to Professor Hanaf Atan, Deputy
Director of Centre for Development of Academic Excellence
for his encouragement, friendship and continuous support.
Finally, special thanks to Miss Ashuwini Sridaran for her
considerable assistance in preparing the manuscript and to
Professor Rahmat Awang and his staf from the Informatics
for Community Health, National Poison Centre for the
excellent typesetting and production of the book.
Professor Abd Karim Alias
vi
vii
About The Authors
vii
viii
Dr. Abd Karim Alias is a Professor of Food Technology at the School of Industrial
Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) and current Director of the Centre for
Development of Academic Excellence.
He joined USM in 1994 and over the last 18 years has taught most of the food
science and food technology courses in the curriculum. He always aspires to be a
good educator and researcher. Enthusiasm, commitment, and creativity are the
three elements that best defne him as a teacher. Dr. Karim believes that teaching
is an exciting adventure in which both the teacher and the students participate and
cooperate to achieve a common goal. He has great interest in using the Internet as an
alternative medium for learning and teaching. He has developed and maintained a
few teaching portals, websites, and blogs related to teaching/learning and research.
Currently he is involved as a trainer in the technology-mediated learning workshop.
In 2002, Dr. Karim received the inaugural USM Excellent Educator Award and in
2010 he received the Anugerah Tokoh (Distinguished Person) in Anugerah Sanggar
Sanjung. He also was the recipient of the Anugerah Akademik Negara award (National
Academic Award) in 2008 for teaching.
On the research front, Dr. Karim has published more than 90 papers in international
citation-indexed journals and several book/encyclopaedia chapters. He also has
published/presented more than 70 conference papers (7 of them as a keynote
speaker). Dr. Karim is the recipient of more than 30 publication awards from USM.
Under his supervision, 7 PhD and 30 MSc students have graduated. In addition, he
has supervised three post-doctoral fellows. Currently Dr. Karim is supervising 9 MSc
and 3 PhD students and 1 post-doctoral fellow. He is an editorial member of the
Journal of Physical Science and Tropical Life Science Research (USM Publisher), the
International Journal of Food Research (UPM Publisher) and Food Hydrocolloids
(Elsevier).
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ix
Professor Zainal Arifn Ahmad joined Universiti Tenaga
Nasional (UNITEN) in October 2010 to head the Graduate
Business School under the College of Graduate Studies. He
took an early retirement from Universiti Sains Malaysia
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(USM), where he served for 16 years beginning in 1994. Previously, he served 5 years
at Northern Illinois University as Program Coordinator (1989-1994) while completing
his Doctorate in Education (EdD). Professor Zainal received the coveted Anugerah
Akademik Negara award (National Academic Award) for teaching in 2008 from the
Ministry of Higher Education and the USM Outstanding Educator Award in 2007.
As an active researcher, he has conducted 26 research projects to date. He also was
recently appointed as a Visiting Research Fellow at the University of New South Wales,
Australia.
At USM, Professor Zainal served as the Principal Investigator in the Human
Development Lab, School of Management, and in 2009 he headed the BRAIN
(Business Research for Applied Innovations in Neurosciences) Lab, Graduate School of
Business, USM. He also served two terms as Deputy Dean for Research and Graduate
Studies at the School of Management, USM. He has supervised more than 26 PhD
and DBA graduates to date. He supervises doctoral and master candidates in the areas
of organisational behaviour, the brain and learning, and quality and human resource
management. At the national level, Professor Zainal is an Associate Fellow with the
Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM). Recently he was appointed as Chair of the
Expert Working Group for Social Sciences and Humanities under the National Science
and Research Council. He also is a panel reviewer for the Malaysian Qualifcation
Agency and a grant reviewer for the Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation.
Professor Zainal also conducts seminars, workshops, and in-house training for
academic, public sector, and corporate clients on skills-based training (e.g., managerial,
communication, facilitation, presentation, supervisory, teamwork, networking skills).
He also serves as an advisor to the Electronic Manufacturing Services Benchmarking
Council under the Malaysian Productivity Corporation and is a frequent guest lecturer
for the Malaysian Public Services Department. His clientele list includes Siemens,
Otis, Sharp-Roxy, Bosch, FMM, Intel, Motorola, INTAN, Koperasi Tunas Muda
Sungai Ara, and Jabatan Pembangunan Koperasi. Professor Zainal has co-written
seven books and numerous articles published in international and national journals.
He has served as an editor and reviewer for several international journals and has
won two Best Paper Awards (in 2006 at the 5th Asian Conference of the Academy of
Human Resource Development and in 2007 at the 3rd UNITEN International Business
Management Conference). He is a member of the Academy of Management (USA), the
Malaysian Institute of Management, and the Malaysian Institute for Human Resource
Management.
x
Ching Mey See (PhD) is a Professor at the Universiti
Sains Malaysia (USM), Malaysia. She also is the Deputy
Vice Chancellor of the Division of Industry and
Community Network. Professor See is a prominent
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leader in the feld of psychology, counselling, and special education.
Nationally, Professor See is the Secretary of the Association of Resource & Education
for Autistic Children and a volunteer principal of Lions REACH, and she sat on the
Lembaga Kaunselor (Board for Counsellors) in Malaysia from 2000 to 2012. She also is
the founding President of the Penang Counselling and Psychology Association.
On the international front, Professor See is a Board Member of the Asia-Pacifc
Association of Psychotherapists, a Council Member of the National Board of Certifed
Counsellors International (NBCC-I), the Regional Director for NBCC Malaysia, an
Executive Council Member of the International Association for Counselling, Regional
Vice President for Asia of the International Play Association, and immediate past
President of the Association of Psychological and Educational Counsellors of Asia-
Pacifc (APECA).
Professor See was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri award and Pingat Jasa
Kebaktian award by the Penang State Government; the Maal Hijrah Excellence Award
(in the Academic Category) and the Excellence Service Award by USM; the Sin Chew Da
Ai Award (Sin Chew Kind Heart Award); the Ohio State University Alumni Citizenship
Award; and the Ohio State University Susan Sears Distinguished Alumni Award.
She has published 8 academic books and more than 100 international and national
academic journal articles. She has also presented over 170 academic papers at national
and international seminars and conferences on counselling, psychology, mental health,
special education, and community engagement. Under her supervision, 9 PhD and 46
Masters students have graduated.
Professor See is the Chief Editor of the Journal of Counselling, APECA, and she is an
Editorial Board Member of the Journal of Asia-Pacifc Counseling, Korean Counseling
Association; Rajanagarinda Institute of Child Development International Journal;
Asia-Pacifc Journal of Educators and Education; Philippine Journal of Counseling
Psychology; Journal for International Counselor Education, University of Nevada; Te
Family Journal, Mississippi College; International Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching
and Learning, Georgia Southern University; Hacettepe University Journal of Education;
and International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, University of Illinois
Research Park.
xi
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Dr. Azmi Sarrif studied pharmacy at the Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) and
graduated with a Bachelor of Pharmacy (BPharm) degree in 1982. In 1985, he
graduated with a Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD) degree from the University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA. Dr. Azmi then began his career in academia
and currently is an associate professor in Clinical Pharmacy and head of the
Discipline of Clinical Pharmacy at the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, USM.
He opted for teaching as his career because he likes to teach. His objective is to
teach every pharmacy student to think ‘like a pharmacist’. In 2009, he received
the inaugural USM Excellent Educator Award from the university.
Dr. Azmi began writing in 1994 and published his frst book titled 101 Questions
About OTC Drugs (Utusan Publication, 1994). It was followed by Introduction
to Drug Counseling (USM Publication, 1996) and Clinical Skills for Pharmacy
Students: Toward a Pharmaceutical Care Practice (USM Publication, 2012). Te
latter text serves as a quick reference for pharmacy students during their clinical
clerkship.
In short, Dr. Azmi’s teaching goal is not only to deliver and transmit factual
knowledge, but also, and more importantly, to transform his students into
pharmacy practitioners through critical thinking, experimentation, and
discovery learning. For him, good teaching is, and should be, good science.
xii
Professor Fauziah Md. Taib is currently the Director of the National Higher
Education Research Institute and a Professor in Accounting and Finance at the
School of Management, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM).
Professor Fauziah obtained her degree in BBA (Accounting) at the West Texas
State University and completed her postgraduate studies in M.MAcc at Glasgow
University and PhD (Accounting and Finance) at Lancaster University. Prior to
joining USM in 1996, Professor Fauziah served as part of the Tenaga Nasional
Berhad and Sime Darby Group and has been with Lancaster University. A stint in
corporate life prepared her for the discipline, and she developed the commitment
and dedication required to share her experiences in the classroom as an inspiring
lecturer. Her teaching experience in the British Top Universities Accounting
Programme at Lancaster University helped her to develop relevant teaching skills
and academic content. She was honored with the Anugerah Pendidik Sanjungan
award (Best Teacher Award) at USM in 2009.
Professor Fauziah previously was an associate researcher for the Institute of
Chartered Accountants in England and Wales and the International Centre
of Research in Accounting based in the United Kingdom.Organisations such
as the Asian Development Bank; Ministry of Higher Education; Ministry of
Science, Technology, and Innovation; Ministry of Health; Malaysian Accounting
Standards Board; Penang Development Corporation; and Malaysian Royal Air
Force Training Institute are among the organisations who beneftted from her
prior work as a consultant and trainer.
Professor Fauziah believes that the learning experience is maximised once ‘hearts
are connected’. Connecting the heart and the mind is crucial in facilitating the
learning experience for both lecturers and students. Tus, she advocates many
teaching approaches with the ultimate objective of connecting the heart and the
mind. Her passion for teaching includes coaching of research students. Fifeen
PhD students have graduated under her personalised coaching, and these
students have published many papers at the international and national levels.
Connected hearts make learning easy.
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xiii
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Assoc. Prof. Dr. Rozinah Jamaludin is an Associate Professor at the Centre for
Instructional Technology and Multimedia, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM),
Penang, Malaysia. She began her career as a mathematics teacher in the secondary
school and then pursued her undergraduate degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia. She
majored in Malay Language Studies and obtained her undergraduate degree in 1992.
Dr. Rozinah then earned her Master Degree at Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA
in 1993 majoring in Microcomputers in Education. She became a lecturer at USM in
1994. In 2001 she was awarded the International Postgraduate Research Scholarship
from the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Australia to pursue
her doctorate; she graduated in 2004 afer majoring in e-learning and web-based
design and development.
To date, Dr. Rozinah has published the following books: Asas-asas Multimedia
dalam Pendidikan (2000), Teknologi Pengajaran (2002), Multimedia dalam
Pendidikan (2005), and Internet dalam Pendidikan (2007). She also was an editor
of the books Governance and Leadership in Higher Education (2008) and Strategic
Partnership and Alliances between Malaysia and CLMV countries (2012). Dr.
Rozinah has written many book chapters, journal articles, monographs, proceedings,
and magazine articles, and she has presented papers at national and international
conferences. She also has reviewed many journal articles and proceedings.
Dr. Rozinah’s passion is research, and she is an Associate Research Fellow for the
National Higher Education Research Institute (NaHERI). Her most recent research
project is titled ‘Implementing a Virtual 3D Campus of USM using Second Life:
Case For a CCIL-Based Distance Learning Package’, which is funded by a Research
University Grant. She also is working on ‘Te Establishment of Malaysian Branch
Campuses Overseas’ and is a project leader for the ‘Strategic Positioning of Malaysian
Branch Campuses Overseas’ program of the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia
and NaHERI. Dr. Rozinah also leads projects in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and
Vietnam (CLMV) to provide e-learning readiness and training to lecturers in the
CLMV countries. Recently, she was awarded a fellowship to conduct research in
Seoul, South Korea under the ASEAN University Network funding.
Dr. Rozinah has supervised eight PhD students and many MA students and also has
been an external examiner for both local and international students. In addition to
her academic endeavours, Dr. Rozinah enjoys being close to nature and likes to do
jungle trekking and hiking in all parts of the world.
xiv
Dr. Yoon Tiem Leong was trained as a theoretical physicist at the University
of Malaya and the University of Melbourne, Australia. He joined the School
of Physics, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) in 2003 and is currently a senior
lecturer and the frst year coordinator there. Initially trained as a high energy
physicist, Dr. Yoon is now exploring a feld quite orthogonal to his own training:
computational condensed matter physics (among other things, molecular
dynamics simulations of atomistic systems and density functional theory
calculations).
Dr. Yoon has taught a wide range of undergraduate physics courses, including
engineering electromagnetism, electronics, engineering mathematics, linear
algebra, calculus, mechanics, modern physics, thermodynamics, statistical
physics, quantum mechanics, and, more recently, computational physics. To
him, teaching physics to university students is a privileged assignment that gives
him the opportunity to inspire abstract thinking in students’ minds. Deeply
inspired by the late legendry physicist Richard Feynman, Dr. Yoon believes that
abstract physics or mathematics ideas can be explained in an understandable
and interesting manner. He fnds pleasure in making an otherwise messy piece
of physics or a logical conundrum understandable to students by innovative
explanatory tricks and funny anecdotes. For Dr. Yoon, lecturing about physics
is a personal priority and a matter of conscience, and he spends a great deal of
his precious time preparing quality lecturers and teaching materials. His efort
and passion for making physics understandable were rewarded when he was
awarded the annual USM Pendidik Sanggar Sanjung award for the pure science
category in 2008.
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xv
("4 ,%10&&) -6 1%% 7%-
).(811)3
Dr. Melissa Ng Lee Yen Abdullah is a senior lecturer at the School of
Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). She pursued her basic
degree in Arts and Education (First Class Hon) (1999) and was awarded the
Fellowship Award by USM to further her studies. She obtained both a MEd
(2002) and PhD (2005) in the area of Educational Psychology from USM.
She is also an associate research fellow of the National Higher Education
Research Institute, a think-tank for the Development of Higher Education at
the Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia.
Her research interests include learning and teaching at the higher education
level and mental health issues among members of the university community.
Dr. Melissa has authored several books and has published in numerous
journals, including the Bulletin of Higher Education Research, International
Education Journal, International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Science,
Literacy, Pertanika Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, International
Journal of Special Education, Journal of Research in Special Education Needs,
Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, Malaysia Journal of Learning and
Instruction, and Jurnal Pendidik dan Pendidikan.
xvi
Dr. Yvonne Tze Fung Tan is a lecturer in the Discipline of Pharmaceutical
Technology at the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM). She has a Bachelor Degree in Pharmacy from the University of Wisconsin
at Madison, USA; a Master Degree in Pharmaceutical Technology from USM;
and a PhD in Pharmaceutical Technology from the National University of
Singapore. Dr. Yvonne is registered as a pharmacist in both Malaysia and the
USA. She has served USM for more than 30 years. In 2008, she received the
inaugural USM Excellent Educator Award.
Dr. Yvonne’s research areas include polymeric nanoparticle drug delivery
systems; development, design, and evaluation of multiparticulate drug/
herbal delivery systems; muco-adhesive and dermatological dosage forms;
and formulation and evaluation of controlled release matrix and coated
preparations. She has published more than 60 research papers in peer-reviewed
international and local journals, and she has given more than 70 international
and local conference oral/poster presentations. Under her supervision, 6 PhD
and 11 MSc students have graduated. Currently she is supervising 3 PhD and 2
MSc students.
Dr. Yvonne has been an academic evaluator for the Malaysia Pharmacy Board
for the Bachelor of Pharmacy (Hons) program in both public and private
institutions since May 2005. She also has been an academic evaluator for the
Malaysian Qualifcation Agency since 2008. She has evaluated more than
ten Pharmacy Degree Programs and seven Diploma Pharmacy Programs in
Malaysia. Dr. Yvonne served as the external examiner for Master and PhD
candidates in the feld of pharmaceutics at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University
Teknology MARA from July 2006 to 2008. In addition, she is a member of
the editorial board of the Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the
Malaysian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences.
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3
PART 1
CHAPTER 1
TEACHING IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Rozinah Jamaludin
INTRODUCTION
Te defnition of teaching is the sharing or imparting of
knowledge and skills either through formal or informal methods
of instruction. Epistemology refers to the study of knowledge
and how learning is acquired, and it addresses questions such as:
What kind of learning do we want our students to have? What
are the modes of delivery of knowledge? How do we ensure that
our students are learning via best practices, such as Student-
Centred Learning (SCL), Problem-Based Learning (PBL), and
Contextual Learning? As an instructor, what are the challenges
to teaching and how do we face them? What are the ways in
which technology can be used to facilitate more active student
learning?
PARADIGM SHIFT IN TEACHING AND
LEARNING
Over the last half century, the population has been shifing
from the Baby Boomer Age (those born from 1946 to 1964) to
Generation X (between the 1960s and 1980s) to Generation Y
(also known as the Millennial or Net Generation, between 1981
and 1999) to Generation Z (between 1996 and 2009). During
this evolution, the pedagogy of instruction has shifed from
traditional teacher-centred to SCL, or in more popular terms,
from the conventional to the constructivist classroom (Table 1).
Under the constructivist approach, students can work alone or
in small groups and on and of campus according to their own
suitable pace, time, and place. Tey have access to a wide range
of learning resources in addition to the tutor and can enrol at
4
fexible times of the year. Students are encouraged to take ownership of their learning, become refective
learners, and become empowered and more motivated and committed to learning while also being able
to work and learn in partnership (McLean, 1997; Educational Initiative Centre, 2004). Dialogues among
students permit comment generation and hypothesis testing and allow students to both acquire new
knowledge and comment on that knowledge, thereby attaining a higher level of understanding.
Table 1: Constructivist versus conventional classrooms
Conventional Teacher-Centred Constructivist Student-Centred
tutors seen as ‘fountains of all knowledge’ tutor’s seen as having a ‘facilitator’ role
students adopt a passive role students adopt an active role
tutor led student led
students taught following set syllabus negotiated curriculum
fxed semesters or terms fexible student pattern
learning restricted to the classroom learning not restricted to the classroom, time, place, and pace
set classes each week group learning via action learning
didactic utilise range of teaching methods
Tutors, as facilitators, guides, and mentors, may also work in a team and draw on the help of technicians,
librarians, and other technical and support systems. Tutors can work with students to determine
teaching and learning strategies and to develop the student’s ability to become a ‘researcher’ and thus
access multiple sources of information. University lecturers should be concerned with promoting
learner independence and helping students achieve autonomy. Lecturers also should encourage learners
to refect on their work, evaluate their study habits, and participate in dialogue with peers and tutors;
all of these factors are designed to promote autonomy and facilitate the kind of independent learning
expected in higher education institutions (HEIs).
5
6
Although HEIs already are able to attract non-traditional students and students from diverse
backgrounds, this teaching method will widen the participation of HEIs in the community, provide the
opportunity to improve bottom line performance, allow HEIs to gain an international reputation, and
allow tutors to spend more time on research and attaining funding. Because of this paradigm shif, the
National Higher Education Plan has set forth a plan to achieve best practices in teaching and learning
in academia. Tis plan, called Pelan Strategik Pengajian Tinggi Negara (PSPTN), has four phases: Phase
I (2007–2010) Laying the Foundation; Phase 2 (2011–2015) Strengthening and Enhancement; Phase 3
(2016–2020) Excellency in Higher Education; and Phase 4 (beyond 2020) Glory and Sustainability. Te
purpose of this PSPTN is to produce human capital with frst class mentality and innovative knowledge
for the country.
PHASE 1: LAYING THE FOUNDATION
Under Phase 1 of the PSPTN (2007–2010), one of the main goals of the changing academic profession is
to improve teaching and learning. Tis involves increasing the number of graduate students, improving
facilities in all HEIs to support the implementation of SCL, increasing the number of lecturers using
SCL, developing a curriculum based on Outcome-Based Learning (OBE), and training non-academic
staf by having them attend 2-day long teaching and learning workshops.
PHASE 2: STRENGHTENING AND ENHANCEMENT
We currently are in the second phase of the PSPTN (2011–2015). Tis phase involves revisiting our
education system to make improvements that will produce graduates who are creative and strategic
thinkers, leaders, and entrepreneurs; having these skills will better the country in the future. Terefore,
the current focus is to improve the skill set of graduate students via use of appropriate methodology,
improved implementation of SCL, use of best practices, sharing of teaching and learning techniques
among HEIs, improved quality of programmes through creation of innovation, attainment of
international recognition, and improved knowledge of the process of teaching and learning among non-
academicians.Phase 3 and Phase 4 are yet to be implemented in the later years as was planned.
CURRICULUM DESIGN
Based on the National Action Plan mentioned above, curriculum design should be changed and
should not look ‘nice on paper’ only. Currently, such changes have not been fully implemented and
internalized by lecturers, and curricula seem to be just ‘business as usual’. Curriculum design should
be focused on learning outcome taxonomies that must include Program Educational Outcomes (POE),
Program Outcomes (PO), Course Outcomes (CO), and Lesson Outcomes (LO), which cover cognitive,
afective, psychomotor, and sof skills. Delivery and assessment methods and student learning time
should emphasize constructivist SCL, which puts less focus on exams and more focus on challenging
7
and enabling students to be more independent. A number of taxonomies can be considered when
preparing learning outcomes (Table 2).
Table 2: Taxonomies of Teaching
Tripartite
(Hilgard
1980)
Gagne (1956) Bloom (1956)
Revised Bloom, Anderson &
Krathwohi (2001)
Anderson
(1981)
Merrill (1983)
Reigeluth &
Moore (1999)
Krathwohi,
Bloom &
Masia (1964)
Simpson
(1972)
Cognitive Verbal
information
Knowledge Metacognitive
Knowledge
Remember Declarative
Knowledge
Remember
verbatim
Memorize
information

Concepts Comprehension Procedural
Knowledge
Understand Procedural
Knowledge
Remember
paraphrased
Understand
relationships

Procedures &
rules
Application Conceptual
Knowledge
Apply Use generality Apply skills
Problem
solving
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Factual
knowledge
Analyse Find generality Apply generic
skills

Evaluate
Cognitive
strategies
Create
Afective Attitudes Receiving
Responding
Valuing
Organising
Characterising
Psychomotor Motor skills Perception
Set
Guided
Response
Mechanism
Complex
Response
Adaptation
Origination
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY (1956)
In the 1950s, Benjamin Bloom developed the taxonomy of cognitive objectives. Bloom’s Taxonomy is
categorized as ordered thinking skills and objectives. His taxonomy follows the thinking process in
that it says that ‘You cannot understand a concept if you do not frst remember it, similarly you cannot
apply knowledge and concepts if you do not understand them’. It is a continuum from lower order
thinking skills (LOTS) to higher order thinking skills (HOTS), as shown in Figure 1 and explained in
detail below.
8
Figure 1: The frst Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956)
Knowledge
Knowledge refers to remembering or retrieving previously learned material. Examples of verbs that
relate to this function are know, identify, relate, list, defne, recall, memorize, repeat, record, name
recognise, acquire.
Comprehension
Comprehension describes the ability to grasp or construct meaning from material. Examples of verbs
that relate to this function are restate, locate, report, recognise, explain, express, identify, discuss,
discuss, describe, review, infer, conclude, illustrate, interpret, draw, represent, diferentiate, and
conclude.
Application
Application is the ability to use learned material or to implement material in new and concrete
situations. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are apply, relate, develop, translate, use,
operate, organise, employ, restructure, interpret, demonstrate, illustrate, practice, calculate, show,
exhibit, and dramatize.
Analysis
Analysis is the ability to break down or distinguish the parts of material into its components so that
its organisational structure may be better understood. Examples of verbs that relate to this function
9
are analyse, compare, probe, inquire, examine, contrast, categorise, diferentiate, investigate, detect,
survey, classify, deduce, experiment, scrutinize, discover, inspect, dissect, discriminate and separate.
Synthesis
Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a coherent or unique new whole. Examples
of verbs that relate to this function are compose, produce, design, assemble, create, prepare, predict,
modify, tell, plan, invent, formulate, collect, set up, generalise document, combine, relate, propose,
develop, arrange, construct, organise, originate, derive, and write.
Evaluation
Finally, evaluation is the ability to judge, check, and even critique the value of material for a given
purpose. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are judge, assess, compare, evaluate, conclude,
measure, deduce, argue, decide, choose, rate, select, estimate, validate, consider, appraise, value,
criticize, and infer.
REVISED BLOOM’S TAXONOMY (2001)
In 2001, Anderson and Krathwohl revised the original Bloom’s Taxonomy (Figure 2), and some of the
steps in the continuum were altered.
Figure 2: Bloom’s taxonomy revised by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001)
10
Remembering
Remembering refers to retrieving, recalling, or recognising knowledge from memory. Examples
of verbs related to this aspect are recognising, listing, describing, identifying, retrieving, naming,
locating, and fnding.
Understanding
Understanding means constructing meaning from diferent types of functions be they written or
graphic messages. It includes activities such as interpreting, summarising, inferring, paraphrasing,
classifying, comparing, explaining, and exemplifying.
Applying
Applying describes carrying out or using a procedure through executing or implementing. Applying
refers to situations in which learned material is used through products like models, presentations,
interviews, and simulations. Examples of verbs are related to applying are implementing, carrying
out, using, and executing.
Analysing
Analysing refers to breaking materials or concepts into parts and determining how the parts relate
or interrelate to one another or to an overall structure or purpose. Mental actions included in this
function are diferentiating, organising, and attributing, as well as being able to distinguish between
the components or parts. When one is analysing, he/she can illustrate this mental function by
creating spreadsheets, surveys, charts, diagrams, or other graphic representations. Examples of verbs
associated with analysing are comparing, organising, deconstructing, Attributing, outlining, fnding,
structuring, and integrating.
Evaluating
Evaluating means making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing.
Critiques, recommendations, and reports are some of the products that can be created to demonstrate
the processes of evaluation. In the newer taxonomy, evaluation comes before creating, as it is ofen
a necessary part of the precursory behaviour that occurs before creating something. Examples of
verbs related to this function are checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging, testing,
detecting, and monitoring.
Creating
Creating refers to putting elements together to form coherent or functional whole or reorganising
elements into a new pattern or structure by generating, planning, or producing. Creating requires
users to put parts together in a new way or to synthesize parts into something new and diferent.
Tis process is the most difcult mental function in the new taxonomy. Examples of verbs related to
creating are designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing, devising, and making. In the
original Bloom’s Taxonomy, this function was known as synthesis.
11
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TAXONOMIES
Figure 3 summarises the diferences between the two taxonomies. One of the things that diferentiate the
new model from the original one is that it lays out components nicely so that they can be considered and
used. Although the levels of knowledge were indicated in the original work (i.e., factual, conceptual, and
procedural), they were never fully understood or used by teachers because most of what educators were
given in training consisted of a simple chart that listed the levels and provided the related accompanying
verbs. Te updated version has added ‘metacognitive’ to the array of knowledge types. Using a simple
cross impact grid or table like the one below, one can match easily activities and objectives to the types of
knowledge and to the cognitive processes (Table 3). It is a useful tool to use in assessing how instruction
is actually imparting levels of learning.
Figure 3: Summary of the diferences between the two taxonomies
12
Table 3: Knowledge dimensions
Cognitive Processes
Knowledge dimensions Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
Factual
Conceptual
Procedural
Metacognitive
Figure 4: Knowledge dimensions
Figure 4 shows the knowledge dimensions such as factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and metacognitive knowledge. Factual knowledge is knowledge that is basic to specifc
disciplines and includes facts, terminology, details, or elements that students must know in order to
understand a discipline or solve a problem in it. Conceptual knowledge is knowledge of classifcations,
principles, generalizations, theories, models, or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area.
Procedural knowledge is knowledge that helps students to do something specifc to a discipline (i.e.,
methods of inquiry, very specifc or fnite skills, algorithms, techniques, and methodologies). Finally,
metacognitive knowledge is information or awareness of one’s own cognition and particular cognitive
processes; it includes refective knowledge about how to go about solving problems and cognitive tasks,
contextual and conditional knowledge, and knowledge of the self.
13
Most classroom instructors focus only on the levels presented in the cognitive domain, yet there are
psychomotor and afective domains that should be considered as well. Education programs for physical
education instructors, for example, ofen focus on the psychomotor domain, as this domain focuses on
the acquisition of motor skills. Simpson’s (1966) taxonomy focuses on the progression of a psychomotor
skill from the guided response (i.e., doing what you are told to do) to the refex or habitual response
(i.e., not having to think about what you are doing) to origination as the highest level (i.e., invention
of a new way to perform a task). She concludes that skill progression passes through seven phases.
Te frst phase is the students’ perceptions of an object. Tey will undergo sensory stimulation as they
become aware of the object and thus interpreted actions lead to motor senses. Next, the students will
be in a set phase in which they will be ready for a particular action or experience. Tey will adjust their
mental, physical, and emotional states to prepare for the new experience. Te third phase is the guided
response phase; the instructor guides the students to follow a certain set of criteria, and imitation will
occur. Tere will be a trial and error process until the required response is obtained. During the fourth
phase, the learned response will become a habit, and learners will obtain confdence in the process. In
addition, this habitual efect will become part of the students’ responses when the same stimulus arises.
In the complex stage, a movement pattern is required, and a motor act is considered to be complex.
Next, the students will to adjust to certain movements when a diferent pattern arises. Finally, students
will be able to originate or create new motor acts by manipulating materials using the skills, abilities,
and understandings developed in the psychomotor area.
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14
Te afective domain seeks to defne the way that we handle things emotionally. Te afective domain is
where a learner is aware, interested, and responsible and has the ability to listen and demonstrate certain
characteristics in a particular situation. Te afective domain model contains the following fve levels:
receiving, responding, valuing, organizing, and characterizing by value or value set. During the frst
stage, learners become aware of the existence of particular ideas and they will string along with those
ideas. In the second phase, learners will respond to the phenomena or ideas with small measures. Next,
they will value the ideas from simple to complex. In the organizing level, they will bring together the
values and harmoniously combine them into a new value system. Lastly, the new internalized value will
be applied as a part of the learner’s value system.
CONSTRUCTIVISM
Te constructivist theory is the theory that must be considered when we are talking about SCL.
Constructivist epistemology is an epistemological perspective about the nature of scientifc knowledge
that was frst used by Jean Piaget in 1967. Constructivists maintained that scientifc knowledge is
constructed by scientists and not discovered from the world. Constructivists claim that the concepts
of science are mental constructs proposed in order to explain our sensory experience. Constructivism
posits that there is no single valid methodology and that there are other methodologies for social science
(i.e., qualitative research).
Constructivists maintained that scientiLc
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Social constructivism contends that categories of knowledge and reality are actively created by social
relationships and interactions. It is based on specifc assumptions about reality, knowledge, and learning.
Reality is constructed through human activity (Kukla, 2000). Knowledge is also a human product and
is socially and culturally constructed (Prawat & Folden, 1994; Gredler, 1997; Ernest, 1999). Social
constructivists view learning as a social process that becomes meaningful when individuals are engaged
in social activities (McMahon, 1997). Cunningham, Dufy, & Knuth (1993) argued that constructivist
learning environments are characterised by seven pedagogical goals. Tey suggest that constructivist
learning settings are those which concurrently:
provide experience in the knowledge construction process;
provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;
embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;
encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;
embed learning in social experience;
15
encourage the use of multiple modes of representation; and
encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process.
Lebow (1995) presented fve principles that he considers necessary to integrate the afective and
cognitive domains of learning in ways that support constructivist principles of learning. He argued the
need for learning environments to:
maintain a bufer between the learner and the potentially damaging efects of
instructional practices;
provide a context for learning that supports both autonomy and relatedness;
embed the reasons for learning into the learning activity itself;
support self-regulated learning by promoting skills and attitudes that enable the learner to assume
increasing responsibility for the developmental restructuring process; and
strengthen the learner’s tendency to engage in intentional learning processes, especially by encouraging
the strategic exploration of errors.
Savery & Dufy (1995) argued that there are four principles that necessarily underpin learning in
constructivist settings:
learning is an active and engaged process;
learning is a process of constructing knowledge;
learners function at a metacognitive level; and
learning involves social negotiation.
Grabinger (1996) provided a succinct list of the assumptions of learning that are aligned with
contemporary constructivist views:
people transfer learning with difculty and need both content and context learning;
learners are active constructors of knowledge;
learning is cognitive and in a constant state of growth and evolution;
learners bring their own needs and experiences to learning situations;
skills and knowledge are best acquired within realistic contexts; and
assessment must take more realistic and holistic forms.
Problem-Based Learning (PBL)
PBL is the type of classroom organisation needed to support a constructivist approach to teaching and
learning. Savoie & Hughes (1994), who wrote about a process that they used to design a problem-based
learning experience for their students, described the following actions for creating such a process:
identify a problem suitable for the students;
connect the problem with the context of the students’ world so that it presents authentic opportunities;
organize the subject matter around the problem, not the discipline;
give students responsibility for defning their learning experience and planning to solve the problem;
16
encourage collaboration by creating learning teams; and
expect all students to demonstrate the results of their learning through a product or performance.
Such emphasis on learning has enabled students to take a self-directed approach to learning. Students are
now researching material pertinent to the success of their academic career, and knowledge production
is seen as a standard. In order for a teacher to veer towards a student-centred classroom, he or she
must become aware of the diverse backgrounds of his or her learners. To that end, the incorporation
of a few educational practices, such as Bloom’s Taxonomy and Howard Gardner’s Teory of Multiple
Intelligences, can be very benefcial to a student-centred classroom because it promotes various modes
of diverse learning styles. Te following examples illustrate why student-centred learning should be
integrated into the curriculum. It:
strengthens student motivation;
promotes peer communication;
reduces disruptive behaviour;
builds student-teacher relationships;
promotes discovery/active learning;
promotes responsibility for one’s own learning.
Student-Centred Learning (SCL)
SCL is also known as fexible learning, independent learning, open/distance learning, participative
learning, or self-managed learning. It focuses on the student’s needs, abilities, interests, and learning
styles, with the teacher acting as a facilitator of learning. It puts students frst in the teaching and learning
pedagogy. SCL requires that students be active, responsible participants in their own learning. Table 4
highlights some useful SCL activities.
Table 4: Activities in SCL
Outside the classroom In the classroom
Independent projects Buzz groups (short discussion in twos)
Group discussion Pyramids/Snowballing (buzz groups continuing the discussion into larger group)
Peer mentoring of other students Crossovers (mixing students into groups by letter/ number allocations)
Debates Rounds (giving turns to individual students to talk)
Field trips Quizzes
Practicals Writing refections on learning (3–4 minutes)
Refective diaries, learning journals Student class presentations
Computer-assisted learning Role playing
Projects Poster presentations
Writing newspaper articles Students producing mind maps in class
Portfolio development
PBL PBL (less complex problems)
Case study Case study (Simpler cases)
Modular approach
17
In addition to PBL, case study, and modular, PoPBL (Project-Based Problem-Based Learning) other
SCL approaches should be taken into consideration (Table 5).
Table 5: Other SCL approaches
Other SCL approaches Defnition of terms
Collaborative Working together to achieve a goal, but in its negative sense it is working as a traitor
Contextual Relating to, dependent on, or using context (e.g., contextual criticism of a book)
Cooperative
A business organization owned and operated by a group of individuals for their mutual
beneft
Constructivist
A theory of knowledge that argues that humans generate knowledge and meaning from
an interaction between their experiences and their ideas
Inductive Of, pertaining to, or involving electrical or magnetic induction 
Experiential Pertaining to or derived from experience
Simulation
The imitation of some real thing, state of afairs, or process; the act of simulating something
generally entails representing certain key characteristics or behaviours of a selected
physical or abstract system
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Fair assessment of students in the university setting is challenging. Te scope of assessment covers a wide
range of diferent aspects of what the student is supposed to achieve. It includes giving a clear picture
of the students’ learning compared to the defned goals of education, allowing students to articulate
their thoughts, measuring the LO, CO, and PO, and ensuring that instruction achieves every LO in the
course. Basically, the curriculum should be less exam oriented. Te results of the assessment must also
serve as input to the university’s quality assurance system (Hansen & Rosenørn, 2005). Furthermore,
the assessment should be relevant to the way the teaching has been performed and to the way feedback
has been given to the students throughout the course. A reasonable, fair, and just assessment in
an examination requires careful planning of the exam so that it covers all subjects for all students.
Assessment must have a good balance between the weight of the oral presentation, discussions, and, in
the case of a project, the report. It is of utmost importance that what is assessed and how it is assessed is
known by all involved parties (i.e., students, examiners, and external examiners) (Hansen & Rosenørn,
2005).
Evaluation/Assessment has the following scopes:
proof of the student’s learning level within a well-defned area (also for accreditation purposes);
documentation that the student has acquired the competencies demanded by the labour market;
documentation that the student has acquired the qualifcations demanded by the authorities (the state);
be a part of the university’s quality development and quality control; and
contribute to the student’s motivation and self recognition.
18
Woods, et. al. (2000) described assessment in an article in Chemical Engineering Education as ‘a judgment
based on the degree to which goals have been achieved using measurable criteria and pertinent data’.
Tis statement is operationalized through the following principles:
assessment is a judgment based on performance, not personalities;
assessment is a judgment based on evidence, not feelings;
assessment should be done for clearly identifed purposes and with clearly identifed performance
conditions;
assessment is a judgment performed in the context of published goals, measurable criteria, and pertinent,
agreed-upon forms of evidence; and
assessment should be based on multidimensional evidence.
Typically, formative and summative assessments are the two most important elements used in assessing
students. In the former, case outcome is used for feedback to both students and teachers to determine
how learning is progressing. In the latter case, outcome is used to give grade/marks to the students at the
end of a semester/course/program. Students and teachers see assessment from two diferent perspectives.
However, if the curriculum is refected in the assessment, then both the student and teacher are working
towards the same goal. For the tutor, assessment is placed at the end of the teaching sequence, whereas
assessment is placed right in front of the student’s learning sequence (Ramsden, 1992).
CONCLUSIONS
Tis chapter defnes teaching and describes the theories related to teaching in line with the second phase
of the National Action Plan. In my humble opinion, which is based on being a lecturer at the university
for the past 18 years, teaching is something unique. If you are passionate about teaching, it comes
naturally. As time marches on, teachers must make changes and follow the latest trend so that we are not
behind the times and just performing ‘business as usual’. Te paradigm has shifed, and today’s children
are not the same as the children of yesteryears; they require something more challenging, creative,
and innovative. As lecturers, we need to accept this and make appropriate changes to our teaching
techniques. Currently, the emphasis is on using SCL in teaching and moving from teacher-centred to
student-oriented modes of instruction. Terefore, as lecturers or instructors, we need to understand
what SCL is, how it should be implemented, and how we can improve the mode of assessment in
teaching. Learning the theories and taxonomies of teaching will help us achieve these goals.
REFERENCES
Andersen, J.R. (1981). Cognitive psychology and its implications (3rd Edition.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Bloom, B.S., Anderson, L.W., and Krathwohl, D. (Eds.) (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing: A revision of
Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Longman.
Bloom, B.S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classifcation of educational goals.
Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York: David McKay.
Cunningham, D., Dufy, T. M., & Knuth, R. (1993) Textbook of the future. In McKnight, C. (Ed.), Hypertext: A psychological
perspective. London: Ellis Horwood Pubs.
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Dufy, T.M., and Cunningham, D.J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the design and delivery of instruction. In Jonassen,
D.H. (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology. New York: Macmillan.
Education Initiative Centre (2004). What’s Student Centred Learning? University of Westminster: United Kingdom.
Ernest, P. (1999). Social constructivism as a philosophy of mathematics: Radical constructivism rehabilitated? Albany, New
York: SUNY Press.
Gagne, R.M. (1985). The conditions of learning (4th Edition.). New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
Grabinger, R.S. (1996). Rich environments for active learning. In Jonassen, D.H. (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational
Communications and Technology. New York: Macmillan.
Gredler, M.E. (1997). Learning and instruction: Theory into practice (3rd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Hansen, I.L., and Rosenørn, T. (2005). What are the goals for university education, and how can they be assessed? POPBL work-
shop in Mondragon, Spain October 2005.
Hilgard, E.R. (1980). The trilogy of mind: Cognition, afection and conation. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 16,
107-117.
Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S. & Masia, B.B. (1964). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classifcation of educational goals.
Handbook II: Afective domain. New York, Longman.
Kukla, A. (2000). Social constructivism and the philosophy of science. New York: Routledge.
Lebow, D. (1995). Constructivist values for instructional systems design: Five principles toward a new mindset. In B. Seels (Ed.),
Instructional design fundamentals: A reconsideration. Englewood Clifs, New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
McMahon, M. (December 1997). Social constructivism and the World Wide Web – A paradigm for learning. Paper presented at
the ASCILITE Conference. Perth, Australia.
McLean, J. (1997). Flexible learning and the learning organisation. MSc. Management Dissertation, Stafordshire University.
Merrill, M. D. (1983). Component display theory. In Reigeluth, C. M. (Ed.), Instructional design theories and models: An
overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Prawat, R.S., and Folden, R.E. (1994). Philosophical perspectives on constructivist views of learning. Educational Psychologist,
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Ramsden, P., (1992). Learning to teach in higher education. London: Routledge.
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design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Chemical Engineering Education. 34, 108–117.
21
PART 1
CHAPTER 2
LEARNING AT HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
Melissa Ng Lee Yen Abdullah
DEFINITION AND THEORIES OF LEARNING
Human learning is an intriguing area of study. People have been
trying to understand it for over 2000 years. Debate about how
people learn began at least as far back as the ancient Greeks. It
is necessary to conceptualise learning and to understand how it
occurs because such knowledge underpins the way people learn,
teach, and structure educational programs. Diferent learning
theories propound diferent perspectives about instructional
strategies that efectively promote learning. With the onset
of scientifc inquiry in the eighteenth century, behaviourism
emerged as a theory that centred on observable behaviour:
Learning was seen as changes in behaviour brought about by
experiences (Deubel, 2003). Tus, a learner is assumed to be
essentially passive and simply responds to the environmental
forces. Behaviourism does not address how mental processes
work in relation to learning. An implication of behaviourism
for instructional design is the concept that learning is based on
mastering a set of behaviours that are predictable. Te strength
of behaviourism is that when there are specifc goals to be met,
the learner is focused specifcally upon achieving those goals
whenever there are cues to prompt the learner’s behaviour.
However, because instructional design depends on having and
maintaining the appropriate stimuli to sustain the intended
learning behaviour, the desired performance may not take place
when a certain incentive is not present. Such an instructional
process is heavily teacher dependent.
Cognitive psychologists, on the other hand, contend that learning
is not simply responding to stimuli from the environment.
Instead, it is an internal and active mental process that develops
within a learner. To understand the concept of learning, one
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needs to examine the mental processes, such as memory, perception, and judgment that underlie it
(Sweller et al. 1998). Learning develops when information is received, stored, and retrieved. Unlike
behaviourism, which is environment focused, cognitive theory is learner focused. Tus, it is important
for learners to efciently process the information received. To learn efectively, for instance, students
need to pay attention during lectures, organize the information, and review the learning materials.
Learning only occurs when the information received make sense to the learner: ‘Learning is meaningful
only when it can be related to concepts that already exist in a person’s cognitive structure. Rote learning,
on the other hand, does not become linked to a person’s cognitive structure and thus is “easily forgotten”
(McLeod 2003: 39).
Behaviourism and cognitive theories are fundamentally diferent but not mutually exclusive.
Conceptually, social cognitive theory provides a link between the two theories by acknowledging the
infuence of social environment on thinking (Schunk, 2001). As such, learning is described in terms of
a reciprocal interaction among behaviour, environmental factors, and personal factors (Bandura, 1989).
Tis theory proposes that a human can learn by observing others and one’s own self. Observational
learning requires paying attention to a demonstrated behaviour and having the motivation to imitate
the modelled behaviour. Te process also requires the learner to observe, monitor, and evaluate his/
her own learning behaviour. In such processes, the learner’s attitudes, goal setting, and self-efcacy are
critical factors for successful learning. Humanistic theory also places emphasis on personal factors,
particularly the development of values, self-concept, self-esteem, and motivation, and the need for
learners to become fulflled individuals (Maslow, 1968; Huitt, 2001; Ben-Harush, 2009).
Te emphasis on the learner’s role is also evident in constructivism, in which the learner is believed to
constantly construct or create his/her own understanding and knowledge. Learning is considered to be
an active process that is related to prior knowledge and subjective in nature. Tus, knowledge cannot be
simply passed on from teacher to learner; instead, it must be constructed individually by each learner.
Constructivism assumes that the learner’s experiences, prior understanding, and social interactions play
a role in learning (Boethel & Dimock 2000). Examples of constructivist learning include experiential
learning, self-directed learning, and refective practices. Tese learning strategies refect the emphasis
on the learner’s roles in constructing his/her own knowledge within a social context. In summary,
the concept of learning and the roles played by learners difer according to the diferent theoretical
paradigms. Table 1 provides an overview of major theories of learning.
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Table 1: Overview of major theories of learning
Theory Assumptions Primary Focus Application of Principles
Behaviourism Learning is a result of
environmental forces
Observable behaviour
Stimulus-response
connections
Have specifc learning goals and objectives
Interact with the material while listening or reading
(e.g., take notes, answer previously developed
questions)
Reward self for learning activities and outcomes (e.g.,
listen to one song after 30 minutes of studying; go to
a movie when attaining good grades in a course)
Cognitive Theory Learning is a result of
mental operations/
processing
Mental behaviour
Acquisition of
knowledge
Intelligence
Critical thinking
Information processing
Pay attention during lectures and reading
Review any reading materials before actually getting
started to identify major terms and concepts
Pose diferent levels of questions to self when
studying (e.g., low level -- what does this term
mean?; higher level -- how could I use this concept
or principle?; how is this concept similar or diferent
from another?)
Social Cognitive
Theory
Learning is a result of
infuences of social
environment on
thinking
Social infuences
Observational learning/
modelling
Self-regulation
Attitudes
Goals setting
Self-efcacy
Work in a study group to learn the material
Take action and then refect on how successful the
learning process is
Be confdent in own ability to do well in a particular
course
Set goals for learning the concepts or skills, not just
making a passing score on a test
Plan own learning activities
Keep records of learning activities and refect on
which ones seem to work best; talk about these with
other students
Humanistic Learning is a result
of emotion and goal-
orientation
Afect/Values
Self-concept/Self-esteem
Motivation
Needs
Think about how learning relates to life goals or
mission (e.g., to be a university graduate)
Make sure one feels comfortable during the learning
processes; if stressed, take a few minutes to relax
Motivate self to be successful in an exam or
presentation
Make learning fun
Constructivism Learning is the result
of the construction
of meaning by the
individual learner
Mental behaviour
Developmental
processes
Review concept and refect on how it is similar to prior
knowledge or experiences
Avoid memorizing facts without genuine
understanding
Try to apply the principle or think about how the
concept can be applied
Work with another student to identify important
terms, concepts, and principles
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PARADIGM SHIFT IN LEARNING AT HIGHER EDUCATION
INSTITUTIONS
From the 1920s through the 1960s, behaviourism swept from the arena of psychology into education
with an air of authority that was astonishing (Brader-Araje, 2002). It was widely accepted and became a
dominant approach in teaching and learning. Formal education was structured around the premise that
teachers ought to provide the correct stimuli so that students can learn. According to the behaviourism
paradigm:
learning is passive;
it is important for student to learn the correct answer;
learning needs an external reward;
knowledge is a matter of facts;
understanding is a matter of seeing existing patterns; and
teachers must direct the learning process.
Te behaviourist movement places the responsibility of learning on the shoulders of the teachers. It
is the teachers’ role to ensure that learning takes place from the primary level up to higher education.
Teachers were led to believe that they have to restructure the learning environment and determine
the most appropriate reinforcement to optimize learning. Te teaching and learning processes were
very much teacher focused, with the aim of transmitting domain-specifc knowledge and discrete skills.
Such learning processes, however, are inadequate for preparing students for the real world, which is
characterized by instability, ambiguity, and dynamic change. In other words, the mission of higher
education is not to transmit information to students to prepare them for examination but to nurture
them to learn and think.
In the early years of this new millennium, at the close of the ‘Decade of the Brain’ (1990-1999), an
educational transition occurred; thinking moved from a reliance on metaphors about how people learn
to an emphasis on pedagogies founded on cognitive development (Buckley, 2002). Te transition placed
more importance on students’ learning outcomes and less importance on the quality of instruction.
Teachers have a role to play in maintaining the student-centred learning environment, and curriculum
design is based on the analysis of what students need to know to function in a complex world rather
than what the teachers know how to teach. Tus, there has been a shif towards the cognitive and
constructivism paradigms:
learning is active and constructive in nature;
students explore various possible response patterns and choose between them;
learning can be intrinsically rewarding;
knowledge is a matter of acquiring information;
understanding is a matter of creating new patterns;
applications require the learner to see relationships among problems; and
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students must direct their own learning.
Most educationalists would argue that one of the key roles of higher education institutions (HEIs) is
to prepare university students to cope with the demands of the current labour market and to serve as
the driving force for future development (Barnett & Hallam, 1999; Biggs, 1999; Brockbank & McGill,
1998. For these reasons, higher education ought to be oriented towards the student-centred learning
paradigm, which focuses on lifelong learning and self-regulated learning skills. As mentioned by Barr
& Tagg (2004), the mission, vision, culture, and structure of HEIs must undergo a paradigm shif from
the instruction paradigm to the learning paradigm (i.e., from being teacher centred to being student
centred) (Figure 1).
Under the instruction paradigm, HEIs aim to transfer or deliver knowledge from lecturers to students.
Founded on this orientation, the institution ofers courses and degree programs and seeks to maintain
a high quality of instruction within them, mostly by assuring that lecturers stay current in their felds.
If new knowledge appears, so will the ofering of new courses. In the learning paradigm, on the other
hand, the aim of HEIs is not to transfer knowledge but to create environments and experiences that
allow students to discover and construct their own knowledge, understanding, and skills. It focuses
more on the quality of learning for students individually rather than the quality of instruction per se
(O’Brien, 2002).
Figure 1: Teacher-centred learning and student-centred learning at higher education
institutions; adapted from Trigwell & Prosser (2004)
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Tis shif in paradigm from instruction to learning is in line with employers’ and stakeholders’
expectations that graduate students should demonstrate the abilities to learn new knowledge and skills
on their own and also possess trans-disciplinary understanding, diversity of experiences, and problem-
solving skills (O’Brien, 2002).
STUDENT-CENTRED LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Literature reviews of student-centred learning (Bertrand, 1999; Clark, 2009; Jacobson, 1999; Lea et al.,
2003; Buchner et al., 2007; ‘Jones, 2007) show that student-centred learning activities have specifc key
characteristics and common elements of implementation (Table 2).
Table 2 Student-centred learning activities
An emphasis on deep learning
and understanding
Students organize knowledge
in ways that facilitate retrieval
and application
Increased responsibility and
accountability on the part of
the student
Increased sense of autonomy
in the students in which they
take control of their own
learning: noting failures,
planning ahead, apportioning
time and memory to tasks
It emphasises learning
independence and choice
It allows time for refection
It emphasises higher-order
thinking and permits the
learner to apply subject
material to new situations and
synthesise new ideas
Sensory input is essential to
for cognitive development
It emphasises time spent on
task
The value of the learner
is greater than that of the
learning itself
Mutual respect within the
student-instructor relationship
Students are encouraged
to integrate socio-cultural
elements in learning
Key Characteristics
A classroom renovated to
emphasise group work with
2–3 groups of 3–4 students
each per table
Majority of class time is spent
on learning activities done by
groups of students
The activities tend to be short
(5–20 minutes) and followed
by a class discussion
All components of the class
are tightly integrated
The instructor is more of a
coach or a guide rather than
the source of knowledge
Learning activities can be
carried out independently, in
pairs, or in groups after class
hours
Learning activities focus
on individual experiential
learning
Common Elements of
Implementation
Team work (3–4 students)
Peer mentoring
Hands on
Computer-assisted learning
Class presentations with
activity intervals
Field trips
Dialog with instructor
Refective diaries, logs,
journals, and portfolios
Independent projects
Debates
Role playing
Examples
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Te following are examples of assessments which are in line with the characteristics of student-centred
learning:
The concepts inventory
Te concepts inventory is a short test taken by students at the beginning and end of the semester
to measure increased understanding of basic concepts. Inventory questions should refect concepts
that the instructor hopes that student will learn by taking the course. A good inventory includes
questions that address common misconceptions and focus on reasoning, logic, and general problem
solving rather than facts, defnitions, or computations. To develop a concept inventory, lecturers
can begin by selecting the theories or concepts that are most critical to success in the subject area.
Ten, identify the common misconceptions that students have about those concepts, which could be
based on observation, experience, initial assessment, discussion with students and so on (Faculty
Development and Instructional Centre, 2011)
The minute quiz
At the beginning of class, it is valuable to give students a single-question quiz that assesses whether or
not they have come prepared. With this system, the prepared students are preferentially rewarded. At
the end of the semester all of the quiz scores are summed to account for a signifcant portion of the
course grade, which is an added incentive for students to come to class prepared.
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Collaborative exams
For a real learning experience, an exam may be ofered in three phases: individual, team, and class. By
the time the class period is over, students have taken the exam three times and know their fnal score.
Individual efort is preferentially rewarded, yet students still get the valuable experience of working
together as a team. Furthermore, with such a format, the instructor is able to fll the exam with
intriguing but tough questions. If each student has access to a computer, the paper-based assessment
can be replaced by online delivery, which assists with the intensive instant grading.
Self-assessment and peer reviewing
Students are allowed to play a role in their own assessment. Peer reviewing and grading should also be
utilized. Students are frequently given the opportunity to assess their instructor and their classroom
as well.
Appeals
End-of-semester course evaluations reveal that a top concern of most students is whether or not the
course was fair. To satisfy this need, students may be permitted to appeal any question for which they
believe they deserve credit.
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UNDERSTANDING LEARNERS AT HEIS
Greater emphasis on student-centred learning implies that lecturers should understand the
characteristics and needs of students in the higher education setting. Tis is because the efectiveness
of teaching depends largely on the nature of the learner, which includes the following characteristics
(UNESCO Harare, 2010):
demographics (e.g., age and gender);
psychological characteristics (e.g., motivation and self-concept);
sociological characteristics (e.g. friendship and social linkages);
cultural background;
religious afliation;
quality of preparation at the secondary school level; and
marital status and family background.
It is probably a tall order to ask the lecturer to know these characteristics for every student in a course.
For instance, it is obviously a steep task in an undergraduate class of 200 for a 14-week teaching term.
Nevertheless, it is possible to gain an understanding of the general profle of the class based on these
characteristics. Armed with these profles and with the knowledge of outlying cases, the lecturer can
then meaningfully plan and implement a more efective course of instruction for students (UNESCO
Harare, 2010).
THE LEARNING CYCLE IN HEIS
With the expansion of higher education in many countries and the increasing emphasis on diversity,
retention rates, and student-centred learning, there are good reasons to look into efective learning
styles at HEIs. David Kolb’s experiential learning cycle is one of the best known educational theories in
higher education (Healey & Jenkins, 2000). Te theory appears to ofer a valid and plausible framework
for experiential learning. Some of the appeal of the theory is that it provides a rationale for a variety
of learning methods, including independent learning, learning by doing, work-based learning, and
problem-based learning, which have recently received much attention at the higher education level.
Regardless of the diferent learning methods, the fundamentals of student-centred learning may be
increased through the use of Kolb’s Model of Experiential Learning (Kolb, 1984). Tis cycle has been
infuential in curriculum planning, the popularity of active learning, and the identifcation of the specifc
learning orientations of undergraduates. Kolb’s theory points to the diversity of learner styles and the
signifcance of diferent learning strategies. Kolb’s model describes the learning processes as falling into
four quadrants:
1. Concrete Experience (CE): actively doing and activity;
2. Refective Experience (RO): thinking about what was done;
3. Abstract Conceptualisation (AC): generalizing from specifc experiences; and
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4. Active Experimentation (AE): practicing new/alternative behaviours.
According to Kolb (1984), the learning cycle begins with immediate or concrete experiences that
provide a basis for observation and refection. Next, the student conceptualises or masters the key ideas,
which may arise from the refective process. Tis leads to the next stage, which is to synthesise the
experience, refect on what has been learned, and assimilate the information into abstract concepts that
will produce new implications for action. Tis process leads to action, which can be tested and in turn
create new experiences. Te iteration of the learning cycle ultimately leads to a growth in knowledge,
depth of understanding, and improved practice (Figure 2). Ideally, this process represents a learning
cycle or spiral. Based on the four-stage learning cycle, four distinct learning styles have been identifed.
Tis indicates that Kolb’s model ofers both a way to understand individual’s learning styles and also an
explanation of a cycle of experiential learning that applies to all.
Figure 2: Kolb’s learning cycle; adapted from Kolb (1984)
While all four of these quadrants are involved in the learning process, students usually demonstrate a
preference for one or two of the quadrants over the others. Historically, teaching and learning processes
at HEIs, particularly for the arts, humanities, and social sciences, usually are thought of as synonymous
with attending many lectures in which theoretical information is presented. Tis approach corresponds to
Kolb’s conceptualisation quadrant. Some courses with practical-based activities, such as medical degree
program, provide opportunities to explore beyond the conceptualisation quadrant, thereby corresponding
to the concrete experience and active experimentation quadrants. Hence, attempts must be taken to
design learning activities that encompass all four quadrants. Tis is because Kolb’s learning cycle not only
enhances abstract conceptualisation but also promotes skill-based, practical, critical, and refective areas in
the learning processes (University of New South Wales, 2009). Te following are recommended principles
when applying educational theory into instructional practices (Ti et al., 2006): the learner should be an
active contributor;
learning should closely relate to real life problems;
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the learners’ current knowledge should be taken into account;
learners should use self-direction;
learners should have opportunities for practice, self-assessment, and feedback;
learners should be given the opportunity to self-refect, and
the use of role models.
LEARNING APPROACHES
Literature reviews show that there are three types of learning approaches: surface, deep, and achieving
(Biggs, 1987, 1993a, 1993b). In the surface approach, the student’s motive to learn is to carry out the task
because of external positive or negative consequences (e.g., to satisfy the course requirement or to fulfl
the family or society’s requirement to obtain the necessary qualifcation). A typical surface strategy is
rote learning, and surface-motivated students focus on what appears to be the most important items and
then he/she memorizes them. Because of this focus, students do not see interconnections between the
meanings and implications of what is learned. In other words, meaningful learning may not occur. Te
deep approach, on the other hand, is grounded by a deep motive that is based on internal motivation
or curiosity. In the deep approach, there is a personal commitment to learning, which means that the
student relates the content to his/her own individual meaningful contexts or to existing prior knowledge.
Deep processing involves processes of a higher cognitive level than rote learning (e.g., searching for
analogies, relating to previous knowledge, and theorizing about what is learned). Lastly, the achieving
approach is focused on the product (winning an award).  Te strategy is to maximize the chances of
obtaining high distinction. While this hopefully involves a high level of efort to learn the topic (like the
deep strategy), the learning is the means, not the end. Table 3 shows the characteristics and outcomes of
the three learning approaches (Biggs, 1987, 1993a, 1993b).
According to Leong & Battens (2002), while the deep and achieving learning approaches appear to be
most desirable in the learning environment, the surface approach is generally driven by society. Te key
to success is a balance of all three motivations and strategies. Leong & Battens (2002) sampled a total of
475 students from the National University of Singapore using a 42-item questionnaire. Results showed
that there were 174 students with deep motivation, 169 with surface motivation, and the remaining 132
students had achieving motivation. Tus, more than one-third of the students were deeply motivated to
learn. Tese learners are believed to show interest from within and ofen have the initiative to go beyond
their syllabus to satisfy their thirst for knowledge. About 35% of the students were surface motivated
in their approach to learning. Teir frst and foremost objective for pursuing tertiary education is to
obtain a degree, which will land them a reasonably comfortable and well-paid job. Te fndings are
not surprising, as paper or academic qualifcations are highly desirable in most societies. Nevertheless,
the shortcoming of this approach is that students tend to be less interested in most of the knowledge
that they acquire at the university. In fact, they learn just enough to pass, and they are afraid of failure
because of social pressures. Te remaining students who were achieving motivated wanted to do well in
their studies. Tese students generally perform well on test and exams even though they may not have
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deep understanding or interest in a particular subject. In fact, their over competitive learning behaviour
may lead to being isolated from other students (Leong & Battens, 2002).
Table 3: Learning approaches
Learning
Approach
Characteristics Outcomes of Approach Strategies for Learners
Learn without deep
understanding
See study as a requirement of
the family/society that you must
meet
See the main goal and value of
learning as getting a qualifcation
See parts of learning tasks as
unrelated to each other
Do not personally relate to the
learning tasks
Have limited understanding
of theoretical concepts and
principles
Cannot distinguish between
examples from principles
Have difculty in developing a
logical argument
Cannot recognize key ideas
Forgetting things learned very
quickly
Use study skills to achieve better
grades
Try to develop an interest
in the subject by looking
for connections to everyday
experiences
Discuss what you learn everyday
with classmates
Learn with the intention to
understand
Relate previous knowledge to
new knowledge
Integrate knowledge from
diferent subject areas
Relate theoretical ideas to
everyday experiences
Distinguish between concepts
and examples
Defne own goals and pursue
them in one’s own way
Have long term retention of
knowledge
Able to apply knowledge to new
situations
Able to generate new meanings
and novel ideas
Become an independent learner
Need to check frequently that
your own goals are in line with
the course objectives
Check with the teachers if you
think you may be of-track
Mainly interested in getting high
marks
Are deliberate and careful in
planning their study
Plan scheduled study times
Have organized note-taking
methods
Practice exam questions to
maximize scores
Stick closely to the syllabus
Generally perform well on tests
and exams
May become too competitive,
which can lead to being isolated
from other students
May not be able to form deep
understanding and interest in a
subject
Very seldom can a person learn
on his/her own; collaborating
with all kinds of classmates can
enhance your learning
Develop a deep approach if you
want to pursue higher education
Keck et al., (2007) examined the efects of learning approaches on students’ achievement, mental health,
and self-directed learning at the university level. Using path analysis, they discovered that the surface
learning approach was related to low academic achievement scores, poor mental health, and low self-
directed learning readiness levels. Te study sampled 392 undergraduates at a private medical university
in Malaysia. In contrast, the deep learning approach was related to students’ great interest in university
studies, a high level of self-directed learning readiness, and good mental health. In addition, students
who subscribed to the deep approach also demonstrated high self-efcacy and positive perceptions
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of the learning environment. Te positive and better quality processes and learning outcomes were
explained by the adoption of deep approaches, whereas the poorer outcome was attributed to the
adoption of surface approaches. With the view that learning approaches have signifcant educational
implications on students’ learning, achievement, and well-being at HEIs, eforts should be taken to
promote the adoption of deep learning approaches. In other words, university students should subscribe
to meaningful learning versus the surface approach, which constitutes mere rote learning and is
extrinsically motivated in nature.
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
According to Attwood (2009: 1), ‘“Learning how to learn” is the single most important teaching
objective for universities as they prepare students for a twenty-frst-century version of Darwin’s survival
of the fttest’. In other words, having the motivation to learn and to do well may not be adequate
for undergraduates; they must also have the skill to regulate their own learning activities, which is
congruent with the paradigm shif towards student-centred learning at HEIs. Students must know how
to learn. To do so, they have to be equipped with self-regulated learning skills. Self-regulated learning is
the processes by which individual learners attempt to monitor and control their own learning processes.
It is a developmental process that will gradually increase with scafolding from the lecturers during the
instructional practices. Students’ self-regulated learning is refected by their usage of cognitive, met
cognitive, and resource management strategies (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Characteristics of students’ self-regulated learning
Numerous studies have found that self-regulated learning skills produce positive learning outcomes
among undergraduates. In the Malaysian context, Mohr Konini (2007) found that self-regulated
learning predicts academic achievement among undergraduates. A total of 460 second-year engineering
undergraduates from the University Technology Malaysia participated in the study. Academic
achievement was measured by students’ grade point average, whereas self-regulated learning was gauged
by the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire. Te results showed that self-regulated learning
was a signifcant predictor of Malaysian undergraduates’ academic achievement. Tis fnding is in line
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with results of many past studies. For example, Hark (2006) conducted a study of 165 undergraduates to
examine their self-regulated learning strategies for time planning and self-monitoring. Time planning
involves time management, scheduling, and planning one’s study time. Self-monitoring, on the other
hand, involves setting goals, focusing attention, and monitoring study activities. Te results showed that
students who were better time planners and who had better self-monitoring skills were more efcient
in allocating their individual study time, prepared more appropriately for the tutorial group meeting,
and achieved higher scores on cognitive tests. As supported by past literature, self-regulated learning
has great potential in improving the quality of students’ learning. Te principles of self-regulation, thus,
should be incorporated into higher education instructional design. Curricular reforms also are needed
to promote the development of more independent, autonomous, and efcient learners.
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Movements to consider students’ learning approaches, learning outcomes, learning experiences,
improved assessment, and the institutional mission towards student-centred learning are increasingly
gaining prominence. Tis refects a systemic shif in paradigms away from the instruction paradigm
towards the learning paradigm. Although the student-centred learning paradigm is not a new concept,
implementation of these revised pedagogical strategies, with much greater emphasis on the learners’
roles as opposed to the lecturers’ roles, requires instructional transformation at HEIs. At the core of
the paradigm shif is the changes in student–lecturer relationship. Lecturers need to provide greater
autonomy and opportunities for students’ to self-regulate their own learning, voice their views,
generate original ideas, and even challenge and debate during the learning and teaching processes.
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Tere is an obvious need to increase the responsibilities and accountability of the students in their quest
for knowledge. In fact, students should be encouraged to adopt the deep learning approach so that
meaningful, active, and experiential learning can take place. Such changes are in accordance with the
learning paradigm being promoted at higher education:
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explanation.pdf
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PART 1
CHAPTER 3
EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN
HIGHER EDUCATION
See Ching Mey
INTRODUCTION
Teaching and learning are the necessary facets of higher
education. With the present pressure on faculty members
to conduct research and publish their fndings, teaching has
become a lower priority. However, to ensure that we have
productive and efcient human resources for the future, faculty
members need to recognise their important role in imparting
knowledge to students, who are there to learn. Tus, teachers
and students represent two essential halves of a symbiotic
relationship. Both teaching and learning must be efective for
both parties to achieve productive gains. Numerous studies
have been conducted to analyse and defne efective teaching
and efective learning. In this chapter, the criteria required for
efective teaching and learning are described. Furthermore, ways
to evaluate the efectiveness of learning and teaching through
appropriate assessments are discussed.
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Teaching has always been a challenging profession and changes
both within and outside the teaching environment has made it
more complex. To teach in more efective ways, faculty members
must use appropriate methodology; demonstrate, encourage,
and motivate students; and show concern for students. Such an
approach will leave students with a lasting and very clear mind
set of having benefted from the instruction. Terefore, teachers
must constantly search for ways to improve their teaching
methods and styles, with the goal of producing capable students
who can successfully learn and apply the knowledge given to
them. Efective teaching can be defned as ‘that which produces
benefcial and purposeful student learning through the use
40
of appropriate procedures’ (Centra, 1993, as cited in Sajjad, 2010). Braskamp & Ory (1994) defned
efective teaching as the ‘creation of situations in which appropriate learning occurs; shaping those
situations is what successful teachers have learned to do efectively’ (as cited in Sajjad, 2010). In both
defnitions, learning cannot be separated from teaching, which demonstrates the fused nature of the two
components. Similarly, both defnitions speak of the need for faculty members to create ‘procedures’
and ‘situations’ that make the learning environment stimulating and exciting for the student as a
learner. Another defnition of efective teaching is that it is a conscious stream of good decisions that
are made before, during, and afer instruction to ensure the probability that learning will take place and
knowledge will be retained. Again, this emphasizes that learning will occur if relevant teaching skills
are used. Efective teaching involves the ability to integrate research fndings into teaching, and it also
combines human relations skills, judgments, intuition, knowledge of subject matter, and understanding
of learning into one unifed act, resulting in improved learning for students (From Learning to Teaching,
2008). In reality, efective teaching requires numerous skills that teachers must work hard to develop
and acquire. A number of criteria and dimensions of efective teaching have been identifed, and several
of these are described in the following sections.
Criteria for efective teaching
Have a good command of the course content—Faculty members must have an excellent
command of the course content that they intend to impart to their students. Tey should teach only
about their areas of expertise. By being experts of their course material, teachers develop confdence
within themselves, increase their knowledge of the course material, and stay up to date. Tey must also
be capable of organising the course content into feasible and clear topics so that ideas and knowledge
can be taught with clarity and accuracy.
Use an outcome-based instructional orientation—Efective teaching focuses on the outcomes
of learning set by the faculty and students so that students can focus their attention on clear learning
goals (Bulger, Mohr & Walls, 2002). Te outcomes inform them of where they are going and how
they will get there. Furthermore, learning outcomes enable teachers to assess students’ progression
and achievement as a measure of their own teaching efectiveness. Faculty members need to know
whether the students have learned the material and whether the instructional strategies used helped
the students to accomplish the stated outcomes.
Exhibit clarity of instruction—Efective teaching involves clarity of instruction (Bulger et al. 2002).
Basically, teachers must provide students with highly explicit directions and explanations concerning
the course content. Instructions that lack clarity during delivery to the students can cause confusion
and result in frustration. If the content matter is complex and difcult to learn, teachers need to use
clear illustrations or demonstrations to supplement and clarify difcult concepts.
Be fexible—Everyone learns in diferent ways. Faculty members must understand this and adapt
to their students’ learning styles by presenting information using many diferent formats and means.
For example, content could be presented in lecture format, using audio and visual means, and via peer
group discussions. By varying teaching styles and presentation, students can develop further interest
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in the subject and better understand the course content.
Convey and generate genuine interest—Teachers who show great interest and enthusiasm in
their course content can convey and generate great interest from their students (Hativa, Barak & Simhi,
2001). Students are aware of their teachers’ perceptions towards the material being taught. Faculty
members who exhibit genuine interest and passion when teaching and who make a serious efort to
impart their knowledge tend to motivate students to learn.
Create a positive environment conducive to learning—Creating a positive environment that
is conducive to learning can greatly afect students’ ability to concentrate and focus on the content
being presented. Teachers must continuously provide positive encouragement to their students, be
clear, and ofer positive criticism and ideas for improvement. By creating a safe, open, and trusting
environment, students will feel comfortable and enjoy learning. Students will be able to open up to
their teacher regarding their concerns or difculties with the content. A positive learning environment
provides a platform that facilitates happy and fun learning between the teacher and students.
Engage with students—Efective teaching requires students to engage and participate. Tis criterion
suggests that students learn by doing. Teachers must create a dynamic educational environment that
encourages students to practice the concepts they have learned (Bulger et. al., 2002). Tis engagement
should begin early in the lecture and continue throughout the entire lecture. Furthermore, engagement
and participation are intended to facilitate the development of the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that
will enable the students to accomplish the learning outcomes (Bulger et al., 2002). Teachers need to
create occasions during the lecture to encourage the students to be actively engaged in the learning
process.
Engage in ongoing evaluation and professional development—Faculty members who
are dedicated to continual self-improvement will learn and see things from diferent perspectives.
Tey can use their knowledge and experience to enhance teaching efectiveness and student success
(Smittle, 2003). Teaching is a learned process that is continually undergoing changes, particularly with
the advent of technological improvements that can be applied into the classroom setting. Teachers
must also constantly evaluate themselves and their teaching methods to gauge whether or not they are
efective in the classroom and whether or not their students are learning. Tose who constantly self-
refect, self-evaluate, and adapt and improve their teaching will become great teachers.
Additional tools for efective teaching
Te items listed above in no way constitute an exhaustive list of the criteria faculty members must
possess in order to teach efectively. Indeed, many sources list diferent criteria. For example, Hativa
et. al. (2001) list ‘four main dimensions of efective teaching’ and Smittle (2003) recognises ‘six main
principles of efective teaching.’ In addition, no single criterion works well as a separate, distinct entity,
and there is quite a bit of overlap among the diferent criteria. Teaching usually requires patience in
order to meet and respond to students’ needs and to get everyone involved in the learning process. Te
following methods can be used to ensure efective teaching:
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Show and tell (presentations by students)—Te show and tell method ofen is used in the
practical teaching. Tis method requires the student (or group of students) to explain a concept to other
students to help them understand it (Counter, Balaraman, Lacey & Hochgraf, 1996). Tus, the role of
the student is changed to that of a teacher, and the teacher only provides guidance and monitoring
during the learning process. As an example, students can be asked to use a slide show and/or computer
to present their information about an issue or problem to the rest of the class. Te purpose of this
method is to challenge the students to come up with a creative solution to the problem and to enhance
their critical thinking (i.e., ability to think outside the box). To avoid embarrassing situations and to
ensure that the demonstrations are useful to the entire class, the teacher should review the contents of
the presentation before it is presented to the class.
Case studies—A case study is ofen used to encourage students to give an account of an actual activity,
event, or problem that contains some of the background and complexities that they will encounter
in their future working life (Counter et al., 1996). Because case studies are real-life scenarios, they
help students understand and relate what they learn to the real world. Case studies involve the use of
concepts from multiple disciplines and many related issues. Moreover, they promote discussion and
feedback from the students. Case studies can be included at all levels of the curriculum. Although
faculty members ofen encounter difculty fnding cases that are suitable to the topic they are teaching,
with a little extra efort (searching or asking others), it should not be too hard to fnd a relevant case
study.
Guided design projects—Teachers can assign a project to be completed over the course of a
semester, thus giving students the opportunity to work as a team to apply what they have learned
(Counter et al., 1996). Guided design projects aim to bring practical design experience into the lecture
hall. Such projects are appropriate at any level, but they usually require a lot of preparation by the
teacher. One of the best ways for students appreciate the industrial design methodology is to have them
redesign and modify existing ideas or projects (Counter et al., 1996). In this way, students experience
the design process. In addition, faculty members must consider the scope of the project and the goals
for the students. Te scope of the project must be reasonable, and care must be taken to ensure that the
students are not overloaded. If necessary, the project can be divided into sections that can be worked
on and during the semester.
Flowcharts—Flowcharts are useful tools, as teachers can organise the fow of logic and thought
systematically, then present the fow of contents between various units of a complicated concept. Tis
is an efective way of presenting information in a lecture hall, as students can see and understand
concepts better.
Brainstorming—Brainstorming is used to encourage students to generate ideas in an unhindered
manner (Counter et al., 1996). Brainstorming encourages students to participate actively in idea-
generation exercises and experience benefts of a multi-dimensional approach to analysing problems
or solutions. Brainstorming is applicable in labs, lectures, and discussion sessions. It is especially useful
in courses that require generation of multiple answers from multiple dimensions rather than the usual
single-answer approach to problems (Counter et al., 1996).
Te advantage of this method is that all students have an equal chance to participate. When conducting
a brainstorming session, the teacher must make sure that everyone agrees on the topic or issue being
43
discussed. Next, he/she needs to write down every idea on a fip chart, blackboard, or other visual
display. It is important that the teacher does not allow students to reject or criticise ideas initially, and
ideas should not be weeded out until the brainstorming session is completed. Tis is a preventive step
to keep the idea or solution path from becoming narrowed or limited.
Question-and-answer method—Te question-and-answer method (or inquiring method) is
widely used to guide students into active participation in the teaching and learning processes. Tis
method encourages students to move beyond memorisation to higher levels of learning that require
clarifcation, expansion, generalisation, and inference (Counter et al., 1996). To use this method,
teachers must spend time devising a set of appropriate questions for use during the teaching session. It
is a good strategy for the teacher to anticipate student responses to their questions so that they are able
to stay ahead of the students.
A well-planned list of questions is the frst step towards having a successful question-and-answer
session (Counter et al., 1996). Simply posing questions is not enough to motivate or help the students
to move to higher levels of learning. Terefore, the teacher needs to structure the follow-up questions
ahead of time or probe deeper afer a student answers a question. For instance, use the Wh-questions
(i.e., who, what, when, why, and where) is useful for checking the information possessed by the
students. On the other hand, it is good to remember not to embarrass a student by repeatedly asking
questions of a student who is unable to answer. Likewise, the teacher must avoid making negative
comments afer an incorrect answer in order to prevent low response upon future questioning. Praising
and encouraging students who give correct answers in order to motivate them to respond to further
questions is recommended.
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Application of software—Sofware tools are widely used today in lectures and are proving to be
very efective teaching aids. One of the benefts of sofware tools is that they provide a clear visualisation
of abstract concepts and ideas (Counter et al., 1996). If teachers use relevant sofware tools, they can
improve teaching efciency in many cases. Specifc computer sofware packages ofer students self-
learning or e-learning (electronic-learning) systems that can be instrumental in motivating them to
learn complicated concepts.
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Overview of efective teaching
Learning and positive learning outcomes cannot exist without efective teaching methods. Clearly,
learning cannot be separated from teaching, as both processes require the commitment of both teachers
and students. In short, faculty members need to develop their knowledge and skills in teaching in order
to produce the creative thinkers needed for the future.
Efective Learning
Learning can be viewed as the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, insights, and attitudes (Smith
& Blake, 2005). Students enrolled in higher education programs are confronted with a multitude of
information from the many courses that they are required to take, and they must absorb and learn this
information in a short period of time. Te university years ofen are quite stressful, as students must
cope with many demands and expectations. Tus, students have much to gain from having efective
learning techniques within their study regimen.
Kizlik (2010) described efective learning as one of the skills that must be practiced by learners. Efective
learning occurs when ‘learners are motivated and become eager participants in their learning’ (Perth
& Kinross Council, 2009). To ensure efective teaching and motivation towards teaching, students
themselves must possess motivation and enthusiasm towards learning. It is up to the student to discover
the methods of learning that are most efective for him or her.
46
Criteria for efective learning
Discover your learning style—Tere is no one method of learning. Some people learn best visually
(i.e., seeing lecture notes and graphics in front of them) or through auditory means (i.e., hearing the
teacher present the material during lectures). Still others learn through tactile methods, through
physical touch (working with the hands), or by writing out lecture notes by hand. Many students use a
combination of learning methods to learn the course material. Students must also discover their own
study quirks: Do they study and concentrate best in the morning or in the evening? In a library setting
with others around or isolated without any disturbances? Can they only focus with music on or with
complete silence? With discussion among a peer study group or studying on their own? By developing
and understanding an individual learning style, the student can become an efective learner.
Organisation and compartmentalising tasks—Students are ofen overwhelmed by the sheer
amount of content that they are responsible for learning. Being able to take a large amount of material
and break it down into smaller, more manageable sections can make learning easier. In order for
students to do this, they must possess the necessary organisational skills. Trough proper organisation,
students can make learning fun and efective.
Practice, make connections, and review—Students must review and practice in order to be
good at anything. Repetition and application of knowledge is the key here. ‘Students cannot learn to
think critically, analyse information…work as part of a team, and acquire other desirable skills unless
they “do those things over and over in many contexts” (American Association for the Advancement of
Science, 1990). Trough practice, students can develop ways to make connections and draw similarities
between particular concepts that they need to learn. Once connections are made and frequent practice
of the content occurs, and with continuous review, there will be solidifcation of knowledge.
Get feedback from teachers and peers—Students must make an efort to seek feedback from
teachers and peers in regards to what they have learned so far in their courses. Faculty members are the
best source of information in terms of determining the student’s progress and achievement. Students
can also utilise friends and peers who are learning the same content to gain a better sense of the things
that need to be learned from a difering perspective. Students should focus on receiving assistance that
is analytical and suggestive while also making a sincere efort to be interested in receiving feedback
from others (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1990). Once feedback is received,
students can work to make necessary adjustments and to solidify their knowledge of the content.
Accumulate life experiences  and  knowledge—Students need to accumulate life experiences,
which may include work-related activities, tasks/responsibilities, and previous education and lessons
learned (Lieb, 1991). Tey need to connect these life experiences to their learning. Students can draw
on their own experience and knowledge that is relevant to the topic being taught. Tey also can relate
theories and concepts to their life experience to make learning meaningful.
Be goal oriented—Upon enrolling in a course, students must know the course goals or objectives so
that they learn and obtain the knowledge they want and need. Terefore, students need to understand
the role of the teacher in helping them attain their goals. Clarifcation of goals and course objectives
must be conducted early in the course so that the students understand and strive towards those goals.
47
Be relevancy oriented—Normally, one must see a reason for learning something. For students,
learning has to be applicable to their work or other responsibilities so that it is of value and beneft to
them. Tis means that students need to choose projects that refect their own interests so that theories
and concepts are relevant and related to a setting familiar to them (Lieb, 1991).
METHODS THAT HELP STUDENTS LEARN EFFECTIVELY
No two people study in the same way or follow the same method, and what works for one person may
not function equally for another. However, there are some general methods that seem to produce good
results. For students, being successful in their studies depends on their ability to learn efectively and
efciently.
Learn instead of memorise—Before memorising facts and rules, students need to have an overall
picture of the learned knowledge. Te picture, however, does not have to be complete to the last detail
(Wozniak, 1999). It is also important not to memorise loosely related facts. Students need to know
the overall content to put the facts together, starting from the basics. Basics are usually easy to retain
and take a little time to learn and memorise. Afer the basics are mastered, students can proceed with
learning using individual questions and answers to obtain a deeper understanding of the material.
Keep things simple—Students must formulate their study materials in the simplest way possible.
Simplicity does not have to imply losing information or skipping the difcult parts. However, simple
content is easy to remember and is easily processed by the brain (Wozniak, 1999). Repetition of simple
items is easier for students to schedule, so students need to break complex topics into simpler sub-
items. Tey need to repeat them frequently enough to retain the more difcult items in their memory.
If students split complex item into sub-items (chucking), each can be repeated at its own pace, which
in the end saves time. Inexperienced students tend to chuck and produce items that could easily be
split into simpler sub-items.
Use mnemonic techniques—Mnemonic techniques help with remembering, which explains
why ‘one picture is worth a thousand words’ (Wozniak, 1999). Mnemonic techniques are easy to learn,
available to everyone, and do not require any special skills. One of the most popular and respected
mnemonic techniques is mind mapping. Mind mapping refers to an abstract picture in which
connections between its components refect the logical connections between individual concepts
(Wozniak, 1999). Before the students start believing that mastering such techniques will prevent
them from forgetting, they should be warned that the true bottleneck towards long-lasting and useful
memories is not in quickly memorising knowledge. Indeed, it lies in retaining memories for months,
years, or for a lifetime.
Reduce  interference—If knowledge of one item makes it harder to remember another item,
students may experience the problem of memory interference. In simple terms, students get confused
about what they are learning. Interference is probably the single greatest cause of forgetting during the
learning process (Wozniak, 1999). To prevent this kind of interference, students need to combat and
reduce the interference so that it will make their learning process less stressful. Students are encouraged
48
to make items as unambiguous as possible and to ask for clarifcation at all times. For instance, students
need to eliminate the interference as soon as they spot it before it confuses them during their learning
process. Consequently, they will fnd it easier to learn without being distracted.
Filter out redundant information—Redundancy  means that students obtain more information
than is needed or duplicate information from various sources (Wozniak, 1999). Students need to
identify the redundancy/duplication of information and to take in only what is relevant. Tey may fnd
this technique useful and applicable when they are searching for reasoning cues. Tey can boost their
reasoning ability by asking about the solution to the problem (i.e., asking for the specifcs). Instead of
‘cut and paste’ answers, students need to follow quickly the reasoning steps and generate the answer.
Prioritise—Students need to know that prioritising is critical when they are building knowledge.
Te way in which students prioritise infuences the way in which they gain knowledge. Similarly, it
also afects the speed of learning and whether they learn efectively or not (Wozniak, 1999). Tere are
many sources of knowledge for students, including books, journals, and notes from diferent courses.
Terefore, students must prioritise these sources and extract only the parts that are signifcant and that
impact the quality of their knowledge. Tey can accomplish this by marking paragraphs in a book or
journal, pasting relevant web pages to a folder, and typing facts and fgures directly into their notes.
Te best way to prioritise the fow of knowledge into their memory is to use incremental reading tools
or electronic aids such as computers or notebooks. As they progress in their learning process, they will
quickly develop the experience needed to identify information that is relevant and signifcant.
Summary
Te criteria and methods for efective learning that were discussed above are by no means exhaustive
and conclusive. Much variance can be found in the literature. However, profound similarities can
be found when comparing the criteria for efective teaching and those for efective learning, which
49
underscores the intense symbiotic relationship between teachers and students. Both must possess and
profess interest and enthusiasm in teaching what needs to be taught and learning what needs to be
learned. Both faculty members and students need to be well organised and open to receiving feedback
in terms of his or her individual progress. Tus, feedback, through the use of assessments, will be the
focus of the next section.
ASSESSMENT OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
In higher education, assessment refers to any process that appraises an individual’s knowledge,
understanding, abilities, or skills (Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education, 2006). Assessment
and grading practices are used to measure and report learning outcomes. Harvey (2004) stated that
assessment of teaching and learning is a process of evaluating the quality and appropriateness of the
learning process, including the teacher’s performance and pedagogic approach. Tis includes assessment
of how well the faculty member performs as a teacher and learning facilitator and the appropriateness
of the pedagogic processes and practices used, including the suitability of the methods used to assess
students’ progress and development.
A good assessment of efective teaching and learning must be fair and clear. It must have a specifc
goal to show what a student has or has not learned. Moreover, diferent assessment tools should be
implemented for diferent purposes. Tere are many diferent forms of assessment that serve a variety
of purposes. Tese include promoting students’ learning by providing them with feedback, normally to
help them improve their performance. Assessments also can be used to evaluate the students’ knowledge,
understanding, abilities, and skills that they have gained from the learning process (Assessment Online,
2010). Assessment of efective teaching and learning provides a grade that shows students’ performance
so that they can make decisions about their future. Assessments also can be used by employers and higher
education providers to determine if an individual has attained the appropriate level of achievement. Tis
also refects the academic standards set by the educational institution.
Te way in which students are assessed ofen has a signifcant infuence on their learning. To pass
the course or program, students have to demonstrate that they have achieved the intended learning
outcomes. Below are some criteria of assessment that can be used to promote efective teaching and
learning.
Knowledge of curriculum content
Knowledge of curriculum content is essential for assessment of efective teaching and learning
(Assessment Online, 2010). Faculty members must have a deep knowledge of the material they are
teaching and how students learn it. Quality assessment depends on knowledgeable teachers who are
able to observe and respond to the interpretations of their students so that they can enhance their
students’ learning process. Te ways in which teaching, learning, and assessment are structured by the
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faculty are a direct product of teachers’ content knowledge and beliefs about how their students think
and learn.
Historically, accounting of student learning has been guided by a taxonomy of learning called Bloom’s
Taxonomy (Bloom & Krathwohl, 1956). Tis taxonomy consists of a hierarchical structure that possesses
six levels of thinking and learning skills that range from basic learning objectives (e.g., knowledge of
content) through higher-order learning (e.g., synthesis, evaluation, and creativity). Bloom’s Taxonomy
was the basis for early work on the development of instructional objectives for knowledge content
(Center for University Teaching, Learning, and Assessment [CUTLA] 2011).
Developing higher-order thinking levels in students is not an easy task. Tus, teachers should refer
to Bloom’s Taxonomy for assistance as they prepare assessments for their classes. For instance, design
and review of the curriculum should promote students’ development along Bloom’s Taxonomy from
basic (i.e., remember, describe, and explain) to intermediate (application and analysis) to advanced
(evaluation and creation) levels. In a well-designed curriculum, students develop their basic learning
skills and acquire foundation knowledge in the earliest courses (CUTLA, 2011). As they move to more
advanced courses, they develop higher-order learning methods and a more advanced understanding of
their specifc feld.
51
Skills content
In the Malaysian context, the Malaysian Qualifcation Framework stresses the following eight domains
of learning outcomes: knowledge; practical skills; social skills and responsibilities; values, attitudes,
and professionalism; communication, leadership, and team skills; problems skills and scientifc skills;
information management and lifelong learning skills; and managerial and entrepreneurial skills
(University Education in Malaysia, 2009). It is important that the assessments used evaluate all of these
skills.
Learning environment
Learning environment refers to the use of methods, management, teaching aids, and instruments/
equipment that are designed and used by faculty members to afect teaching and the quality of student
learning (Senate Committee on Teaching and Learning [SCOTL], 2002). Feedback from students should
always be used to help teachers improve their methods, management, teaching aids, and equipment so
that they are helpful in directing learners. Some ways of assessing the learning environment include
short summaries, critical incident questionnaires, and focus groups.
Well-planned assessments
Assessments of students should be well planned to assess learning outcome, teaching strategies, and
environmental factors. A good assessment should be fexible so that changes can be made in response
to new information, opportunities, or insights (Atherton, 2010). Moreover, assessment strategies should
review students’ understanding of the goals they are pursuing.
Valid and fair
Assessments should be valid, fair, and suited to the purpose (Atherton, 2010). Tey should measure
progress, not just achievement. To make a valid and fair measure of progress over time, teachers need to
analyse information from various sources (i.e., not just from an examination). It is important that they
gather information both formally and informally via student self-refection and peer evaluation.
Methods used to assess efective teaching
A range of assessment approaches should be used to promote efective teaching and learning. Tese
methods are categorised into two groups: methods for assessing teachers (i.e., efective teaching) and
methods for evaluating students (i.e., efective learning).
Teaching portfolios—A teaching portfolio is a factual description of the instructor’s teaching
achievements and contains documentation that collectively suggests the scope and quality of their
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teaching (SCOTL, 2002). A teaching portfolio can be used to present evidence about teaching quality
for assessment purposes, as it provides a useful context for analysing the teaching. Alternatively, a
teaching portfolio can provide the framework for a systematic refective analysis and peer collaboration
leading to improvement of teaching.
Teaching portfolios provide an opportunity for faculty members to articulate their teaching philosophy,
review their teaching goals and objectives, and assess the efectiveness of their lectures and the strategies
they use to identify areas of strength and opportunities for improvement. Tey also can highlight their
range of responsibilities, accomplishments, and contributions to teaching and learning more generally
within the department, university, and scholarly community (SCOTL, 2002).
Continuous improvement plan—By defnition, a continuous improvement plan is a set of
activities that are designed to bring gradual but continual improvement to a process through constant
review (Reh, 2010). A continuous quality improvement process measures learning outcomes of the
courses taught. Implementation of this process will provide teachers with a continuous assessment to
check course contents, teaching methods, and skills that can enhance students’ performance.
Assessment and improvement processes require the commitment of the faculty. Tese tasks include
preparing lecture materials that facilitate students’ understanding of course contents and developing
course tasks that stimulate students’ critical thinking, problem solving, communication, and teamwork
cooperation. Teachers also need to introduce adequate action plans that can improve learning
outcomes of students who are slower at comprehending the material. With the plans in place, teachers
can develop teaching strategies and adopt new tools and technologies that are benefcial to all students
taking the course.
Students’ assessment capability—When students actively participate in assessing their learning
by interpreting their own performance, they are able to recognise important moments of personal
learning (Assessment Online, 2010). Tis helps them to identify their own strengths and needs and
discover how to make further decisions in the future. Faculty members need to change the students’
mindset about assessment by teaching them assessment capabilities; in this way students will
understand that the assessment is for them to take charge of their own learning. Trough this process,
students will become more efective and independent learners. Moreover, assessment-capable students
can provide better information to teachers. Better student feedback gives a clearer picture of students’
learning needs and enables more self-development of learning.
Methods used to assess efective learning by students
Student ratings of teaching—Student ratings of teaching (i.e., student evaluations) are the most
commonly used source of information about teaching. For purposes such as tenure and promotion,
data are obtained over time and across courses using a set number of global or summary type questions
(SCOTL, 2002). Such data provide a cumulative record and enable patterns of teaching progression to
be detected. Information obtained from student ratings is commonly used by teachers to improve their
courses and to identify areas of strength and weakness in their teaching. Longer and more focused
questionnaires are normally used as a formative evaluation.
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Te use of a standardised questionnaire in an institution puts all teaching assessments on a common
footing and facilitates comparisons among courses, academic staf members, and departments. Te
data gathered ofen are used to assess whether the educational goals of the department are being
met (SCOTL, 2002). Structured questionnaires are particularly appropriate when relatively large
numbers of students are involved. Such surveys are relatively economical to administer, summarise,
and interpret. Students are only asked to comment on items with which they have direct experience
through their learning process. Student responses to the questionnaires have been found to be valid.
Open-ended questions in the questionnaire provide insight into the numerical ratings and provide
pertinent information for course review and revision.
Course portfolios—A course portfolio is a variant of the teaching portfolio and is the product of
focused inquiry into the learning by students in a particular course (SCOTL, 2002). It represents the
specifc aims and works of the teacher. It generally includes components such as aims and strategies
of the course; the relationship between the method and outcomes; analysis of student learning based
on key assignments and learning activities to advance course goals; analysis of student feedback; a
summary of the strengths of the course in terms of students’ learning; and critical refection about
how the course goals are realised, changed, or unmet. Te fnal analysis leads to ideas about what to
change in order to enhance student learning, thinking, and development of the course the next time
it is taught.
Examinations — A  test or an examination is an assessment  intended to measure
students’ knowledge, skill, aptitude, physical ftness, or classifcation in all of the topics taught over the
semester. It usually is divided into two or more sections, each covering diferent domains of learning
or taking a diferent approach to assessing the same aspects. Examinations are used mainly to assess
a student’s understanding through application of the course. Grades or results from the standardised
examination are used to determine if a student achieves the standards set.
In conclusion, a good assessment should focus on making students’ thinking visible to both the teacher
and the student. It should help students become more aware not only of the course content but also of
the process of learning. Tis gives them a control of their own learning via development of the skill of
self-regulation.
CONCLUSION
Te future of any country depends on its human resources, and the productivity and efciency of the
human resources are outcomes of efective teaching and learning. Te soul of learning is teaching.
Terefore, faculty members need to be efective teachers. Tis chapter included a broad discussion of the
defnition, criteria, and methods on efective teaching and learning. It also covered criteria and methods
of assessing efective teaching and learning.
54
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2010. From http://assessment.tki. org.nz/Assessment-in-the-classroom/Assessment-forlearning/Principles-of-assessment
Atherton, J. S. (2010). Teaching and Learning: Assessment. Retrieved on November 24, 2010, from http://www.
learningandteaching.info/teaching/assessment.htm
Bloom, B.S., and Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classifcation of educational goals by a
committee of college and university examiners. Handbook I: Cognitive Domain. New York: Longman, Green.
Braskamp, L.A., and Ory, J.C. (1994). Assessing faculty work: Enhancing individual and instructional performance. San
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Bulger, S.M., Mohr, D.J., and Walls, R.T. (2002). Stack the deck in favor of your students by using the four aces of efective
teaching. Journal of Efective Teaching, 5(2).
Center for University Teaching, Learning, and Assessment (CUTLA). (2011). Assessment of student learning: Introduction to
Bloom’s Taxonomy. West Florida, Florida: CUTLA.
Centra, J.A. (1993). Refective faculty evaluation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Counter, S., Balaraman, P., Lacey, J., and Hochgraf, C. (1996). Strategies for efective teaching: A handbook for teaching
assistants. Madison: University of Wisconsin.
From Learning to Teaching. (2008). All about teaching and learning. Retrieved on 18 November 2010. From http://
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qualityresearchinternational.com/glossary/
Hativa, N., Barak, R., and Simhi, E. (2001). Exemplary university teachers: Knowledge and beliefs regarding efective teaching
dimensions and strategies. The Journal of Higher Education, 72(6), 699–729.
Kizlik, B. (2010). Efective study skills. Education information for new and future teachers. Retrieved 18 November 2010. From
http://www.adprima.com/studyout.htm
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Perth and Kinross Council. (2009). Creating a curriculum for excellence, part two: Efective learning and teaching. Perth: Perth
and Kinross Council.
Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA). (2006). Code of practice for the assurance of academic quality and
standards in higher education (Section 6: Assessment of students). United Kingdom: QAA.
Reh, F.J. (2010). Continuous improvement plan. Retrieved 24 November 2010. From http://management.about.com/cs/
operations/g/contimpplan.htm
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docstoc.com/docs/49796914/efective-teaching-methods-at-higher-education-level
Senate Committee on Teaching and Learning (SCOTL). (2002). The teaching assessment and evaluation guide. California: York
University.
Smee, S. (2003). Skill based assessment. British Medical Journal, 326, 703–706.
Smith, P., and Blake, D. (2005). Facilitating learning through efective teaching. Australia: National Centre for Vocational
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supermemo.com/articles/20rules.htm
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57
PART 2
CHAPTER 1
THE QUEST FOR EXCELLENCE IN TEACHING
Abd Karim Alias
PERSONAL TEACHING PHILOSOPHY
I simply love teaching! Teaching, above all else, brings me great
joy. I think I have a natural interest (if not talent) and passion
for teaching, and I’m very grateful to Allah for giving me this
honorable career. My earliest teaching experience was when I
was in secondary school and my friends would ask me to help
them with science and when I taught my neighbour’s children
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to read Quran. In Forms four and fve, I taught my friends chemistry, and in school I was known as the
‘chemistry wizard’.
In retrospect, I have always found myself in an academic environment. When I graduated in 1986 during
the economic slump, I worked for a few months selling encyclopedias. Ten I taught in a private school
while waiting for a permanent job. Tat experience was very exciting and rewarding and led me to
choose teaching as a lifetime career. Tat was the best decision I ever made. I genuinely enjoy teaching
and cannot imagine myself doing anything else. I still teach every class with passion, excitement, and
enthusiasm, as if I am teaching it for the frst time.
As I refect upon my academic career, it is clear that my teaching style has been strongly infuenced by
my mentors. What made my mentors exemplary teachers was their devotion to their students and to
their profession. Specifcally, my mentors set high academic standards for students and for themselves.
Central to my philosophy of teaching is to create a stimulating and non-intimidating environment in
the classroom. I believe that teaching is an exciting adventure in which both the teacher and the students
participate and cooperate to achieve a common goal. It is much like ‘Explorace’ (TV programme), in
which team members have to work hard together to accomplish certain tasks, overcome challenges
and obstacles, and fnally reach their destination and celebrate the success together. Learning means
questioning, refecting, and reviewing. I work hard to stimulate my students’ intellectual curiosity and
interest and get them genuinely involved in the process of learning. I urge students to actively participate
in the class in several ways. For example, at the beginning of each lecture, I ask a few students to give a
summary of the previous lecture. Tis strategy serves to reinforce their understanding and also enables
me to gauge and correct any misconceptions.
I believe in facilitative learning, where I assume the role of facilitator. I always make it very clear to my
students that my role is mainly as a guide. When I teach a new batch of students, I start the frst lecture
by showing a slide with this quotation from George Bernard Shaw: ‘I’m not a teacher, only a fellow
traveler of whom you asked the way’. A teacher can only point; learning is done entirely by the student.
I like to think that I lead my students on an intellectual journey through their course of study. My role
is to point out the scenic attractions, highlighting particular features of the subject matter and focusing
attention on major points, important terms or concepts, relevant issues, and signifcant relationships.
I believe our role as educators goes beyond transmitting knowledge: Our role is to nurture our students
to become lifelong learners, to teach them to ‘learn how to learn’, and to teach them to appreciate and
love knowledge. Tis is the essence of what enables our students to become successful lifelong learners. I
always emphasise to my students that what they will learn during their time at the university is merely the
tip of the iceberg. Tere is a vast amount of untapped knowledge that they need to explore, just like the
base of the iceberg that is unseen because it lies below the surface. I want them to understand that they
need to develop the skill of ‘learning how to learn’ because once they acquire this skill they will be able to
explore the knowledge universe. In other words, I want them to acquire the so-called ‘21
st
century skills’,
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which include learning and innovation skills (critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, innovation,
communication, and collaboration), Information and communications technology (ICT) literacy, and
life and career skills (fexibility, adaptability, self-direction, and social awareness).
THE ATTRIBUTES OF A GREAT TEACHER
I strongly believe that the following fve characteristics constitute excellence in teaching: enthusiasm,
clarity, preparation/organisation, stimulating, and love of knowledge.
Enthusiasm
Without a doubt, enthusiasm is critical to promoting a vibrant classroom. Passion and love for the
subject are essential and can do wonders in terms of providing a tangible beneft for the students. If
students see a teacher who passionate about and exudes enthusiasm for the subject he/she is teaching,
inevitably they will be afected positively by this energy and will engage themselves actively in the
learning process. Te enthusiasm that teachers bring to the classroom helps to create an encouraging
and supportive atmosphere.
I frmly believe that teachers who share their passion for teaching and who teach with enthusiasm and
empathy are more likely to both connect with learners and increase learner performance. Numerous
studies have shown that students respond favorably to enthusiastic teachers, and this trait has always
been associated with teaching excellence. In my classroom, I always want to be seen energetic and
enthusiastic when delivering a lecture. Although it is difcult to maintain the same level of enthusiasm
day afer day, teachers have little choice if they expect students to reciprocate and if they want to make
the classroom come alive.
Clarity
A good teacher clearly explains his/herself clearly so that students understand exactly what is being
taught. Teachers should have an excellent grasp and mastery of the subject they teach, and they
should be able to articulate their ideas succinctly without any ambiguity. Even though teachers are
the subject matter experts, sometimes they need to try a few diferent ways of explaining a topic
before they fnd the one that is most efective for their students. In my view, when a teacher is able
to explain something in more than one way, it shows that they have a complete understanding of the
information they are teaching. Tis ability validates what they say to the students and makes them
believe in their teacher’s mastery of the subject.
In my classroom, I spend a lot of time introducing and explaining important concepts. Te approach
to presenting material in the classroom is of utmost important to achieve this objective. Typically,
before delivering a new concept to students, I provide background information and ask them to fnd
the solution to certain questions. Tis approach reveals the depth of their prior knowledge and their
grasp of fundamental principles. I next introduce the theory I want to communicate. Tis approach
creates curiosity so that the students want to learn about the concept. It enables the students to
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remember the subject forever and also stimulates them to look for other approaches to master the
task of remembering.
Preparation and organisation
A good teacher puts considerable efort, energy, time, and even money into organising and preparing
teaching materials. Typically, this includes constructing detailed course outlines, establishing course
objectives, and defning evaluation procedures.
Stimulating
Boredom can be a teacher’s greatest enemy. Tus, it is important that teachers create a stimulating
environment that captures the interest of the students. Stimulating teachers are entertaining,
motivating, captivating, engaging, interesting, enlightening, and thought provoking. Making learning
fun and stimulating is easier said than done—it is an art as much as it is a practice. To be stimulating,
teachers must be creative and use any tools or techniques at their disposal. Teachers should be aware
of the available pedagogical options and techniques so that they can ‘mix and match’ as appropriate to
suit certain learning environments and diferent learning styles.
I view teaching techniques and tools as a bufet lunch, with a variety of foods from which to choose.
With many teaching repertoires available, teachers should not be predictable in their teaching
practices. In my view, all great teachers are unpredictable because they always surprise their students
with diferent ‘tricks’ up their sleeves.
Knowledge
Teachers are considered to be subject matter experts and are expected to have a mastery of the subject
they are teaching. Sherman et al. (1987) divided knowledge into two general categories: the teacher’s
grasp of the subject matter and the teacher’s love of and passion for the subject matter. I see this as
the ‘disciplined mind’ described by Howard Gardner in his book, Five Minds for the Future (Gardner,
2006). Gardner proposed that one needs to know how to do at least one thing really well. In other
words, a disciplined mind refers to the ability to focus and develop a deep knowledge and mastery
of any subject matter, be it music, photography, or quantum physics. Tis means that if I teach about
food chemistry, I should have in-depth knowledge of the subject so that I can appropriately guide my
students in their exploration of the subject.
TEACHING APPROACHES
Te fve attributes of great teachers described above are by no means defnitive. To be an excellent
teacher, one has to systematically and refectively appraise one’s own teaching approaches and strategies.
Knowing what makes great teachers is not enough; it is more important to practice and infuse the best
practices of great teachers consistently into our teaching, always with the goal of achieving teaching
excellence.
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When I teach, I use a number of approaches. Below I highlight some of the things that I believe are
essential to efective teaching.
Structured lectures
My primary objective when teaching any food science/technology subject is to make the students
understand and appreciate the signifcance of that course in the real-world food industry. My second
objective is to provide them with the fundamental knowledge required for that course. I structure my
lectures so that I can achieve both objectives. I try to begin each class with a brief summary of the
previous class session and a reminder of where we lef of. At this point I usually ask if there are any
questions from the reading, homework, or previous class. Afer this brief discussion, I usually give
a lecture on new material. I try to begin the lecture with a brief outline and a list of objectives, and I
always try to include examples during the lecture. I always encourage questions and pause during the
lecture to answer them. Depending on the time and topic, I may then have an in-class exercise before
fnally recapping the lecture.
Ensure that the students understand the concepts/principles
My priority is to ensure proper and clear understanding of the concepts, principles and the underlying
mechanisms of a process or phenomenon. Tis is in line with a quote from the great physicist Albert
Einstein:
Tus, I spend more time on explaining these aspects in the classroom. Typically, before delivering
a new concept to students, I articulate the background information, and ask them to fnd out the
solution. Ten I introduce the theory I wanted to communicate. Tis approach creates curiosity to
learn about the concept. Te approach in presenting the material in the class is of utmost important
to achieve this objective. It enables the students to remember the subject forever and also stimulate
them to look for other approaches for that task.
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Provide practical examples
I try to use a lot of practical examples to increase the students’ interest level and to help them see what
they learn in the context of real applications (e.g., in the food industry). For example, in my classes
you might learn why tomato sauce fows more readily than plum sauce, why the chocolate bar melts in
your mouth, and why the sof margarine is spreadable but the block margarine is hard. Tis approach
is efective for at least two reasons. First, it lets the students see the relevance of the information.
Second, it helps them own the knowledge; they can see with their own ears and eyes what the concepts
mean for them.
Hands-on approach
In a laboratory class, I personally show students how to conduct the experiment (e.g., how to carry
out the titration, set up the apparatus, etc.).
Learning by doing
Many educators say that the best way to learn is by
doing. During my 18 years of teaching at the university,
I have found this to be very true. I always tell my
students, ‘You can read all you like, but until you make
mistakes lef and right, you have no idea how things
actually get done!’ In many of the course evaluations
written by students, this ‘hands-on’ approach has been
highlighted as the most efective part of their learning
experience.
Seeing is believing
To convey the excitement of food science to my students, I ofen perform live demonstrations in the
classroom to introduce or illustrate a concept, and usually I ask one or two students to help me. In one
lecture, for example, I bring one full bag containing ten diferent types of food products. In another
course, I bring and assemble a piece of equipment in front of the class. Over the course of a semester,
these demonstrations include pouring tomato sauce onto a plate and pouring milk into a glass to
demonstrate the concept of viscosity and playing with silly putty to illustrate viscoelastic properties.
When live demonstration is not possible, I show a video. I always use pictures and graphs to illustrate
diferent concepts, as most students can then at least intuitively understand the concepts even if they
have trouble understanding the analysis.
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Advanced preparations
Confdence comes with a prepared mind and mastery of the subject. I always prepare my lecture well
in advance and update the material when necessary. I like to visualise the sequence of how I conduct
the learning activities during the 50 minutes lecture. Most of my classes start at 8:00 a.m., and I always
eat breakfast before I come to class. Tis is because I always want to be seen energetic and enthusiastic
when delivering my lecture. Usually I arrive in the lecture room at least 15 minutes early to set up my
computer and get everything ready. I regularly score 98–100% on ‘preparedness of teacher to deliver
lecture’ on students’ evaluation forms. I conduct my lectures according to the schedule that I prepare
at the beginning of each semester.
Meticulously prepared teaching materials
I prepare the lecture handouts/modules meticulously and cover the important topics presented in
the lecture. I do not simply give students a photocopy of a chapter from the book. I also prepare
PowerPoint slides meticulously for classroom presentation, and I use vivid colours, pictures, videos,
and animation. I set up acting and taking a video or photograph to demonstrate certain concepts. I do
all the editing myself. I do not simply scan diagrams or tables from a book; instead I take great pains
to redraw diagrams or redo the tables. Teaching materials prepared haphazardly refect the image of
the teacher and send a wrong message to the students.
Learning beyond the classroom
I believe that students should experience the world beyond the classroom as an essential part of
learning and personal development. Tis makes learning more engaging and relevant and allows
students to appreciate the wider perspective and nurture their creativity. I have found that taking
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students out into the real world immensely enhances their understanding of the course. For example,
I arrange for a factory visit for the students or have them conduct a fnal year research project in the
factory so that they can attain useful practical knowledge.
Bring the laboratory and factory to the classroom
Sometimes it is not possible to arrange for a factory visit, either because of the large number of students
or the factory’s rules (some factories only allow visitors in the laboratory, not in the production
area). Furthermore, some of the courses I teach have no laboratory component, but sometimes it is
necessary to show the students certain techniques required to carry out an experiment. Terefore, I
ofen set up experiments in the laboratory, take pictures or videos of the experiment, and show them
in the lecture. I also go to the factory to take pictures and videos (with prior permission), which I edit,
narrate, and present in my lecture, all at my own cost.
Continuous communication
I believe that one of the secrets of good teaching is to continuously engage the mind of the student.
Terefore, I communicate with my students almost on daily basis (using the e-learning portal and
social media platforms such as Edmodo). I try to answer questions as soon as they are posted in the
forum (i.e., provide immediate feedback). Te visibility and responsiveness of the teacher help to
promote a continuous communication channel, not only between student and teacher but also among
the students.
Regular group discussion
I hold regular group discussions using online collaborative platforms such as Edmodo or Collaborise
Classroom.
Utilise current instructional technologies
I take advantage of many of the available instructional technologies, including the following:
Technology-enhanced learning—I use computer-mediated instruction and the Internet to
provide online learning. Tis overcomes the time constraint associated with conventional face-
to-face lectures, thereby adding value to the course and enriching the learning experience of the
students.
Mind mapping technique—I also encourage students to use the mind mapping technique. At the
end of each major topic, I ask the students to summarise what they have learned and understood in
the form of simple mind map. In the next lecture, I show my own mind map and ask the students
to compare and improve their mind map.
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Creating an atmosphere conducive to learning
I fully believe in Albert Einstein’s sentiment that
To this end, I try to be entertaining to keep the students’ interest. I foster an informal atmosphere and
demand that students ask questions. People learn well when they are relaxed and engaged with the
issues.
Learn while having fun
Trough my e-learning portal and social media platform (Edmodo), I add elements of fun in the
form of interactive crossword puzzles, word games (akin to ‘Wheel of Fortune’), interactive quizzes,
matching correct pairs, and grouping items into correct categories. Tese games add another
dimension to my teaching while ofering the students a multitude of learning approaches. My students
really enjoy the games.
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GUIDING PRINCIPLES
Regarding my teaching approach/strategy, I follow these guiding principles:
Clear understanding of basic principles
I believe that learning requires a deep understanding
that can only be achieved when students understand
the concepts and principles and actively apply
knowledge in creative and meaningful ways. Terefore,
the goal of my lectures is generally to acquaint
students with the fundamental and applied aspects of
physicochemical properties of food systems. I try to
convey the importance of a thorough understanding of
basic concepts and principles rather than simply asking
students to memorize facts, equations, and numbers.
Whenever possible, I try to present the intuitive
non-mathematical description that accompanies
the mathematical one. My goal is to reinforce this
association so that it will be useful when the student re-encounters the problem later in his/her career.
I also believe that physical concepts cannot be taught or learned merely through lectures and/or
reading. Tese concepts demand the use of an entirely diferent part of the brain. For this reason, I
use problem sets extensively in all of my teaching. Because I consider the problem-solving process to
be so important, most of my examination questions are based on problem assignments (also known
as the problem-based approach). I fnd that frequent assignment of problems ensures that students
have thoroughly studied the concepts that were presented in my lectures. I ofen present problem
sets in my lectures and then lead the students through the analysis in a step-by-step fashion. Many
times the problem sets present new material that has never been covered in class. Tis can be a very
time-consuming way for the students to learn, but I have been pleased to hear from many students
that they consider it time well spent. I also encourage the students to collaborate on the problems and
encourage them to have discussions with me. Tis not only helps the students overcome some of the
thorny concepts but also provides useful feedback to me to improve my lecture presentations and
problem writing.
In my opinion, students should understand the relevance of the course to their lives. For example,
when I taught the Physical Properties of Foods course, I began by giving a few scenarios to illustrate
the importance of studying and understanding physical properties. For each course, I identify the
concepts and procedures that I want each student to master. I try to help the students tap into their
prior knowledge or experience, test it against what is presented in class, and use that knowledge as a
basis on which to build a greater understanding of a more complex concept or theory. I then develop
a sequence of instructional activities intended to lead to that mastery. Students are expected to
demonstrate conceptual mastery, not just to recognise or recall facts. Using this approach, I hope that
students will be able to translate and relate the course material to their own lives and to apply abstract
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theories or difcult concepts to what they experience in their everyday world. Ideally, this approach
should empower students to articulate ideas and process concepts in ways that are meaningful to
them.
Teacher/Lecturer as a facilitator (i.e., facilitative learning)
Facilitative learning requires that students do the work. However, it is not easy to adapt to this new
way of teaching (i.e., managing more open-ended discovery by students). Following this approach
means shifing our role from a lecturer to a facilitator who provides resources, monitors progress,
and encourages students to problem solve. For example, I asked a group of six students to come up
with a demonstration of physical properties of food with respect to their impact on food quality, food
processing, food safety, and consumer acceptability. Tis assignment required them to put together
the concepts they had learned in class and translate them into a visual demonstration. Many students,
especially those who prefer to just memorize facts, are uncomfortable with this kind of open-ended
assignment. Tey are not familiar with projects that require them to apply their knowledge to solve
To illustrate my approach to ensure proper understanding of basic
principles, here I describe how I conduct my practical class (IMG 203
- Makmal Analisis Makanan) that involves chemical and instrumental
analysis of food composition. For this class, it is essential that the students
learn and master the right techniques to carry out the chemical analysis or
operate the instrument and that they understand the theoretical aspects
of the experiment. Students are divided into groups (4–5 students/
group), and each group is assigned diferent experiments. Before the
class starts, I give a briefng. Afer the briefng, I tell the students to start
preparing the apparatus or sample, but I do not let them to start the
experiment until I brief the group. I visit each group in turn and ask
them to explain how they will conduct the experiment and the reasons
why certain steps are done. Ten I brief the group about any precaution
they have to observe during the experiment. During the class, I make
rounds from group to group to observe their technique; if necessary, I
demonstrate certain techniques to make sure they do them correctly.
Afer they have completed the experiment, I meet with each group
and discuss the results and any problems they encountered during the
practical. At this point, I ask many questions and I also let the students
ask questions. Tis approach, although strenuous, is a very efective way
to ensure proper understanding of the subject. Tis is particularly true
for laboratory classes, but it also is applicable to theory classes.
!"#!$"#!%
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a problem. Tus, students can get frustrated, and this is where my role as a facilitator is important. If
I am efective in this role, students will become more creative and will be able to apply their learning
to life’s challenges.
Promoting active learning
In my lectures, I always include questions that are
designed to allow students to refect on the important
points I highlighted during the class session, share their
refections with surrounding classmates, and briefy
discuss the insights gained from the activity as a group
before continuing with the lecture.
I also encourage students to participate in the forum
within the e-learning portal that I developed. I design
questions that require deep thinking, analysis, and
application of the concepts/principles that were
presented in previous lectures. I post the questions on
the forum and let the students respond. I always respond
to each student, as this motivates and encourages him/her to actively participate again. In so doing,
the students not only interact more with me and one another, but they also become active participants
in a community that is larger than the classroom itself.
Learn while having fun
If learning is about problem solving and
mastering skills, what greater way is there
to accomplish this than by using games and
simulations to help us teach and learn? By
‘doing’ and by collaborating, people learn
more and retain that knowledge over longer
periods of time. When having fun, students
are actively involved in the process of working
a problem through to a solution. I experiment
with this idea using my e-learning portal as
a delivery medium for interactive games such
as crossword puzzles, quizzes, matching pairs,
groupings, and word games.
My experiences with ‘playing to learn’ via
e-learning have taught me that the use of games and simulations can help bring to life knowledge
and information that might otherwise exist only as bullet points on slides. Te use of stories as the
basis for case studies, scenarios, role playing, and problem solving in a game or simulation-based
format provides a memorable, vivid, and fun means for live e-learning sessions, and students learn,
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remember, and retain knowledge efectively over time. As evidence for the efectiveness of this
technique, here are some comments from the students (verbatim):
“Te word game was fun and mind boggling. Very interesting!
With the clock ticking, my heart couldn’t stop a beat and there
was no time to refer to notes in order to answer the questions as
fast as possible before time out. I wouldn’t consider this game
as childish because at times I’m a kid at heart too. Ha ha.. We
can’t be all that serious at all times, can we?”
“Wow... it’s a very exciting game…made me stress my brain…
but at least I learned something..”
“For the word game, I would say it’s really an interesting game.
Even though I had searched the lecture notes several times, I
was still not able to solve the puzzle. It really made me think
repeatedly what suitable letter should be put into the box”.
Use stories and anecdotes
Do you know how MSG (monosodium glutamate,
a common favor enhancer added to food) was
discovered? Did you know we can produce sugar
from starch – any starch? Do you know the history
of food canning? Do you know that everything fows,
even the mountain – if we wait long enough? Do you
know…OK, let me tell you an interesting story…here
it goes...
I like stories, and I think students of all ages also love stories. One of the classroom techniques
that I personally have found most rewarding is the telling of anecdotes and stories. Science is full
of interesting stories and anecdotes that can transform an ordinary lecture/presentation into a
memorable one. Whenever possible, I begin my lecture or presentation by asking questions or telling
stories and anecdotes. Judging from students’ responses and facial expressions, I believe that most of
the time (perhaps all of the time) the students enjoy hearing such stories. You don’t have to be Tom
Cruise or Nicole Kidman to lighten up your class room; all that is needed for the storytelling approach
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is a pool of stories and a little narrative ability. I believe that telling a story is an efective way to engage
student because it draws them into the learning process. It is a valuable way to make the learning
environment exciting, encourage learning, and also a way to put things into perspective.
As an example, consider my course on Starch Chemistry and Technology. Starch is a type of
carbohydrate that is present in bread, rice, and cereals. Starch is a very important component of food
because it provides the essential energy for the activities of our daily lives. I emphasise to my students
that starch is actually a form of stored energy in plants and that this energy can be released and
harnessed by our system by breaking down starch into sugar. As an analogy, it is like chemical energy
stored in a battery that can be converted into electrical energy. Te challenge is how to explain this
important fact, and to do so I make it into a lively and interesting story. Te bottom line is that with
this story, I whet the students’ appetite to learn more about the chemistry and technology of starch.
To ensure that a story or anecdote will capture and captivate the students’ or audience’s attention, it is
important to rehearse it beforehand, because when you tell the story, you have to deliver it smoothly,
coherently, and convincingly.
INNOVATION IN TEACHING
I view teaching as a vital and enriching part of my job. Terefore, I am dedicated to continuing to
explore innovative ways to enriching my teaching, both in terms of pedagogy and content. I regularly
review my teaching practices and experiment with creative techniques and new ideas. I continue to
make changes to my courses every time I teach them, as I believe that we never really get it just right. I
describe some of my innovations here.
Development of the e-learning portal
One of my most signifcant eforts to improve my teaching was the development of the e-learning
portal. Te portal is based on the Open Access Learning Management System (Moodle). Tis
portal provides a platform for the development of e-learning or online courses to supplement the
conventional face-to-face lecture. Simply put, e-learning is designed to add value and to enrich the
learning experience of the students. I truly believe that this medium (portal) can play a signifcant role
in helping students get the most out of the course. Indeed, I consider the development of the portal
to be a signifcant milestone in my teaching career: It as an achievement of which I am very proud.
Features of my e-learning portal include the following:
Summary of each lecture—Te design of my e-learning course is perhaps rather unconventional
in the sense that the course content is evolving as the classroom lectures progress during the
semester. Te e-learning course is divided into 14 weeks. Afer each lecture, I provide a summary of
the lecture in the portal, usually within 24 hours. In most cases, I add additional points, analogies,
illustrations, and examples. When writing for the portal, I prefer to use informal language (i.e., a
conversational style). From the feedback I have received, I fnd that the students like this approach
because they feel as if I am talking to them directly. I also ofen discuss the important points/
concepts of the lecture in the portal from a diferent perspective; therefore, I do not merely repeat
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the same things I presented in the classroom. In this way, the students can view the concept
presented in the lecture from diferent angles.
Learning activities—Learning activities can help transform online courses into exciting,
meaningful, and active e-learning experiences. Much like the activities and games used in traditional
classroom training, these e-learning activities can be used to increase interactivity, engage learners,
accomplish learning objectives, develop online relationships, promote active learning, and create
learning communities. Some examples of learning activities are:
Forum—Tere are two types of forum: general and specifc. Te general forum is the place where
students can post a message, comment, or suggestion related directly or indirectly to the course.
Te specifc forum, on the other hand, is dedicated specifcally to discussions of topics related
to the course. Typically, afer a number of lectures, I post a question related to those lectures in
the specifc forum. Te use of the forum as a type of learning activity provides interactivity, as
the students can give a response and their colleagues can add or comment on that response. Tis
generates a discussion thread that leads to close interaction among the students, the extent of which
rarely is achievable in the conventional classroom. I design questions that test the understanding
of concepts/principles and that test the students’ ability to apply these principles when solving
practical problems. Te forum includes several categories, such as ‘Tings to Ponder’, ‘Stop and
Tink’, ‘Let’s Crack Your Head’, and ‘Mind-Bending Exercise’. Students are given a specifed time
during which they can send a response to the forum. Afer each exercise in the forum, I discuss the
question and some of students’ responses. I do not provide a direct answer, but instead I discuss
the various possible approaches to address the questions by applying the concepts that the students
have learned. Te forum has provided me with very useful information to assess the students’
understanding of the lecture materials and where they are falling short. Tis gives me time to clarify
certain concepts, and usually I take this opportunity to provide additional examples to illustrate the
concepts.
Quizzes & Games—Tese learning activities are focused on providing students with an
understanding of the related concepts using the element of fun. I use diferent types of quizzes (e.g.,
fll in the blank, multiple choice, and matching pairs). Te word game that I developed has been
very popular (see feedback from students). Tis game is similar to ‘Wheel of Fortune’ (i.e., a clue
is given and the student must click the letter next to the correct answer). Te interactive crossword
puzzle is another game that I use.
Extensive learning resources—Te students have access to various learning resources, such as
selected website links, handouts (pdf), PowerPoint slides, articles, videos, and online lectures. For
selected lectures, I prepare an online lecture that the students can view at their convenience or for
revision of their notes.
Online (virtual lecture)—Te online lecture is conducted in the form of a PowerPoint
presentation (converted into Flash format) combined with narration. Preparation of a good online
lecture is strenuous and very time consuming. It involves preparation of the slides, a script for
each slide, recording and editing the video, recording the audio, and fnally combining everything
into a single presentation. How useful is the online lecture? Online lecture can be used efectively
to add another dimension to the classroom lecture. Although many food science/food processing
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concepts can be learned in a classroom, they can be greatly enhanced by reaching beyond the walls
of a lecture room. In an ideal situation, it is best to teach a principle or concept using a hands-on
approach or by a direct demonstration. Imagine teaching a student about Lane-Eynon titration
to determine the reducing sugar content. Tis is an empirical method and the reaction is non-
stoichiometric, thus strict adherence to the procedure is critical to obtaining good results. A video
recording of the whole experiment can be made, and critical steps of the titration can be highlighted.
Similarly, when teaching a food processing operation (e.g., extraction and refning of vegetable
oils), each step of the process can be recorded in visual form and combined with narration. Tese
examples represent a diferent form of pedagogy (teaching methods) that can be fully utilised for
efective teaching that will greatly beneft the students.
Development of the Virtual Food Science & Technology Library website
Tis website serves two functions: frst as a research bulletin for the research group and second as
a one-stop reference centre for food science/technology students across the globe. My vision is to
establish this website as a credible, authoritative, and respected source of knowledge on food science,
technology, food safety, and product development. To achieve this objective, my Food Science &
Technology Virtual Library (FST Virtual Library) includes all of the relevant resources and links
on food science and technology.  In a sense, it acts as a repository centre that includes documents
in various forms. Lecture notes and PowerPoint presentations can be made available in the form
of pdf fles or in the original format (.doc or .ppt). In addition, recorded presentations (seminars,
conferences) will be converted into a suitable video format (mainly Flash, mpeg, etc.) to suit the
diferent download speed of various modems. Although many food science/food processing concepts
can be learned in a classroom, they can be greatly enhanced by reaching beyond the walls of a lecture
room. When I teach about production of snack foods, I explain the sequence of the process and show
picture and video clips of each stage of the process. Te students can view the presentation repeatedly,
either for revision of their notes or to get a better understanding of the process. Tis is a great way to
add value to classroom teaching because very ofen the time available to cover the course material is
very limited.
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PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
To teach is to learn twice. Constructivism, behaviourism, pedagogy, andragogy, Bloom Taxonomy,
student-centered learning...? I must humbly admit that, in the frst few years of teaching at the university,
I did not know much about the various learning theories and pedagogical aspects of teaching-learning. I
think that most university lecturers (except those with an education background) do not have sufcient
knowledge of and exposure to pedagogy, learning theory, or instructional methods. I am not trained
as a teacher, I am a food technologist. My only experience in teaching was teaching my friends and
a short stint teaching in a private school (secondary level). Soon afer I completed my Ph.D. in Food
Technology, I joined the university as a lecturer, and when I began I did not have the slightest idea how
to teach adult students.
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During the frst few months afer joining the university, I attended induction courses, including one or
two sessions on teaching and learning. I do not think I learned much about learning theory or pedagogy
then, but I still remember a session in which I had to give a mock lecture that was recorded and later
commented on by the facilitator. Tat was the extent of the training I received to become a teacher
(lecturer), and with it I was supposed to be ready to carry out the task of educating adult students.
Without sufcient knowledge of pedagogy and teaching techniques, I had no choice but to use my
intuition, and I developed my own approach based on my limited understanding of what good teaching
means.
It is clear to me now how much more there is to learn and how much more there is to do. Knowledge
of the subject matter alone is not sufcient to be an efective teacher. Developing mastery in teaching is
a continuous learning process. Terefore, I continue to learn and enrich my knowledge so that I can be
a better teacher for my students. Not having formal training in teaching is not an excuse for not doing
anything to improve my teaching skills. I know that if I want to improve my teaching and enhance
students’ learning, must understand what research says about how learning works and about how to
foster learning.
Looking back,  I think I am a better teacher now than I was 18 years ago. However, had I not sought
new knowledge via self-study, my pedagogical approach and teaching skills probably would not have
changed very much. Obviously, the task of preparing teachers to teach is complex and challenging.
Teachers, especially lecturers in higher educational institutions, should not take it for granted that basic
training in teaching is adequate to help students to learn efectively.
Knowledge is not static; indeed, it should expand and be honed and enhanced. I believe that educators
at all levels, from kindergarten to university, should always seek new knowledge, not only in their area
of specialisation but also in other disciplines. To teach is to learn twice. I always believe that we can only
get better, provided we are willing to learn. As someone who is not formally trained as a teacher, I am
always on the lookout for good resources (books, websites, blogs, or courses) on teaching and learning.
Te desire to learn and improve myself has never diminished. My motivation is to enhance my teaching
based on sound pedagogical principles, and in the long run I hope that this approach will beneft my
students’ learning.
I ask myself, with what kind of new knowledge, skills, and competencies should teachers equip themselves?
In this regard, Paulsen (2001) proposed that teachers should master three types of knowledge: (1) content
knowledge—knowledge of the facts, principles, and methods in the discipline that is being taught; (2)
pedagogical knowledge—understanding of the learning process and the conditions that facilitate and
hinder it, independent of the discipline in which the learning takes place; and (3) pedagogical content
knowledge—a term coined by Shulman (1986) to denote knowledge and understanding of the learning
process in the context of a particular discipline.
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It goes without saying that mastery of the subject matter (theories, principles, and concepts) is essential
to help students learn the subject. Assuming that one has mastered the subject content, one also has to
understand how students learn (i.e., the learning process). In this regard, a teacher should have some
basic understanding of learning theory, Bloom Taxonomy, etc. Next, according to Shulman, a teacher
should also have a pedagogical content knowledge. Tis represents ‘the blending of content and pedagogy
into an understanding of how particular topics, problems, or issues are organised, represented, and
adapted to the diverse interests and abilities of learners, and presented for instruction’ (Shulman, 1986).
In other words, teachers with good pedagogical content knowledge are able to explain and transfer the
knowledge of content to their students with clarity and meaning. Tis means that the teacher would
design the teaching approach in such a way and using appropriate techniques (e.g., demonstration,
graphic representation, video, factory/site visit, interview, role playing, games, etc.) to make the subject
comprehensible.
As an example, in my courses I always use demonstrations in the classroom to illustrate certain concepts.
In designing a suitable demonstration, frst I need to have an in-depth understanding of the concept
myself. Next I think of a way to demonstrate it in the simplest possible manner. Tere are at least two
reasons for such an approach. First, it lets the students see the relevance of the information to their life
and career. Second, it helps the students own the knowledge; they can see with their own eyes and hear
with their own ears what the concepts mean for them. Apart from demonstration, I also frequently use
analogies to illustrate certain abstract concepts.
I also ask myself, how do teachers obtain new knowledge in their subject matter (content knowledge),
pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge? Tis can be achieved in several ways, and
below I share my own approaches.
Attend short courses
I constantly try to further develop my knowledge of my subject area (food science and technology),
instructional methods, and educational technology by attending relevant workshops/short courses.
Attending short courses related to one’s discipline is a good (and quick) way to improve knowledge
and gain an in-depth understanding of the subject. By attending such courses, I learn things that are
not normally found in a textbook. Many years ago I attended a 5-day intensive certifcation course
in Australia that was led by an instructor with more than 25 years of practical experience in the feld.
He shared his real industrial experiences, and most of the examples given were from his consultation
work with industry. Tis was invaluable knowledge that could not be found in a standard textbook.
Te knowledge I gain from these courses signifcantly benefts my students’ learning and adds value
to my courses.
With respect to pedagogy, I have participated in a workshop focused on using technology in the
classroom, learning management systems such as Moodle to develop e-learning courses, developing
modules, and introducing active learning into the classroom. Te ideas and information I gained
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from this workshop led me to make signifcant modifcations to my teaching approach, experiment
with problem-based learning, try new pedagogical approaches, and use new tools to help enhance
my students’ learning experience. Tese eforts, taken together, result in continuous eforts to refne,
change, remove, and add both to the content of my courses and to the methods I use to deliver that
content.
Reading
I always look for interesting resources (books, articles) and ideas to incorporate into my lectures
and classes. Reading fuels both my teaching and my research, as I am constantly exposed to new
ideas, techniques, and points of view. Regarding pedagogy, I have found several books that I would
recommend to my fellow educators; reading these would provide at least a rudimentary knowledge of
pedagogical principles and approaches:
Alan Pritchard (2009). Ways of Learning – Learning Teories and Learning Styles in the Classroom, 2nd
edition. Tis book presents basic theories on learning, followed by the two major schools of psychology
that have dealt with learning: behaviourism and constructivism. I like the simplicity of the presentation; it
provides a good introduction to these concepts for novice teachers without a background in education);
Susan A. Ambrose et al. (2010). How Learning Works – 7 Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching.
[Excerpt from the website: ‘It introduces seven research-based principles of learning and addresses issues
such as prior knowledge, knowledge organisation, motivation, and metacognition. Written to be accessible
and practically useful, this book helps to explain why certain teaching approaches do or do not support
student learning and provides faculty with a framework for generating efective approaches and strategies
in their own teaching contexts’].
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Barbara Gross Davis (2009). Tools for Teaching, 2nd edition. [Description copied from the preface: ‘Tools
for Teaching provides new and experienced faculty in all disciplines with practical, tested strategies for
addressing all major aspects of college and university teaching, from planning a course through assigning
fnal grades’].
Educational websites and blogs
Educational websites and blogs are very useful sources of information and new knowledge about
subject content and on pedagogy. For example, in the feld of food science and technology, the
Institute of Food Technology (USA) website publishes the latest information on various aspects
of food science and technology (e.g., processing, ingredients, nutrition, and food safety). As for
pedagogy and teaching/learning, many good websites exist, including Faculty Focus (http://www.
facultyfocus.com), Edutopia (http://www.edutopia.org), Te Chronicle of Higher Education(http://
chronicle.com/section/Home/433), and Times Higher Education (http://www.timeshighereducation.
co.uk/). Some websites, such as Faculty Focus, provide free articles that are downloadable as a PDF
fle. Over the years, I have amassed a huge collection of articles from various websites. Although I
have not read them all, I know that there is a pool of knowledge on my computer waiting to be tapped.
Blogs and social community network groups are useful sources of information, as this is where
educators meet online to discuss and share their thought on various issues. One example is Classroom
2.0 (http://www.classroom20.com/?xg_source=badge) (a social network for those interested in Web
2.0 and Social Media in education). Te Rapid E-learning blog (http://www.articulate.com/rapid-
elearning/) and the informative blog ZaidLearn (http://zaidlearn.blogspot.com/) are useful sources of
information about using technology.
Journals
When looking for the latest research in a given discipline, there is no substitute for reading peer-
reviewed journals. Generally there are two types: review journals, which publish review articles, and
research journals, which publish original research fndings. Some journals are only accessible if your
institution has a subscription. Others are accessible free of charge through open access. Tere are a
number of open access journals in education, including the International Journal for the Scholarship
of Teaching and Learning (.http://academics.georgiasouthern.edu/ijsotl/v5n1.html).To fnd an open
access journal, simply go the extensive online catalogue titled Directory of Open Access Journals
(DOAJ) (http://www.doaj.org/). ‘Tis service covers free, full text, quality controlled scientifc and
scholarly journals. We aim to cover all subjects and languages. Tere are now 6175 journals in the
directory. Currently 2631 journals are searchable at article level. As of today 510028 articles are
included in the DOAJ’ (DOAJ, 2012).
To improve pedagogical content knowledge, there are journals in certain disciplines that focus on the
pedagogical aspects of teaching/learning the content of the discipline. Just to mention two examples,
in chemistry there is the Journal of Chemical Education (co-published by the ACS Publications
Division and the Division of Chemical Education) and in food science we have the Journal of Food
Science Education (available free online, co-published by the Institute of Food Technology, USA and
Wiley).
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Tere is so much that teachers/lecturers/faculty members can do to further their own professional
development. Te bottom line is that continuous professional development of teachers can no longer
be viewed as just an option; it is a necessity if we are to enhance the standard of education at all levels.
CLOSING REMARKS
I believe that at the heart of teaching excellence lies the teacher’s ability to inculcate and strengthen
intellectual qualities such as independent learning, thinking, and inquiry, critical thinking, creative
problem solving, intellectual curiosity, intellectual skepticism, informed judgment, and articulateness.
Teaching, above all else, brings me great joy. It is the joy of seeing the best students excel, seeing the pride
of the average students performing better than they thought possible, and seeing the satisfaction of the
lesser student persevering when they thought they couldn’t make it. As I look back at the last 18 years
of teaching at Universiti Sains Malaysia, I feel joy coupled with humility that I have touched the lives of
many, many people, and, in return, they too have enriched my world. In summary, I continually strive
to teach with clarity, passion, empathy, and sincere enthusiasm, which I hope will efectively impact
learners, connect them to their passion, and, ultimately, make them into lifelong learners. For the rest of
my career, I will be looking ahead, trying to be the best teacher I can possibly be.
REFERENCES
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M.W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M.C., and Norman, M.K. (2010). How learning works; Seven research-based
principles for smart teaching. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Davis, B.G. 2009. Tools for teaching. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). Accessed on 12th February 2012 at http://www.doaj.org/.
Gardner, H. 2006. Five minds for the future. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Harvard Business School Press.
Grant, C.M. 1996. Professional development in a technological age: New defnitions, old challenges, new resources. Available
online: (http://lsc-net.terc.edu/do.cfm/paper/8089/show/use_set-tech. 
Paulsen, M.B. (2001). The relation between research and the scholarship of teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning,
86, 19–29.
Pritchard, A. 2009. Ways of Learning – Learning theories and learning styles in the classroom (2
nd
Edition.). London and New
York: Routledge.
Sherman, T.M., Armistead, L.P., Fowler, F., and Barksdale, M.A. (1987). The quest for excellence in university teaching. The
Journal of Higher Education, 58(1), 66–84.
Shulman, L. S.  (1986). Those who understand:  Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher: 4-14. (AERA (American
Educational Research Association) Presidential Address).
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PART 2
CHAPTER 2
BEYOND THEORY—WHAT IT TAKES TO BE AN
EFFECTIVE TEACHER: MY EXPERIENCES AS A
BUSINESS EDUCATOR
Zainal Ariffin Ahmad
INTRODUCTION
While fnishing my doctoral studies at Northern Illinois
University (NIU) in 1994, I was recruited to work at Universiti
Sains Malaysia (USM) by the Deputy Vice Chancellor Dato’
Professor Ishak Tambi Kechik and the Registrar Dato’ Hajah
Maznah Saad, who were on a recruitment drive across the
United States. I attended the briefng held at the home of a USM
faculty member who was studying at NIU. A few weeks before
graduation in April 1994, I received a phone call from the USM
Human Resources Unit and an ofcial ofer letter via courier.
Two days afer I returned to Malaysia, I reported for duty at the
School of Management on 6 June 1994, and I was welcomed
by the then Dean, Professor Mohamed Sulaiman. I attended
the mandatory 2 weeks of induction, during which I met 50
other administrative and academic colleagues from around the
university, many of whom became lifelong friends. For my frst
teaching assignment for semester 1 of 1994–95, I was assigned
to co-teach AKW101 (Introduction to Management for minor
students) with a senior colleague, Mr. Shafe Arifn. I felt like a
rock star on the frst day of class: We had 700 students sitting in
the aisles of Dewan Kuliah W, which is a hall ft for 400. We later
split the class into two sections. Tus began my journey at USM
afer 11 years of studying and working in the United States. Tis
is the story of my trials and tribulations as a business educator
at USM.
MY TEACHING PHILOSOPHY
As a business educator and human resource developer, I was
trained to have a credo (or philosophy) of teaching to guide
how I should conduct myself as an educator. Tis credo is my
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code of conduct and professionalism. Hence, since 1994, I have frmly upheld the following teaching
philosophy: ‘I am a lifelong learner, therefore I believe that learning should be fun, meaningful, and
lifelong’. Tis philosophy has guided me throughout my years of teaching at USM, and it is evidenced in
the teaching and learning activities that I describe in subsequent sections.
MY TEACHING APPROACH
Adult Continuing Education was my specialization for my Doctor of Education (EdD) degree. Terefore,
with my thesis (Ahmad, 1994) in hand, I arrived at USM ready to share adult education theories and
andragogical approaches as I was preparing to be a teacher/trainer of working adults. Andragogy is the
art and science of helping adults learn, and teaching-learning is learner-focused education for people
of all ages. Tis difers from pedagogy, which is the art and science of educating children and which
still tends to be teacher focused. However, recent developments in education push for more student- or
learner-based instruction, which has been discussed earlier in this book.
I practice and am guided by concepts (i.e., my ‘tok gurus’ (fellow teachers)) in adult education, such as
andragogy (Knowles), self-directed learning, student-centred learning, learning how to learn (Robert
Smith), and others such as those posited by Kidd and Mezirow. I was also infuenced by my late
supervisor, Professor John Niemi, and the human resource development movement. Simply put, as an
adult educator I practice adult learning principles or adult learner-centred teaching. Tus, I strategize
my teaching delivery around the four characteristics of adult learners:
A diferent orientation to education and learning: Students come to class with diferent agendas about
what, how, and when they want to learn. I seek to understand their learning expectations.
An accumulation of experience: I try to draw out the students’ rich experiences through activities such
as student-led class discussions or an activity in my Human Resource class “HR in Practice” where the
students share their experiences about real-life HR practices in organisations.
Special development trends: Students may have problems with eye sight, retention, and attention, which
have implications for the font size I use on my PowerPoint slides and reading materials.
Anxiety and ambivalence: Many students are concerned about exams and assignments. To address this, I
teach them the skill of ‘learning how to learn’, and I give sample exam questions on the frst day of class.
In most of the graduate classes I teach, I like to have a ‘kopitiam’ (traditional Malaysian cofee shop),
round table, or hollow-square set up in the classroom, as this encourages interaction among the
students and allows them to share their accumulation of experiences (Figure 1). On the frst day of
class, I go through the course syllabus with the students and tell them what is expected of them in
terms of deliverables. I also tell them the areas that will be covered in the exams, essay topics and how
I expect their essays to be written, and I provide sample exam questions. Tis helps to alleviate their
anxiety about the exams and their ambivalence about learning. I use adult learning principles in all of
my undergraduate/graduate classes. Looking back, I have taught 63 classes and almost 7,400 students at
USM over the past 16 years (Table 1).
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Table 1: Summary of Classes Taught from 1994-2010 in USM
Taught Undergraduate Graduate Total
Classes 28 35 63
Students 6,823 570 7,393
Year 1
ATW/JTW 101 Management
ATW/JTW 106 Psychology
AGW/AGU 609 HRM
AGW 613 OB
AGW 621 Research Method
AGW 655 Intellectual Capital
MBA
MBA SSME
Year 2
ATW/JTW 252 OB
AKW 202 OB
ADW 613 OB
ADW 609 HRM
MBA online
Year 3
AOP 351 HRM
AOP 354 OD
ATU 398 Independent Study
AGW 703 HRM
AGW 708 Current Issues
AGW 710 Consultancy
AGW 711 Teaching & Training
AGW 727 Consultancy
DBA
As an adult educator, I subscribe to the andragogical approach and see my graduate students as my co-
learners, be it in my MBA (Organisational Behaviour (OB), Human Resources Management (HRM))
and Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) courses (HRM, consultancy, teaching, and training
techniques) or in the PhD program. We discuss literature and cases, role play, and do hands-on work
in a relaxed atmosphere on a frst name basis. We also chat online via group list/email, SMS, and mock
viva. I meet with my MBA/DBA/PhD students anywhere (in the world) to discuss their theses, including
airports, terminals, sidewalk cafes, or even shopping malls in Dubai and Medan. Learning happens
anywhere and anytime.
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I am very proud that many of my PhD students are doing well academically. Tree of them recently
received their Professorships, one of whom is the Dean of Business at Universiti Teknologi Mara. Many
of my MBA students are also progressing in their careers in industry. I take pride in my graduates’
successes. By the time I retired from USM in 2010, a total of 68 postgraduate candidates (17 PhD, 2
MA/MSc, 44 MBAs, and 5 DBAs) graduated under my supervision (80% afer I became an Associate
Professor) (Table 2).
Table 2: Summary of Teaching and Supervision as a Lecturer and Associate Professor
Total outputs/outcomes Lecturer Associate Professor
17 PhD 1 6% 16 94%
5 DBA – 5 100%
2 MA/MSc – 2 100%
44 MBA 12 27% 32 73%
68 Total student supervised 13 19% 55 81%
Undergraduate Classes taught* 22 79% 6 21%
Graduate Classes taught 1 3% 34 97%
* not including teaching in franchise programs - under consultancy
Creativity in teaching
On 5 August 2009, I was conferred the prestigious Anugerah Akademik Negara (ANN) award (National
Academic Award) for Teaching 2008 for the Applied Arts and Applied Social Sciences (Figure 2). Tis
highly competitive award was based on three criteria:
Innovation
Efectiveness of teaching and learning
Teaching materials and assessment
My teaching partner, Professor Abd Karim Alias, who received the AAN Teaching Award for the
Sciences, and I were invited to give talks to academicians at 10 local and international universities
around Malaysia. During those talks, I shared my 10 innovations in teaching, as listed below:
1. Practice adult learning principles – be adult learner-centred
2. Use movies and literature to illustrate concepts and applicability of theories
3. Have students work in diverse teams of fve (i.e., inculcate diversity)
4. Have highly interactive student-centred classes (e.g., lecturette, role play)
5. Problem-based learning – focus on learning issues, use evidence-based teaching such as
Forensic Human Resource
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6. Bundle popular books with textbooks (e.g., HR Scorecard, Blue Ocean Strategy, Five Minds of
the Future) as frameworks to evaluate HRM
7. Discuss HRM in practice – MBA candidates share their company’s HRM in class
8. Put in place a HR Shadow program – undergraduates shadow an HR executive for a day
9. Use case study development and case analysis – submit results to Case Writers Association of
Malaysia
10. Foster Future thinking – Using future concepts such as Angkasawan (Malaysian Cosmonaut )
as future managers and elaborate discussion on my future classroom
I have always inculcated innovations and creative teaching methodologies, especially in teaching
applied subjects such as management, psychology, organisational behaviour, and HRM. My message
is very clear: Teach with passion and make learning fun and meaningful through innovative and
creative teaching. Most importantly, I expect only the best quality in my students’ work, and I accept
nothing less. Hence, it motivates them to be creative and innovative in their assignments, and they
are rewarded for it.
Figure 1: Kopitiam classroom
Figure 2: Recipient of the Anugerah
Akademik Negara award 2008
Making learning meaningful
To make learning meaningful and fun, I use literature and movies to illustrate concepts and applicability
of theories in general management, OB, or managerial psychology. When I started teaching in 1994,
I asked my undergraduate and graduate students to review traditional Malay literature (Sejarah
Melayu and Hang Tuah), Chinese literature (Sun Tzu’s Art of War, Tree Kingdom, I-Ching), Indian
literature (Mahabharata), and/or religious holy books such as Al-Quran, the Bible, or Confucius
teachings. I asked them to select plots from the literature and draw parallels to the specifc theories
either in management, OB, psychology, organisational development, or HRM. For example, students
selected Malay literary works and evaluated them using OB theories. Tese were later published to
show the relevance of classical literature in modern management (e.g., ‘Te Malay Annals: Classical
Work as Study Text for Organisational Behaviour’ in the Journal of Humanities (1998) and ‘Malay
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Studies in the 21st Century’ in Pemikir (1999). In one class I asked students to study Hang Tuah and
evaluate him based on the leadership theories we discussed in class. Graduate students had to review
a minimum of 20 articles related to the topic they wished to study and write a literature summary
and literature review. Tis assignment was to help them prepare for conducting a literature review for
their management projects.
As for movies, I have used P. Ramlee movies when teaching ATW106 Psychology for Management. I
asked student to identify and act out scenes from the movies and write a report on particular emotions
found in the movies. To keep this fun, we had best actor and best actress awards during the group
acting session (Figure 3). I even wrote an article titled Learning about Emotions through P. Ramlee
Films: An Experiential Approach and presented it at the Asian Applied Psychology International
Regional Conference, Bangkok, Tailand in November 2005.
Figure 3: Best Actor and Actress in
Psychology P Ramlee
Figure 4: Anakku Sazali vs. Sepet for SHE 101
Te concepts of 1 Malaysia and ‘unity in diversity’ were recently reintroduced into our society, and
I challenged my students to look at these issues academically in assignments using P. Ramlee as
well as contemporary movies. For example, in one assignment for the mandatory Ethnics Relations
Course (SHE 101), my students had to critically analyse and compare race relations and gender issues
highlighted in P. Ramlee’s ‘Anakku Sazali’ versus the contemporary Yasmin Ahmad’s ‘Sepet’ (Figure 4).
Besides local flms, I have used a variety of recent blockbuster movies, such as Titanic, Bicentennial Man,
Happy Feet, and space-or future-oriented movies (Star War Trilogies), that relate to the Angkasawan
Program (Figure 5). One standard feature of my class is that we usually begin the frst class period by
watching clips of the flms. Tis sets the tone for the whole semester. For example, when Titanic hit
the screens in 1999, I put on a PALAPES navy suit and became Captain Smith as I showed Titanic
and Bob Ballard’s National Geographic specials in ATW101 Introduction to Management. My weekly
lectures and assignments for that semester related to the managerial issues observed in Titanic: Why did
management fail in Titanic?
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Figure 5: Sample movies featured in Dr Zainal’s classes from 1994 to 2008
Unity in diversity in the classroom
Long before the resurgence of 1 Malaysia, I expected all of my undergraduate and graduate students to
work in teams of fve that consisted of individuals from diferent backgrounds in order to train them
to work in a diverse group (Figure 6). Regardless of diferences in race, gender, sexual orientation, or
state of origin (Kelantan versus Penang), students have to write a report about their experiences and
what they can learn from people who are diferent from them. Te demographic distribution in my
management classes has shifed over the years since 1994: Te number of female students increased
from 45% to 85% percent, and the majority shifed from Malay to Chinese students. In some classes,
the ratio was 4 females to 1 male, and I mandated that the group leader could not be male, as the
tendency was to appoint the sole male as the leader. Some students argued that they did not want to
work with students from the ‘other’ groups (meaning ‘races’), but I held frm and told the students that
they may leave my class if they do not want to learn to work with other races. However, I pointed out
that as future managers, their superiors/subordinates and customers may not be of the same race. Like
it or not, they consented, and a few thanked me for doing so long afer they graduated.

Figure 6: Multiracial teams
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Student centredness and interactivity
Both my graduate and undergraduate classes are highly interactive and student centred (Figure 7).
To achieve this, sometimes I become a TV talk show host, like Oprah or Aznil. For the graduate
classes, a typical 3-hour night class is divided into three segments: i) a mini lecture (or lecturette) on
key points of the topic of the day followed by a break for prayers, ii) student-group led activities, and
iii) student presentations (Figure 8). At the end, I conclude with any missed points. In line with adult
learning theory, I try to draw out the students’ experiences to enable knowledge sharing among them;
interactive classes, role playing, and validating their experiences with theories via the lecturettes are
efective tools to achieve this goal.
Figure 7: Interactivity in class – eve of Merdeka 2008 Figure 8: Student-led class discussion
For undergraduate classes, which tend to be large (50–300), I adopt a diferent participative strategy for
the more passive students, as they may not have much experience to share. Besides giving points for
participation, each fve-member team is assigned a topic in the syllabus, and it is responsible for giving
a presentation, leading the discussion, or acting out the concept. In one class we used Happy Feet as
the focal point, and the students acted out the penguin dance from the movie to illustrate the relevant
theory that they were analyzing.
Unity + Diversity = Creativity
Interactivity can be implemented within as well as outside the classroom. In each of my classes every
semester, I fnd a reason to have a celebration. Depending on the major holidays in the semester, I
encourage students to hold potluck parties and bring food to share in class to celebrate Chinese New
Year, Hari Raya Aidilftri, or Deepavali. In one class on the eve of 31 August, we held a Merdeka
celebration (Independence Day) (Figure 7). Sometimes international students bring their traditional
cuisines, such as food from Iran, Pakistan, and Indonesia, to share. Afer the feast, the students help
clean up and distribute the lefovers.
Interactivity also transcends the classroom. In both my graduate and undergraduate classes, I invite
practitioners to share their experiences and provide real-life examples. Some of the invited speakers
have included industry leaders such as Tuan Haji Rozalli, Chairman of the Electronics Manufacturing
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Services Benchmarking Council (EMSBC) (Figure 9); Mr. Khoo Cheok Sin, Vice President of the
Federation of Malaysian Manufacturers (FMM) (Figure 10); and Mr. Kenny, Malaysian Trade Union
Congress (MTUC) Secretary. For the DBA Efective Teaching and Training Techniques class, my co-
facilitator and I ofen invite Dr. Asma Abdullah, Malaysia’s only Corporate Anthropologist, to share
her experience with Esso (Exxon). For the DBA Consultancy class, we invite Ms. Sharifah Maria
Alfah, former Asia-Pacifc Vice President for HR and General Afairs for Seagate, who was one of
the highest ranking women in the electronics and electrical industry in the Penang Free Trade Zone.
I also take the opportunity to invite faculty members visiting from other schools to visit or conduct
guest lectures (e.g., Professor Hiroshi Shimazaki of the University of Leithbridge, Canada; Professor
McShane of Australia; and Professor Schemerhorn of the USA).
Figure 9: Tuan Haji Rozalli (EMSBC) Figure 10: Mr Khoo Cheok Sin (FMM)
Does interactivity work? Tere are pros and cons to interactivity. Some adult students still expect the
lecturer to simply present the required information, as evidenced by the testimony from one student
from Palestine who wanted me to lecture more. In general, however, an interactive class beats the
boredom and monotony of the lecturer, and it allows the students to take ownership of the learning
process. Here is one testimony:
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Problem-based learning
When the School of Management decided to embrace problem-based learning in 2005, I was very
happy, as I already had been practicing it in my classes. With problem-based learning, the focus is on
the learning issues. Te idea is to organise the semester based on a set of particular problem(s) that
require the students to work in teams and employ or apply the tools and strategies developed through
the materials covered in class. Te students’ role is to identify the learning issues for each problem.
Te semester can be grouped into segments as follows:
Discovery Week: Identify the learning issues, fnd out what the learners don’t know from the problem
given and what they need to fnd out; discuss the learning issues
Teaching Week/Peer Teaching: Afer identifying the learning issues, the groups break down the tasks of
fact fnding and doing research. Tey then come back and teach the rest of the group/class. Te class gives
feedback on each group’s presentation.
Lecture Week: Te lecturer provides missing links, debriefng notes, leads exercises from the text, and
discovers blind spots.
Monitoring Week: Learning quizzes are given (not graded, only to check understanding) 
In employing problem-based learning throughout the 14-week semester for my Human Resource
Management class, I group the diferent topics to be covered into the following three logical groupings:
Week 1: Close Down the HR Department (Running Teme) 
Weeks 2–5: Acquiring HR Capability – Marriot’s  
Weeks 6–8: Developing HR Capability – Good Look 
Weeks 9–12: Compensating HR Capability - Intel
With the overall problem of ‘Close Down the HR Department’ as the running theme, we divide the
semester into three big problem areas—acquiring, developing, and compensating HR capability. For
each problem area, the students have to read and analyse a particular case (Marriot’s, Good Look,
Intel) and identify the learning issues (i.e., what they don’t know and/or need to know in order to
solve the HR problems). Te students can refer to the textbook as a guide. Te students form groups,
and each week one group is assigned to uncover the learning issues. Afer identifying the learning
issues, each group break down the tasks of fact fnding and conducting research on the learning
issues. Each week, the group conducts teaches the rest of the class about what they have found out.
Te class also gives feedback on each group’s presentation. At the end of the semester, I conduct a
wrap-up of the problem or learning issues and provide missing links and debriefng notes, and I also
cover any blind spots or things not covered that should have been covered by the groups. In terms
of monitoring, I provide sample exam questions related to the topics covered to ascertain how much
the students have learned. Practicing problem-based learning encourages evidence-based teaching,
whereby I teach students Forensic Human Resource to fnd evidences to solve the problems given.
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Beyond textbooks: Bundling popular books
I believe that learning is not limited to the classroom and that students should be exposed to literature
beyond the assigned textbooks and articles. Hence, I use relevant materials from popular literature.
For my undergraduate classes, I like to bundle the English textbook with Perlakuan Organisasi (1998)
to help students in translating the terms. I also use literature books (e.g., Hang Tuah, Sejarah Melayu,
Sun Tzu) via the Kedai Koperasi USM.
For graduate students, I bundle textbooks and popular books such as HR Scorecard, Blue Ocean
Strategy, and Five Minds of the Future, and students get discounts of up to RM100 when purchasing
the books. Tese books provide frameworks for evaluating HRM issues and force students to keep up
with current trends in HRM. As one student puts it:
HRM in practice – Bringing the workplace into the classroom
Te innovation of which I am proudest is ‘HRM in Practice’, in which MBA candidates share their
company’s HRM in class and we draw from the collective experiences of the MBA students. Each
student writes a brief overview of the HRM practices in their organisation and shares salient topical
issues on the appointed day. Of particular interest are unique benchmark HR practices. Te written
report is 5–10 pages long and covers the following:
Company profle: brief, includes number and profle of employees
Profle of the HR department: includes number of HR staf and their functions and responsibilities, as well
as the HR/headcount ratio
HRM practices: briefy describes the HR practices or focuses on benchmark practices
HR issues:-What do you see as major HR issues faced by your company?
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Students from the same organisation may write similar company and HR profles but must write about
diferent aspects of HRM practices, as this is an individual assignment. Full-time students may write
about their previous employers, and those without prior working experience may visit, interview, and
report on any organisation. Te hardcopy of the written report and the PowerPoint presentation must
be submitted to me afer the sharing session, and I limit each presentation to a maximum of 6 slides
and 3–5 minutes. Figure 11 shows an example of the slides used for one presentation.
Figure 11: “Human Resource Management In Practice” in Johnson & Johnson
HR shadow
For my undergraduate AOP 351 Human Resource Management class, I have my student groups visit
companies and ‘shadow’ an HR manager/executive for a day to get a ‘realistic job preview’ of what
the job actually entails. I use my network of HR professionals via the Malaysian Institute of Human
Resource Management, of which I was a committee member. Many students are surprised and do not
expect that HR executives do things like chasing afer ‘Bas Kilang’ (factory buses) , waiting at the gate
counting the number of operators, and doing menial and non-HR jobs. Past students have reported
that this exercise gave them a better perception of the profession. Nothing you can teach from the
textbook can match the experiences of actually ‘being there and seeing it’.
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Future thinking: Brain in space
By venturing into space, we are, therefore, investing
in our children’s future.
While the whole nation was awestruck when
Cosmonaut Dr. Sheikh Muszaphar travelled to
the International Space Station on 10 October
2007, three humble Lecturenauts—Sheikh ‘Anees’
Muszaphar, Peggy ‘Daisy’ Whitson, and Yury
‘Zainal’ Malachenko—were busy on Earth working
with ATW 252 Organisational Behaviour students
(Figure 12). Tey were studying Dr. Muszaphar and
the implications of a ‘Manager in Space’ (Figure
13). Every week, the discussions in class were based
on learning issues to be further discussed during
tutorials (e.g., Is OB relevant for a manager in space
as opposed to on Earth?).
Figure 12: Cosmonauts Sheikh Muszaphar, Peggy
Whitson, and Yury Malachenko before
the launch
Figure 13: Cosmonaut Sheikh Muszaphar with the author
and sons when he delivered a talk at USM on
March 2008 for Brain Awareness Week
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Te graduate students were also bitten by the space bug, and the MBA candidates in the Human
Resource Management course were asked to study the implications of ‘Malaysian in Space’ as follows:
Chapter (Bernardin 2007) HRM Implications for Malaysian in Space
1. Strategic HRM
How do we plan for more Malaysians in space programs?
Implication to education system, aerospace industries,
universities?
2. Global HRM Are Malaysian astronauts marketable?
3. Work Analysis and Design How do we design/job analysis of angkasawan?
4. HR Planning and Recruitment
How do we recruit angkasawan? Online from 11,275,
2000 screened, 894 shortlisted
5. Selection and Placement
Fitness test
Selection pyramid – from 11,275 to 1
6. Performance Management and
Appraisal
Assessed in all aspects in communication, character,
forwardness, and determination
We analysed the recruitment and selection process for becoming an astronaut as follows:
Dates SELECTION PYRAMID Number Passed
October 2003
Online registration 11,275
Screening 2,000
Selected 884
1 27/8–3/9/05 Fitness test: 3.5 km in 20 minutes 435 199
2 27/8–3/9/05 Basic medical examination based on NASA criteria 194 59
3 25–30/9/05 Aeromedical 1 (blood test, nasal, audio, X-ray, ECG) 59 27
4 16–21/1/06 Aeromedical 2 (bones, air cavity, centrifuge) 27 18
5 16–24/1/06
Overall assessment based on 3.5 km run, second aeromedical test,
and psychiatric, psychology, land and sea survival, and technical
competence.
10 8
6 25–26/1/06 Medical examination (CT scan, endoscopy, blood analysis) 10 8
7 February 06
Assessed in all aspects of communication, character, forwardness, and
determination
8 4
8 March 06
The four underwent medical examination in Russia (neurology and body
adaptation in microgravity environment)
4 2
9 Sept 06–Oct 07
Dr Sheikh and Dr Faiz were sent for training at the Yuri Gagarin
Cosmonaut Training Centre in Star City, Moscow and then to NASA,
Houston, Texas. One will fy to the International Space Station and the
other is his back-up.
2 1
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The brain in business
To further extend the frontiers of knowledge in business, I had the distinct opportunity of taking
my second sabbatical at the University of Florida (UF), Gainesville, Florida USA from March to
June 2006. Tere I visited the McKnight Brain Institute to learn about the neuroscience research
being conducted there. Personally, I became interested in neuroscience when my 10 year old son was
diagnosed with mild ADHD, and I wanted to fnd out if neurofeedback could help him to learn better.
In 2004, the world was introduced to the concept of neuromarketing, which sparked heated debate
and interest in applying neuroscience in business. I worked on Brain Awareness Week 2005 and was
interested to see the link between neuroscience research and business. In 2006, neuroleadership
was introduced, and it changed the way we looked at leadership. In my editorial to the Malaysian
Journal of Medical Sciences (2010), I argued that ‘such convergence has given birth to a plethora
of new transdisciplinary business felds with neuroscience surnames such as Neuroeconomics,
Neuromarketing, Neuroaccounting, Neurogovernance, Neuroethics, and Neuroleadership. Such
exotic union of science and the arts may provide better understanding of human nature and behavior
change’.
I decided to pursue this line of research and applied for a USM Research University grant in 2007 to set
up a research agenda looking at neurofeedback and mental health from two perspectives: neuroscience
and counselling. Tis entailed the purchase of neuroimaging equipment for encephalogram or EEG in
partnership with Professor Jafri Malin Abdullah from the Neuroscience Department of the Hospital
USM. For the counselling perspective, I collaborated with Professor Susie See Ching Mey, who is a
board member of the National Board for Certifed Counselors International (NBCCI) USA, to bring
the Mental Health Facilitator (MHF) program to USM. Two master trainers from NBCCI came to
train 18 lecturers and administrators to become Mental Health Facilitators as part of the USM Mentor
Program.
Te Brain Science Nexus was established in 2009 with 12 diferent groups working on diferent
aspects of the brain and mind at USM. My research interest was to study neuroleadership from
the perspectives of transformational leadership based on Bass (1985) and Burn (1978). Unlike
transactional leadership, which focuses on exchange that motivates followers by providing rewards and
benefts for productivity, transformational leaders make decision based on cognitive rewards, provide
a climate of trust, and draw out the followers’ higher order needs to perform beyond expectations.
Transformational leaders inspire their followers to make decisions that transcend self-interests. I was
interested to explore whether “Can neuroimaging (EEG/fMRI) show how transformational versus
transactional managers infuence others?
In 2000, the Organisation Section of the School of Management established the Organisational
Behaviour (OB) Lab, and I was responsible for managing it. My colleagues and I used the OB Lab
as a teaching lab to showcase student works and conduct role playing sessions and profling to
reinforce learning via tutorials in the Organisational Behaviour course. In 2007, afer I came back
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from sabbatical with a research interest in neuroscience, the OB Lab was converted to the Human
Development (HD) Lab to house the EEG equipment, and we purchased the Brain Trainer (Figure
14) for working with children sufering from learning disabilities. I secured Fundamental Research
Grant Scheme (FRGS) funding to study leadership and decision making from the neuropsychological
perspective and worked with Dr Azura Efendi, who received FRGS funding to study emotional
intelligence and leadership. Te HD Lab also houses several other business research groups working
on various research projects on Small & Medium Entreprises (SME), homestay, organisational
safety and health, and HR success. We also organised Brain Awareness Week 2008, which was a very
successful event: Almost 2,800 school children and parents attended the exhibition and talk series
(‘Who Wants to be a Neuroscientist?’) and the keynote address by Cosmonaut Dr. Sheikh Muszaphar.
We conducted the frst MHF training during that time.
When I moved to the Graduate School of Business in 2009, I set up the Business Research for
Applied Innovations in Neurosciences (BRAIN) Lab to continue my work on the cognitive aspects of
leadership, decision making, and innovation. Te mission of the BRAIN Lab is to conduct business
research and consultancy in innovations based on the neurosciences. Some of this neuroscience
knowledge is applied during my consultancy and training on Creative and Innovative Behaviours,
Multiple Intelligences, and Learning/Disabilities and Decision Making. I attended the EEG training
in USA (Figure 15) and we moved the EEG equipment (Figure 16) to the BRAIN Lab and were able
to conduct two studies there before the equipment was sent back to the Neurosciences Department
at HUSM.
Figure 14: Working on the Brain
Trainer in Singapore –
nice earrings!
Figure 15: Me in Hydrocel net
32 channel
Figure 16: Watching the impedence
on the E-Prime
Brain-based future classrooms
What will my future classrooms look like? For the graduate classes, I want a recessed, circular
classroom with comfortable folding-arm seats, an electronic stand, four monitors/screens around
the room, and iPOD surround sound (Figures 17 and 18). I would love to follow the neuroplasticity
design (i.e., Professor Zalina Ismail’s research), in which students can sit in groups of fve in recessed
seats or clumps of bean bags or low sofas. Te walls/foors will be lined with power outlets. I envision
an eclectic classroom design like that found in the Golden Lounge in Kota Kinabalu International
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Airport, with a cofee maker and bar stools lining the back of the room for refreshments. In other
words, I want to dare to be diferent.
Figure 17: Lounge-style graduate classroom (Kota
Kinabalu International Airport)
Figure 18: Sitting room-style graduate classroom
(Kota Kinabalu International Airport)
My future undergraduate classroom will be a mixture of a cabaret theatre-style setup for 50–70, built
in a semicircle with foldable table seats on a raised platform. Te electronic music stand will control
the PowerPoint and LCD projector. Screens will be placed on three walls or in front of the theatre.
Tis setting allows for constant interaction between the lecturer and students and for engaging them
in role playing. Regarding this idea, one student said:
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Summing Up
Afer 16 years of teaching, I retired early from USM on 1 September 2010 and moved to Kuala Lumpur
to be closer to my elderly mother. Currently, I serve as Professor at the College of Graduate Studies
and was appointed to start up and head the Graduate Business School at UNITEN. Refecting on my
teaching career at USM, the word TEACH sums it all:
REFERENCES
Ahmad, Z.A. (1994). Chief Academic Ofcers as learners: Adult learning patterns within an organizational context.
Unpublished doctoral thesis. Northern Illinois University, 231 pages.
Ahmad, Z.A. (1998). The Malay annals: Classical work as study text for organisational behavior. Journal of Humanities, 5, 22–44.
Ahmad, Z.A. (1999). Malay Studies in the 21st Century. Pemikir, January-March 1999, pp. 161-178. KDN PP8381/4/99
Ahmad, Z.A. (2010). Editorial: Brain in business: The economics of neuroscience. Malaysian Journal for Medical Sciences,
17(2),12 Available at: http://www.usm.my/mjms/default.asp?tag=12
Bass, B.M (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations, New York:The Free Press.
Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership, New York: Harper Collins.
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PART 2
CHAPTER 3
TEACHING THE PHARMACY STUDENT TO THINK LIKE
A PHARMACIST
Azmi Sarriff
INTRODUCTION
Pharmacy is a science-based profession that deals with the study
of the functions of drugs that interact with the human body so
as to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases as well as to regulate
the physiology of the human body and to promote human
health (Wu, 2000). How does a student become a pharmacist?
Answering that question requires defning what it means to be a
pharmacist, and it is important to understand that the defnition
has changed over time. For almost two decades, the landscape
of the pharmacy practice has been determined by the concept
of pharmaceutical care, which is defned as the responsible
provision of drug therapy to achieve defnite outcomes intended
to improve a patient’s quality of life (Hepler & Strand, 1990). It
has been further refned to be ‘a practice in which the practitioner
(i.e., the pharmacist) takes responsibility for a patient’s drug-
related needs and is held accountable for this commitment’
(Strand, 1998). Tus, instead of engaging in the traditional
activity of ‘lick, stick, and pour’, today’s pharmacist engages in and
provides direct patient care. Under this new model of pharmacy
practice, many pharmacists have found themselves challenged
by a paradigm shif in their daily practices, as they now have
to take responsibility for their patient’s drug-related needs and
are held accountable for them. In providing pharmaceutical care,
pharmacists are required to incorporate new behaviours into
their practice routine, which include:
reviewing and screening of patient medical records;
identifying, preventing, and resolving patient’s drug-related
problems;
implementation of monitoring plans;
documentation of care plans;
referral and consultation with other healthcare professionals;
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patient advising and counselling; and
provision of health information to patients.
In addition, the World Health Organization (WHO) introduced the concept of the ‘seven-star pharmacist’
to defne the roles of a pharmacist: Te seven stars refer to the pharmacist’s role as a caregiver, decision
maker, communicator, manager, life-long learner, teacher, and leader. ‘Research’ was later added as an
eighth category (i.e., eight star pharmacist) (WHO, 2006) According to the WHO, a pharmacist must
possess specifc knowledge, attitudes, skills, and behaviours to support these roles (Table 1). Tese
roles dictate that pharmacy students must learn technical knowledge about drugs and also gain self-
confdence that will help them to identify themselves as professionals.
It is by no means an easy job to prepare our pharmacy students to face the challenges in the new
millennium. We now are facing new challenges that are likely to infuence our pharmacy practices
and, most importantly, the educational needs of our students. Globalisation, scientifc and technology
advances, information and communication technology, and changes in our societal and health care
trends are among the factors that will afect the pharmacy profession in the future. Tese factors must
be considered when developing and designing the pharmacy curriculum, as how we teach our students
to practice pharmacy today and in future is critical. Te pharmacy profession will continue to evolve,
and we need to equip today’s students with the knowledge and skills necessary to provide direct care to
patients with the sole purpose of identifying and resolving drug therapy problems.
Table 1: The eight star pharmacist
Roles of a pharmacist Description
1. Caregiver
Pharmacists are in the position to respond to symptoms described by members of the
public by providing advisory services, initiating therapy, or referring such persons for
medical advice when necessary.
2. Decision maker
Pharmacists are in an ideal position to assist the patient on the purchase and correct use of
any medicine, as well as the appropriate, efcacious, and cost-efective use.
3. Communicator
Pharmacists are in an ideal position to provide a link between the prescriber and the
patient and to communicate information about health and medicines to the public.
4. Manager
Pharmacists must be able to manage resources (human, physical, and fnancial) and
information efectively.
5. Life-long learner Pharmacists should learn how to keep their knowledge and skills up to date.
6. Teacher
Pharmacists have a responsibility to assist in the education and training of future
generations of pharmacists and the public.
7. Leader
Pharmacists are obligated to assume a leadership position in the overall welfare of the
patient and the community.
8. Researcher
Pharmacist must be able to use the evidence base (e.g., scientifc, pharmacy practice,
health system) efectively to advise patients on the rational use of medicines as part of the
health care team.
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OUR CORE BUSINESS: THE TEACHING AND LEARNING PROCESSES
Pharmacy students need the necessary skills to translate theory and research in basic, medical, and
pharmaceutical sciences into practice. In other words, they should possess the ability to connect the
pharmaceutical sciences, which form the foundation of the practice of pharmacy, to patient care. To put
these into the educational perspective, students need to be able to correlate theory with practice in the
cognitive, afective, and psychomotor domains in the patient care setting (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Educational activity domains
Te cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. Tis includes the
recognition of facts, such as the mechanism of drug actions, side efects of drugs, and special dosage
requirements for patients with end-stage renal disease. Te afective domain includes how students
deal with patients and their feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. Te
psychomotor domain involves demonstration and technical aspects of drug use (Bloom, 1956; Clark,
2010).
Although only a few pharmacy faculty members, including myself, have attended formal classes to
learn about the principles of teaching and learning, consciously or not, all of these domains of Bloom’s
educational activities i.e. the cognitive domain in the learning taxonomy (knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) have been incorporated in our curriculum. With these
domains in place, the problem for teachers lies in the process of teaching and learning. Te obstacles
that students face are diferent. Based on my more than two decades in academia, I have observed that
our pharmacy students lack the ability to integrate and apply the knowledge acquired in their academic
curriculum to the pharmacy practice setting. Tey seem to possess an adequate knowledge base (i.e.,
the cognitive domain), but many of them lack the intellectual process needed to identify the patient’s
therapeutic problems and synthesise clinical and therapeutic data. However, this ability is essential in
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a professional pharmacy practice, where important pharmaceutical and clinical skills are needed to
deliver pharmaceutical care to patients. Tus, either our students fail to think or we have not taught
them to think like a pharmacist.
Teaching is only efective if it promotes learning. It is assumed that if a person simply knows a lot about
their subject, he/she will be able to teach it. In reality, of course, although subject expertise is important,
it is not sufcient. Tis is particularly true in pharmacy, where students have to develop systematic and
analytic methods of thinking. Unlike in the classroom, real patients present with a multiplicity of medical
and drug use problems. Terefore, we have to develop diferent instructional strategies or teaching
techniques for diferent domains of learning outcomes (i.e., cognitive, afective, and psychomotor). For
instance, when we talk about cognitive strategies, such as developing a treatment plan for a patient with
diabetes, a case scenario that requires application of the principles of problem-based learning should be
developed for the students to master these skills. In terms of psychomotor skills, such as administering
a subcutaneous injection of insulin or using an inhaler or nebulizer to treat an asthmatic patient, a
session to practice demonstration skills should be conducted. Tis should include showing how to draw
insulin into the syringe, preparing the injection site, and injecting the dose into a simulated fat pad.
Similarly, a placebo inhaler can be used to demonstrate the correct technique of using an inhaler. In
such sessions, students repeatedly practice the entire skill to develop a motor memory. In short, our
teaching goal should be to foster conceptual learners who care deeply about their patients and who are
skilled problem solvers.
TEACHING METHODS THAT PROMOTE THINKING SKILLS
In the conventional lecture approach, the lecturer is the sender or the source, the educational material is
the information or message, and the student is the receiver of the information (Figure 2). In other words,
the lecturer delivers the lecture content and the students listen to the lecture. Te lecturer controls the
instructional process, the content is delivered to the entire class, and the lecturer tends to emphasise
factual knowledge.
Figure 2: Conventional teaching method – one-way fow of information
Why does this particular lecture format still prevail in higher education institutions? One legitimate
reason is that most teachers do not take formal pedagogy courses, thus they continue to teach using the
methods that they learned during undergraduate and doctoral programs. Many faculty members believe
that the lecture format is an efcient way to provide students with large amounts of information in short
amounts of time. In fact, lectures should be used to help students understand theories and ideas, which
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they then can apply in the practice setting. Being a practicing pharmacist, he/she should not only rely
on memorization of facts and fgures but should also be able to integrate and apply the knowledge gain
in class to real-life practice. Pharmacy students need to integrate and apply the knowledge gained in
class to real-life pharmacy and health care settings. However, if lecturing is the only tool used, and if its
only purpose is to deliver facts and information, then student learning may be diminished. For efective
teaching and learning, we need to create more opportunities for student engagement, participation, and
active learning.
My approach to teaching my pharmacy students is not to simply give them ‘a fsh’ so they can eat for a
day; instead, I teach them how ‘to fsh’ so they can eat for a lifetime. In other words, students must be
responsible for their own learning, and the ‘spoon-feeding’ approach is no longer relevant in pharmacy.
Te following is a description of some of the ‘teaching tools’ that I have developed to teach pharmacy
students to ‘think like a pharmacist’.
THE PHARMACY PRACTICE COURSE
Te Pharmacy Practice Course (FAR351.3) is a 3 unit course ofered in the frst semester to third-year
pharmacy students. It includes didactic lectures, which introduce the concept of the clinical pharmacy
and pharmaceutical care. Te practical component of the course emphasises student skill development
in the area of medication history taking, patient interview, medication counseling, use of medical
devices, communication with doctors, and identifcation and resolution of drug-related problems. Te
Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) is therefore adapted for students to practice these
skills.
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We successfully developed and applied an OSCE-style practical session in the FAR351 course for the
frst time during the 2009/2010 academic session. Te OSCE was conducted in the Clinical Pharmacy
Labs, which were equipped with fve counseling rooms designed for this purpose. Each room was
furnished with a round table with two chairs. To ensure that there was a real-life scenario and to create
a more natural environment, a closed-circuit television (CCTV) system with audio and video recording
facilities was used to monitor and evaluate the students’ performance in each of the OSCE stations
(i.e., rooms). Each station tested diferent cognitive and practical skills that resemble professional tasks,
such as taking the patient’s medication history, interpreting lab data, communicating with a doctor, or
teaching a patient how to use an inhaler. OSCE stations used ‘standardized patients’, who were lay people
trained to act out the patient encounters accurately and consistently. We also invited fve post-graduate
students in clinical pharmacy to participate in this practical. All participants (either as a simulated
patient or a physician actor) were given prior training to ensure the consistency of their responses.
Te mechanics involved in designing and implementing the OSCE-style practical session included:
Identifying the type of student performance (e.g., observable types of skills, activities, and attitudes) to be
measured in order to determine if the learning objectives have been reached. Tis is a blueprint developed
by faculty members that serves as a guideline. Te faculty members in this practical consist of one lecturer
and three associate professors in clinical pharmacy.
Defning clinically relevant problems and assignments that resemble the actual professional tasks and for
which the observable skills, activities, attitudes can be measured based on the blueprint. Te contents of
fve active stations of the OSCE are determined by carefully defning specifc practice competencies in
tandem with the course objectives and learning outcomes.
Designing assessment instruments in the form of structured marking schemes for individual stations (e.g.,
score list, check list). Tis is developed based on the tasks assigned at the individual stations. Te content
of respective given station and its assessment tool is subjected to face validation by all faculty members
involved in conducting the practical.
Producing an inventory of materials needed and making them available during the practical sessions.
Examples include: standard case scenarios, patient and physician actors, instructions and guidelines for
students and the simulated patients and physicians, medical equipment such as electronic blood pressure
devices and peak fow meters, and specialized dosage forms such as insulin pens, inhalers, or nebulizers.
Samples of medications prescribed are prepared and labelled.
Deciding on practical issues, such as: How much time is needed at each station? How many OSCE stations
are needed to cover all assignments (try to keep the number of stations low)? How many scorers are
needed? Will you observe using one-way screen rooms, closed-circuit video or video recordings, or a sit-
in observer? How many practical sessions are needed?
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During the 2009/2010 academic session, six groups of third-year students (total enrolment of 170)
participated in this OSCE-style practical. An orientation session was given to the students before
the OSCE about the fow of the practical and review of commonly assessed competencies. A session
consisted of seven stations: fve active stations (the counselling rooms), one waiting room, and another
station for rest before leaving the clinical pharmacy laboratory. Students moved from one station to the
next in a linear fashion. Table 2 provides a summary of the objectives and contents of each station.
Table 2: Objectives and description of the OSCE stations
Station 1: Waiting room
Description: Briefng the students about the OSCE stations
Station 2: Medication history taking
Description: A 56-year-old patient presents a prescription (enalapril 10 mg. qd, hydrochlorothiazide 25 mg.
qd) at the pharmacy counter and complains of a cough.
Objective/Task: To evaluate the student’s ability to conduct the patient interview to take the patient’s
medication history
Patients: Trained post-graduate students acting as patients
Requirements: Samples of enalapril and hydrocholothiazide tablets, a prescription
Station 3: Use of electronic blood pressure (BP) monitor
Description: A 56-year-old patient presents a prescription (enalapril 10 mg. qd, hydrochlorothiazide 25 mg.
qd) at the pharmacy counter and requests that the pharmacist demonstrate how to use the electronic BP
set
Objective/Task: To evaluate the student’s ability to explain and demonstrate the correct technique of
measuring blood pressure using the digital BP set
Patients: Trained post-graduate students acting as patients
Requirements: Samples of enalapril and hydrocholothiazide tablets, a prescription, an electronic BP set
Station 4: Communication with the prescriber
Description: A 56-year-old patient presents a prescription (enalapril 10 mg. qd, hydrochlorothiazide 25 mg.
qd) at the pharmacy counter and complains of a terrible cough after taking enalapril.
Objective/Task: To evaluate the student’s ability to give evidence-based recommendations to the physician
to resolve the patient’s complaint.
Presciber: Trained post-graduate students acting as a doctor.
Requirements: Samples of enalapril and hydrocholothiazide tablets, a prescription
Station 5: Counselling the patient on antihypertensive medications
Description: A 56-year-old patient presents a prescription for
losartan 50 mg. qd (new), hydrochlorothiazide 25 mg. qd (continue), and syrup Benadryl 10 ml. TiD (new).
Objective/Task: To evaluate the student’s ability to counsel a hypertensive patient by applying appropriate
counselling techniques
Patients: Trained post-graduate students acting as patients
Requirements: Samples of tablet losartan, tablet hydrocholothiazide, and syrup Benadryl
Station 6: Drug therapy monitoring
Description: A 56-year-old patient presents a prescription for
losartan 50 mg. qd (new), hydrochlorothiazide 25 mg. qd (continue), and syrup Benadryl 10 ml. TiD (new).
Objective/Task: To evaluate the student’s ability to monitor for drug therapy outcome.
Patients: Trained post-graduate students acting as patients.
Requirements: Samples of tablet losartan, tablet hydrocholothiazide , and syrup Benadryl
Station 7: Resting station
Description: Students are given a questionnaire to fll out before leaving the clinical pharmacy lab.
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A time limit of 5 minutes was allocated for each student to complete the task at each station. Te assigned
and trained actors assessed the student at the end of each session using a structured and standardized
marking scheme. Te faculty members re-assessed the students’ performance by viewing the CCTV
video recording. Table 3 shows a sample of the evaluation form. Because the OSCE component of
the Pharmacy Practice Course accounted for 30% of the total grade, a holistic approach was used for
grading the overall summative performance of the students in the course. As the OSCE was a pioneering
experience at our school, we conducted a cross-sectional survey among the students to identify areas
that may need improvement before implementing similar exercises in the future.
Table 3: Sample of the OSCE evaluation form
Student’s Name : ___________________________________________ Date : ___________________
No Did the student perform the following activities? Yes No
1. Greet the patient and introduce him/herself
2 Try to establish a relationship by asking general question about the patient
3.
For Losartan, did the student apply the Prime Question Technique:
What did your doctor tell you the medication is for?
How did your doctor tell you to take this medication?
What did your doctor tell you to expect from this medication?
( should emphasise the possibility of a hypotensive episode on frst use )
4.
For Hydrochlorothiazide, did the student apply the Show & Tell Technique:
i. What is this for?
ii. How do you take it?
iii. What do you expect?
5
For Syrup Benadryl, did the student apply the Prime Question Technique:
What did your doctor tell you the medication is for?
How did your doctor tell you to take this medication?
What did your doctor tell you to expect from this medication?
6. Did the student verify the patient’s understanding before ending the counselling session?
7. Did the student explain the meanings of the pharmaceutical abbreviations ? ( i.e. qd & TiD )
Table 4 lists the positive and negative aspects of the OSCE-style practical as described by the students.
Some of the suggestions to improve the OSCE-style practical are as follows:
increase the time allocated for each station;
increase the number of stations;
in-depth discussion and demonstration of the use of medical devices during the didactic lectures in class;
more OSCE-like practical sessions throughout the semester;
discussion with students afer the OSCE;
allow students to watch OSCEs that have been previously video recorded; and
invite actual patients and doctors instead of actors.
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Table 4: Student’s comments about the OSCE-style practical
Positive Aspects Negative Aspects
1. Opportunities to learn about real-life
scenarios
2. Built up or improved their
communication skills
3. Identifed spots of weakness in their
skills and knowledge
4. Motivated them to study
5. Chances to learn about the use of
medical devices
6. Wide area of knowledge and clinical
skills covered during the OSCE
1. The 5 minutes of time is too short to
complete the task
2. No practical training about the OSCE
3. Instructions given were not specifc
and were ambiguous
4. Confusing and stressful method of
assessment

Based on the comments and suggestions made by the students, it seems that OSCE can be efectively
used as a teaching tool, particularly if feedback is given to highlight areas where students are performing
well and those that require further development. A major impediment to the wide implementation
of OSCE is that it is a labour-intensive and costly form of assessment. However, the costs of paying
for standardized patients can be minimized by using post-graduate students in both teaching and
evaluative sessions.
Role playing to teach medication counselling skills in the
Outpatient and Counselling Clerkship
Clinical clerkships, whether in a hospital, ambulatory clinic, or community setting, are part of the
experiential program designed for both the undergraduate and post-graduate pharmacy students.
In general, students in clinical clerkships utilize patient care experiences to integrate and apply
information gained from prior didactic coursework. Te main goal is to develop and enhance students’
understanding, problem-solving skills, and knowledge of the appropriate use of medications.
Te Outpatient and Counselling Clerkship is one of the clinical pharmacy clerkships that is designed for
fourth-year pharmacy students. For efective student participation in the clerkship activities, students
are divided into seven groups (10–12 students per group). Tey rotate every week for a total of 7 weeks
in order to complete all of the clinical pharmacy clerkship activities (Table 5).
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Table 5: Outpatient and Counselling Clerkship activities
Day 1 (Monday) – Pharmacy Practice Lab
Time Activity Preceptors
9:00 am-4:30 pm
Briefng and introduction about the OPD/Counselling clerkship
Grouping of students into two groups
Case scenario and role playing
Group assignment
Group 1: 10:00 – 1:00 pm
Group 2: 2:15 – 4:30 pm

Dr. Azmi Sarrif
Che Gayah Omar*
Days 2 & 3 (Tuesday & Wednesday)
Attachment at OPD Pharmacy, Hospital Seberang Jaya
Time Day 2 Day 3 Preceptors
#
9:00 am-4:30 pm
Each group will be assigned to
the respective activity:
Group 1 – Prescription
management
Group 2 – Patient counselling
activities
Each group will be assigned to
the respective activity:
Group 1 – Patient counselling
activities
Group 2 – Prescription
management
Cik Nor Adlina bt.
Mokhtar
Pn. Tan Siao Yin
Cik Eng May Fern
9:00 am-4:30 pm
Day 4 – Thursday
Activities at the Pharmacy Practice Lab/Mpharm Room
Re-play of recorded video for group discussion
Dr. Azmi Sarrif
Che Gayah Omar
Day 5 – Friday
Preparation of group assignment report/self study
* Pharmacist at the Pharmacy Practice Lab
#
Pharmacists at the Outpatient Pharmacy Department, Hospital Seberang Jaya
Te main aim of ‘mock counselling’ is for the students to practice and get the feel of counselling patients
under diferent scenarios. Tis is not feasible if real patients from the hospital are used; furthermore,
students are not allowed to counsel real patients during the clerkship. Instead, students are assigned
roles of patients and pharmacists and asked to spontaneously act and interact as if they really were
these people. Te setting, situation, and time limit are defned, and the students are provided with a
description of their roles. Te students are required to switch roles during the role-playing session.
On Day 1 of the Outpatient Pharmacy Department (OPD)-counselling clerkship, the morning session
encompasses the ‘warming-up’ process, during which the students get to know each other in a trusting
fashion and become involved in the theme that they are supposed to learn. Simply assigning roles by
saying to a student, ‘You’re the patient who is non-compliant,’ and to another, ‘and you’re the pharmacist
in charge of the outpatient pharmacy’ may lead to problems, as students may feel as if they have been
tossed into a pond and told to learn to swim. Te facilitators need to brief all of the students about what
they need to do and emphasize that cooperation from every student is needed for the role-playing to be
successful.
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Afer the warm-up session, each student is assigned a role (patient or pharmacist). Student stay in pairs
so that they can take turns playing the pharmacist and then the patient. Each pair takes 10 minutes to
plan the approach of both roles, and then they play out their scenarios in the counselling room while
being recorded via CCTV. Te recorded video is re-played for discussion, and feedback is received from
all group members. Tis activity is carried out on day 4 of the clerkship. Each student is reminded to be
comfortable in receiving and giving feedback and constructive criticism about patient counselling skills.
Te case scenarios used during role-playing are designed to represent real-world situations and take
into consideration real issues that afect patient counselling. Tese issues may include a patient with
a critical illness, his or her belief and feelings about the illness and medication usage, and the cost of
therapy. A sample of a case scenario used in the mock counselling is described below.
Description of the case scenario—Mr. TT is a 50-year-old senior executive at a famous advertising
company in town. He is very mobile and his schedule is always tight. He has telephoned ahead for a
refll of his prescription for Metformin 500 mg, TiD for a 1 month supply. Afer checking his medication
profle, the pharmacist notices that the last time he came in for a refll for his medication was 6 weeks
ago, which means that he was not complying with his oral hypoglycemic medicines.
Instructions for playing the pharmacist role—Mr. TT is a 50-year-old senior executive at a
famous advertising company in town. He has telephoned ahead for a refll prescription, which is now
ready:
Rx: Metformin 500 mg. i tid (100)
His Medication Profle: __________________________________________________________
Rx# Medication Supply Doctor Last Filled
54110 Cloxacillin 250 mg. QiD 20 Ali 10 weeks
54111 Metformin 500 mg. i tid 100 Ali 6 weeks
Counsel Mr. TT and explore the reasons for his late refll.
Instructions for playing the patient role—
You are Mr. TT, a 50-year-old patient and a senior executive at a famous advertising company in town.
You are married with two kids.
You have been prescribed Metformin 500 mg three times daily for Type II diabetes.
You ran out of your diabetes medicines 1 week ago but you were busy and did not have time to pick up
a refll. You are not worried, as you already have an alternative medicine (i.e., a herbal product that was
recommended by a friend).
Your reasons for the late refll are as follows: Busy work schedule; you believe that your diabetes is not
severe; you want to try the herbal product as an alternative, and this product needs to be taken only once
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a day; you have been taking Metformin for the past several months but have not noticed any improvement
in your diabetes.
On day 4, all students gather to discuss and receive feedback about their role-playing sessions. Te
student pair is asking for their impression of the exercise. Other students are encouraged to make
constructive criticisms and to comment to the role players based on the following aspects:
Establishes a therapeutic relationship
Greeting
Establishes rapport
Introduces self and purpose of the counselling session
Gathers information and identifes counselling issues
Obtains necessary information from patient
Identifes patient problems or concerns
Asks appropriate questions
Applies appropriate non-verbal techniques (e.g., good eye contact, facial expression)
Resolves counselling issues and provides information
Discusses relevant issues
Makes appropriate recommendations
Provides accurate information
Uses appropriate counselling tools
Uses appropriate educational methods
Ending the counselling session
Verifes patient understanding
Uses appropriate verbal and non-verbal techniques
Discusses follow-up with other health care professionals as needed
Follow-up counselling
Makes appropriate referrals
Arranges for other services (e.g., social security department)
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Efective medication counselling requires that a pharmacist have adequate interpersonal communication
skills, empathy, and compassion. Role-playing is one of the methods used to develop the skills of
interpersonal communication, problem solving, and working cooperatively in teams.
SIMULATED ONCALL ACTIVITY
In a hospital, pharmacists are ‘on call’ on a rotational basis. When on call, the pharmacist does not just
dispense urgent medicines outside of regular business hours, but he/she also ensures that all members
of the health care team and patients have access to information about medicines whenever it is needed.
Tis means that the pharmacist must be available when there are calls, most commonly from the nursing
stations, requesting medications for new admissions at odd hours. Tus, the pharmacist on call must
have sound personal, time management, and communication skills that function at an accelerated pace.
Most importantly, the pharmacist on call has to learn to expect the unexpected.
Although calls requesting a supply of medicines are common, they can prove to be challenging, especially
when they are from clinicians. Imagine the on-call pharmacist receiving a call at 3 am asking whether it
is okay for a premature baby who is receiving a digoxin infusion to have a digoxin blood concentration
of 2.3 mcg/L. Te/she would need to refer to reliable drug information resources before responding.
Te simulated on-call exercise is intended to expose and orient students to various felds within the
patient-centred role of pharmacist. Tis activity also is intended to familiarise students with the online
learning environment. Te main aim of this activity is to develop skills in handling drug information
requests in a clinical setting. A description of the simulated on call activity is as follows:
In addition to participating in clinical pharmacy clerkships (as mentioned above), students are scheduled
to be on call on a rotational basis. Te on-call period starts afer ofce hours (i.e., afer 5 pm).
Te on-call activities are divided into two parts: (i) answering calls from the facilitator, who acts as a
doctor, nurse, or patient; and (ii) participating in an online discussion via the university’s e-learning
portal, which utilizes the open source sofware program, MOODLE, version 1.3 (Modular Object-
Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment).
Using the MOODLE platform, an online forum activity is created by the facilitator (clinical pharmacy
lecturers

) for the student to discuss and obtain feedback from other students.
Each student is allowed a time limit of 30 minutes to complete the frst activity. He/she has to collect
the hand-held phone (provided by the clinical pharmacy for the purpose of this activity) from his/her
group leader during ofce hours and return it the next day afer completing the activity. Te student
who is on call receives calls from the requestor (i.e., facilitator, clinical pharmacy lecturer), and he/she
must respond to the requestor’s query within the given time frame. Later, the facilitator creates a forum
by posting the drug information query in the e-learning portal. Te respective student has to respond
to the query and discuss it among his/her peers. Other students are urged and encouraged to share and
contribute ideas regarding issues related to the posted questions.
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Te clinical pharmacy lecturer acts as the online facilitator and is responsible for creating a friendly
and interactive online atmosphere. Te main aim is to facilitate the students’ learning process around a
particular content. Te forum ends when the student has exercised his/her capability in responding to
the drug information request as judged by the facilitator. Figure 3 shows an example of the discussion
forum. Te student is then required to submit a written report based on the discussion that took place
during the forum (Figure 4)
Figure 3: MOODLE forum activities (excerpted directly from MOODLE)
Facilitator: A mother mistakenly gave her baby suppository Paracetamol orally. She was worried if the medication would
cause harm to her baby.
Student A: Usually it isn’t harmful if Paracetamol suppository is taken orally, but the medication will probably not work as
well.
Student B: I agree with Weng Fong. I suggest that if the baby does not show any symptoms of early features of poisoning like
nausea and vomiting, we do not have to worry about it. If the baby shows the symptom(s), consult the doctor immediately.
Even if the baby lacks signifcant early symptoms, he/she (the baby) who had taken an overdose of Paracetamol (based
on the age and body age of the baby) should be taken to hospital immediately. Reference: British National formulary
Student C: If the amount of suppository is only 1, then it is considered ok since it will not be harmful to the baby
Student D: How about the base of suppository. It is not going to be harmful to the baby?
Student A: The bases of suppository usually is cocoa butter, polyethylene glycol, glycerol gelatin or bases produced from
vegetable oil. I have checked through the Micromedex. Cocoa butter is non toxic. These agents are not considered to be a
toxic hazard in the quantities available through normal exposure or package sizes. For polyethylene glycol, oral toxicity is
extremely low. Glycerol gelatin and bases produced from vegetable oil are usually not harmful.
Student E: The suppository bases usually fall into two classes; fatty bases-these melt at body temperature, and water
miscible/soluble bases-these dissolve or disperse in solution. All in all, the drug will be released once the suppository melts and
absorbed via the GIT. Hence, we can expect it will give the comparable therapeutic efect as for the oral product. Our concern
here is thus on the possible toxicity of the bases. Theobroma oil is the main ingredient of chocolate meanwhile glycerol is
widely used in pharmaceutical products. Thus, we can expect them to be safe for consumption with minimal toxicity if any.
My recommendation:
1. Tell her there is practically no harm and there is nothing to worry about.
2. Advise her to read the label carefully each time before using any drugs and to strictly follow the doctor’s/
pharmacist’s instruction on drug usage.
3. Ask her to call the doctor immediately if there are any suspected toxicity/hypersensitivity reactions i.e. rash,
itchiness, swelling, persistent nausea & vomiting, yellow eyes, dark urine.
Ref:
1. Cooper and Gunn’s Dispensing for Pharmaceutical Student
2. Medscape
Student F: Suppository is given to baby due to the difculty of administering medicine orally to the baby. It will be absorbed
in the GIT. The bases are our concern now. Since the baby did not show any symptoms, there is nothing to be worried.
Facilitator: To student A; from the discussion, what information would u like to give during counselling?
Student A: First, I would tell her not to worry as it will not cause harm to her child. If she is still worried about it, I will tell her
to observe for any suspected toxicity or hypersensitivity symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, rash, itchiness or
swelling. If the signs and symptoms persist, I will ask her to see the doctor. Then, I will ask her to observe her child for fever
because I doubt if the drug would still work. Lastly, I will also advise her to read the label carefully before giving the drug to
her child and follow the instructions given by the doctor and pharmacist.
Facilitator: Okay
Student A: Madam, may I proceed to write the report?
Facilitator: Yes
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Figure 4: Sample of drug information report
SCHOOL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
DRUG INFORMATION REQUEST FORM
Date: 30.8.2010 Time Received: 8.50pm
Received by: Student A
Requestor’s Contact Information
Name: Pn. Ida
Contact No: 019-6994735
Requester’s Identity:

Pharmacist

Physician

Nurse

Dentist

Medical Assistant

Public

Pharmacist Assistant

Other (please specify if other):
Request/ Question:
The mother mistakenly gave her baby suppository Paracetamol orally. She was worried if
the medication would be harmful to her baby.
Type of Request:

Product Identifcation

Dosage/Administration

Abuse/Addiction

General Information

Toxicology

Drug Availability

Cost

Adverse Drug Reaction

Kinetics

Drug Interactions

Therapeutic Use

Stability/Compatibility

Manufacturer

Generic/Trade Name

Other (Please specify):
Other information required from requestor:
No.
Search Strategy:
Search by internet. Search the bases used in the suppository, check whether the bases used in
the suppository will be harmful to the baby or not and whether the bases can be absorbed at
the gastrointestinal tract.
Response/Answer:
Tell her not to worry. It would not cause harm to her child. Tell her to observe her child for
any suspect toxicity or hypersensitivity such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, rash, itchiness or
swelling. If the sign and symptoms persist, ask her to take her child to the doctor. Then, ask
her to observe her child’s body temperature whether the fever gets better or not because I
doubt the medication will work as well. Lastly, advise her to read the label carefully before giv-
ing any drugs to her child and follow the instructions given by the doctor and pharmacist.
References:
1. Suppository stories. http://www.ismp.org/consumers/Suppository.asp
2. Cocoa butter. Micromedex 1.0 (healthcare series)
3. Polyethylene glycol. Micromedex 1.0 (healthcare series)
4. Suppositories.http://www.pharmpedia.com/Suppositories
Number of callback attempts: ____1____ times
Date: 30.8.2010 Time: 9.17pm

AM PM
Total Time Required: 27 minutes
Completed By: Student A







115
Figure 3 shows how the students’ learning process is guided during the online forum. Clearly, a student
learns when he/she have actively constructed deep understanding through interaction with peers. It
is assumed that those students who are slow thinkers can be stimulated and those who are reluctant
to engage in face-to-face discussion will participate in the online forum. Terefore, meaningful and
active online discussion among students, together with the facilitating roles of the lecturers, will result
in efective knowledge sharing and cognitive development. Defnitely, additional research is needed to
examine the efects of the online learning activity on the overall learning outcomes.
CONCLUSION
To be efective lecturers, teachers need to modify their approach to teaching and move from just providing
information to facilitating and guiding their students’ learning processes. Students need freedom to
learn by themselves. Terefore, rather than providing answers to students’ questions, teachers should
ask more questions that will guide students to the correct answers. Tis approach also will help students
develop the necessary thought processes to become experts (i.e., pharmacy practitioners).
Learning to ‘think like a pharmacist’ is very challenging, as students must develop three important
skills: problem-solving; communication; and self-awareness. Tese skills cannot be learned simply by
reading books; instead, students must engage in activities such as role-playing and learning through
the simulated on-call activity. In short, learning ‘to think like a pharmacist’ is a process that is closer to
learning to swim than to learning to list all drugs classifed as antihypertensive agents.
I would like to acknowledge Mrs. Fatimatuzzahra’ Abd. Aziz, MPharm; Ms Hadzliana Zainal, MPharm;
Mrs. Siti Maisarah Sheik Ghazali, MPharm; and Ms Sabariah Noor Harun, MPharm for their roles as
facilitators in the simulated on-call activity.
REFERENCES
Hepler, C., and Strand, L. (1990) Opportunities and responsibilities in pharmaceutical care. Amer J Hosp Pharm, 47, 533–543.
Strand, L. (1998) Building a practice in pharmaceutical care. The Pharmacy Journal, 260, 874–876.
World Health Organization. (2010). New tool to enhance role of pharmacists in health care. Available at: http://www.who.int/
mediacentre/news/new/2006/nw05/en/index.html. Accessed on 21 September 2010.
Wu, X.M. (2000). Deepening the reform of higher pharmaceutical education for the 21st century. American Journal of
Pharmaceutical Education, 64(3), 324–326.
Clark, D.R. (2010). Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains. The three types of learning. Retrieved on 21 September 2010 from
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/bloom.html
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PART 2
CHAPTER 4
TEACHING COMMUNICATIONS SKILLS TO
PHARMACY STUDENTS
Azmi Sarriff
INTRODUCTION
Efective interpersonal communication is a crucial professional
and personal skill for pharmacists, as it is vital to be able to
communicate with others. By successfully getting messages
across to others, we convey our thoughts and ideas efectively.
Tis is essential in the pharmacy practice, where we have to deal
with many diferent kinds of patients. Te primary reasons to
communicate with patients are as follows: (i) to gather relevant
information to make decisions about drug therapy; (ii) to inform
patients about the goals of therapy; and (iii) to educate patients
about the drug therapy they are receiving and being instructed
to take. Tindall (1994) noted that communication skills in
pharmacy are needed to establish an ongoing relationship
between the pharmacist and patient, to provide ways to ensure
patient’s information, and, ultimately, to improve the healthcare
of the patient. As expressed by Cipolle (1998), ‘Care means
communication, quality care means quality communication.’

Te practice of pharmaceutical care requires the mastery of a set
of skills that includes the ability to communicate with patients
and other healthcare professionals. Communication involves
several activities and can be described as a system made up of
several elements (Figure 1). Te intended message is put into
words by the sender, who transmits it (through a medium or
channel) to the receiver, who must then decode the message to
understand the intended message.
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Figure 1: The interpersonal communication model
Along the way, there are several opportunities for communication to fail. Communication breakdown
may occur if there are many barriers or noises that distort the smooth transmission of messages. Tese
include: (i) physical or external noises that occur outside the sender and receiver; (ii) physiological
noises that are biological in nature, such as the sender having an illness like a cough and cold; (iii)
psychological or internal noises that consists of the sender’s or receiver’s biases, prejudices, and feelings
toward a person and message; and (iv) semantic noises that comes from our attributing diferent
meanings to words.
To be an efective communicator and to get our points across without misunderstanding and confusion,
our goal should be to lessen the frequency of these barrier or noises at each stage of this process with clear,
concise, accurate, and well-planned communications. When communicating with patients and other
healthcare professionals, therefore, we should manage how we convey the intended message through
verbal and non-verbal communication. In addition, we must be aware of the verbal and non-verbal
responses or feedback of the receiver of our communication so that we can identify when confusion or
misunderstanding has occurred and take steps to clarify the message.
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Tis chapter describes the implementation of a communication course titled Communication Skills
in Pharmacy Practice that is required for frst-year pharmacy students. Te innovative parts of the
course are the introduction of inbound presentation and the communication case scenarios assignment.
Basically, this is an improvisation, and is meant to prepare students for oral presentation without
preparation. Each student will be randomly picked and asked to present any topic of his/her choice. In
addition, students’ communication apprehension (CA) is measured at the beginning and at the end of
the course. Communication apprehension (CA) is an “individual level of fear or anxiety associated with
either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons” (McCroskey, 1977)
COURSE DESCRIPTION
Communication Skills in Pharmacy Practice was frst ofered during the 1994–1995 academic year
as a required one-unit course for frst-year pharmacy students. It was developed in response to
pharmacy curriculum revisions that were based upon the growing awareness of the importance of this
subject in pharmacy practice. Tere has been increased emphasis on improving pharmacy students’
communication skills. Hence, in response to the World Health Organization (WHO) report titled
Preparing the Pharmacist of the Future: Curricular Development (WHO, 1997), the course was further
reviewed and upgraded into a two-unit course and ofered to students during the 2002–2003 academic
year. Te WHO report introduced the concept of the ‘seven-star pharmacist’ to defne the roles of a
pharmacist; the seven stars represent caregiver, decision maker, communicator, manager, lifelong
learner, teacher, and leader. Later, ‘research’ was included as an eighth category, which formed the ‘eight
star pharmacist’ (WHO, 2006). Te report stated that as a communicator, a pharmacy graduate must
be able to respond to written, verbal, and non-verbal communications from diverse audiences and for
varied purposes. Good communication skills are crucial to obtaining these aims.
Primarily, this course provides an understanding of the theories, concepts, and techniques of
interpersonal communication among patients, pharmacists, and healthcare professionals. Te main aims
are to enhance skills and techniques for efective communication in conducting medication counselling,
provision of drug information, monitoring of drug therapy, and promotion of pharmaceutical services.
Afer taking the course, the students should be able to:
describe the concept and model of interpersonal communication;
outline the technique and approach to answering drug information requests, conducting medication
counselling and consultation, and promoting and marketing pharmaceutical services;
develop the skills to efectively and efciently apply the techniques of verbal and non-verbal
communication; and
apply the specifc communication techniques and approaches in pharmacy practice.
Tus, the course content addresses the importance of communication skills in pharmaceutical care
practices; states theories, models, and concepts of interpersonal communication in the context of
pharmaceutical care practices; highlights verbal and non-verbal communication; discusses the principles
behind providing efective presentations as well as promoting and marketing communications in the
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pharmacy; and describes the development of specifc techniques and efective communication skills
needed in pharmaceutical care practices. Te techniques and approaches for efective communication
skills that are taught in this course are described below. Marketing communications is a subset of the
overall subject area known as marketing. Marketing has a marketing mix which consists of price, place,
promotion and product (known as the four P’s). In addition to these, people, processes and physical
evidence are combined to form the gist of marketing services also known as the seven P’s.
Interactive verbal techniques
Traditionally, the emphasis of medication counselling has been on providing information to the
patient. Te pharmacist is the teacher and the patient is the passive learner. However, in the interactive
approach, the pharmacist uses directed, open-ended questions to initiate dialogue to ascertain the
patient’s understanding of his or her medication.
In this course, the pharmacist-patient consultation technique is introduced to the student. Tis
interactive technique, which was developed by the Indian Health Service (IHS) in the United States
three decades ago (Gardner et al. 1991), teaches an interactive method of consultation that seeks to
verify what the patient knows about the medication and flls in the gap of knowledge only when needed.
Two sets of open-ended questions are used in the consultation. One is for new prescriptions (the prime
questions), and the other is for refll prescriptions (the show and tell questions), as shown in Table 1.
Each question probes the patient’s knowledge of a specifc area of understanding about how to use
the medication prescribed. Te frst question reviews the patient’s knowledge about the purpose of
the medication. Te second question covers all aspect of dosage and administration. Te fnal prime
question focuses on expected outcomes and potential side efects. If the patient does not know the
answer, the pharmacist should fll in the gap with specifc information before proceeding to the next
question. Te pharmacist should only fll in the gap when necessary so as not to waste the patient’s
time giving information that he/she already knows. Furthermore, the process allows the pharmacist to
personalise each encounter and, most importantly, to ensure that the patient has enough understanding
to comply with and use the medication properly.
Te prime questions are stated in a way that allows the pharmacist to explore what the doctor has told
the patient rather than asking what the patient knows. Tis can relieve anxiety when the patient does
not know the answer. Other open-ended questions may be built around the prime questions to further
clarify the patient’s understanding. Nevertheless, at a minimum, the three prime questions should be
included in every consultation.
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Table 1: The IHS Counselling Model
Three prime questions to ask patients who are receiving a new prescription:
i. What did the doctor tell you the medication is for?
ii. How did the doctor tell you to take it?
iii. What did the doctor tell you to expect?
Show and tell strategy when a patient is receiving a refll:
i. What do you take the medication for?
ii. How do you take it?
iii. What kind of problems are you having?
Final verifcation or asking the patient for feedback
‘Just to make sure that I didn’t leave anything out, will you go over how you are
going to use the medication?’
For patients who come for a refll, show and tell questions are used to verify their understanding
about the medications that they have used before. Te pharmacist begins the process by showing the
medication to the patient, and then the patient tells the pharmacist how he/she uses that medication.
Te questions are structured diferently from the prime questions because the doctor is omitted as a
reference. Tis technique allows the pharmacist to detect problems related to patient’s drug taking and
drug use.
Te last and most important step is the fnal verifcation; this is when the pharmacist asks the patient to
recall how the medication is to be taken. Te pharmacist has to listen to the patient’s feedback, correct
any misinformation, and add any missing information. Te consultation should be closed with an ofer
of help when questions arise.
The RIM model for counselling noncompliant patients

Te issue of patient noncompliance with medication regimens is addressed through the introduction
of the RIM model (Gardner et al. 1995). Te RIM model is a process that can be used by pharmacists
to enhance patient compliance. Te model consists of three steps for compliance counselling. Te
frst is RECOGNIZE (R): by using objective and subjective evidence, the pharmacist can determine if
the patient has an existing compliance problem. Objective evidence can be obtained by analysing the
patients’ profle and refll records. For subjective evidence, the pharmacist may talk with the patient in a
non-threatening manner and focus on the patient’s perception or suggestions that a problem exists. Te
second step is IDENTIFY (I), which involves determining the causes of noncompliance using supportive
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probing questions, empathic responses, and other universal statements. Generally, the pharmacist may
categorize the causes of noncompliance as f follows:
1. Knowledge defcits are evidenced through a patient’s statements, indicating a misunderstanding
or lack of information.
2. Practical impediments or barriers are revealed by a patient’s description of difculty with
a complicated dosing schedule or his/her experience with a drug’s side efects or adverse
reactions.
3. Attitudinal barriers are disclosed by a patient’s statement about his/her beliefs about health,
disease, and the treatment prescribed.
Te last step is MANAGE (M). Once the specifc cause is identifed, a specifc strategy to manage that
problem can be implemented.
Te knowledge defcit can be resolved by providing both verbal and written information. Using the
show and tell technique, the pharmacist may verify whether the patient whether the patient understands
what the medication is and how to take it or needs additional information. Practical impediments are
dealt with by providing corrective actions that individualised to the problem. Attitudinal issues tend to
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be the most complex and difcult to solve. Nevertheless, they can be rectifed by careful listening to the
patient’s views and using empathy, open-ended questions, and universal statements.
The PAR strategy
Te mnemonic PAR, which stands for Prepare, Assess, and Respond, also is introduced to students
taking the Communication Skills in Pharmacy Practice course (Gardner et. al., 1993). Te frst strategy
is to be prepared before each counselling session. Te aim is primarily to raise awareness about the
potential problems, which may include potential barriers to communication, possible compliance
problems with the therapy drug, the need for privacy during the counselling session, and the likelihood
that increased counselling time will be required. Before each counselling session, the pharmacist may
take the following actions to minimize the repercussions of a challenging situation. At the preparation
stage, the pharmacist may need to review:
the prescription information, including the patient’s name, the prescribed medication, the dosing
schedule, and whether the prescription is new or a refll. A new prescription prompts the use of the prime
question approach, whereas a refll indicates that the show and tell technique should be used;
the patient’s profle to obtain information about the patient’s name, age, gender, medical history,
medication history, allergies, current medical problems, and any notes on noncompliance;
any personal knowledge about the patient; and
the state of the pharmacy and the number of patients who are waiting, as well as how you are feeling.
Once properly prepared for counselling, the assessing phase of PAR should begin as soon as a patient is
identifed. At this point, the pharmacist looks and listens carefully for barriers to communication. Tis
step is very similar to how children learn to look and listen carefully before crossing a busy street. In this
context, there are two basic types of communication barriers: (i) patient-related, which can be broken
down into emotional (e.g., feelings of anger, embarrassment, or sadness) and functional (i.e., those
related to a patient’s ability to understand the material communicated by the pharmacist, which include
dementia, hearing or vision impairment, or difering health beliefs) and (ii) pharmacy environment
barriers, including those that arise from within the pharmacist.
In practice settings, a patient should be assessed the moment he/she enters the pharmacy, and
assessment should continue as the pharmacist introduces his/herself. Te pharmacist should keep
looking and listening for barriers as he/she asks the prime questions or goes through the show and tell
technique. Te next step is to proceed to the third phase of PAR: Respond appropriately to eliminate
or at least minimize the barriers to communication. Ten, a new concept called refective responses is
introduced to students. In short, responding primarily is divided into (i) What to say?; (ii) What to do?;
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and (iii) What shouldn’t be done? during counselling. Te diferences and similarities between refective
responses, empathizing, active listening, and paraphrasing are presented and discussed in the course.
COURSE FORMAT AND ACTIVITIES
To accomplish the course objectives and achieve the learning outcomes, students engage in the following
activities:
face-to-face contact (via lectures to deliver the content);
quizzes;
inbound oral presentation;
communication apprehension survey (pre and post);
course evaluation survey;
role playing of the communication case scenarios; and
fnal examination.
It should be noted that knowing how to communicate and being an efective communicator are
two diferent things. It is important to understand how to communicate in order to be an efective
communicator, just as we need to understand the rules of swimming before we can swim. It is important
to know all the rules, but without applying them the lessons learned may not be helpful. Likewise, we
can teach students all of the elements of interpersonal communication by using multimedia technology,
but it may not necessarily transmit the intended message. Tus, in this course we expect the students
to appreciate the model of interpersonal communication and the communication techniques described
above, and, most importantly, we expect them to be able to apply all of the elements of communication
in the pharmacy practice.
Te inbound oral presentation and role playing of the case scenarios are included in the course to
encourage students to engage with the materials taught and practice the skills and techniques that are
introduced to foster efective communication. An introductory session is devoted to explaining the
structure of the inbound oral presentation and its relevance to the course. Students also are required
to fll out the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) questionnaire, which is
collected at the end of the frst class session (see Appendix 1). Te inbound oral presentation commences
in the third week of the semester. Tis provides enough time for us to calculate the PRCA score. For
the inbound presentation, students are called at random, either prior to or at the end of the lecture, to
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give a 3 minute presentation. He/she may choose any topic for his/her presentation, but most students
talk about reasons for choosing pharmacy as a career. Te activity continues until all students have the
chance to present. An evaluation form is specifcally designed for this activity (Table 2).
Table 2: Evaluation form for an inbound oral presentation
Student name: ____________________ Gender: M/F Race: M/C/I/
Baseline PRCA Score: ________
Score
Undefned Inapt to adequate Appropriate Appreciative Excellent
0 4 5 7 8 9 10
Characteristic Score
1. Student dress during presentation
2. Student presentation style
3. Opening statement
4. State purpose and goal of presentation
5. Eye contact
6. Body language towards audience
7. Vocal tone of student during introduction
8. Body posture during explanation
9. Student understanding of title and subcontents
10. Use of output stimulus (hands and body movements)
11. Time usage in explanation
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12. Audience response to presenter
13. Inclusive use of personal experience/opinions/ideas
14. Increased use of communication skills
15. Presentation ending statement
Te communication case scenarios, in the form of dialogue scripts, are used as a teaching tool for
students to learn the communication techniques and skills described previously. Fifeen communication
cases have been prepared to portray realistic examples of interpersonal encounters in pharmacy practice
(Table 3). Instructions for the role-playing assignment are as follows:
1. Each group consisting of 6–7 students will be given a case scenario related to pharmacist-
patient encounters at the community or hospital pharmacy setting.
2. Te case scenario is designed to portray interpersonal communication through a dialogue
between pharmacists and their customers, patients, or physicians.
3. Each member of the group is expected to participate and analyse the case with respect to the
following:
a. Understanding the case scenario (i.e., the communication issues related to the case).
b. Determining the signifcance oI the unspoken thoughts and assumptions (the unspoken
thoughts are italici:ed and set off bv brackets).
c. Analyse the scripts Ior any barriers that impede eIIective communication.
d. Suggest an alternative way oI handling such scenarios (i.e., how could this have been
handled diIIerently?).
i. What is/are the communication issue(s)?
ii. What is/are the tools available at the pharmacy to address the issue(s)? (e.g., need
for privacy, information materials, etc.)
iii. What is/are the communication technique(s) that is/are appropriate to address the
issue(s) ?
4. Each group is required to do the following:
a. Prepare and submit one (1) report in the Iorm oI written report (may include
PowerPoint and/or a video clip). Preparation oI report must Iollow these rules.
i. Te report must be written in concise English.
ii. Te report must be typed on one side of the paper, be double spaced, and have
ample margins of at least 2.5 cm (1 inch).
iii. Te report should have appropriate headings and subheadings to include an
Introduction, main text (case scenario), the alternative dialogue script (as
proposed by the group), discussion, summary, and references.
b. Present a 2030 minute presentation which includes a 10 minute question and answer
period. The group is responsible Ior assigning members to give the presentation.
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5. Te written report is evaluated based on the clarity, creativity, content coverage, and source of
references (primary, secondary, tertiary).
6. Te oral presentation is evaluated based on the group dynamic/team work, organisation of the
presentation, use of media, performed in a professional manner (appropriate verbal and non-
verbal skills, impression of confdence, and absence of obvious anxiety).
Table 3: Communication case scenarios
No. Case scenarios
1 Mother with a sick and crying infant
2 Mother with a child with epilepsy
3 An overweight hypertensive patient
4 Pharmacist on night duty
5 Doctor misunderstanding about pharmacist delivering drug information to patient
6 Pregnant woman picking up an over-the-counter drug from the pharmacy aisle
7 Patient asking for a strong pain killer medication
8 Angry doctor who prescribes a high dose of gentamicin
9 Patient on lovastatin complaining of muscle pain
10 Kid on an inhaler
11 Busy executive late for meeting
12 Patient confused about a generic drug
13 A demented elderly Elderly woman on chronic medication
14 Mother complaining that her child is not responding to an antibiotic
15 Late for refll
COURSE ASSESSMENT
The PRCA score
To determine a student’s levels of CA, all students are asked to fll out the PRCA questionnaire.
Te 24-items PRCA measures students’ feeling about oral communication across a broad range
of interactions, including group discussions, meetings, interpersonal communication, and public
speaking (see Appendix 1). Te reliability of this survey instrument in this cohort of students ( all
students who enrol in this course) was 0.76.
Te overall PRCA scores vary from 24 to 120. Te level of CA is categorized into (i) low (scores <
51); (ii) average (51–80); and (iii) high (> 80). Afer students’ complete the questionnaire, the results
are categorized into fve contexts: overall scores and sub-scores of CA for the four contexts of CA.
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Because there is no established national norm score for our students, the PRCA scores are compared
to the CA norm scores established by Richmond and McCroskey (1998). Tese norm scores were
based on over 40,000 college students and over 3,000 non-student adults in a national sample (52
colleges of pharmacy in United States of America).
Table 4 shows the overall and the sub-scores of the observed PRCA in pharmacy students compared
to the norms reported in Richmond and McCroskey (1998). A statistically signifcant diference
was detected between the pre- and post-overall PRCA scores for the pharmacy students. Te mean
scores for each of the four contexts for CA were high compared to the norm score, except in the
specifc context of public speaking. However, the students were less apprehensive in the context of
interpersonal communication, and the fnding was signifcant (p < 0.05). Overall, the levels of CA
observed were categorized as low in about 3.4% of the students, medium in 73.1% of the students, and
high in 23.5% of the students.
Table 4: The PRCA scores
No.
Communication
context
Pre-course scores
(mean ± SD )
PRCA norm scores*
( mean ± SD )
Post-course scores
(mean ± SD)
1. Overall PRCA score
≠
71.27 ± 12.26 65.6 ± 15.3 67.82 ± 11.99
2. Group discussion
f
17.27 ± 4.49 15.4 ± 4.8 16.60±4.48
3. Meetings
q
18.03 ± 4.06 16.4± 4.8 17.24±3.83
4. Interpersonal
r
17.60 ± 3.73 14.5± 4.2 16.38±3.41
5. Public speaking
p
18.36 ± 3.58 19.3 ± 5.1 17.60±3.52
Norm scores reported in Richmond and McCroskey (1998)
≠ Paired samples t-test statistic between pre and post-course; p = 0.03
Paired samples t-test statistic between pre and post-course; p = 0.227
Paired samples t-test statistic between pre and post-course; p = 0.110
Paired samples t-test statistic between pre and post-course; p = 0.010
Paired samples T-test statistic between pre and post-course; p = 0.082
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Appendix 1: Personal report of communication apprehension
Te PRCA-24 is the instrument that is most widely used to measure communication apprehension.
Tis instrument is composed of 24 statements concerning feelings about communicating with others.
Please indicate the degree to which each statement applies to you by marking whether you:
Strongly Disagree = 1; Disagree = 2;  Neutral = 3; Agree = 4; Strongly Agree = 5
No. Statement Score
1 I dislike participating in group discussions.
2 Generally, I am comfortable while participating in group discussions. 
3 I am tense and nervous while participating in group discussions.
4 I like to get involved in group discussions. 
5 Engaging in a group discussion with new people makes me tense and nervous. 
6 I am calm and relaxed while participating in group discussions. 
7 Generally, I am nervous when I have to participate in a meeting. 
8 Usually, I am comfortable when I have to participate in a meeting. 
9 I am very calm and relaxed when I am called upon to express an opinion at a meeting. 
10 I am afraid to express myself at meetings. 
11 Communicating at meetings usually makes me uncomfortable. 
12 I am very relaxed when answering questions at a meeting. 
13 While participating in a conversation with a new acquaintance, I feel very nervous. 
14 I have no fear of speaking up in conversations.
15 Ordinarily I am very tense and nervous in conversations.
16 Ordinarily I am very calm and relaxed in conversations. 
17 While conversing with a new acquaintance, I feel very relaxed.
18 I’m afraid to speak up in conversations.
19 I have no fear of giving a speech.
20 Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while giving a speech. 
21 I feel relaxed while giving a speech. 
22 My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech.
23 I face the prospect of giving a speech with confdence. 
24 While giving a speech, I get so nervous I forget facts I really know. 
SCORING: 
Group discussion: 18 – (scores for items 2, 4, & 6) + (scores for items 1, 3, & 5) 
Meetings: 18 – (scores for items 8, 9, & 12) + (scores for items 7, 10, & 11) 
Interpersonal: 18 – (scores for items 14, 16, & 17) + (scores for items 13, 15, & 18) 
Public Speaking: 18 – (scores for items 19, 21, & 23) + (scores for items 20, 22, & 24) 
To obtain the total score for the PRCA, simply sum all of the subscores.
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The inbound oral presentation
Student feedback about this activity is mixed. Although most students surveyed gave favourable and
positive responses, some comments require considerable attention from the lecturer. Examples of
some of the unfavourable remarks made by students include:
I feel tension and stress in class.
I’m always nervous when you ask questions….I usually do not talk too much….I rather keep everything to
myself.
I’m so scared when I enter this class. Most of what I have learned disappears because I feel so nervous. I
have no confdence to talk when you keep asking us questions.
I don’t like the idea of inbound presentation….really stressful.
Tis is the scariest class ever!
I like the way you teach but not the way you ask people for inbound presentation.
Your class is so stressful. Sometimes I feel like skipping your classes.
I like this class because it teaches me something that I can use in the future. But every time I attend this
class, my heart beat increases and I get tense and nervous the night before class.
“I like this class because it
teaches me something that
I can use in the future. But
every time I attend this class,
my heart beat increases and
I get tense and nervous the
night before class”
Role-playing of the case scenarios
In the comments section of the evaluation form, students have remarked that the role-playing exercises
are an enjoyable way to learn something that can be applied in future practices. One group’s case
discussion is reproduced here to portray the students’ learning experiences and their creativity in
solving the communication problems.
The case scenario
Mr. Ali is a 54-year old overweight man who has had hypertension for 20 years. Te pharmacist,
Siti, has known him for 10 years. Mr. Ali comes to the pharmacy for a refll of his antihypertensive
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medication and has some concerns about his weight.
Ali: (sounds frustrated) You know, Siti, my doctor keeps on insisting that I watch my weight, but
I just can’t seem to do it.
Siti: (sounding empathetic) I know how you feel; it’s a very tough thing to do. It requires a great
deal of patience.
Ali: (sounds exasperated) You know, these pills trouble me a lot. I think they cause the weight
gain.
Siti: (express confdently) No, I don’t think so. Have you tried exercising or trying some natural
herbal diet pills?
Ali: (sounds discouraged) Well, I wonder if I should fnd a new doctor who’s more up-to-date and
willing to help me.
Siti: (continues to give advice) I’m not sure about that but I would say that you have to change your
diet and lifestyle. Tat is the only solution for you.
Ali: (sounds discouraged) Tanks a lot for your advice.
What is/are the communication issue(s)?
In this case, Siti is faced with her regular patient whom she has known for 10 years. Ali starts
the conversation by revealing that he is unable to maintain his body weight. Looking tensed, Ali
is frustrated and has some doubts about the cause of his weight gain. He feels more emotionally
distressed when being frequently told by his physician to keep a watchful eye on his weight. Initially,
the pharmacist, Siti, tries to calm Ali down by showing a positive empathetic response, saying that
she understands how her patient feels. However, the patient perceives this response to be just an
evaluative understanding from Siti. Te problem arises when Ali becomes annoyed and shows
impatience afer Siti suggests that maintaining an ideal weight requires an enormous amount of
courage. Ali may have misinterpreted it as a judgmental response from Siti. Ali tends to attribute
the cause of his weight gain to the antihypertensive pills that he has been taking. Siti worsened the
situation further by promptly disagreeing with her patient’s claim. Siti persisted in probing the source
of Ali’s weight problem by asking whether he tried exercising or consuming natural herbal diet pills.
Sounding discouraged, Ali shifed the topic by expressing his disappointment over his doctor, who he
feels is not informed enough and does not show enough care about his health condition. Once again,
Siti responded negatively by arguing with her patient regarding his weight gain problem. Siti even
suggested that Ali should alter his diet and lifestyle. Sensing a lack of understanding, the patient then
ends the conversation by reluctantly thanking the pharmacist.
What is/are the tools available at the pharmacy to address the issue(s)?
Pamphlets: In this case, Ali thought that the antihypertensive drug may have had some side efects,
like causing weight gain. Pamphlets would be useful for providing Ali with information regarding the
various types of antihypertensive drugs as they contain information about the types of antihypertensive
drugs & the common side-efects attributed to each drug. Among the side-efects, some drugs may
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cause increase in body weight. Example: Te calcium channel blockers may cause edema in the
extremities which may lead to increase in body weight Pamphlets can also keep the patients occupied
when the pharmacist is unavailable. Undoubtedly, some patients are more convinced by printed
materials than information provided verbally by a pharmacist. Moreover, some patients are too shy
to seek for consultation when they have enquiries about health issues, especially when they feel that
their medical issues are too sensitive or confdential to share.
Private space: It is useful to provide a space for the patient to discuss private and sensitive medical
issues. Such a space can also serve as a comfort zone in the pharmacy. A chair or a couch can be
prepared for the patient, and the pharmacist then is able to sit down and discuss the patient’s issue.
Patients will be less tense and less emotional in a comfort zone. Hence, this approach may reduce the
occurrence of conficts in the pharmacy.
What is/are the appropriate communication technique(s) to address the issue(s)?
Opening of conversation: When Ali enters the pharmacy, Siti should frst walk out from the
dispensing counter to welcome him and greet him politely with a nice smile to show her friendliness
to him, even though they have known each other for 10 years.
Non-verbal communication technique: Non-verbal communication skills, such as gestures, are
very important when communicating with a patient. Besides maintaining appropriate space and
distance, Siti should maintain eye contact throughout the conversation. Siti should also show a smile
to establish a working rapport with Ali. Tis is because a good smile makes the smiling person and
the other person feel good.
Body posture is another non-verbal communication technique that promotes a good conservation.
Good posture is ofen associated with strength, confdence, and power. For instance, Siti should
maintain an appropriate posture and confdently transmit her knowledge to Mr. Ali to convince and
reassure him that weight gain is not a side efect of taking the antihypertensive drug.
Listening technique: Siti should practice active listening skills when communicating with Ali. She
should pay attention to Ali’s feelings and issues raised by him, and she should look at him and use
verbal and nonverbal encouragers. Active listening allows Siti to hear the words and understand the
meaning behind the words. During the listening process, Siti can ask more open-ended question to
show that she is listening so as to gather additional information. Troughout the conversation, Siti
should refect Ali’s feelings and clarify any misunderstanding and move toward problem solving.
Explaining technique: To explain the medicine to a patient, the process involves planning,
presentation, and feedback. Tus, it is imperative that Siti structure the explanation and present it
with appropriate verbal and nonverbal communication.
Questioning technique: Siti should have a good questioning technique to seek more information
from Ali and recognize the problems he faces. In this case, Siti has to know all of the medications that
Ali is currently taking so that appropriate corrective action can be employed. Siti should apply the
funnelling technique, which means she should start by asking a very open-ended question and then
zoom in with more specifc and targeted types of questions. Troughout the questioning process, Siti
133
may alternately used open- and closed-ended questions to explore Ali’s unresolved concerns about
his weight.
Emphatic responding: It is important to listen to the patient’s problem and also look for untold
problems or feelings and respond with empathy. Tis would allow Siti to gather accurate and objective
data about Ali’s thoughts and feelings. Moreover, Siti should observe and pay attention to Ali’s non-
verbal communication, such as his facial expression, and she should show her understanding by
nodding her head and smiling.
Simple and understandable language: Simple and understandable language is very important
when communicating with patients. Siti should avoid using scientifc terms or confusing medical
jargon, which could cause unnecessary confusion in Ali. Instead, she should use layman terms when
explaining the disease and medication to Ali. Moreover, Siti should show the pamphlets to Ali to help
him better understand.\
The alternative script dialogue (as proposed by the group)
Mr. Ali is a 54-year old overweight man who has had hypertension for 20 years. Te pharmacist,
Siti, has known him for 10 years. Mr. Ali comes to the pharmacy for a refll of his antihypertensive
medication and has some concerns about his weight.
Siti: (walks out from the dispensing counter and greets him with a smile afer recognizing her regular
customer; Ali is approaching with quick and heavy footsteps). Hi there, Ali! How are you? It
seems like you are thinking of something. May I help you?
Ali: (sounds frustrated) You know, Siti, my doctor keeps on insisting that I watch my weight but
I just can’t seem to do it.
Siti: (pointing at her room) Here, let us have a talk in this room. It will only take 5–10 minutes. I’m
sure we can think of something to help with your problem.
Ali: Okay
Siti: (sounding empathetic) Ali, I know how distressed you feel; losing weight is never an easy task
as it requires enormous courage and efort. It takes a great deal of patience, as long-term
commitment is needed to achieve an ideal weight.
Ali: Sigh!
Siti: However, there are cases where patients like you have succeeded in doing so. If others
manage to do so, I believe that you could do the same too, right?
Ali: (afer some deep thought) Hmmm, I suppose you are right... (sounds worried) But, I just seem
to have problems with my pills. Tese pills are troubling me and I have a feeling that these
pills make me put on weight, what do you think, Siti?
Siti: (ofering a few pamphlets taken from a nearby table) Here, Ali, these are a few hypertension-
related pamphlets that may be useful for you. As you see, there is no proven evidence that
shows that antihypertensive drugs will lead to weight gain. And the pills that you are taking
134
are included in this list as well.
Siti: (while Ali fips through the pamphlet) So, rest assured that your pills are safe. However,
maintaining a lower body weight is benefcial in the long run for stabilizing the hypertension
condition that you are facing.
Ali: (nods and sounds convinced) But then, I’m rather curious on how our body weight actually
infuences my blood pressure?
Siti: (smiles and explains) Well, you see, we gain weight as we take in food rich in carbohydrates
and fats. Tese are high energy food sources, and when broken down they produce globules
that are likely to be deposited in our blood capillaries. Tis will reduce the size of our blood
vessels and a higher blood pressure has to be produced to restore normal blood circulatory
functions, leading to hypertension. In order to avoid this, shedding a few pounds is a healthy
option. In fact, you can try exercising on a more regular basis.
Ali: (seems to understand better) Oo.., now I have a clearer picture on that. But exercising is tough
for me, and to give up on food that I favour is another challenge.
Siti: (confdently addressed the issue) OK, let’s put it this way, exercising does not mean that you
have to be on the jogging track every day. In fact, taking a 30 minute stroll at the park or
along the beach nearby your house should do the trick. Or maybe you can walk instead of
drive when you wish to visit nearby shops. By the way, you may not need to eliminate the
delicious foods you love to maintain a healthy diet. Instead, try eating them less frequently
and in smaller portions. You can always eat a few fresh carrot sticks whenever you feel like
crunching on snacks or biscuits that are rich in lipids and carbohydrates. Dark chocolate is
a healthy substitute for sweets that you can indulge in, but sparingly.
Ali: (sounds convinced and encouraged) I didn’t know that putting of weight can be that easy and
still enjoyable. Tis is awesome! I shall start trying these at home.
Siti: (afer jotting down on a clean piece of paper) Here are some weight loss methods I mentioned
earlier to which you can refer. Besides, some natural herbal diet pills may also be helpful for
you, such as those listed in this pamphlet. Has your doctor recommended any pill to you?
Ali: (sounds disappointed) Yeah, that’s the problem! My doctor doesn’t seem to recommend
further solutions, he just keep insisting me that I should watch my weight. I wonder if I
should fnd another doctor.
Siti: No. no, it is not necessary. Perhaps he was a bit busy on the day of your visit. Anyway, you
should stick to the same doctor so that he is able to keep track on the progress of your
health. You may want to address your concerns next time you consult him. I’m sure he will
be willing to help you out.
Ali: (smiles, sounds encouraged and shows signs of relief) Tat is so kind of you, Siti. Your advice
has broadened my mind. Now I realize that a wide range of solutions are available for me and
I am confdent that my weight problem will improve just by taking simple steps. Tank you
so much!
135
Siti: (smiles in return, show encouragement) You’re most welcome, Ali. It’s my pleasure to be able
to serve you and to see you smiling again. I can’t wait to see your health improvements the
next time you visit me.
Summary
In a nutshell, by exploring a wide variety of communication skills and techniques, pharmacists likely
will be able to solve any communication issues that arise. Barriers and noises that interfere with efective
communication are always present in many forms. Terefore, the use of correct tools and approaches
might be the solution to the problem.
DISCUSSION
Tis chapter described the development of a teaching approach that is being used to teach communication
skills to pharmacy students. Te inbound oral presentation activity provides students with the
opportunity to learn how to create an efective presentation. Although students have mixed reactions
to this activity, most indicate that it ofers ideas for making their next presentation more efective and
interactive. Te efectiveness of this technique is evident in the diferences in the pre- and post-PRCA
scores. However, an in-depth study is needed to evaluate the impact of the inbound presentation on
students’ presentation skills.
Te role-playing exercise in the form of dialogue scripts is learning experience both students and
lecturers. Te dialogue scripts teach students how to handle routine patient counselling and professional
communication situations. For example, students can learn and practice how to respond to an angry
physician (case #8) or a demented elderly patient (case #13). Te expectation of student performance
136
during role playing is likely to depend on the purpose for which the scripts are being used. Te alternative
dialogue scripts created by students either are used for the purpose of achieving the course objectives or
as a measure of competency of specifc skills. To accomplish the course objectives, the created scripted
dialogue should contain elements of efective communication. When used to evaluate competency,
faculty members need to clearly specify acceptable and unacceptable scripted behaviours. For instance,
for students who counsel patients on refll prescription, the script should clearly state the show and tell
questions to be judged competent.
Despite the introduction of new approaches to teaching communication skills to pharmacy students,
23.5% of students were classifed as having high CA. Tese fndings have implications for both pharmacy
education and the profession. If lef unattended, students with high CA could become tomorrow’s
pharmacists with severe CA, which would pose a problem for the profession. Because new roles for
pharmacists lean heavily on both communication ability and desire to communicate, having one out of
four or fve students with high CA going into practice is not in the best interest of the profession.
Certainly, pharmacy students need to acquire appropriate communication skills before practicing.
Within the contexts of the communication process, it is important to keep in mind that CA and
communication skills are quite diferent. Te former is cognitive, whereas the latter is behavioural.
Because CA is cognitive, communication skills courses will not help students with high CA. Unless
the apprehension is resolved, increasing the number of student tasks that require communication skills
(e.g., oral presentations in the classroom) can make the high apprehensiveness problem worse. However,
this does not mean that communication courses are not useful in building a better understanding of
communication or improving the communication skills of students.
137
As pharmacy educators, we need to be aware that the level of student anxiety towards oral communication
may be an obstacle to improving the related skills and may require diferent teaching approaches. Te
possibility of CA among students should be taken into consideration when creating course syllabi,
preparing classes, and facilitating classroom activities. Perhaps the most important thing is to be
sensitive to the problem. Tus, acknowledging the existence of students with CA is the frst step. Tis
can be done using the PRCA. Te next step is to employ techniques in the classroom setting that will
reduce or alleviate the anxiety of the high CA student before or during the communication skills course.
In conclusion, efective communication is a powerful skill that pharmacy students need to acquire and
master in order to be successful in pharmaceutical care practice. Pharmacy lecturers can use dialogue
scripts as a teaching tool to ensure that students learn and develop communication skills to help them
fulfl their roles in practice settings.
REFERENCES
Sarrif, A. and Gillani, W.S. (2011). Communication apprehension among Malaysian pharmacy students: A pilot study. Ind J
Pharm Edu Res, 45: 8 – 14.
Cipolle, R.J., Strand, L.M., and Morley, P.C. (1998). Pharmaceutical care practice: The clinician’s guide, (2nd edition). New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Gardner, M., Boyce, R.W., and Herrier, R.N. (1991). Pharmacist-patient consultation program, Unit 1: An interactive approach to
verify patient understanding. New York: Pzifer, Inc.
Gardner, M., Boyce, R.W., and Herrier, R.N. (1993). Pharmacist-patient consultation program, Unit 2: Counseling patients in
challenging situations. New York: Pzifer,Inc.
Gardner, M., Boyce, R.W., and Herrier, R.N. (1995). Pharmacist-patient consultation program, Unit 3: Counseling to enhance
compliance. New York: Pzifer, Inc.
McCroskey, J. C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication
Research, 4, 78-96.
Richmond, V.P. and McCroskey, J.C. Communication apprehension, avoidance and efectiveness, (5th edition). Needham
Height MA: Ally & Bacon, 1998.
Tindall, W.N., Beardsley, R. S., and Kimberlin, C.L. (1994) Communication Skills in Pharmacy Practice: A Practical Guide for
Students and Practitioners, (3rd edition). Baltimore, Maryland, USA. Williams & Wilkins.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2006). New tool to enhance role of pharmacists in health care. Available at: http://www.
who.int/mediacentre/news/new/2006/nw05/en/index.html. Accessed on 21 September 2010.
World Health Organization (WHO). (1997). Report of the 3rd. WHO consultative group on the role of the pharmacist in the
healthcare system. Preparing the pharmacist of the future: Curricular development: Vancouver.
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PART 2
CHAPTER 5
TEACHING FROM THE HEART
Fauziah Md. Taib
INTRODUCTION
Teaching is the act of passing knowledge to someone or to a
group of students. For teaching to be efective, the process of
knowledge acquisition must be enjoyed by both parties (i.e.,
the teacher and the students). Many people regard teaching
as a simple and easy task that involves talking and lecturing.
However, those who have experienced the task of teaching
know that maintaining students’ focus during the delivery of
information is an arduous job.
TEACHING AND ATTENTION SPAN
Anecdotal evidence suggests that students’ attention span has
been decreasing or deteriorating over the last 30 years. Te
average attention span of an average listener was about 30
minutes 30 years ago (Anonymous, 2010a), whereas today it is
only 5–10 minutes (Anonymous, 2010b) for a single unbroken
subject. Television and flms have always been blamed for this
decrease in attention span. Since childhood, students have
been exposed to many hours of television programmes, which
are broken down into several segments that EACH last ~12
minutes. Tus, indirectly they are trained to remain focused for
140
that length of time. Te challenge for any teacher or lecturer is to pass on knowledge to students while
retaining their focus.
Efective learning can only occur with the mutual cooperation of teachers and students. Many of the
problems with learning occur when both parties are physically present but spiritually absent. Te
teacher may treat the learning session as just another task that needs to be completed, and the students
may merely go through the motions without interest. Tis is where the big vacuum exists, and it is the
main recipe for failed teaching and learning.
SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS ABOUT THE HEART, BRAIN AND TEACHING-
LEARNING
Findings from a new discipline called neurocardiology suggest that the heart has a complex, intrinsic,
and very complicated nervous system that is capable of functioning independently from the brain’s
nervous system to learn, memorise, feel, and sense. Te heart’s nervous system contains 40,000 neurons
that send signals that infuence perception, decision making, and cognitive processes. More information
is sent from the heart to the brain than vice versa.
Te heart has an electrical feld that generates ~60 times more electrical activity than that generated by
the brain (Armour, 1991). Te heart’s magnetic feld is not only 5,000 times stronger than that of the
brain, but its efect can be detected with a magnetometer up to 10 feet from the body (Armour, 1991).
Because a strong magnetic feld emanates from the heart to the brain, it is likely to produce a strong
efect on the brain’s function and could enhance a person’s feeling of well being. Energy from the heart
can also travel in other energy forms. Te normal reading for brain activity is between 0 to 100 cycles
per second (CPS), whereas it is 250 CPS for the heart. Tis fnding confrms that the heart is the body’s
strongest energy messenger and receiver (Essene, 2005). Te existence of this energy from the heart has
enabled spiritual healing or learning to occur especially when the human energetic feld interacts and
exchanges.
Te implications of these fndings for teaching and learning are extensive. First, in any learning session,
the hearts of both interacting parties have to be present and be fully motivated. Te lecturer in charge
has to ensure that his or her heart is fully energised (motivated) before starting the session, as the
positive (negative) charge carried by his/her heart should enable efective (failed) learning to occur
as his/her and the students’ hearts interact. Te knowledge to be passed on that comes from a sincere,
hopeful, and motivating heart to another heart will have a better impact (learning outcome) than when
these conditions are not met. To allow for a better exchange of energy, the lecturer should not stand
too far away from the students. Tus, class size ideally should be kept to a minimum. Alternatively, the
lecturer should try to move around the classroom so that the magnetic feld from his or her heart can be
felt and shared by all of the students.
141
TEACHING PHILOSOPHY
Teaching from the heart involves more than just the energy in the heart. It also refers to the dedication
and motivation that the lecturer has and his/her tireless efort to pass on knowledge to the students. Te
sheer dedication and full motivating energy of the lecturer will have a positive impact on the learning
experience of the students. When teaching and learning is not accompanied by a conscious and alert
heart and when they are undertaken only for the sake of fnishing a job or passing the exam, the outcome
will not be very meaningful. Under these conditions, no useful knowledge can be acquired, let alone be
applied to new innovations. Hearts that are fully energised do not need much monitoring and are self
directed; this is so because the students know the objectives of learning and are self-guided to attain
those objectives.
Te foremost thing that a lecturer must do to induce efective teaching and learning is to ‘touch’ the
students’ hearts. Tere are many ways in which this can be accomplished, including reminding students
of the scientifc fndings and the need for them to open their hearts and their minds at the beginning of
each learning session so that the absorption (learning) process can efciently take place. Many students
automatically have a ‘mental block’ and think that a particular course is very difcult and boring, which
indirectly inculcates the feeling of dislike towards the subject. Tis can be avoided by reinstating the
scientifc fact that by opening the heart and the mind, all signals and messages sent from the heart
will reach the brain and stay there, and this later will result in positive actions. For Muslims, this is
analogous to citing ‘Al-Fatihah’ and ‘Selawat to Prophet Muhammad S.A.W.’ before the start of each
learning session.
Te beginning of each lecture can be personalised by calling each of the students by name in order
to get to know them better. Students feel appreciated if the lecturer knows their name. While going
through the class list, the lecturer should make a specifc and deliberate attempt to note the unique
features of the students in order to generate a mind map that can be used to recall each of the students
later. Informal gestures, such as greeting students outside the classroom or during impromptu meetings
outside the lecture theatre, are very helpful. With serious efort, the lecturer in charge should be able
to memorise about 85% of the students’ names in a class of about 150 students by the tenth week. Tis
efort by the lecturer gives the students a moral boost to be present and involved in the learning process,
which is an act that only the heart can do.
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INNOVATION IN TEACHING AND LEARNING
When the hearts of the students have been ‘touched’, the next step is to motivate them with inspiring
words to push them forward in a specifc direction (i.e., towards learning). Te approach here is similar
to the way in which Muslim scholars of old educated their students: that is, to touch and cleanse the
students’ hearts before any teaching is carried out, as the heart is the source of the energy. In other
words, when you touch the heart, you touch the key button to move forward.
Emulating the employment situation
A common mistake made by lecturers is to treat their students like young children. To induce a
sense of responsibility and looking ahead, it is best to inform students that you will treat them like
managers in an organization, and as such you expect them to deliver what is expected of them in a
professional manner. Failure to deliver on time (with the right content) means that the managers fail
to impress or fulfll the duty expected of them. With that tone, they become focused on their ability to
perform as a manager instead of just as a student. Past personal experience suggests that this approach
greatly changes the students’ attitude towards learning, as they feel that they have a bigger and more
important role to play.
Innovation in assessment
Innovative evaluation and monitoring should be used to induce and enhance efective learning
sessions. Even the most common method of teaching can be turned into an interesting session with a
little bit of imagination. As an example, consider presentations made by students. Students generally
do not look forward to presentation sessions and ofen regard these sessions as boring and a waste
of time. Tis perception can be changed by being more creative when planning the event. Careful
planning with a predetermined set of issues to be presented by the students should be performed before
the start of the semester. A carefully selected reading list that will enhance students’ understanding of
the chosen topic should be prepared, along with some stimulating issues to accompany the reading.
In this manner, students are compelled to do the reading and have a basic understanding of the topic
before meeting with the lecturer to discuss the suitability of the presentation topic and its academic
content. To allow for creativity, the delivery of the presentation should be lef to the imagination of
the students (managers), with clear instructions that they need to do whatever it takes to make their
presentation well understood and enjoyable for their peers.
Inculcating a sense of belonging/attachment
In forming the various groups for presentations, the lecturer in charge could take the opportunity
to emulate the workplace situation by assigning students to work with friends with whom they have
not previously worked and/or by ensuring fair representation of races and sexes within each team.
Students may complain about the arrangement and having to work with ‘alien’ friends, but eventually
they will admit the value of having the chance to get to know new people. Te elected captain of the
group plays a big role in uniting the mind sets of his/her teammates to focus on meeting the deadline
and completing the required tasks (this is true for both presentations and research projects). Te
143
lecturer should remind the teams to fnd the best way to remain united in completing the task. Team
members will have to meet ofen to discuss their division of labour, and this helps to encourage a
sense of belonging and group attachment among the team members.
Te team, including the captain, will have to brainstorm and discuss the best way to present the
academic content without losing their classmates’ interest. Knowing that the average attention span
is about 12 minutes, the team has to break the presentation into several 12 minute long segments.
In between the segments, the students will have to plan for something that will relax their peers but
reinforce the content of the previous segment. In developing the presentation, the students also must
harness the best out of every team member and at the same time deliver it efectively as a team.
Creative assessment and sharing of materials
A good lecturer is likely to provide incentives to encourage and also recognise the good work of
the team. Creative evaluation strategies are likely to reinforce this objective. An evaluation could be
divided into two stages, such as the professional evaluator (the lecturer or an invited expert) and the
public (the non-presenting teams), with diferent weights assigned to each part of the evaluation. For
the former, the evaluation would be more comprehensive, consisting of both objective and subjective
assessments (e.g., strengths and shortcomings of each presenter for future self-improvement
purposes). Te role of the public judge is to give feedback about whether or not the presentation was
understandable and enjoyable (creative).
A question and answer session is a useful way to evaluate the agility of the presenting team in
responding to questions posed by the audience, including the lecturer in charge. As an inducement to
non-presenting students, incentives could be ofered to those who pose relevant questions, and some
questions arising from the discussion could be selected for inclusion on the fnal examination. In this
manner, the students are compelled to pay attention to the discussion of the issues.
Upon completing the presentation, students could be required to share their work by uploading
the materials to the Yahoo or Google group created for the purpose of communication among the
students and the lecturer. In this way, the hard work and extensive research of the presenting group
are made available in a summarised form for other non-presenting groups to see and share. Such
a forum means that the time required for students to prepare for the examination is cut short and
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that students have a complete list of topics readily available for students during revision. Te Yahoo
or Google group also can act as a communication tool among the students so that they can discuss,
express feelings, or exchange information (documents) related to the assignments, projects, and
presentations.
Follow-up (feedback and feld trips)
Almost immediately afer the presentation, the expert (lecturer) should provide his/her assessment
of the presentation, highlighting the strengths that have contributed to a successful presentation and
the related weaknesses. Particular attention should be paid to areas requiring improvement. Weak
presenters should be ofered suggestions for ways to improve their communication skills, such as by
attending pre-arranged feld trips and/or workshops arranged by the lecturer or co-organized with
the Division of Students Afairs and Development.
As an example, students who need extra help in improving their public speaking skills could be asked
to prepare a public speaking programme to be given at a primary school; there they would speak in
front of year 4, 5, and 6 students to build their self-confdence. Each of the presenting students would
take a turn in leading an activity that requires him/her to speak publicly in front of a group of primary
students in English. Past personal experience suggests that weak presenters have benefted from such
outings, at least by attaining a bit more confdence in front of the crowd.
Te approach described above illustrates how even the most common method of handling learning
sessions can be turned into something interesting and useful with a little bit of imagination, planning,
and innovative thinking. Te turning point here is to ‘touch’ the heart and to remain modest
throughout, as actions speak louder than words. Tis approach indirectly instils the sense of being
independent, disciplined, and a leader (for the captain of the team) and of team work, creativity,
imagination, thinking, and planning.
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Award of the Year Session
Apart from the marks and extra incentives given for participating in the class discussion (seminar),
at the end of the semester all eforts made by students throughout the semester should be recognised
in a special session called the ‘Award of the Year Session’ (similar to events held by the creative and
entertainment industry to recognise excellence). A lecturer can create multiple categories of awards,
ranging from the best presenting team to the best idea ever coined by the students to the best team
work of the year. Personal experience indicates that students really look forward to and enjoy this
special session.
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TEACHING STRATEGIES
Learning can take place in a number of diferent forms. Te approach to learning can be varied to
suit the content of the subject, types of students, and place. Teaching can be viewed as analogous to
producing a flm. Before the flming process can begin, the script must be ready, but before the script
can be completed, the story board must be constructed. For a movie, the story board is the rough
tale of what the flm will focus on. For a class, the story board for a particular day’s lesson should be
carefully determined prior to the class period. A main story without the frills (humour, supporting
actors/actresses, and related stories) is certainly not going to make an interesting flm. Tus, a lecturer
should supplement his/her lecture with added frills to make the learning session more interesting and
lively. Tis can be achieved using various techniques, such as showing a short video clip related to the
day’s discussion that can be downloaded from internet sources (e.g., You Tube Education, Facebook,
professional society websites, etc.). A common complaint by lecturers is that it is difcult to fnd a video
that is directly related to the content of the lecture. Although this is true to a certain extent, a little bit
of imagination is needed to ‘visualise’ the video from the many perspectives that help to build students’
sof skills, critical thinking, and confdence.
Table 1: Modes of Learning and Retention Rate
Modes of Learning
What we read 10%
What we hear 20%
What we see 30%
What we both see and hear 50%
What we discuss with others 70%
What we experience 80%
What we teach someone else 95%
Source: http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~foreman/itec800/fnalprojects/raeannecarman/modes.html
Performance of a flm in terms of its lasting efect on audience is largely determined by the strength of
the story and the acting strength of the actors and actresses involved. In a similar vein, once the content
of the learning session is ready, the lecturer must constantly improve his/her delivery by utilising his/
her strengths to substitute for and conceal the weaknesses that he/she has. If the lecturer has excellent
presentation skills and ways of capturing the audience’s attention, then he/she should choose teaching
approaches that best use these strengths. Conversely, lecturers without such skills should shif the
attention from himself/herself to the materials and supplemental materials to do the job. Even for the
most powerful speaker, the average attention span of an audience is limited. Tus, the learning session
has to be supplemented with various learning activities rather than using only one method. Table 1 lists
various learning modes and the relevant retention rate. Teaching that involves audio, video, hands-on
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activities, exchanging views and presentations is likely to improve the retention rate and result in a
successful learning session.
TEACHING IS THE WORKS OF THE HEART [TwH]
The TwH methodology is illustrated in the fow chart below:
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TEACHING CHALLENGES AND SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
Tus far, the teaching from the heart philosophy has demonstrated techniques and
activities that allow hearts to remain connected and energised. Te big asssumption
behind this philosophy is that the lecturer is the driver or the source of the energy and
that he/she remains fully energised throughout the class period to share positive energy
with students. As such, this approach requires lecturers to remain fully motivated and
cognisant that they are constantly being watched by the students and the Creator of the
Universe. ‘Nothing but the best’ should be the motto for lecturers so that they always
look for new and better ways to improve delivery and content.
Listed below are some of the common challenges faced by lecturers when pursuing an efective learning
session and some suggested solutions on how to overcome them.
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151
152
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EPILOGUE
Te discussion and suggestions throughout this chapter point to one important thing that many of us
who have been lecturers for a long time may have taken for granted or even lost without even realising
it: teaching nobility and/or integrity. Although the performance measurement system may or may not
recognise a teacher’s contributions, a true lecturer gives his or her best regardless of the rewards at hand.
Te teaching from the heart philosophy is grounded not on the techniques used to teach students but
on connecting the hearts of the students. To teach is to connect with the students and the subject matter,
and this process is enriched by employing various techniques to enhance efective learning. It is not the
technique that makes the diference; it is the individuals’ identity and his or her willingness to connect
intellectually, emotionally, and spiritually (Palmer 2010). Teaching is the work of hearts.
REFERENCES
Anonymous. (2010a).Available at: http://members.cox.net/kdrum/Tvevil.htm. Accessed on 23 August 2010.
Anonymous. (2010b). Available at: http://www.businessballs.com/presentation.htm. Accessed on 26 August 2010.
Armour, A. J. (1991). Anatomy and function of the intrathoracic neurons regulating the mammalian heart. In Irving, Zucker,
and Gilmore (Eds.), Refex Control of the Circulation. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
Essene, V. (2005). How are your brain and heart connected to God? The Share Foundation –Heart-Brain Project. Available at:
http://www.sharefoundation network.com/heartbrain.htm. Retrieved on 25 December 2008.
Palmer, P.J. (2010). The heart of a teacher: Identity and integrity in teaching. Available at: http://www.newhorizons.org/
strategies/character/palmer.htm. Accessed on 30 August 2010.
Taib, F.M. (2010). Accounting scandals and failure of corporate governance: Science discovery as a solution? Public Lecture
Series. Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia: USM Press
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PART 2
CHAPTER 6
TEACHING UNDERGRADUATE PHYSICS AT USM: A
PERSONAL ACCOUNT
Yoon Tiem Leong
WHAT IT TAKES TO BE A GOOD PHYSICS
TEACHER
I was recruited to work as a lecturer at the School of Physics
at Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) in 2003. Since then I have
been deeply involved in the teaching of undergraduate-level
physics courses. Te courses I have taught include Mechanics
(the 101 physics course, which is almost universally a course that
any undergraduate-level physics student must take), Modern
Physics, Termodynamics, Linear Algebra and Calculus, and
Statistical Mechanics. I am not only a physics instructor but also
a mathematics teacher. Teaching physics and mathematics is full
of both fun and challenges. Te public regards learning physics
as a daunting endeavour. In fact, explaining physics is even
more daunting. Richard Feynman, the legendary physics Nobel
laureate and great physics teacher, used to say ‘… if I could explain
it to the average person, I wouldn’t have been worth the Nobel
Prize’ (Gleick, 1992). As a physicist and a physics teacher, my
core belief is that physics and mathematics are comprehensible.
Ironically, many physics students still think otherwise.
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In my opinion, a physics teacher who can make physics comprehensible must have a few essential
qualities: He/she must master efective techniques for delivering ideas, have knowledge of the subject
matter, and have a passion for delivering the frst two. You can not be a good physics teacher if you lack
any of these characteristics. For example, P.A.M. Dirac, who was one of the most important physicists in
history and whose contribution to physics is on par with that of Einstein, was said to be the most boring
physics teacher (Farmelo, 2011). He used the most economical and concise mathematical language to
lecture physics to students, but he never bothered to elaborate further in plain language. Most students
were lef in a state of confusion when Dirac lef the class. As a physicist, Dirac had the most profound
insight into the mathematical beauty of physics theory, but he lacked the passion to deliver what he
knew to grass-root-level physics students. On the other hand, one can never teach beyond the level of
one’s own understanding. In the teacher-centred setting, this would mean that it is logically impossible
to be a good physics teacher if the instructor knows too little about the subject matter.
In practice, many physics teachers merely spoon feed formulas to their students, which then are blindly
memorised, and recycle past-year questions in the fnal exams. Te level of comprehension of the
core ideas usually is not tested rigorously. In many instances, exams require students to simply vomit
the model answers as memorised. Tus, the ability to score a high grade on a physics exam is rarely
translated into a reasonable comprehension of the complete idea behind what has been memorised. In
contrast, in my opinion the best way to show whether learning has truly taken place is to have students
demonstrate their ability to apply the knowledge content in research projects and to correctly explain
them in such a manner that others can comprehend them. It is also in this spirit that Feynman defned
a person to have truly understood a physics concept.
Teaching physics to a class of undergraduate students ultimately boils down to how to convey a foreign,
and ofen abstract, concept to the audience. To achieve this, various efective techniques and tricks
can be used. Troughout the last few years, I have developed various methods to make undergraduate
physics a comprehensible subject. I also feel deeply that to deliver good teaching I must know my subject
matter well. In addition, genuine motivation from within is also a mandatory fuel that helps me remain
innovative. Innovative methods in teaching may be merely strategies or convenient tools dressed up
with fancy technologies. However, what essentially drives the implementation of these tricks is personal
passion.
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LEARNING AND TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGICAL MEDIA
With the commencement of the NET.2 era, applying electronic media technologies in teaching has
become a fancy trend. Students sitting in the classroom can easily be bored by conventional teaching
approaches, such as chalk-and-talk and reading mechanically or monotonously from the slides. Te
use of electronic media in teaching has the potential to ofer many surprising elements to ward of
classroom boredom. Inserting a lively computer simulation or ‘Googling’ on the projected screen in the
lecture hall, for example, combats boredom and arouses students’ expectations. As a physicist with some
experience as a computer end user, I personally have used quite extensively some electronic media to
assist my teaching. However, I am fully aware that such technologies are merely means to an end rather
than the end itself.
Course websites
Te frst website I built was for the ZCT 104 Modern Physics course back in 2003. Tis was the frst
course I taught at USM. Back then, having a website for a course was not the norm on the USM main
campus, although many universities overseas had begun using course websites as early as the mid
1990s. I took the difcult frst step to build my frst course website despite unfavourable conditions.
As late as 2007, USM fnally pushed for the implementation of Moodle, which is an online web service
where lecturers can drag-and-drop course-related material online fairly easily.
Today, I insist on having a website for each course I teach because that is the way to go for efective and
efcient course material management. I have accumulated many course websites, which are archived
in my personal webpage. Tese websites document my teaching experience and the activities that I
have practiced throughout the many years of my teaching career; moreover, they are accessible by
anyone, anytime, and from anywhere with just the click of the mouse on http://www2.fzik.usm.my/
tlyoon/teaching. Tis archive is a reference for my present students who wish to peek at the teaching
activities from previous semesters. It ofers historical information about how the same courses were
conducted in the past, thus preparing the present students psychologically as to what to expect in the
present semester. In particular, students fnd it interesting to read about the discussions held by their
elders in the forum of the same courses in previous years. As these discussions specifcally revolved
around the particular course they are currently studying, there is a sense of relevance when the present
students read them. Tis contributes positively to my process of teaching in the classroom. Refecting
my core belief in transparency and liberalism, all of the course web pages I post are confgured to be
viewed freely by anyone in the world without the need to key in a password.
Ideally, I try to make it so that students can access online all possible information related to the
course. Such a practice saves me the trouble of replying to students’ SMS requests (e.g., Where and
when will a test happen? What topics are to be tested?). When the course websites are fully loaded
with essential information, students have no reason to complain about having insufcient material for
their learning purposes. Te essential contents of a course website include the following:
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Synopsis and course-related information—Tis includes the course synopsis; all relevant
information, such as the reference textbooks, exam format, and important dates (tests, holidays,
extra classes); a lecture-by-lecture schedule; criteria for grading; and advice and best practices for
the course.
Electronic copies of lecture notes and the latest tutorial problem sets— Past year
questions, usually completed with full solutions and marking schemes, are provided. Te inspiration
when designing exam questions usually is derived from various reference sources (mostly the
textbooks and test banks). In the solution schemes, the sources of the exam questions ofen will
be quoted. My purpose is to provide transparency in the process of how I design exam questions.
Tis ofers students a window to track their lecturer’s thinking path when designing the questions.
I believe that such information is benefcial to the learning process for the students.
Latest solutions to the quizzes— Tese are uploaded, usually immediately afer a quiz was
taken. Te immediate release of the electronic solutions is useful to the eager students who cannot
wait to see the answers.
All-in-one course material— I take the trouble to electronically bind all of the latest lecture
notes, tutorial questions, past year solutions, and other course-related material into an all-in-one
pdf version, which I then upload to the course website. I also send the sof copy to the photocopy
shop so that students can purchase hard copy I they wish.
Announcements— Te course website is the best place to make announcements. News spreads
in cyberspace almost faster than the speed of light these days.
Records of past year performances in the course— Tis includes records of the grade
distribution and the formal reports of overall exam performance. Te formal reports contain
information such as weakness of the students and comments made by the lecturer about the overall
course performance. Tis is ‘confdential’ information that usually is not available but is very much
sought afer by students. When made publicly known, an historical statistic about an average 45%
failure rate over the last two academic sessions sends the following strong message: If you don’t
want to be part of the statistics, you better start working now. It is a psychological trick I use to
motivate students, albeit in a threatening manner.
Forum—Te forum is one of the most important component of a course website. It is the main
attraction for students to visit the course web pages. Here, students read their peers’ postings,
chit chat, ask stupid questions, or simply drop a line for fun. Some ask serious questions, debate
certain opinions, or seek quick answers to their assignments. I am usually the central participant
in the forum, aided by the occasional appearance of a few active online students to heat up the
ambience. A typically reserved student can turn out to be quite outspoken and daring online.
Meeting and discussing physics with the students in cyberspace provides an alternative channel
to interact with them. Te students get to know my character and personal style better if they
bother to read my postings on the online forums. In my opinion, a student’s awareness of his/her
lecturer’s personal traits and teaching style helps to boost the learning and teaching experience. To
encourage participation I maintain a free speech policy in the forum. As long as their postings do
not violate the obvious social constraints, I never interfere. All kinds of topic are sanctioned, such as
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advertisements, expression of fear about the course, or even blatant objection to my teaching style.
I try to talk like a student, using SMS style or even broken language, to make them feel comfortable
about expressing themselves online. Maintaining an active course-related forum has many obvious
advantages to increasing the students’ interest in the course. However, involvement in a heated
forum can take 1–2 hours per day of my precious time.
Moodle: The online learning management system
In earlier years, I built my course websites on the server of the School of Physics (and elsewhere
as well). Tese were very simple websites that did mundane things such as displaying texts, fles,
and links. Moodle, which was introduced at USM around 2007, ofers much better functionality so
that I can build course websites that are much superior to those built in the past. Moodle allows
many course-related events to be managed online smartly so that lecture hours can be spent solely on
lecturing. Moreover, if a group decision has to be made, Moodle is the platform to do it, as it is much
more efcient than counting the show of hand in class.
One of the very useful services ofered by Moodle is the online assignment submission function.
Lecturers can enforce the deadline for last submission, grade the assignments online, and display the
grades very conveniently. Tis means that assignment submission is efcient and it saves paper (and
trees). I believe that every lecturer who requires their students to submit assignments should do so via
Moodle as a contribution to saving the Earth.
Moodle also provides a function called ‘Wiki’, in which students can freely edit an encyclopaedia-like
entry related to a particular concept or keyword related to the course. Students are encouraged to
edit or add to Wiki entries so that the content of these entries can be perfected over time as a result
of collective efort. Tis is such a wonderful new concept for teaching and learning, thanks to the
brilliant invention of the Wikipedia model. I tried to encourage the use of Wiki in my calculus and
linear algebra course once. Except for a few rare enthusiasts, the Wiki drew little response from the
students, probably due to the students’ lack of familiarity with editing Wiki entries. Despite the failure
in this particular class, I believe that student editing of Wiki entries can be an efective strategy for
collective learning when properly used.
Although complementing a course with a website is not the most important factor for successful
teaching, use of this tool can be a smart means to help make good teaching a more plausible task.
Online resources and Java simulations
An almost infnite number of interesting web-based resources are out there, some of which could be
directly relevant to the courses one is teaching. Tese include, for example, lecture notes, simulations,
free textbooks, live lectures, and problem sets. My course web pages usually include internet links to
these resources for enthusiastic students to follow how others learn the same course in other parts of
the world. To choose the links, I must frst flter them. Tis job is a very fruitful learning process by
itself. I get to learn what other physicists do to deliver the same topics that I am going to teach.
Other than online resources, physics textbooks also come with Java simulations in the form of an
attached CD that is given for free to instructors by the publisher. On these CDs, physics instructors
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can fnd many computer simulations useful for teaching demonstrations. Traditionally, the physics
laws are taught and explained using fgures and verbal and oral explanation by instructors, whereas
the formulas are rote-memorised by students. Te symbolic mathematical equations, which encode
a profound amount of constraints on how a physical system should behave in space and time, make
no sense to many students. Tey just cannot make the connection between these equations and
the real world. Computer simulation is a very efective tool to convey the relevance of the physical
laws to our world. Tanks to Java simulations, I have much less trouble explaining a complicated
phenomenon governed by a lengthy formula to the class when I simply showing a simulation on the
screen. Moreover, simulations easily catch the attention of the many online gaming geeks in the class.
In addition, simulations wake up those students who are halfway or already asleep. Java simulations
are now widely and easily available, and it is a waste if physics teachers do not make use of them to
facilitate quality teaching.
Electronic gadgets to aid teaching
Some lecture halls at USM are so huge that at times I imagine I am conducting a concert in a 50,000
capacity stadium. Even in moderately sized lecture halls or classrooms, writing on black/white boards
is something that students hate for me to do for the simple reason that the writing appears too tiny
on the board. Heeding their complaints, I purchased an electronic gadget know as the ‘Easy Note
Taker’. Tis gadget allows me to project my writing on a piece of paper onto the screen via the laptop.
In addition, the writing can be electronically saved and uploaded to the course website. Tis gadget
worked very well and efectively for a while, but unfortunately it broke down afer one semester.
Mathematica for teaching
In the calculus and linear algebra course, it can be difcult to explain clearly certain abstract
mathematical concepts, such as taking the limit of a function or the convergence of a series. Tus,
I use Mathematica to facilitate the teaching of this course. Mathematica is a very powerful sofware
package that can perform many mathematical manipulations, such as displaying the graphs of
complicated functions and performing algebraic and numerical integration and diferentiation. It has
proven to be quite a workable alternative approach to teaching mathematics. Students generally are
amazed by the power of Mathematica when I demonstrate it in the class. Te abstract symbols in the
textbook suddenly manifest themselves into vivid graphical form that is visualisable on the screen.
Tis visualisation helps to convert an abstract mathematical concept into a concrete picture for easy
digestion.
Using Mathematica for teaching can be quite efective. However, I am also aware that this
computational tool may divert the students’ attention away from the core mathematical concepts,
resulting in erroneous focus on the sofware rather than on the mathematics itself. In addition,
overuse of Mathematica demonstrations in the class may also cause unnecessary confusion to some
weak or technophobic students. Terefore, I use Mathematica only in a few selected lecture slots in
order to successfully obtain the response I want: students who are impressed and amazed and who
focus all of their attention on the lecture.
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I also use another trick to attract students’ attention. I write a Mathematica code to randomly
pick a student for questioning during the lecture. For maximum impact, I project it on the screen
keystroke by keystroke to demonstrate the process of how I run the code for the random selection.
Te atmosphere becomes excited when the class sees the screen displaying the Mathematica code.
Again, I gain what I wished for: their attention and aroused interest in my class.
SMS for Q&A
Our Asian students are traditionally quiet and never speak or ask questions in public, and this is even
more predominant in the lecture hall. Tus, lecturing at USM can be boring because the teacher rarely
is queried publicly. One day when I observed many students busily but quietly SMS-ing when I was
speaking, I had a moment of inspiration: Why don’t I get them to SMS me instead? I announced my
mobile phone number to the class, and from that day on my hand phone SMS alert tone began to ring
constantly during lectures because students started to ask questions during class using SMS. Every
SMS question sent during a lecture creates a rapport between me and the anonymous SMS-sender
sitting among the students. Tis method works quite well, and I use it in every course I teach.
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TEACHING STUDENTS TO THINK LIKE A PYSICIST
Physics is a difcult subject for both students and teachers. Many factors contribute to this impression,
such as a structural defciency in our education systems and the poor appreciation of an intellectual
culture. University education in many ways is simply yet another secondary school setting within a larger
campus. Students memorise the formulas and concepts and spew them out again in the exam halls, but
they never appreciate the intellectual process underlying how these concepts are formulated. To many
students, physics is merely a collection of formulas that can be used to calculate certain problems. When
given a physics problem, what comes frst to their minds is to scan for the right formula from their
memorised database rather analysing the problem using a more robust approach. Such a mechanical
practice is the norm among the students and has saved many ‘lives’ in the exam halls. However, this
approach also has deprived them of the opportunity to think like a physicist.
In a typical classical mechanics course, for example, various ‘must know’ concepts or theories are taught,
such as how to describe the translational and rotational motion of a point particle or a rigid body
and the classical concepts of forces and gravity. Tese are specifc pieces of knowledge that have to
be learned by students (and they are tested in the exam hall). However, these specifc concepts and
theories are diferent in nature from the more general, and somewhat more abstract, aspect of the
physics methodology used to formulate them. Tus, at this point I would like to make a distinction
between physics concepts (or theories) and physics methodology (i.e., ‘the way how physicists think’ or
the ‘physicist’s paradigm’. Teaching physics and mathematics should not just involve the presentation of
facts, concepts, formulas, and techniques to perform calculations. It is equally important is to teach the
students how to think like a physicist.
Te physicist’s paradigm is characterised by clear logic. Physicists think along a logical track when
formulating a quantitative description of a physical system. Tey are able to distinguish one logical thread
from another and see the connection between them. Logic is spoken in the language of mathematics,
hence physicists are intensive users of mathematics. Tey have to translate an idea or a theory precisely
using the language of mathematics because physical reality is represented using mathematical symbols
and equations. Physicists must know how to extract information from observations and put it coherently
into a mathematical form for further logical manipulation. Tey conduct experiments on a physical
system and take measurements, then use mathematics to build a model to describe the physics as
inferred from the experimental data. Physicists have to perform smart simplifcation when building
models to describe a physical system. Tey need to know how to deduce physical consequences or
inferences from a set of mathematical equations. Tey ofen apply tricky mathematical procedures,
such as making approximations at diferent levels of accuracy, when approaching a complex system.
Very ofen they need to be smart enough to spot the underlying similarities between two disparate
systems so that the theoretical treatment used for one system lends a helping hand to describe the other.
Sometimes physicists simply have to be clever enough to put forward a smart guess to tackle a clueless
problem. Tis set of methodologies used by physicists is an art practiced by all, yet it is not mentioned
explicitly in most physics textbooks. It can only to be acquired afer a long period working in the area of
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physics research. When I teach, I try to at least create an awareness of the physicist’s paradigm among
my students.
When I teach physics, I explain the mathematical formulas and theories and illustrate the physical
laws using working examples, as does every physics teacher. On top of that, however, I also insist on
explaining how a physicist thinks and the physicist’s methodology when dealing with a physics problem.
I believe that this aspect is less emphasised by most physics teachers, who ofen feed formulas to the
students without properly explaining their origin or the thinking process behind them. Our education
system is inclined to force students to memorise the outcome of the thinking process (i.e., the formulas
formulated by the physicists) but never to teach them to appreciate and comprehend the thinking
process itself. However, teaching and training students to comprehend the physicist’s way of thinking
are no easy tasks. Translating a physics concept into a mathematical form is an abstract and highly
intellectual process. To understand the paradigm requires a certain level of intellectual maturity. I myself
was not aware of the existence of such a paradigm when I was a physics undergraduate. Te usual way
to teach the paradigm is by way of examples, and I use them to elaborate and comment on the process
and approaches used by physicists when solving a specifc problem. I think that the inclusion of the
physicist’s paradigm in my teaching makes me slightly distinct from other physics teachers.
What gets measured gets done
Assessment is split into two parts in my courses: 30% course work and 70% fnal examination.
Te simplest way to assess course work is via tests, which usually last for an hour each. Te fnal
examination is a necessary evil, as it is needed to measure the level of understanding of the students,
and it is a standard 2–3 hour written evaluation. Tere is little fexibility on how the fnal examination
is conducted. Fortunately, there is more room to manoeuvre with course work assessments. I make
good use of such assessments to gauge, force, and motivate students to learn continuously throughout
the semester. As a means to motivate students to revise their lecture contents continuously, I devised
a so-called ‘what gets measured gets done’ tactic. With this tactic, weekly quizzes are given, and the
solutions are ‘instantly’ uploaded online once the quiz has been completed. In this way, students can
check the quiz answers right away. Te latest grade distribution statistics also are updated as soon as
the most recent quiz is graded. Occasionally I comment on the latest grade distribution curve as a
tactic to alert the class of their overall learning progress. Te key words here are ‘instant’ and ‘latest
online update of the grade distribution information’. Trough the internet, the immediate release
of quiz solutions and the most updated course work information have an immediate psychological
impact on the students, as it gives them the feeling that they are constantly ‘being measured’. Tis
strategy has a positive impact on the learning attitude of the students.
Experimenting with the best ways to assess course work
In addition to short quizzes and tests, I have also devised various not-so-conventional ways to assess
students in my continuous efort to optimise the quality of the assessment. Below are some examples
of my attempts.
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The open book quiz—An open book quiz can be administered right afer the lecture on a chapter
is completed. Usually an open book quiz means that the solutions are not directly available in the
standard textbook. Open book quizzes free students from the almost compulsory practice of rote
memorisation. On the other hand, despite having the standard textbook available for reference,
students fnd themselves being challenged and are forced to think even harder. However, this
approach did not work out very well for me. Except for a few students who could think outside the
box, most students who were average in their learning and thinking abilities failed to do well on
these quizzes. Te overall course work grade for the class was so poor that I never again gave an
open book quiz.
The ‘Sample Questions by Students’ initiative—With this approach, I invited students to
design formatted objective questions based on the topics covered in the course. Tese objective
questions had to fulfl certain criteria; they had to be original (no cut-and-paste from existing
resources), conceptually correct, creative, and interesting. Copy cat or boring questions were fltered
and rejected. Once accepted, the designer of the questions was given bonus marks. Te accepted
questions were edited or corrected by me and then stored in a question bank, which, like all other
course-related material, was accessible online. As an incentive I also promised the students to use
some of the selected questions on the fnal examination. Tis initiative promoted a good sense of
participation in the teaching and learning processes. In addition, designing an original objective
question demands good knowledge about the subject matter. Creating sensible questions deepens
the level of understanding of a particular concept in the question designer. A student who attempts
to design a question inevitably must also get involved in an in-depth learning process. Tis is a
wonderful and interesting way to learn. Overall, I received 143 designed questions; this translates to
less than 20% of the students, and many of the questions were copy cats. However, those who were
enthusiastic found the initiative to be an interesting learning experience, and it aroused a sense of
participation, at least among those who submitted questions. On the negative side, fltering through
and editing all of the submitted questions were exhaustive tasks. Tus, the expensive cost in terms
of time and efort led me not to use this technique again. It is otherwise a good way to promote
learning, and I recommend it for smaller classes. Include students and tutors in the editing and
fltering process would be helpful.
The quality of exam questions
An unhealthy tradition is that students like to memorise formulas, facts, and solutions of past year
questions when preparing for an examination. Teachers should fnd ways to avoid this practice (e.g.,
do not recycle past year questions, design questions that genuinely test the level of the students’
understanding). To put this into practice, in some of my examinations I include a multiple choice
question section that contains between 20 and 40 questions. Tese consist of non-calculative questions
that can be answered without a calculator. Tese questions are designed with the specifc intention
of testing the level of understanding of the theoretical aspects. Tis section is ‘notorious’ among the
students because one has very little chance of choosing the correct option without having any in-
depth knowledge of and logical thinking about the particular concept being tested. In addition, these
questions are never recycled, hence a student cannot answer the questions correctly by memorising
the past year questions. Afer the examination, I upload the answers and solution scheme to these
multiple choice questions to the course website. Te solution scheme might also indicate the source
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from which these questions were adapted or inspired. However, a large percentage of these objective
questions are original. Afer a few years of teaching Modern Physics ZCT 104, for example, a large
body of objective questions have accumulated. Tese solutions are themselves valuable examples that
can be used to illustrate the application of the physics concepts taught in the course. When I design
these examination questions I keep in mind that these question sets will become a source of knowledge
for future students. Preparing these multiple choice questions demands quite a bit of efort, and they
also must be translated into Bahasa Malaysia, which ofen means another whole day of work for me.
The quality of lecture notes
Afer many years of observation, I have come to realise that physics classes are mostly dry, boring, and
sometimes scary. In contrast to this observation, my core belief is that physics is not a dry or boring
subject. It is intellectually lively, interesting, and closely relevant to our real world. I strongly believe
that it is possible to make the physics teaching process fun and interesting, if one bothers to do so.
Te actual presentation during the real lecture is the single most important criterion that determines
whether a physics lecture is interesting or not. At the same time, the quality of the lecture notes
directly afects the quality of a lecture in progress. Terefore, I make a serious efort to prepare quality
lecture notes. For example, I would never include any statement that I myself do not understand. My
lecture notes undergo a constant process of evolution, correction, and modifcation in an efort to
improve quality. Terefore, a complete set of lecture notes for a course could take up to 200 hours (or
more) per semester to create. I also commonly make major modifcations to the existing lecture notes
or even completely rewrite them. As an example, this happened in the frst few years that I taught the
Calculus and Linear Algebra (ZCA 110) course: I wrote approximately four efectively diferent sets
of lecture notes before fnally settling on a stable version.
As a matter of personal policy I always try to factor in two important elements in my lecture notes.
First, there must be as many ‘fun’ elements as possible in the lecture materials. Second, the course
material should prompt the students to see distinctly the relevance between the theory they learn and
the real world in which they live. To achieve such efects, I use a strategy proposed by Tony Buzan

(Buzan, 2002) the creator of the mind map. According to Buzan, our mind is attracted most easily
to colourful and graphical objects, as well as to objects that provide ample space for imagination. To
this end, my lecture materials are packed with graphics, cartoons, animations, questions that arouse
curiosity, comics, physicists’ bibliographies, poems, literature quotes, history and philosophy of
physics, and other things that are surprisingly unexpected in a physics lecture note. As an example, I
used the movie Lord of the Rings: Te Two Towers as a scenario to illustrate the concept of simultaneity
in my special relativity class (Figure 1).
Figure 2 is a slide taken from the modern physics lecture notes; it mentions the controversial role
played by the physicist Warner Heisenberg during World War II in the Nazi Germany. I like to tell
interesting stories and share inferences derived from such fgures in the lecture hall when they appear
on the screen. Tis story telling part is what the students like best in my lectures. Figure 3 is a classic
slide from my modern physics course that is designed to prompt suspense in the audience: ‘Can one
travel through a distance of 200 light years within one’s life time?’ Te students are kept in a suspense
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mode until the end of the topic, when they fully comprehend the idea of time dilation and length
contraction as predicted in the special theory of relativity.
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The invaluable reward for a dutiful teacher
Preparation of lecture notes is a learning process for a teacher even if he/she has already known
the subject matter for many years. Personally, I use the preparation of lecture notes as a re-learning
opportunity to gain new insight into the physics and mathematics both known and unknown to me.
For example, suppose I know nothing about ‘vector space’ or a ‘basis set’ in linear algebra or a ‘grand
canonical ensemble’ or ‘chemical potential’ in statistical mechanics. Despite my knowledge of these
topics being efectively zero before undergoing the painstaking lecture preparation process, I become
able to lecture to an audience of ~ 100 students in the linear algebra and statistical mechanics classes.
I used to tell my statistical mechanics class that in terms of knowledge gained, I was the person who
benefted most from my own lectures. Te knowledge that I taught to the statistical mechanics and
calculus and linear algebra classes turned out to be applicable later when I embarked on my research
in computational condensed matter physics. Tus a realisation in me arose: Invaluable indeed is the
reward to those who bother to teach dutifully.
Self-reading initiative
In one of my linear algebra classes, I attempted an unconventional approach that lasted for a period
of 3 weeks. In this initiative, dubbed the self-reading initiative, a textbook on linear algebra (Matrices
by Frank Ayres, Schaum’s Outline series [4]) was selected and students were directed to prepare and
study a few selected chapters before entering the class. Assuming that the students had done their
preparation, I provided a very brief introduction to these topics (say for 10–15 minutes). I then
asked the students to attempt a specially designed problem set (which was uploaded online before
the class) during the rest of the lecture. When the problem attempting session was over, I discussed
the problems in a more detailed manner. As a strategy to ensure that students prepared for the class,
randomly selected students were asked to provide the solutions for grading. Tis initiative was a
bold attempt to provoke proactiveness in students who are pampered by a spoon-feeding culture. I
hoped that this initiative would promote an active form of learning (although delivered somewhat
forcefully) in which student themselves would shoulder a major portion of the responsibility for
acquiring knowledge.
Typically, like many other books by great mathematicians, Ayers’ book is highly condensed, precise,
no-nonsense, and ‘unfriendly’. Te topics are presented in the form of a sequence of theorems. Its
‘explanations’ are mostly in the form of concise mathematical statements that are beyond the level
of most frst year students. Tus, my job was to render these theorems understandable to students.
To this end, I designed an original and coherent set of designed problems based on Ayer’s book to
illustrate the essential ideas of the theorems via working examples. Te essential ideas of the theorems
Ayers included in his otherwise incomprehensible book could be comprehended afer the students
had gone through these designed problems.
In this initiative, the students played a more active role than in a conventional mathematic class.
Instead of me spending the whole class period lecturing, students learn by attacking the designed
problems themselves. I would describe this initiative as successful. Many students in the class enjoyed
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the unique learning experience in those 3 weeks of the linear algebra course. I derived a good sense of
personal satisfaction for designing and implementing this experimental approach.
Conscientious teaching
I stand by the principle of academic integrity. In other words, I do not pass a student who cannot
demonstrate the minimum knowledge required of him/her (which is ultimately measured by his/
her examination score). Terefore, the failure rate in my classes has been consistently high (30–50%)
throughout the years. Te USM standard is as follows: 39 out of 100 or below is considered partial
failure, whereas a complete failure is < 24. In general, the grade distribution curves are healthy (i.e.,
bell shaped), despite the average peak at the low side (C or C–). Te only exception is a second
year statistical mechanics course, for which the distribution displays an M shape. Tis course is a
rather difcult subject, and a large portion of the class simply cannot follow the highly demanding
mathematics and the abstract language used in statistical mechanics. I believe that the high failure
rate in my class refects my reluctance to compromise on the evaluation standard. In contrast, many
courses never fail a single student (a situation which is rather contrived).
I believe that students should be evaluated based on how much they understand, not how much they
can memorise. However, my observations indicate that many professors and lecturers, mainly for
their own convenience, routinely use past year questions on the fnal examinations. Moreover, some
professors design poor quality questions. As a result, students who know next to nothing pass and
even score well on the exams by blindly memorising past year solutions or the lecture notes. Such
lecturers have allowed this rote learning practice to become the norm among the students, and I do
not call this conscientious. Exam questions should be designed in such a way that they can efectively
sort out those who know a lot and those who know nothing. I make the efort to ensure that the exams
I design are good measuring tools that manage to discriminate the students based on their knowledge
levels. If every lecturer practiced conscientious teaching, students would start to change their learning
attitude and avoid cutting corners. Conscientious teaching leads to real quality learning. Tis is what
learning and teaching is all about.
Let them choose their ways
As a matter of principle, I do not agree with forcing attendance on students. Learning is a very personal
process. Ideally, learning should be an initiative that spawns from the learner’s own willingness.
Undergraduates should be treated as adults who will shoulder the consequences of their own actions.
Treating undergraduate students like primary school children, as many university academics currently
do, deprives the students from attaining maturity. Our education culture tends to be stufed with
threats such as ‘You must attend the lecture!’ and ‘You must not be late to class or I will deduct your
mark’. We tend to over impose force, regulations, and constraints on students to motivate learning.
Such authoritarian measures, in my opinion, ofen are counterproductive in the long run. Students
may obediently ‘learn’ to pass the exams, but as soon as they leave the university their learning habit
may simply cease because learning was such an ordeal during their university years.
Terefore, I always try to treat my students as adults. I constantly remind them that one’s actions
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always bear consequences, and one has to learn to take into consideration the possible consequences
when one acts. I allow students the chance to explore their own ways of learning and give them the
chance to err or even fail as part of the pain of growing, as these processes are for the sake of their
intellectual maturity in the future. If their actions lead them to deprived states, they learn the lesson
the hard way so that they can appreciate from within what is ultimately the right thing to do for
their own future. Essentially, my idea is to inseminate the realisation that when one understands the
consequence of his/her actions, he/she will spontaneously, without being forced, initiate his/her own
motivation to learn.
In relation to this, designing efective and quality examination questions is an essential mechanism
to discriminate those who have taken the initiative to learn from those who have not. I constantly
tell the students that they are always free to do anything, but they will surely see the consequence in
the exam hall. I do not penalise students for not attending my classes or not handing in assignments.
Whether they choose to cut corners or to practice a down-to-earth learning attitude, the fnal exam
grades judge them objectively. Tose who choose a lazy path will sufer when they are unable to
answer questions in the examination hall. Reward, on the other hand, will present itself in the form of
a brain loaded with intellectual bliss (and an excellent grade) for those who choose to work towards
their own success.
‘No consultation hour policy’
I practice a ‘no consultation hour policy’, which means that I do not have a set time slot for consultation
with students. Students are welcome to consult with me anywhere, anytime, using any means. I open
as many channels as possible to maximise the chances that students will contact me. I tell students
that they can see me personally in my ofce or communicate with me via email, SMS, or on the
course forum. Currently, I do not use MSN messenger, Facebook, or Skype. Generally, any time a
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student knocks on my door to ask questions, I give him/her priority, even if I am in the middle of my
own work. As noble as the no consultation hour policy may sound, in reality I receive few requests
from students for consultation. Tis is what I call ‘the missing students afer classes’ phenomenon,
and it refects the sad state in which students do not nurture the habit of asking questions of their
instructors, despite the doors being open to them. My personal thoughts about students and their
passive attitude about asking questions are the following: (i) Tey do not know what to ask; (ii) they
are too reserved to ask; (iii) they are too lazy to ask; (iv) they have been chronically intimidated by
their teachers, so much so that they no longer dare to ask; and/or (v) they have no interest at all in
their studies and therefore do not bother to ask. I also believe that a pop culture phenomenon among
the students relates to this issue. A large portion of students (~60% or higher among male students,
lesser for female students) spend excessively long hours on online gaming. Students have told me that
3 hours per day online is usual, and 10 hours per day during the weekend is nominal.
My strengths in teaching
According to Richard Feynman, my role model as a physicist and a physics
teacher, if one really understands a physics theory well, one must be able
to explain it well too. Otherwise, one does not understand. A person who
knows his physics well may not be a good physics teacher, but to be a good
physics teacher he/she must know his/her physics well. As far as teaching
undergraduate physics is concerned, I think one of my stronger points is
that I know my undergraduate level physics well and so I can ably explain
it. I also have the spontaneous willingness to go the extra mile to deliver
quality teaching, as evidenced by my many attempts using diferent teaching
initiatives. Tese initiatives cost me a great deal of extra work and efort,
so why did I bother with them? I did so because, like Feynman, I enjoy doing so. Tis unorthodox
willingness to go above and beyond could be my greatest strength in teaching.
My weaknesses in teaching
In spite of the many initiatives I have tried to facilitate better teaching, there
are still many things that I missed. My teaching style is still very much inclined
towards an instructor-centred model, as I do not know how to teach using
student-centred or problem-based approaches. I tend to dominate the talking
portion of my lectures, but this is in part due to the poor response from the
students (apart from the occasional SMS questions by students). I ofen have to
arrange for extra classes because I exceed the time limit allocated, so much so
that I have to sacrifce some non-lecture activities such as group presentations
and small class tutorials.
I do not like to arrange for small class tutorial sessions because I have observed that the quality
and efect of such classes conducted by junior tutors were mostly very poor. In previous tutorial
classes, I have seen the students sit idly while the tutors mechanically copy solutions word-by-word
onto the whiteboard without much explanation. Tus, no meaningful interactions occurred in these
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sessions. To avoid wasting everyone’s time on such an unproductive activity, I later replaced small
class tutorial sessions with discussion of tutorial questions in the main lecture hall, where I facilitated
the discussion. In this context I have deprived the students of the personal attention and interactions
that would occur in a small class tutorial session. However, until I am convinced that the small class
tutorials can be conducted in a more productive manner, students in my classes cannot enjoy personal
attention and closer interactions with tutors in a small tutorial class.
Despite frequently condemning students for being overly exam orientated, I still rely quite heavily
on examinations to evaluate the students. How am I to evaluate them objectively and efciently
(e.g., within a 3 hour time slot) if not through paper-based examination? I do know not of any other
alternatives.
Another of my weaknesses is that I ofen make mistakes, including conceptual errors in the lecture
notes, during the lectures, or even in the fnal examination questions. However, I learn from my
mistakes and I improve over time. I try to be a humble person, apologise, and make fun of myself
when I make these mistakes. Intentionally, I also want to show the students a role model who is an
ordinary person who is sincere and can admit his weaknesses and still be able to learn and proceed
beyond the mistakes made.
CONCLUSION
Overall, my observations indicate that the study culture among the School of Physics students at USM
is not very commendable. Specifcally, the students follow a chronic pattern of rote learning. Tere is
little incentive, apart from personal motivation, for the lecturers to be creative in their teaching. Our
education systems encourage rote learning and are very exam orientated. As a result, we produce a
breed of students characterised by strong passivity and obedience. Teachers are a part of the problem
because of their rigid and unfriendly teaching styles (‘You must follow the instructions or you will be
penalised…’). Tese factors add up to make teaching physics to undergraduate students at USM like a
huge battle. Having said this, I do not aspire to be the hero to revolutionise our education system. I only
do my part, which is within my capacity, such as implementing various initiatives as discussed earlier.
Apart from all of the philosophical and idealised talk about principles and values, at the pragmatic
level, the key consideration to a successful classroom experience is simply to retain a student’s interest,
both inside and outside the classroom. To this end, I have to generate interest, appreciation, and
comprehension of the subject matter within the hearts of the students. I have to prompt them to see
the relevance of the theories in the books to the real world in which they live. All of this must be done
in a tactful manner and in such a way that the students fnd the learning process fun and attractive so
they want to stay to learn more. Optimising retention of interest and generating a love for the physics
courses are the prime factors I consider when designing my teaching strategies. I enjoy the act of making
others understand something that is otherwise incomprehensible. I feel a great deal of satisfaction when
a novice student nods his head as if he is following my explanation.
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I admire Richard Feynman and am particularly impressed by his character as a physics teacher [5].
He was able to make abstract ideas tangible and complicated matters become crystal clear. Feynman
certainly was a master of elucidation and storytelling, skilfully using many tools to assist his explanations,
including analogy, simile, humour, contrasting cases, contradictions, and, most importantly, daily
language understood by ordinary people. His enthusiasm and ability to make his audience comprehend
otherwise incomprehensible physics theories have inspired me to a great extent. Troughout my teaching
career, I have gradually acquired some personal insight into the art of elucidation, thanks partly to
Feynman. I try to make my lectures a quality learning experience for the students. Not every student
would agree that I am a successful physics teacher (many still complain that they do not understand
what I say in class), but I am quite confdent that my physics class is among the less boring ones.
To many, it may seem incomprehensible that physics and mathematics are comprehensible. Terefore,
I fnd it a pleasure to help people understand the seemingly incomprehensible. To me, the teaching of
physics and mathematics is a source of creativity and liveliness and an enjoyable endeavour.
REFERENCES
Gleick, J. (1992). Genius. New York: Vintage Books.
Feynman, R. (1964). Feynman lectures on physics. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.
Farmelo, G. (2011). The strangest man: The hidden life of paul dirac, mystic of the atom. Britain: Basic Books.
Buzan, T. (2002). How to mind map: The ultimate thinking tool that will change your life. London: Thorsons, Harper Collins.
Ayres, F. (1962). Matrices, Schaum’s Outline series. USA: Mcgraw-Hill.
Feyman, M. and Feyman, C. (2005). Perfectly Reasonable deviations from the beaten track: The letters of Richard P. Feynman.
Britain: Basic Books.
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PART 2
CHAPTER 7
MY ASPIRATION TO BE A UNIVERSITY LECTURER
Yvonne Tze Fung Tan
Shortly afer I registered as a Pharmacist in Wisconsin, USA, I
joined Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) as a lecturer in 1974. Even
though I have a professional license overseas, my aspiration was
to teach in a pharmacy school and educate young Malaysians to
become responsible and professional pharmacists. In the 1970s,
the student body was very small. Tere were only 19 students in
the frst class at the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, USM.
I only used chalk and the blackboard as my teaching tools.
However, I emphasized group discussions a great deal, in addition
to my formal lectures. By giving tutorial classes, I got to know
my students better—the good, the mediocre, and also the weak
ones. Te frequent and close contact I had with my students in
small groups helped to motivate them. During that time I knew
all of my students by name and how they fared in my classes.
In those early years, the number of academic staf members in
the school was limited, and there were only a handful of us in
the discipline of Pharmaceutical Technology. As such, I needed
to teach new courses every semester. Tose courses included
Physical Pharmacy, Industrial Pharmacy, Dosage Design, and
even Mathematics and Statistics for Pharmacy. Initially, I found
teaching very taxing and stressful. Most of my ofce time was
devoted to preparing lecture materials and practical manuals.
However, those were also the years that trained me to continue
to widen my knowledge, even if the subjects were new to me.
In the 2000s, the student body grew in size. To date, there are
about 130 pharmacy students per year class. I now present all
of my lectures using PowerPoint. Tis way, I am able to teach
better with illustrations and simulations. Although the student
number is much larger now, I still believe in the importance of
tutorial classes and I continue to perform student assessments
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in teaching. To accomplish this, I divide the students into groups and I conduct tutorial and practical
classes three times a week.
In all of the courses that I currently teach, I assess the students using both continued assessments and
the fnal examination. For the two pharmacy practice courses (Dosage Form I and Dosage Form II),
continued assessment counts for 40% of the grade and the fnal examination counts for 60%. I used
high continued assessment percentages for these courses because a well-trained pharmacist must have
strong compounding and dispensing skills. In the beginning of the course, the students receive a deck
of prescriptions containing typical examples of various dosage forms. Before the practical classes, I
provide a detailed discussion of these prescriptions and dosage forms. On the day of the practical,
the students prepare, compound, and dispense three of the discussed prescriptions in order to gain
hands-on experience and master the compounding technique. In addition, the students are also given
one extemporaneous prescription (a prescription on the spot without prior explanation) to test their
actual application of the learned technique. Grades for the extemporaneous prescriptions contribute
to their continued assessments. In general, continued assessments of the pharmacy practice courses
consist of flling extemporaneous prescriptions, answering short quizzes, and taking a mid-semester
test. Continued assessment provides students with opportunities to perform both in theory and in
practice, to fnd out their own weaknesses, and to challenge them to improve themselves. All of the
diferent components of continued assessments are marked promptly, and I provide feedback to the
students during discussion sessions.
For the same courses, I also designed a computer program (Patient Information and Prescription
Labeling Program) that can be used during the practical classes. I teach the students how to keep
complete medication profles for the patients, how to record drug information, and how to label the
prescription medications according to Malaysian law. Te computer-printed labels are clear and neat and
thus eliminate the problem of non-legible scribbles when the labels are written by hand. Te complete
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medication profles for patients are generated using the database of the medications. Te computerized
medication profles facilitate accurate and fast retrieval of medication records and checking of drug
interactions. Tis sofware operates using the SQL system and is designed to simulate real practice in
community and hospital pharmacies.
Te continued assessment for another course, Cosmetics and Toiletries, consists of a laboratory practical,
a mid-semester test, and student projects/presentations. In this course, the students prepare various
cosmetic products in the laboratory, and they are also divided into groups and given diferent projects.
Each group conducts a detailed online search for its respective project and presents the fndings via a
PowerPoint presentation at the end of the semester. I request that all students in the class be present
during the presentations. Afer each presentation, time is allocated for questions and answers. I believe
that group project/presentation is a type of learning that fosters group efort and collaborative learning
among the students. Te students get to share their own ideas, increase their communication skills,
sharpen their responses to criticisms, and broaden their understanding of the topic matters. My aim is
to teach and inspire the students to become competent pharmacists in the future. Every year I fnd the
student presentations to be very interesting, and I am amazed at how well the students perform and
speak in public.
In 2008, I was nominated by my school for the USM Excellence in Teaching Award under the Applied
Science Category. Te nomination came as a big surprise, because to me educating with full commitment
is the duty of every lecturer. In the past, I have received thank you cards and notes from students who
wanted to express their appreciation for my guidance. In all cases, I have treasured these gifs and have
them pinned on the board next to my work table; they are a constant reminder to me to be a committed
academician. Te letter that I received from a group of graduated pharmacy students who cared enough
to write a letter of testimonial for me for the teaching award nomination really touched my heart. I
fully believe that all of the efort I have put into teaching during my career has been worthwhile. To me,
university teaching is not just a secure job, it is a platform for lecturers and students alike to share and
discuss their knowledge and experiences, to build true friendship, to develop an attitude of life-long
learning, and to become caring people who are ever ready to serve.
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