The Wealth of Cities

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

The Wealth of Cities
The Investment Implications of Urban Expansion

INTRODUCTION
Just three decades ago, Shenzhen was a modest fishing village of 30,000 people on the south coast of China.
Today, it is a booming metropolis of 10 million inhabitants, boasting modern skyscrapers, packed shopping
malls, and a state-of-the-art transportation system. The breathtaking speed at which Shenzhen became one
of the world’s largest cities typifies the “prime time” of urbanization that is now upon us. The growth of cities
is a well-told story. But never before has the pace of urbanization been so rapid: some 60 to 70 million people
will be added to the urban population each year for the next 30 years.
The mega-trend of urban expansion opens up important new opportunities for institutional investors. For starters, the unparalleled pace
of urbanization means that by 2030, about 200 cities worldwide are likely to join the ranks of metropolitan areas with at least one million
people. As the rate of urbanization ramps up, global infrastructure needs are projected to top $50 trillion through 2030, with heavy
spending required in both developed and emerging-market cities. In developed markets around the world, mature cities are being revived
and innovation hubs are being established. “Smart cities” that focus on the intelligent use of information and communication technology,
energy efficiency, and more productive transportation systems are being cultivated in North America, Europe, and other developed
countries. Global middle-class consumption, meanwhile, will shift towards cities in China, India, and other emerging Asian countries, as
developed countries see their share decrease. In India, for instance, middle-class spending is projected to reach $1.8 billion annually by
2020, six times the level in 2010. And the world may need to produce about 50% to 70% more food by 2050, thanks in large part to the
swelling ranks of middle-class city dwellers.
But many potential opportunities resulting from the urbanization boom are hard for investors to access due to absent or insufficient
market mechanisms. With that in mind, we set out to identify investment ideas arising from the trend of urban expansion that could be
accessible to institutional investors. Our approach included interviewing a range of investment professionals across Prudential Investment
Management, in addition to industry and topical experts. We believe investors should focus their attention on four major investable themes:
urban infrastructure, real estate, consumer goods and services, and the evolving agricultural supply chain. Within these broader themes,
we have identified 10 specific investment ideas in both emerging and developed markets across a range of public and private vehicles.
Collectively, they offer a spectrum of attractive avenues for benefiting from the “prime time” of urbanization.
One thing is certain: just as the current pace of urban population growth has never been seen before, it will likely never be repeated again.
In 30 years’ time, the urban story will still continue, but the rate of change will taper off — as will the investment opportunities resulting
from urban expansion. Investors should consider examining the opportunities now arising from this unprecedented population shift.

1 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

PART 1: THE “PRIME TIME” OF URBANIZATION IS UPON US
The growth of cities is a well-told story. But never before has the pace of urbanization been so rapid: some
60 to 70 million people will be added to the urban population each year for the next 30 years, according to
detailed projections developed by Paul Romer and Brandon Fuller of New York University (Exhibit 1).1 And
unlike past booms in urbanization, the trend today is primarily being driven by emerging-market countries.
In more developed nations, the peak movement to cities is already 50 years in the past.
The urban project has a beginning
and an end

Exhibit 1
The “prime time” of urbanization is upon us: 60-70 million people will be
added to cities every year for the next 30 years
Observed and projected number of new urban residents
Million per Year
80
70
60

Less Developed

50
40
30

Just as the current pace of urban population
growth has never been seen before, it will likely
never be repeated again. The rise of great new
cities first began during the Industrial Revolution;
back in 1800, only 3% of the world’s population
lived in cities according to the United Nations,2
and it took until about 2007 for the number of
urban dwellers to surpass their rural counterparts.
The process has now accelerated and will soon
taper off: while the United Nations projects that
cities will be home to about two-thirds of the
world’s inhabitants by 2050,3 the urban proportion
of the population will get close to maxing out at
around 80% — or about nine billion city dwellers
— at the turn of this century, according to
projections by Romer and Fuller (Exhibit 2).4

20

Asia is driving the urbanization boom

10

Today, North America has the highest urbanization
level, followed closely by Latin America and
Europe. All of these regions began to urbanize
decades ago and are now at a mature stage of the
process. By contrast, the movement to cities is still
accelerating in both Asia and Africa. According
to the United Nations, by 2025, more than half
of the world’s urban population — or about 2.5
billon people — will live in Asian cities (Exhibit
3).5 China in particular is experiencing a period of
massive, rapid urbanization on a scale never before
witnessed. In early 2014, the Chinese government
approved a plan to shift another 100 million

0
1900

More Developed
1950

Year

2000

2050

2100

2150

2200

2010

2110

Change from 2010

Urban Residents (bn)

3.6

9.0

+5.4

Rural Residents (bn)

3.3

2.0

-1.3

Note: “Less Developed” / “More Developed” refers to the development stage of various regions of
the world
Source: Fuller, B./ Romer, P., “Urbanization as Opportunity”

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 2

people to urban areas by 2020, in a bid to improve
economic growth. By then, about 60% of the country’s
1.3 billion people will be living in cities.

Exhibit 2
By 2050, cities will be home to two-thirds of the world’s inhabitants

In India, meanwhile, only about 30% of the population
currently lives in cities. That, too, is quickly changing:
within 15 years, the number of urban residents will
be equal to twice the entire population of the U.S.,
according to projections by McKinsey & Company. By
then, 13 Indian cities may each have populations over
four million; Mumbai and Delhi, which today have
populations of about 10 million apiece, could each be
home to more than 30 million inhabitants, based on
United Nations’ estimates. Africa also has some of the
world’s fastest-growing cities, and by 2025, its urban
population is expected to be double that of North
America’s.

Urban residents as a percentage of total population
100%
90%
80%

80%
66%

70%
60%
47%

50%
40%

30%

30%
20%

A sharp rise in the number of cities

10%

3%

0%

1800

1950

2000

2050

The unprecedented scale of urban migration, combined
with organic growth within cities themselves, will mean
that by 2030, some 200 cities worldwide will join the
ranks of metropolitan areas with at least one million
people, for a total of approximately 660 cities with at

2100

Source: UN – “Urban Millennium,” The Economist (for 1800); UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs – Population Division (for 1950-2050); Fuller, B./ Romer, P.,
“Urbanization as Opportunity” (for 2100)

Exhibit 3
Between 2010 and 2025, Asia alone will add 700 million people to cities
Global urbanization – 2010 vs. 2025
Billions of
Residents

2010

2025

3.0
2.56
2.5

2.0

1.86

1.5

1.0
0.66
0.5

0.39

0.47

0.57

0.54 0.56
0.28 0.33
0.03 0.03

0
Level of
Urbanization

Asia

Africa

South America

Europe

North America

Oceania

45% 54%

38% 45%

78% 82%

73% 76%

81% 83%

71% 71%

Note: Urban vs. rural defined according to the criteria used by each area or country
Source: UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Population Division

3 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

least that many inhabitants, according to the World Bank (Exhibit
4).6 To put that number in context, the U.S. today has about 50
such metropolitan areas. Moreover, urbanization will propel almost
20 cities into the mega-city bracket (population of 10 million or
more) by 2030. The growth in the number of cities also includes
the formation of brand-new cities. For example, the Indian
government recently announced plans for a $1.2 billion investment
— supplemented by private funding — to build 100 “smart
cities,” many of them new urban centers, along the Delhi-Mumbai
Industrial Corridor.

Governments have a major role to play as well, ranging from the
cost-effective delivery of public services to the efficient use of
tax revenues to build the public infrastructure required to support
a growing city — for example, wider roads, more schools, and
better hospitals. And as urbanization progresses, political dynamics
also change within countries. Bangkok, for example, has been at
the center of Thailand’s ongoing political crisis, which has in part
stemmed from the economic and political divide between the
country’s rural population and the rising urban middle class. And
of course, companies are also key players in the urban landscape,
as they are naturally attracted to cities that provide access to a
skilled talent pool, a growing population of urban consumers,
robust infrastructure, and easy-to-navigate city regulations.

As cities become larger, denser, and more numerous, the effects
on residents, governments, and businesses alike will be substantial.
For urban residents, the growing city offers new opportunities
for employment, wealth creation, recreation, and lifestyle
improvements. But accompanying that growth are the headaches
of crowding, traffic, pollution, crime, and potential water
shortages.

In fact, the combination of residents, governments, and companies
can be powerful in shaping the revival, decline, or transformation
of cities around the world. In developed countries, for example,
vacant industrial space and underused downtowns are being
targeted by urban planners and the private sector for revitalization.

Exhibit 4
By 2030, more than 200 cities will join the ranks of metropolitan areas with at least one million inhabitants
Number of
New Cities
600

2010

2030

558

373

41

23

63

40

0

New
Inhabitants

Equal To

Mega-Cities
10mn+ Inhabitants

Large Cities
5-10mn Inhabitants

Medium Cities
1-5mn Inhabitants

+360mn

+149mn

+386mn

Population of 
the U.S. & Canada

Population of
Russia

Population of
Brazil, Mexico,
Argentina, & Chile

Note: Cities with fewer than 1mn inhabitants are not reflected in the figures above
Source: World Bank; UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Population Division

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 4

These projects, in addition to producing jobs, create or enhance
the urban core, and might even change the face of a city. They
often involve the building of green, open spaces in urban areas
and the creation of an urban environment that is more attractive
to workers (especially younger generations) and tourists. For
instance, in Germany, Hamburg’s HafenCity has become one of
Europe’s largest urban development projects. The 25-year, $10
billion project, which began in 2000, has converted a run-down
harbor and industrial area into a vibrant mixed-use development
with offices, condos, and restaurants, along with public spaces and
tree-lined streets.
Another example of the powerful interaction between private
and public sectors are innovation hubs (Exhibit 5). In the U.S.,
innovation districts have been established in cities across the
country, including Boston, Seattle, and Raleigh. The Boston
Innovation District, for example, was created to transform 1,000
acres of the South Boston waterfront into an urban environment

that fosters innovation, collaboration, and entrepreneurship. So
far, the initiative has added more than 5,000 new jobs from about
200 new companies, with technology firms leading the way. Similar
innovation hubs are being established around the developed world.
For instance, Songdo, South Korea is a brand-new development
located about 50 miles from Seoul scheduled for full completion
in 2018. Established on 1,500 acres of reclaimed land, the city
is distinguished by its focus on sustainability, including building
design, systems engineering, urban infrastructure, and community
planning. With more than $10 billion invested and 100 buildings
completed or currently under construction, Songdo is expected to
become a key business hub in Northeast Asia.
Ultimately, whether it is urban renewal or new innovation hubs,
when urban residents, governments, and companies work
successfully in tandem, they can unleash a powerful, virtuous
cycle of urban growth and wealth creation. We explore the critical
mechanisms that drive this phenomenon in the next section.

Exhibit 5
Innovation hubs are being established in cities around the world

International Business District – Songdo, Korea

Innovation District – Boston, MA

Tech City – East London, UK

Innovation Square – Gainesville, FL

Source: Boston Redevelopment Authority; Perkins+Will

5 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

PART 2: AN ACCELERATING CYCLE OF URBAN WEALTH CREATION
ART 2: AN ACCELERATING CYCLE OF URBAN WEALTH CREATION
Across much of the world, a fundamental economic transition from agriculture to manufacturing and services has
transpired over the past two centuries. The economies of scale associated with this industrial transformation have, in
turn, driven the vast migration of people from the rural farm to the urban factory floor, as outlined in Part 1. But city
formation is not just the accidental by-product of industrial development; it is an integral driver of continued productivity
gains and economic growth. Once cities cross a tipping point, a self-sustaining virtuous cycle can continue to propel them
forward (Exhibit 6).
Exhibit 6
The virtuous growth cycle of cities creates wealth
Thicker Labor
Markets &
Specialized
Company
Formation

New Arrivals of
People &
Companies

Learning,
Innovation, &
Increased Skills

New / Better
Infrastructure &
Amenities

Higher
Productivity
& Wages

Increased
Wealth & Tax
Base

Source: Glaeser, E., Triumph of the City; Moretti, E., The New Geography of Jobs; The Economist; Interview with
Dr. Paul Romer

The virtuous cycle begins with deep
labor markets, encompassing many
buyers and sellers, which allow
skilled individuals to earn the full
return on their human capital and
enable companies to source the most
appropriate, specialized talent. These
inter-linkages have been analyzed and
proven by a range of academics such
as Enrico Moretti at the University of
California, Berkeley, Edward Glaeser
at Harvard University, and Romer and
Fuller at New York University.7 The
technology clusters formed in places
as diverse as Bangalore and Silicon
Valley are tangible examples of the
benefits these markets bring. Deep
labor markets also increase efficiency
by allowing individuals to move up the
career ladder more rapidly and reducing
the downtime from unemployment
between jobs, as there is a richer pool
of potential employers.
At the same time, a diverse set of
specialized companies — more efficient
and more productive — form along
the urban supply chain. Examples
include firms specializing in taxation,
software, advertising, data processing,
and specialist-parts supply and repair.
In a city the size of London or New
York, for instance, a financial services

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 6

firm can be disaggregated into retail banking, corporate banking,
and investment banking, with further specializations in mergers and
acquisitions, mortgage finance, and so on. And since these services
typically require face-to-face interaction with clients, specialized
providers need to be established within cities where a critical mass
of local clients exists.
Perhaps most critically, cities are also the breeding ground for
creativity and innovation through the cross-pollination of ideas
and the rapid dissemination of these new learnings. In cities, both
workers and entrepreneurs alike can learn more rapidly from each
other. As the legendary economist Alfred Marshall implied about
knowledge spillovers in 1890, “The mysteries of the trade become
no mysteries; but are as it were in the air.”8 Even today, despite all
the technological advances that allow us to work remotely, new

ideas seem to flourish when there is face-to-face interaction. In
other words, urban centers appear to foster the exchange of ideas
and technology to produce greater innovation and growth.
Rising skills and wages, driven by the productivity advantage, in
turn attract new talent to cities. In the U.S., for example, workers
in large metropolitan areas earn 30% more than their non-urban
counterparts, according to Harvard’s Glaeser and economist David
Maré.9 And in China, average urban incomes are roughly three
times greater than rural incomes, according to a World Bank study
on rural-urban inequality in the country.10 The presence of skilled,
productive workers drives more firms to establish operations in
the city, generating the tax base and scale for more government
investments in infrastructure and public services.

Exhibit 7
Detroit versus Austin: the fortunes of two cities within the same country can diverge dramatically
Municipal Debt/Capita in 2012
(Pre-Detroit Bankruptcy)

Population Trend
1,600,000
1,600,000

Austin
Austin

Detroit
Detroit

30,000

1,400,000
1,400,000
25,000

1,200,000
1,200,000

30,000
20,000

1,000,000
1,000,000

25,000
15,000

800,000
800,000
600,000
600,000

20,000
10,000

400,000
400,000

15,000
5,000

200,000
200,000
0
0

1970
1970

1980
1980

1990
1990

2000
2000

2010
2010

2013
2013

10,000
0
Austin

Detroit

5,000
50%

Number of Privately Owned Firms

0
40%

Austin
Austin

30,000
30,000

Detroit
Detroit

Percent of Population with
Bachelor’s
Degree or Higher in 2012
Austin
Detroit

50%
30%

25,000
25,000

40%
20%

20,000
20,000

30%
10%

15,000
15,000

20%
0%

10,000
10,000

0
0

Austin

Detroit

10%

5,000
5,000

2002
2002

Source: U.S. Census Bureau – Quick Facts

7 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

2007
2007

0%

Austin

Detroit

When the virtuous cycle gets broken
When cities get stuck in a bad equilibrium, the virtuous cycle can
dramatically reverse itself: skilled workers do not migrate because
they know there are not any jobs, and in turn, new companies do
not want to establish a presence because they know there are no
skilled workers. The bankruptcy of Detroit is a stark reminder
of this phenomenon. As jobs began to dwindle, property values
fell, tax revenues dropped, and crime soared. Educated, skilled
workers flocked to the suburbs, leaving an increasingly debt-laden
city behind. When the financial crisis hit in 2008, the auto industry
collapsed, eventually taking Detroit down with it.
The failure of cities in general has been widely analyzed. As
was the case with Detroit, a leading cause is an over-reliance
on one industry, which can cause complacency, lack of crosssector industry innovation, and losing out on the talent war for
innovation-minded knowledge workers. Unwelcoming tax and
regulatory policies at the state and local level are another factor.
High debt and financial commitments taken on during good times,
and an overinvestment in politically driven projects (at the expense
of investments in schools and public safety) leads to a decay of
public infrastructure and a loss of population. Self-reinforcing
population trends are hard to break, as human capital is at the core
of a city’s growth.

City-level opportunities vary dramatically, even within
the same country
As Detroit was descending into bankruptcy, Austin, Texas was
well into its ascent from a small college town to the eleventh
largest city in the U.S. A business-friendly environment and highly
educated labor market were key factors propelling the city upward.
Companies from a diverse array of industries, including energy,
technology, healthcare, and financial services, have all established
a large presence in Austin. The city’s fast rise in comparison to
Detroit’s decline is a vivid example of how two cities, despite being
in the same country, can find their fortunes diverging dramatically
(Exhibit 7).11
Italy offers another example of cities with divergent paths: the
economies of northern cities like Milan and southern cities such
as Naples have unfolded in vastly different ways, especially since
the financial crisis. Milan is the home to luxury brands and high
fashion; Naples faces chronic unemployment, underinvestment,
and industrial contraction. In the aggregate, the gross domestic
product of cities in the north of Italy is now twice that of cities
in the south. And, for the first time since World War I, the death
rate in the south recently outstripped the birth rate — the region’s
population could lose more than four million people over the next
half century. As we will explore in the next section, the dramatic
variations in city-level opportunities within the same region has
important implications for investment opportunities at the city
level.

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 8

PART 3: INVESTABLE IDEAS FOR CAPITALIZING ON URBAN EXPANSION
Many potential opportunities resulting from the urbanization boom are hard for investors to access due to the insufficient
market mechanisms surrounding them. For example, while roadways within new emerging-market cities need to be
built, investors often encounter difficulties in accessing and executing these types of transactions, especially given the
high degree of government involvement and regulatory complexity. We believe institutional investors should focus their
attention on four major investable themes: urban infrastructure, real estate, consumer goods and services, and the
evolving agricultural supply chain (Exhibit 8). Within these broader themes, we have identified 10 specific investment
ideas in both emerging and developed markets that could be accessible across a range of public and private vehicles.
Collectively, they offer a spectrum of attractive avenues for benefiting from the “prime time” of urbanization.

Exhibit 8
Investors should examine investment opportunities related to urban expansion in four primary areas

Urban Infrastructure

Real Estate

Consumer Goods
& Services

Global need for infrastructure
estimated at over $50 trillion
through 2030, much of it in
urban areas

Global stock of institutionalgrade real estate to expand
from $30 trillion in 2012 to
$70 trillion in 2030

Annual global demand in
personal consumption
expected to be over $40
trillion by 2020

Source: McKinsey Global Institute; A.T. Kearney; PwC; CCAFS

9 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

Agriculture Supply Chain
Food demand projected to
grow 50-70% by 2050;
rural population expected
to decline by over one
billion by the end of the
century

1. URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE
As the pace of urbanization continues to ramp up, global infrastructure needs are projected to top $50 trillion through
2030, with heavy spending required in both emerging and developed-market cities (Exhibit 9). Emerging markets need
many basic services — starting with water and sewerage, followed by electricity and transportation networks — as
they modernize. By contrast, in developed markets the investment opportunity is largely about replacing and improving
existing aging assets. Within the broader urban infrastructure theme, we believe four investment opportunities are
particularly attractive (Exhibit 10).
Exhibit 9
Global infrastructure needs are estimated to be greater than $50 trillion through 2030

Major Indian Cities

$250bn construction for trade routes between
Spending required to accelerate road
major cities

London
pending required to improve transportation
$40bn Ssystems,
including subway and roads


Lagos

$50bn

 ollective spending on free trade zone &
C
economic center, including construction
of a deep-sea port

New York

$47bn infrastructure – sewer mains, gas lines, and
Spending required to repair decaying
bridges

Rio de Janeiro

$11bn

 rojected spending on 2014 World Cup &
P
2016 Olympic Games associated
infrastructure

Los Angeles

$15bn public works, including major water mains
Spending required to replace and upgrade
and pipes

Source: BoA Merrill Lynch Global Research; The Guardian; CNBC; Crain’s New York

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 10

Wired cities
By 2020, the number of global Internet users is projected
to double to four billion, and the number of interconnected
devices will reach 26 billion. In developed markets, the resulting
opportunity is largely about making access to the Internet faster,
more ubiquitous, and cheaper; the recent rollout of high-speed
broadband service Google Fiber in Austin and Kansas City in the
U.S. is one such example. High-speed broadband also supports the
growth of “smart cities” that focus on the intelligent application of
information and communication technology. For instance, the city
of Bristol, England is spending $120 million on laying superfast,
high-capacity fiber-optic cable to spur research, innovation, and
entrepreneurial ventures in high-tech fields.
In emerging markets, the investment opportunity arises as cities
get hooked into the online grid, an increasingly critical determinant
of a city’s success given the growing need to be integrated into the
global flow of information. Emerging markets will see the largest
growth in new Internet users — less than 10% of India’s 1.2
billion population currently has access to the Internet, for instance
— and new infrastructure will be required to support them. Since
emerging-market cities often lack fixed-line infrastructure, they
employ mobile broadband technologies to deliver high-speed
Internet access to users. An estimated 1.7 billion smart phones will
be sold in 2017 alone, with 60% of those sales happening in Asia.
As a result, a growing global opportunity exists for both public
and direct private investments in IT infrastructure, broadband,
data centers, and cell towers. In the U.S., for example, cell tower
investments have been successfully executed through both
securitizations in the asset-backed securities market and leasebacks
from real estate investment trusts. In the U.K., cell tower
investment opportunities are accessible through investment in the
wireless carriers themselves. There are also a range of specialized

REITs focused on data centers. In evaluating the broad range of
opportunities, investors must consider the risks associated with the
rapid pace of technological change — namely, which technologies
will become obsolete and which will be widely adopted and thrive.
Mega-city connectivity
With the number of cities poised to expand dramatically over the
next two decades (more than 650 cities will have populations of
at least one million by 2030), we believe major world regions will
employ a “hub and spoke” model of connectivity. The “hubs” will
be the gateway cities of five million-plus people, of which there
will be more than 100 worldwide by 2030. To this end, emerging
markets such as Indonesia, China, and India are now investing
heavily to improve their airports, roads, and high-speed rail to
link their major cities together. For example, Mumbai’s vast new
airport will be able to accommodate 40 million passengers per year
when it is fully completed in 2015. Similarly, talks are ongoing for
the expansion of London’s Heathrow airport, which is currently
operating at near-full flight capacity.
For investors, the opportunity to participate in mega-city
connectivity projects will continue to materialize over the
next decade as existing mega-cities hit transportation capacity
constraints — for example, the new airports and longer runways
currently planned in Sydney and London’s Gatwick — and as
new cities in emerging Asia reach “hub” size. Many of these
opportunities will come in the form of public-private partnerships.
The Indian government, for example, has recently announced
public-private partnerships to build 200 low-cost airports over
the next 20 years to connect smaller and mid-sized cities with
major regional hubs, alongside a planned government investment
of $120 billion to improve air connectivity across the country
over that same time frame. Istanbul is currently planning its
third international airport, slated to be the world’s largest, with a

Exhibit 10
Investment opportunities in urban infrastructure

Wired Cities

Mega-city Connectivity

Anti-pollution

IT infrastructure, data
centers, cell towers, and
broadband

Expansion of primary
airports, major seaports,
and high-speed intercity rail to connect major
regional gateways

Solutions to increasing
levels of air and water
pollution, especially in
emerging-market cities

11 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

Replacing and Improving
Old Assets
Renovation, reconstruction,
and expansion of
infrastructure in the
developed world and other
mature cities

projected annual passenger capacity of 150 million. In Canada, the
government has established a separate entity to promote publicprivate partnerships that include transit facility renovation in
Ontario and a new light rail system in Alberta.
In Europe, meanwhile, the rail system Eurostar is jointly operated
by the national railway companies of France, Belgium, and the
U.K.; the British government recently announced that it would
aim to sell its 40% stake in the company. A potential future highspeed rail line, High Speed Two, extending the Eurostar is also
under development and is likely to create additional private-sector
investment opportunities along the rail infrastructure supply chain.
Other opportunities will come in the form of privatizations, the
approach taken for U.K. airports, including London’s Gatwick
and Heathrow, with the passage of the Airports Act in 1986.
Regardless of ultimate structure, though, investment opportunities
linking gateway cities with each other and with emerging urban
locations are likely to be worthwhile infrastructure investment ideas
for institutional investors to explore.
Anti-pollution
About half of the world’s urban population is exposed to air
pollution that is at least two-and-a-half times higher than the
levels recommended by the World Health Organization. The issue
is acute in China, which is currently home to 16 of the 20 most
polluted cities globally. In 2014, Premier Li Keqiang announced
that China would “declare war” on pollution and unveiled new
measures aimed at thwarting the problem. Among other things,
he pledged further development of nuclear power and renewable
energy and support for green and low-carbon technologies. The
Chinese government announced a prohibition on new coal-fired
power plants around Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou and also
announced a ban on all coal use in the Beijing area by 2020. As a
result, renewable energy, including natural gas and wind power,
will likely present a major infrastructure opportunity for investors
in the region. The focus on controlling pollution extends beyond
China, though. For example, efforts in developed countries have
focused on increasing the share of urban waste that is recycled,
with the European Union recently proposing a recycling target of
70% of urban waste and 80% of packaging waste by 2030.
Water treatment is also an area of increasing concern, especially
in emerging markets. For instance, India currently has the capacity
to treat only about 30% of the household waste it produces,
according to its Central Pollution Control Board; the rest goes
into open drains or into the ground, creating a significant public
health hazard. Substantial investments in landfills, incineration,
and recycling will be required to address this pressing issue.
Financing water infrastructure and wastewater treatment is also
a potentially significant investment opportunity in the developed
world. In the U.S., for example, public-private partnerships, though
politically complex, have supported the maintenance and capital
improvement efforts of water systems in Bayonne, New Jersey and
Rialto, California. Outside of the U.S., the privatization of water
infrastructure is more widespread. In the U.K., many of the major
water systems have been privatized, including London’s Thames
Water, which was acquired by a large infrastructure fund. And in

Australia — where water scarcity is a major area of concern —
desalination infrastructure for Sydney is operated under a lease
held by a major pension plan alongside an asset manager; similarly,
the Victorian Government offered a 30-year concession in 2009
for a Melbourne desalination facility. Of course, some of these
investment opportunities can only be accessed through direct
private equity or debt investments, but others are also accessible
through publicly listed companies and funds that are focused on
renewable energy and water infrastructure.
Replacing and improving old assets
Both developed-market and mature emerging-market cities need
to replace degrading infrastructure. For instance, the American
Society of Civil Engineers recently gave a D+ grade to the
nation’s transportation, water, energy grid, and public facilities
and estimated that $3.6 trillion must be spent by 2020 to prevent
major structural problems. A similar story is playing out in cities
across Canada, Europe, and Latin America. In Rio de Janeiro, for
instance, spending on infrastructure related to the 2014 World Cup
and 2016 Olympic Games is projected to top $11 billion. In New
York City, spending required to repair decaying infrastructure —
including sewer mains, gas lines, and bridges — is estimated to
reach close to $50 billion through 2030.
Infrastructure replacement across many major cities is urgently
required now. This was vividly illustrated in the summer of 2014,
when 20 million gallons of water shot out of a ruptured pipeline
in Los Angeles, causing extensive flooding and property damage.
Investable opportunities include the renovation, reconstruction,
and expansion of pipes and utilities, bridges, toll roads, parking
areas, rapid-transit bus and metro-rail lines, and hospitals.
Despite the urgent need for infrastructure upgrades, it is harder
to participate in this opportunity in the U.S. While the municipal
bond market provides access to infrastructure investments in
certain localities, there is a very limited supply of public-private
partnerships in U.S. airports and railroads, with some opportunities
existing in ports and toll roads, including new managed lanes
toll roads in Texas and the operation of the Capital Beltway in
Washington, D.C. One potential path forward is exemplified by
the public-private partnership for the Central Terminal Building at
La Guardia Airport in New York City. The deal allows for private
investors to participate in the upgrading of the Central Terminal
facilities without the political complexity of entering a publicprivate partnership for the entire airport.
In contrast to the limited U.S. supply set, select opportunities
exist in Europe, Canada, and Latin America. These opportunities
may be accessible through public-private partnerships, where
governments are willing to grant concessions to companies to
operate and manage these assets for a set duration. In other
situations, these assets may be privatized, allowing for direct
ownership. For example, in Brazil, many major airports have been
privatized, and in Spain, a public offering for a stake in the national
airport operator is being planned; in Chile, Santiago’s international
airport is managed and operated via a concession by a consortium
of private companies.

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 12

2. REAL ESTATE
Real estate investment opportunities will differ based on where a city currently sits in its development trajectory
(Exhibit 11). In general, the early-stage emerging-market story is largely about economical housing and basic levels of
consumer spending, as most city-dwellers are just now amassing enough money to spend on things other than their daily
subsistence. In more developed markets, the real estate opportunity is about the lifestyle trend of living in the urban core.
Across both of these markets, we view three investment opportunities as especially appealing (Exhibit 12).

Exhibit 11
A city’s stage of development helps assess real estate investment opportunities
Forecasted Metro Area GDP Per Capita - 2025
100%

Percentile
New York
Los Angeles

London
75%

Tokyo
50%
Baoding
Jakarta
Delhi
Mumbai

25%

0%

Tianjin
Sao Paulo
Shanghai
Istanbul

Shenzhen

Guangzhou

Beijing
Manila
Linyi
Chongqing
Mexico City
Ho Chi Minh City
0

20,000

GDP per Capita 2025 ($US)
40,000

Emerging Economies
“Basic Needs”
• Residential
• Retail

60,000
Maturing Economies
“Development”
• Retail
• Office
• Logistics
• Residential

80,000

100,000

120,000

Developed Economies
“Services Economy”
• Office
• Retail
• Residential

Source: Oxford Economics; Prudential Real Estate Investors

Urban revival
Many developed-market cities in the U.S. and U.K. are now
undergoing significant revivals, with people and companies alike
increasingly attracted to the urban lifestyle. In the U.S., this trend is
associated with the migration of skilled, higher-wage earners back
to the urban core; in the U.K., it is linked to the revitalization of
cities such as Birmingham and Manchester that had lost some of
their luster due to shifts in industrial activity. This urban rebirth
has created a need for conversion and re-purposing of downtown
real estate into mixed-use development, including residences
and commercial space. For younger generations, a communityoriented, urban setting is part of the desired millennial lifestyle of

13 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

easy access to the important aspects of professional and personal
life, including public transportation for commuting from the
home to work and to social outings. Downtowns in cities such
as Atlanta, Charlotte, and Raleigh are becoming more like the
dense urban cores that have long existed in New York City or San
Francisco. Downsizing “empty nesters” and retirees, for their part,
want to leave the suburbs and enjoy the amenities of city living,
experiencing arts, culture, dining, shopping, and green spaces all
within close proximity of home. Cities such as Fort Lauderdale and
Plantation in Florida are examples of communities that offer these
types of benefits to older generations. “Live, work, play” is the
oft-used theme supporting mixed-use development incorporating
downtown residences and office spaces.

Exhibit 12
Investment opportunities in real estate

Urban Revival

Economical Housing Options

Retail Outlets and Logistics Support

Conversion or re-purposing of existing
downtown real estate into mixed use,
urban livability, and commercial
space to support the re-birth of the
urban core

Workforce and affordable housing in
early-stage emerging-market cities,
a critical factor for a city’s initial
success

Shopping experiences for new urban
consumers, especially as small and
medium sized emerging-market
cities reach critical mass; logistics
and warehousing to support global
e-commerce growth

In cities where downtown utilization is high, these can be
highly attractive real estate investments, often involving minimal
construction or development risk (in many cases, the units already
exist and may just need to be converted for new or additional uses),
with investors being able to readily ascertain the rental income
that will be generated. For example, younger generations may be
highly attracted to urban loft-style living, with shopping and other
retail opportunities located on the ground floor, as it allows them
to conduct many of their personal activities close to home. Baby
boomers may look to condominium communities that will cater
to needs and services they may require, while also affording them
the energy of an urban environment. These older generations may
require larger accommodations in line with their level of affluence,
and there has been a trend towards renting versus owning these
“later-in-life” homes due to a desire for flexibility. Furthermore,
if investors are able to successfully pick cities at the cusp of an
economic revival, they can benefit from potentially attractive
yields compared to major established cities, in large part due to the
perceived illiquidity or “take off ” risk implicit in those higher yields.
Economical housing options
In early-stage emerging markets, affordable housing is a critical
factor for ensuring a city’s initial success; if individuals are not
able to acquire shelter in permanent and durable structures,
cities cannot progress economically and will remain depressed.
But housing is becoming increasingly more costly due to the
combination of rapid urban growth and a dearth of existing
supply. According to the World Bank, a shortfall of 35 million
housing units currently exists in major emerging markets, equating
to about $700 billion in total value.

Economical housing (multi-family units and rental apartments)
is particularly needed in emerging-market cities with large
middle-income and lower-middle-income populations, but
also in developed markets — this type of workforce housing
allows essential public servants such as police officers, EMTs,
and teachers to live in the communities in which they work and
helps to propel a city along its development trajectory. “IKEAstyle” housing — cheap, efficient, and durable — is crucial in
supporting a new and fast-growing urban population, and there is
a developing trend to aggregate larger amounts of these affordable
units together for investment. These types of affordable housing
options, including government-sponsored but privately-owned
projects, offer significant near-term opportunities for investors.
Retail outlets and logistics support
This opportunity is based on the one billion new urban middleclass consumers in emerging markets, who now have money to
spend on retail purchases. Cities will require more shopping malls
and retail outlets of all types to cater to this burgeoning urban
corps of shoppers, creating commercial real estate opportunities
in many parts of the emerging world. In Colombia, for example,
47 new malls will be opened and 15 remodeled by 2015, requiring
a total investment of more than $2.2 billion. Vehicles focused
on direct investment opportunities in retail outlets can be
geographically diversified, giving exposure to different cities while
capitalizing on the overall retail boom in emerging markets.
This is also a logistics opportunity driven by global e-commerce
growth that is forecasted to reach $2.3 trillion by 2017, which
will require more warehouses and logistics facilities to store and
transport the purchase and sale of goods. As the number of online

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 14

merchants and smaller-format stores grows, more businesses will
require logistics support to enable their operations. In a world no
longer purely dominated by large, brick-and-mortar retailers, the
presence of efficient logistics networks allows for goods to be
transported in an on-demand manner from manufacturer to store
(or directly to the consumer) without taking up valuable shelf or
storeroom space for extended periods of time.
Amazon alone has spent $14 billion on fulfillment and the building
of 50 new facilities since 2010. Rival Alibaba announced in 2013

that it would be leading a consortium of investors who will spend
$16 billion on building a national logistics business in China.
In Saudi Arabia, meanwhile, the public-private King Abdullah
Economic City development — the world’s first publicly-listed city
— was established in 2006. The city’s King Abdullah Port, which
began operating in 2014, aims to be a global logistics hub. Similar
to the retail investment trend, there may be an opportunity to
invest directly in logistics facilities with broad exposure to different
geographies, based on where the logistics facilities are situated and
the regions they support.

3. CONSUMER GOODS AND SERVICES
Thanks largely to the wealth creation brought about by urban expansion, the emergence of an entirely new cohort of
urban middle-class consumers is having significant ramifications for the global economy and companies around the world.
In particular, global middle-class consumption will shift heavily towards cities in China, India, and other emerging Asian
countries, as developed countries see their share decrease, according to Homi Kharas at the Brookings Institution (Exhibit
13).12 In China, middle-class spending could hit $3.2 billion annually by 2020, triple the level in 2010. India could see a sixfold leap in annual middle-class spending, to $1.8 billion, over that same time frame.

Exhibit 13
Global middle-class consumption will shift heavily towards Asia over the next 10 years, fueled by urbanization
Percentage share of global middle-class consumption
100%
Others

75%
EU

Other Asia

50%
United
States

India

25%
Japan
China
0%
2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

Source: Kharas, H., “The Emerging Middle Class in Developing Countries”

15 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

2025

2030

2035

2040

2045

2050

Similar to real estate, investors can think of cities along a
development trajectory when it comes to the consumer goods
and services that might merit special focus. Examining the wealth
prospects of a city in its entirety can shed insights into the
spending level a particular city offers its residents — and what this
means for the products and services those residents can afford,
usually for the first time (Exhibit 14). For example, in emerging
cities like Jakarta and Kolkata, new arrivals from rural areas can
afford processed food or very small quantities of basic necessities
like shampoo. Once an emerging city becomes richer, residents
can step up their consumption through items such as fast food
and beauty products. Clearly, the hundreds of large cities around
the world vary enormously in their attractiveness for consumer
goods and services companies. Within the overall consumer goods
and services theme, we believe two investment opportunities are
particularly attractive (Exhibit 15).
New consumer class
One billion emerging-market consumers will be joining the
middle class by 2025, and as their purchasing power grows, these
consumers will have similar needs as their counterparts in the
developed world. For example, consumers in the growing middle
class will increasingly require financial services such as mortgage
lending. Domestic airlines catering to vacationing middle-class
residents in India and other emerging markets are now seeing a
surge in demand. Private-sector education providers in cities like

Shanghai and Bangalore are likewise experiencing a growing uptick
for their services. And companies supplying new middle-class
urbanites with durable goods such as household appliances and
consumables like beer, wine, and fast foods are seeing their sales
rise sharply in emerging markets.
All of these provide potentially attractive investment opportunities
that can be accessed via public market investments in a diversified
suite of consumer-oriented companies that are focused on
emerging-market cities or broader sectoral bets if specific theses
are examined around one area of consumer goods or services
over another. Similarly, direct stakes in companies through private
investment are possible for more focused opportunities.
Global luxury
The global luxury market is growing at double the rate of the
overall global economy and is forecast to reach $325 billion
annually by 2015. Individuals living in high-GDP-growth
emerging-market cities will increasingly aspire to live and consume
like affluent consumers in developed markets. Indeed, Chinese
consumers were the world’s biggest buyers of luxury goods in
2012, according to McKinsey.13 And sales of luxury cars in Brazil
are growing at a 45% annual clip. Companies that offer high-end
hotel and travel services, hard luxury (such as watches and jewelry),
and fashion items are finding robust demand in cities like Dubai,
Beijing, and Singapore.

Exhibit 14
Consumer needs may be tied to the wealth prospects of a particular city
Average GDP per capita (daily)
Tier 1
New York,
Munich,
Brussels

$200 per day
Luxury items such as travel, fashion, & wine; wealth management

Tier 2
Atlanta, Toronto, Miami

$150 per day
Electronics & appliances; broad range of financial services

Tier 3
Rome, Manchester, Shenzhen

Tier 4
Guangzhou, Santiago, Rio de Janeiro

Tier 5
Lima, Jakarta, Kolkata

$100 per day
Dining out; spending more on transport &
communications; retail banking

$50 per day
Starting to dine out; using beauty
products & detergent; financial services
for un-banked / under-banked
$15 per day
Basic necessities like food,
clothing, & shoes

Source: World Bank – Global Consumption Database; McKinsey Global Institute

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 16

Exhibit 15
Investment ideas in consumer goods & services and the agriculture supply chain
Consumer Goods & Services

Agriculture Supply Chain

New Consumer Class

Global Luxury

Industrialized Agriculture

Needs of new emerging-market
middle class consumers seeking
durable goods, consumer finance,
fast food, education, and other
items and services

Demand for luxury brands, highend hotels and travel services, hard
luxury, and collectibles in high
GDP-growth emerging-market cities

Machinery and agricultural
technology required as rural Asia
and Africa transition from smallscale, labor-intensive farming to
large-scale, capital-intensive farming

4. AGRICULTURE SUPPLY CHAIN
Given the explosive growth of middle-class consumers around the world, the demand for food — particularly meat
and dairy — will escalate sharply over the coming decades. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization, the world will need to produce 70% more food by 2050. But urban expansion will potentially reduce the
rural population by up to 200 million people over that same time frame — and possibly by over one billion people by the
end of this century.
The upshot: to achieve sufficient increases in food production,
despite a potentially smaller rural workforce, the agricultural sector
will need to modernize. While forecasting future food production
patterns is tricky, the most likely path is that agriculture in Africa
and Asia will increasingly be modeled on farming patterns in the
Americas and Australia. The de-population of rural Asian and
African markets will create a major impetus for a shift from laborintensive, small-scale family farming to capital-intensive, large-scale
industrialized farming. This shift will likely also include improved
transportation infrastructure, innovation in food design (driven
by private companies and universities), and expertise in dealing
with price volatility. Farmers and governments alike will need to
think of more innovative and sustainable production methods,
and governments will need to balance protectionism with the need
for an efficient agricultural supply chain. Driven by this expected
agricultural transformation, we believe one investment thesis —
industrialized agriculture — is particularly attractive (Exhibit 15).
Industrialized agriculture
Because fewer people will be available to farm while food
demand will continue to climb, agriculture in Asian and African
developing countries will likely become significantly more capital
intensive and resemble the larger, industrialized farms of North

17 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

America, South America, and Australia. Closely related to a more
capital-intensive farming model will be the need to evaluate and
potentially adopt a range of less prevalent farming technologies,
including genetically modified crops, fertilizers, and pesticides.
Clearly this potential agrarian transformation will come with a host
of complex but important policy issues, including the impact of
larger land holdings on asset and income equality, and the longerterm environmental and health consequences of new farming
technologies.
However, if Asian and African farming does follow this trajectory,
we believe there will be significant investment opportunities
in both global and Asian and African companies that focus on
providing farming machinery as well as next-generation farming
technology. Investment opportunities may also exist in large-scale
land acquisitions, through purchasing and combining smaller tracts
of land to make farming more efficient than the small-scale farms
that predominate in many Asian and African economies today. The
trend towards large land transactions is already evident with the
International Land Coalition identifying over 250 recent land deals
across food, bio-fuel, and livestock in 27 countries for over 50
million hectares, with investors comprising governments, sovereign
funds, private-sector companies, and asset management funds.
It is also worth noting that increasing the amount of food required

to feed a growing population is not just a matter of ramping up
production. Food must also be distributed much more efficiently:
about 25% to 30% of all food is currently wasted due to a
lack of adequate transportation and storage, according to the
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Although
still uncertain, longer-term investment opportunities are likely

to arise from the new or expanded corridors of food supply
from the farm to the urban dining table. These include direct or
indirect investments in processing and storage facilities as well as
transportation networks along new corridors of international food
demand.

WHEN, WHERE AND HOW TO INVEST
While the evaluation of specific investments depends on the unique objectives of each investor, we believe the 10
investable ideas outlined above present attractive opportunities across both emerging and developed markets. In addition
to where these ideas may present themselves, we also believe there is an equally important time dimension of when an
opportunity needs to be examined and evaluated: many of the ideas discussed could be most opportune at specific times
in a city’s development cycle or trajectory (Exhibit 16).
For instance, opportunities such as ensuring affordable housing
options or addressing pollution issues are most important when
a city is growing. Other ideas, such as capitalizing on consumers’
growing interest in luxury goods, will only be at their “prime”
when a city is more established. And opportunities tied to the
agriculture supply chain may not reach their peak until a city has
matured as a well-integrated player in the global flow of trade. It is
also important to note that regardless of their location in emerging

or developed markets, cities may fall into a variety of stages along
the development cycle. For example, a city in the developed world
that is currently undergoing a revival and transformation is in a
growth stage versus being established or mature.
The investment ideas could be also accessible across a broad range
of public and private vehicles and asset classes, demonstrating the
wide-ranging impact of the urban expansion trend (Exhibit 17).

Exhibit 16
Summary of investment ideas: where and when to invest

When to Invest: A City’s
Development Stage

Mature

Urban Infrastructure

Consumer Goods & Services

Real Estate

Agriculture Supply Chain

Industrialized Agriculture

Mega-city Connectivity

Established

Global Luxury
New Consumer Class
Retail Outlets and Logistics Support

Replace and Improve Old Assets
Wired Cities

Urban Revival

Anti-pollution
Growth

Economical Housing Options
Early-stage Emerging Markets

Later-stage Emerging Markets

Developed Markets

Where to Invest

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 18

Exhibit 17
Summary of investment ideas: primary ways to access
Investment Ideas

Urban
Infrastructure

Real Estate

Consumer Goods
& Services
Agriculture
Supply Chain

Asset Class
Public Equity

Public
Debt

Private
Equity

Private Debt

Wired Cities

ü

ü

ü

ü

Mega-city Connectivity

ü

ü

ü

ü

Anti-pollution

ü

ü

ü

ü

Replace and Improve
Old Assets

ü

ü

ü

ü

Real
Estate Equity

Real
Estate Debt

REITs

Urban Revival

ü

ü

ü

Retail Outlets and Logistics
Support

ü

ü

ü

Economical Housing
Options

ü

ü

New Consumer Class

ü

ü

ü

ü

Global Luxury

ü

ü

ü

ü

Industrialized Agriculture

ü

ü

ü

ü

PublicPrivate
Partnerships

Privatization

ü

ü

ü

ü

ü

APPLYING A CITY-LEVEL LENS ACROSS THE INVESTMENT PORTFOLIO
While the investment opportunities resulting from the urbanization boom lead to a range of potentially attractive ideas
across a number of asset classes, institutional investors may also be able to act on this mega-trend at the portfolio level.
To do this, CIOs will have to consider both their optimal organization structures and the analytic opportunities afforded by
increasingly richer, more accurate, and more accessible city-level data.
Organizing to capture the urbanization mega-trend
Though some institutional investors have accessed cross-asset
class themes — such as inflation — through dedicated investment
sleeves, many institutions are not managerially or organizationally
structured to implement investment ideas that are broad, thematic,
and cross-asset class. While the typical targeted, asset-class
specific structure has served organizations well, CIOs may find
it worthwhile to consider additional actions aimed at capturing
broader, thematic mega-trends such as urbanization. As an
example, those actions might include:
•

Considering the creation of an urbanization task force
to examine the investment implications of new city
formation and urban expansion.

•

Evaluating whether a thematically-focused, multi-asset
class investment sleeve can serve as a complement to
traditional asset-class focused sleeves.

•

Examining whether restrictions on investment structures
or limits on risk exposures might constrain the
organization’s ability to participate in the urbanization
opportunity.

19 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

•

Exploring potential opportunities to enter into targeted
strategic partnerships with third-party asset managers,
investment consultants, or strategy consultants to invest
in the urbanization mega-trend. Or, one step short of
that, incorporating a discussion on the urbanization
mega-trend into the formal dialog with counterparties.

•

Determining which investments in incremental data
and analytics might be helpful to fully evaluate city-level
opportunities and risks resulting from urban expansion.

Near- and long-term considerations for urban
investment analysis
Most institutional investors already have a fairly robust
understanding of country-level exposures, aggregated across both
internally managed and externally advised portfolios. For those
investors wanting to dig deeper into city-level opportunities and
risks across their assets, an increasingly rich array of city-level data
can now be accessed, though it is admittedly nowhere near as rich
or complete as country-level data.

In the near-term, investors should consider (where possible) which
components of their overall investment portfolios are positioned
to take advantage of the investment opportunities arising from
urban expansion and which sectors and investment theses are at
risk given the pace and scale of urban expansion. Over time, this
evaluation can help reposition the portfolio to be on the “right
side” of the urbanization mega-trend.
Investors may also utilize city-level data to identify and prioritize
a range of current investment opportunities. This could involve
incorporating a variety of city-level lenses to provide valuable
additional input in evaluating direct real estate and direct
infrastructure or even public debt and equity securities investments
with a high city concentration. For example, city-level data could
be analyzed and weighted to create an “urban opportunity index”
that incorporates forward-looking indicators of economic success,
a scorecard for city-level innovation that helps assess venture and
technology-oriented investments, and an index of cities at potential
economic risk to complement more traditional metrics and

analyses used to assess investment opportunities (Exhibit 18).
Although it may not be possible today to analyze these kinds of
city-level opportunities and risks across the entire investment
portfolio, institutional investors can continue to push data
providers, asset managers, and public companies to provide more
complete and robust exposures around their city-level exposures.
Over the long-term, as the availability of city-level data continues
to improve, investors will be able to move beyond the broad
buckets of developed, emerging, and frontier markets — and even
beyond country-level exposures — to be more city-specific in
their review of investment opportunities. Applying a “city lens” to
investment portfolios can reveal a number of actionable insights
and broaden the universe of investment opportunities. And a more
granular understanding of city exposures can alter decision making
around risk-return trade-offs. Having broad exposure to China or
India, for example, is very different than having specific exposure
to Shanghai or Bangalore.

Exhibit 18
Analyzing city-level data may help identify target cities for a variety of investor objectives
Illustrative Groupings
Economically Successful

Innovative

Potentially at Risk

1. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

1. Boston, USA

1. Nairobi, Kenya

2. Taipei, Taiwan

2. San Francisco, USA

2. Lagos, Nigeria

3. Singapore, Singapore

3. Beijing, China

3. Dhaka, Bangladesh

4. Hong Kong, SAR, China

4. Stockholm, Sweden

4. Karachi, Pakistan

5. New York, USA

5. London, UK

5. Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Methodology / Weighting
25% Equal weightings of:

20% Equal weightings of:

20% Equal weightings of:

• City population growth rate, 2015-201

• City population growth rate, 2015-201

• City population growth rate, 2015-201
(high growth)

• City real GDP growth rate, 2015-202

• City real GDP growth rate, 2015-202

• Count of office locations of global firms

• Livability Index4

• Competitiveness Index4

• Innovation Index5

3

• Knowledge Index6

• City real GDP growth rate, 2015-202
(low growth)
• Livability Index4 (low score)
• Competitiveness Index4 (low score)
• City Crime Index5 (high score)

Source: 1. United Nations; 2. Oxford Economics; 3. Globalization and World Cities Research Network; 4. The Economist Intelligence Unit; 5. 2thinknow; 6. Centre for
International Competitiveness

The mega-trend of urban expansion opens up important new investment opportunities for institutional investors. But just
as the current pace of urban population growth has never been seen before, it will likely never be repeated again. In 30
years’ time, the urban story will still continue, but the rate of change will taper off — as will the investment opportunities
resulting from urban expansion. Investors should consider capitalizing on the opportunities now arising from this
unprecedented population shift.

PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT 20

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Prudential Investment Management gratefully acknowledges the contributions made to this report by the following individuals:
Dr. Edward Glaeser, Fred and Eleanor Glimp Professor of Economics, Harvard University
Dr. Homi Kharas, Senior Fellow and Deputy Director, Global Economy and Development Program, Brookings Institution
Dr. Paul Romer, Professor of Economics, NYU Stern School of Business
Eric Adler, CEO, Prudential Real Estate Investors
Mark Chamieh, Managing Director, Prudential Real Estate Investors
Matt Ciaschini, Principal, Prudential Mortgage Capital Company
Brannon Cook, Managing Director, Jennison Associates
Susan Courtney, Managing Director, Prudential Fixed Income
David Durning, President & CEO, Prudential Mortgage Capital Company
Ubong Edemeka, Managing Director, Jennison Associates
Mark Eidson, Principal, Prudential Mortgage Capital Company
Marc Halle, Managing Director, Prudential Real Estate Investors
Dr. Peter Hayes, Managing Director, Prudential Real Estate Investors
David Hunt, President & CEO, Prudential Investment Management
Dr. Taimur Hyat, Chief Strategy Officer, Prudential Investment Management
Christina Kim, Director, Prudential Capital Group
Morgan Laughlin, Senior Managing Director and Head of Asia Pacific, Prudential Real Estate Investors
Noah Levy, Managing Director, Senior Housing, Prudential Real Estate Investors
Mehdi Mahmud, CEO, Jennison Associates
Ousmène Jacques Mandeng, Managing Director, Global Institutional Relations Group, Prudential Investment Management
Cathy Marcus, Managing Director and Global Chief Investment Officer, Prudential Real Estate Investors
Karen McQuiston, Managing Director, Jennison Associates
Alfonso Munk, Managing Director and Americas Chief Investment Officer, Prudential Real Estate Investors
Dr. Jurgen Odenius, Managing Director, Prudential Fixed Income
Bill Pappas, Senior Vice President, Prudential Capital Group
Keshav Rajagopalan, Director, Prudential Investment Management
Ommeed Sathe, Vice President, Prudential Impact Investments
Michael Schlachter, Managing Director, Multi-Asset Class Solutions, Prudential Investment Management

21 PRUDENTIAL INVESTMENT MANAGEMENT

ENDNOTES
1

 randon Fuller and Paul Romer, “Urbanization as Opportunity,” Marron Institute on Cities and the Urban Environment – New
B
York University, 2014

2

United Nations, “Urban Millennium,” Special Session of the General Assembly, 2001

3

United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Population Division

4

Fuller and Romer, “Urbanization as Opportunity”

5

UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Population Division

6

The World Bank – Urban Development; UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs – Population Division

7

Enrico Moretti, The New Geography of Jobs, Mariner Books, 2013; Edward Glaeser, Triumph of the City, Penguin Books, 2012;
Fuller and Romer, “Urbanization as Opportunity”

8

Alfred Marshall, Principles of Economics, Macmillan and Co., 1920

9

Edward Glaeser and David Maré, “Cities and Skills,” Journal of Labor Economics, 2001

10

Terry Sicular, “The Challenge of High Inequality in China,” The World Bank, 2013

11

U.S. Census Bureau – Quick Facts

12

Homi Kharas, “The Emerging Middle Class in Developing Countries,” OECD, 2010

13

McKinsey Global Institute, “Urban World: Cities and the rise of the consumer class,” 2012

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