Thirukural EnglishTranslation 1931

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THE HERITAGE OF
Planned by
J.

INDIA SERIES

N. FARQUHAR, M.A., D.Litt. (Oxon.), D.D. (Aberdeen).

Right Reverend V.

S.

AZARIAH, LL.D.

(Cantab.), Bishop of Dornakal. E. C. BEWICK, M.A. (Cantab.)
J.

N.

C.

GANGULY.

M.A.

(Birmingham),

{The Darsan-Sastri.

Already published

A

of Buddhism. K. J. SAUNDERS, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.) History of Kanarese Literature, 2nd ed. E. P. RICE, B.A. The Samkhya System, 2nd ed. A. BERRDZDALE KEITH, D.C.L., D.Litt.

The Heart

(Oxon.)
As"oka, 3rd ed. JAMES M. MACPHAIL, M.A., M.D. Indian Painting, 2nd ed. Principal PERCY BROWN, Calcutta. Psalms of Maratha Saints. NICOL MACNICOL, M.A. D.Litt. History of Hindi Literature. F. E. KEAY, M.A. D.Litt. The Karma-Mlmamsa. A. BERRIEDALE KEITH, D.C.L., D.Litt. (Oxon.) Hymns of the Tamil aivite Saints. F. KINGSBURY, B.A., and G. E.

A

Hymns from

PHILLIPS, M.A. the Rigveda.

A. A. MACDONELL, M.A., Ph.D., Hon.

LL.D. Gautama Buddha. K.

J. SAUNDERS, M.A., D.Litt. (Cantab.) The Coins of India. C. J. BROWN, M.A. Poems by Indian Women. MRS. MACNICOL. EDWARD THOMPSON, M.A., and Bengali Religious Lyrics, Sakta. A. M. SPENCER, B.A. Classical Sanskrit Literature, 2nd ed. A. BERRIEDALE KEITH, D.C.L.,

D.Litt. (Oxon.). of India. Telugu Literature.

The Music

H. A. POPLEY, B.A.
P.

CHENCHIAH, M.L., and RAJA M. BHUJANGA

RAO BAHADUR.
Rabindranath Tagore, 2nd ed.

Hymns

of the Alvars. J. S.

EDWARD THOMPSON, M.A. M. HOOPER, M.A. (Oxon.), Madras.

Subjects proposed

and volumes under preparation
J.

THE PHILOSOPHIES.
An
Introduction to

Hindu Philosophy. The late and Principal JOHN MCKENZIE, Bombay.

N.

FARQUHAR

ii

Readings from the
Bangalore.

Upanishads.

M. H.

HARRISON,

Ph.D.,
.

The System

of the Pali Buddhist Books.

Prof.

V. LESNY, Prague

FINE ART

AND

MUSIC.
Dr.

Indian Sculpture

STELLA KRAMRISCH,

The Minor

Arts.

Principal

PERCY BROWN,

Calcutta. Calcutta.

HISTORIES OF VERNACULAR LITERATURE.
Bengali. C. S. PATERSON, M.A., Calcutta. Tamil. Prof. F. KINGSBURY, B.A., Colombo. Malayalam. T. K. JOSEPH, B.A., L.T., Trivandrum. Urdu. T. GRAHAME BAILEY, D.Litt., London.

VARIOUS.
of India. Prof. R. L. TURNER, London. Prakrit Literature. Principal A. C. WOOLNER, Lahore. The Indian Conception of the Beautiful. K. S. RAMASWAMI SASTRIAR, B.A., B.L., Madura. The Hindu Family System. C. W. MILLER, Pasumalai.

The Aryan Languages

EDITORIAL PREFACE
Finally, brethren,

whatsoever
are

things

are

true,

whatsoever

things

things are just, ever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report if there be any virtue, and if there be
;

honourable, whatsoever whatsoever things are pure, whatso-

any

praise, think

on these

things.

No section of the population of India can afford to neglect her ancient heritage. The treasures of knowledge, wisdom, and beauty which are contained in her literature, philosophy, art, and regulated life are too precious to be
lost.

Every citizen of India needs to use them, if he is to be a cultured modern Indian. This is as true of the ChrisBut, tian, the Muslim, the Zoroastrian as of the Hindu. while the heritage of India has been largely explored toy
scholars,

and the

results of their toil are laid out for us in

books, they cannot be said to be really available for the
ordinary man. The volumes are in most cases expensive, and are often technical and difficult. Hence this series of

cheap books has been planned by a group of Christian men, in order that every educated Indian, whether rich or poor,

may

past.

be able to find his way into the treasures of India's Many Europeans, both in India and elsewhere, will doubtless be glad to use the series.
in selecting writers,

being taken by the General Editors and in passing manuscripts for the press. To every book two tests are rigidly applied everything must be scholarly, and everything must be symcare
is
:

The utmost

pathetic.

The purpose
it

is

to bring the best out of the ancient

treasuries, so that

may

be known, enjoyed, and used.

TRADITIONAL FIGURE OF

From Pandit K, Vadivelu
Edition.

Chettiar's
of

THE POET

With Permission

Author

HERITAGE OF INDIA SERIES

THE SACRED KURAL
OR

The Tamil Veda

of Tiruvalluvar

Selected and Translated with
Introduction and Notes

BY

H. A.

POPLEY,

B.A.

SECRETARY, Y.M.C.A. OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON

X
q

ASSOCIATION PRESS
5

RUSSELL STREET, CALCUTTA
:

LONDON OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
NEW
YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE
1931

BOMBAY, CALCUTTA & MADRAS

The Rights of Translation are reserved

PRINTED IN INDIA AT THE WESLEYAN MISSION PRESS MYSORE CITY

DEDICATED TO

THE GENEROUS PEOPLE OF THE TAMIL LANDS
WHO WELCOMED
ME, A STRANGER, INTO THEIR MIDST AND OPENED TO ME THEIR

HEARTS AND THEIR TREASURES AND

TO MY OLD FRIEND

'K.T.'

(KANAKARAYAN TIRUSELVAM PAUL) WHO IN SO MANY WAYS REPRESENTED THE BEST IN TAMIL LIFE AND CULTURE

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
N. Farquhar and Mr. undertook to prepare a volume for the Heritage of India Series on The Sacred Kural, the
IT
at the suggestion of Dr. J.
I first

was

K. T. Paul that

ethical Bible of the

Tamil people.

Ever since

I
it

began to
has been

study with the
travels,

this little

book, twenty-eight years ago,

New
I

and

Testament my daily companion in all my have learnt to love it, and to rejoice in its

homely, high-minded teaching. Dr. Farquhar 's suggestion, therefore, found an instant response and, although I fully
realized

my own

deficiencies for the task, I regarded

it

as

a great and noble purpose to help to make more widely known the inimitable couplets of this humble Tamil sage.

Many translations of these couplets have been made in English, of which that of the great Tamil scholar, Dr. G. U. Pope, is the best known. Dr. Pope has put them into
rhymed verses, a form which has involved in many cases some slight addition to or alteration of the meaning of the
original.

Many

of his renderings, however, are extremely

happy and arresting, and I am indebted to them for many ideas and suggestions. V. V. S. Aiyar, a Tamil scholar, the most recent translator whose tragic death a few years ago at the ashram he established at Ambasamudram came as a great shock to the Tamil people has probably produced the best English rendering hitherto. In the Introduction to his book he says, After a great deal of thought I have come to the
'

conclusion that the Authorised English version of the Bible The resemblance of the is the proper model to be followed.

thought and diction of Tiruvalluvar to the great master-

x

THE SACRED KURAL
me
forcibly,

pieces of the Bible struck
if

and

I

thought that

any

portion of the vigour of the

Kural could be presented

in English, it could only be by adopting the phraseology and the terms of expression of the English version of the Hebrew and Greek Veda.' V. V. S. Aiyar has certainly

succeeded in giving us a very fine translation and been indebted to him again and again.
in her little devotional

I

have

Mrs. Tirunavukkarasu, a cultured Tamil lady of Jaffna,

book entitled A Gem for Each Day, has given some exceedingly happy renderings of many of the couplets, to which also I am indebted. With the exception of Mrs. Tirunavukkarasu, none of the other translators has endeavoured to reproduce the terseness and
brevity of the original.

The

translations in this

book have

all

been made from

the original, with the help of the best commentaries available, and I have tried to reproduce, as far as possible,

something of the terseness and brevity of the original. Upon the advice of the Rev. E. C. Dewick, who has succeeded Dr. J. N. Farquhar as Literary Secretary of the Y.M.C.A., I have also tried to give a metrical form to the couplets, but I have not made use of rhyme, as it seems to me to detract

from the dignity of the
without

translation.

Wherever

possible,

meaning, I have used both vowel and consonant alliteration, which is the Tamil
doing
injustice

to

the

substitute for
It is

rhyme.

almost impossible in any translation to do justice to the beauty and force of the original only a master of
;

English and of Tamil, such as Tiruvalluvar was in Tamil, could do that. The first desideratum has been to get the
actual

meaning

of the couplet as exactly as possible,

and

then to express it in the fewest and choicest words. I realize that I have failed miserably again and again and can only

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
hope that those who read
author.
this translation

xi

may

be able to

gain at least a glimpse of the inimitable style of the Tamil
Fairly full notes have been added so that the reader may be able to understand the literary and local allusions and
to enter as completely as possible into the spirit of the poet. In the notes I have also quoted the renderings of

other translators, where this seemed desirable. It has not been possible within the limits of the Heritage of India Series to give a complete translation of the work,

nor

is it

good idea
I

necessary to do so for the non-Tamilian to gain a of the teaching of this book. Those who wish

for a complete translation

may obtain that

of V. V. S. Aiyar.

have to express my especial indebtedness to the Rev. E. C. Dewick, to my old friend, the late Mr. K. T. Paul, to the Rt. Rev. V. S. Azariah, Bishop of Dornakal and to
Pandit G. S. Duraiswamy Pillay for their valuable help in the preparation of this book ; and to Mr. Martin S. Lall for his help in typing out the whole manuscript a number of
I must also pay my tribute of respect and gratitude my old Tamil tutor, Sriman Pandit Sivaprasada Hridayam Pillay Avl., who first led my feet into the untrodden paths

times.
to

of

Tamil

literature in the little

town

of Erode,

where under

his guidance for fourteen years, I

studied

many

of the

masterpieces of Tamil literature. In humble devotion I place this
feet of

work before
'

the sacred

my

Lord and Master, Jesus

Christ,

the light which

enlightens every man.'
Calcutta,

H. A. POPLEY.

July, 1931.
Note. I have not used any diacritical marks for the name of the book itself. It should really be written Kural,' the r being strong and the 1' pronounced by an upward twist of the tongue and slightly guttural. This should be remembered throughout.
'

'

'

'

CONTENTS
TRIBUTE TO THE POET BY DR. G. U. POPE
...
...

xix

INTRODUCTION

THE AGE, THE POET AND THE BOOK
DATE OF THE 'RURAL' ... ... ... SOUTH INDIA IN THE DAYS OF TIRUVALLUVAR THE POET, TIRUVALLUVAR ... ... THE CHARACTER OF THE POET ... ... ... THE BOOK ... ... ... ... TIRUVALLUVAR AND WOMANHOOD THE STYLE AND FORM OF THE BOOK ... THE 'RURAL' IN TAMIL LIFE AND LETTERS
...
... ... ...

1

9
15
19

... ...
...

...
... ... ...

21

...
...

29
31

...
...

...

32

TRANSLATIONS OF SELECTED COUPLETS VIRTUE
PREFACE
1. 2.

In Praise of

3.
4.

God ... The Rain-cloud's Excellence The Greatness of Ascetics The Might of Virtue ...

... ...
... ...

... ...

...
... ... ...

37

37

...

38

39

DOMESTIC VIRTUE
5.
6. 7.

Home-life

...

...

...
...

... ...
...

...

40 40
41 42 43
43

The Worth The Gift of
Love

of

Home's Helpmeet
...

...

Children

...

...

8. 9.

10.

Caring for the Guest Rindly Speech ...
Gratitude
...
... ... ... ...

...

...
... ... ...

...

...

...
...

...
... ...

...
... ... ...
...

11.

44 44
45 45
45

12. Fairness

...
...
...

13. Self-control
14.

... ...
...
...

... ... ...
...

16.
17.

Right Conduct Forbearance

...

...
...

19.

Freedom from Envy ... Freedom from Back-biting

46
46

...

xiv

THE SACRED KURAL
20. Refraining
21.

DOMESTIC VIRTURE (Continued)
Dread
of Evil

from Vain Speech ... Deeds
... ...

... ... ...

...
... ...

...
...

47 47
47

22. Beneficence
23. Charity

... ...

...
...

...

...

47

ASCETIC VIRTUE
'

25. Kindliness

...

...

...
...

...
...

...

48 48

26.
27.

Abstinence from Flesh-eating

...

Tapas

or Austerities
...

... ... ... ...

...
...

...

...
... ...

48 49 49

28. Inconsistency 29.

... ...
... ...

Freedom from Fraud
...

... ... ... ...
...

30. Truthfulness 31. Refraining

...
...

49
50
50 51
51

32.
34.

Ahimsa

... from Anger Refraining from Hurt ...
...

... ...

... ... ...

Impermanence
Renunciation

...

35.
36.

...
...
...

...

... ...
...

37.
38.

Understanding the Truth Freedom from Desire Old Karma

... ...

...
...

51
51

52

PROPERTY
KINGSHIP
39.
40.

41.

Kingly Excellence ... Learning Neglect of Learning
...

...

...

... ...

... ...

52 53
53

...
...
...

...
... ...

...
...

... ...

42. Listening 43.

53
53

Wisdom
... ...
...
...

44. Correction of Faults
45.
46.

...
... ... ...
...

54 54
54 55 55 55 55 55 56 56

... Winning the Help of the Great Keeping Away from Bad Company

... ...

47

.

Acting with Forethought

...

...

48.
49.

50.
51.
52.

... Knowledge of Power Knowing the Opportunity ... ... Knowing the Place Selection and Confidence ... Selection and Employment

... ...
...

... ...
... ... ...
...

...
...

...
... ...

... ... ...
...

53.
55.
58.

Steady Purpose Righteous Rule
Graciousness

...

...
...

...

...

...

56
56

CONTENTS
KINGSHIP (Continued)
60. 61.

xv

Energy

...
... ...

... ...

...

...

56
57

Unsluggishness 62. Manliness
63.

...

...

57
...
...

Hope

in Trouble...

...

57

THE BODY
64. 65.

POLITIC
...
...

... The Minister Power in Speech...

...

... ...
...

... ... ... ... ...

58

...
... ...
...

58 58
58

66. Purity of 67.
68.

Action

...
...

...
...

Power

in

Action

... ... ...
...

70.
76.

... Conduct of Affairs ... Conduct before Kings The Acquisition of Wealth

59 59 59 59 59

... ... ... ...

...
... ...

79. Friendship

...

... ... ...
...

...
...

81. Intimate Friendship

...
...

82.

Bad Friendship
...

...
... ... ...

... ...
... ...
...

... ... ... ... ... ... ...

59 59
60 60

84. Folly

...
...

85. Stupidity
86.

...
...

Enmity

...

... ... ... ...

90. Disregard of the Great

...
...
...

60
60

Obedience to Women 93. Abstinence from Alcohol
91.

...
...

60

MISCELLANEOUS
96. Nobility of Birth
... ...

...
... ...

... ...
... ... ... ... ... ...

... ...
...

... ...

61 61 61 62 62 62
63

97.

Honour or Izzat

98. Greatness

...

...

99. Excellence of Character

...
...

... ...
...

...
...

100. Courtesy 102.
103.

...

The Sense

of

Shame

...
...

... ... ...
...

104.
107.

Advancing one's Family ... Farming The Fear of Begging
...

... ...

...

63 63
63

...
...

...
...

...
...

108. Vileness

...

LOVE
FURTIVE LOVE
110. 112. Praising her

Reading the Heart by Signs ... Beauty

... ...

...
...

...
...

64
64

xvi

THE SACRED KURAL
113. Love's Excellence 114.
... ...
...

FURTIVE LOVE (Continued)
...

64 64

Giving up Secrecy

...

...

...

MARRIED LOVE 116. The Pangs of
131. Bouderie

Separation

...

...
...

... ...

...

65

129. Impatience for

Reunion
...

...

...

65
65

...
...

...

133.

The Charm

of

Coyness

...

...

...

65

EXPLANATORY NOTES
PART
I.

II.

III.

... VIRTUE PROPERTY LOVE

...

...
...

... ...

...

... ...
..

69
88
105

...

...

APPENDICES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Translations of the

Kural and English Books on
... ...
...

the
...

Rural

...

... ... ... ...

Ill

... Tamil Editions of the Kural ... ... Tamil Commentaries on the Kural Tamil Books on the Kural and its Author Books on the History of the Period and Date

...112
...

113

...

114 114

of the

Kural

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION AND PRONUNCIATION OF TAMIL LETTERS
Vowels
Consonants
Sanskrit
... ... ...
...

... ...
...

...
...

... ...

...

116
116
118

...
...

Words

...

...

...

INDEX

...

..

119

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE

TRADITIONAL FIGURE OF THE POET

...

...

Frontispiece
...

CITY OF MADURA AND MINAKSHI TEMPLE

...

4

THE SHORE TEMPLE AT MAHABALLIPURAM
DHARMA'S RATHA AT MAHABALLIPURAM
...

...

...

14
14

...

...

MYLAPORE TODAY

...

...

...

...

...

16 18

THE GOLDEN LILY TANK, MADURA TEMPLE

...

...

TEMPLES OF TIRUVALLUVAR AND VASUKI AT MYLAPORE

...

37

A RURAL

TAMIL HOUSEHOLDER AND FAMILY

...

...

40

AN IMAGE

OF THE GODDESS LAKSHMI IN THE

MADURA TEMPLE

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
S. KRISHNASWAMY AIYAN... ... ... GAR Hindu View of Life, by SIR S. RADHAKRISHNAN

Ancient India, by Dr.

...
...

A.L
H. V.L.
H.T.
Part.

History of

the

Tamils,
...
...

by

P.

T.
...

SRINIVAS
... ... ... ...

IYENGAR

Tamil Commentary, by PARIMELALAGAR The Kural, by REV. J. S. M. HOOPER

...

...
...

J.S.M.H.
V. V.S.

The Maxims of Tiruvalluvar, by V. V. S. AIYAR The Oxford History of India, by VINCENT A.
SMITH. 1919
... ... ...
...

...

V.S.

... The Sacred Kurral, by DR. G. U. POPE The Tamil Antiquary. A journal published by

...

S.K.

the Tamil Archaeological Society, Trichinopoly ... ... ... from 1909-11 ...

...

T.A.
K.S.P.

The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago, by V. ... ... KANAKASABHABATHI PILLAY ...

Ahananuru
Bhagavad Glta Manimekhalai
Narrinai

...

...

...

... ... ... ...
...

... ...
...

Ahan.
E.G.

...
...

...

... ...

...

Mani.

...

...
...

...
...

Nar.
Pur.
Sil.

Purananuru
Silappadiga ram

...
...

... ...
...

...
...

...
...

...
...

Tiruvalluvamalai

Tiru.Malai.

DR. G. U. POPE'S TRIBUTE 1
Sage Valluvar, priest of the lowly clan, No tongue repeats, no speech reveals thy name
things changing, dieth not thy fame, For thou art bard of universal man
Yet,
all
;

;

And

book above the waters wan, Virtue, true wealth, and joy, and being's aim,
still

*

'

thy

Where winds

In sweetest mystic couplets doth proclaim, sea-wafted palmy forests fan.
*
'

Haply undreamed

of

visions

glad thine eyes
*

In realms beyond thy fabled seven-fold birth And clouds of darkness from thy spirit roll

',

;

While lands

far-off have heard with strange surprise Faint echoes of thy song. Through all the earth Men hail thee brother, seer of spotless soul.

p. 2.

INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

THE AGE, THE POET AND THE BOOK
DATE OF THE KURAL
THE dates to be assigned to the earlier Tamil literature are
still

far

from

settled

;

but a great deal of valuable research

work has been done during the past quarter of a century by Dr. S. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar, Sriman M. Srinivasa Aiyangar, Sriman P. T. Srmivas lyengar, Sriman M. Raghava Aiyangar, Sriman K. A. Nilakantha Sastri and other scholars, and a large number of epigraphical records
have been studied and collated with the result that much light has been thrown upon the early history of the Tamil people. It is becoming possible to date with some degree of accuracy the most important literary productions of the Tamil country during the first ten centuries of the Christian era. Tamil literature is one of the few vernacular litera;

tures of India which, in the early centuries of this era, attained to a development and a standard that bear comparison with the literature of Sanskrit. Even before the tenth century A.C. the Tamil people had produced great literary masterpieces, and from the tenth to the sixteenth century there was no diminution of output or lowering of the high level attained. This Introduction, however, is not concerned with the later developments of Tamil literature, but only with its early history ; for it was during the early centuries of the Christian era that the Kural was produced. Tamil is the only living vernacular of India which has a large body of classical literature, written in a language which is still intelligible to educated people and which is no further removed from the modern literary

form than mediaeval English is from modern English. The Tamil people belong to the Dravidian race which in the pre-Christian centuries was found throughout the whole of South India, from the Vindhya mountains on the

4
;

THE SACRED KURAL

north and perhaps at an earlier period still covered the whole of India. The Brahui language, spoken on the
borders of Baluchistan, belongs to the Dravidian family
;

and the recent discoveries

at

Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro

in Sind suggest that three milleniums before Christ the people of Sind were homogeneous in culture with the Dravidians of the Southern Peninsula.

The Tamil people, as they finally became separated from the Andhras and the Kanadas, were the last to be aryanized ; and so it is not strange to find among them an earlier literature, which reaches back to the first and second centuries before Christ, and shows very little trace of Aryan influence. Writing was probably introduced into South India in the fifth or sixth century before Christ, so that no body of literature could have existed before that time. There is an ancient tradition that three Tamil 'Academies were established at Madura, the capital city of the Pandyas ; and early writers give the most fanciful chronology for these Academies, which were apparently bodies of critical scholars who adjudicated upon all new literary productions. It is not possible to say whether there is any historical truth in this tradition of a Madura Tamil sangham, as these Academies were called but there is no doubt that the dates given by former scholars are quite untenable. have abundant evidence from the Mahdbharata, Ramayana, and other early Sanskrit works, as well as from Greek and Latin writers, that in the pre-Christian millenium the Tamils were a cultured, vigorous people, doing an extensive trade with the West, as well as wr ith other parts of India, and affording a welcome hospitality to Aryan immigrants from the north. Aromatics and spices, jewels and cotton cloth were regular articles of trade exported from Southern India to Egypt, Greece and Rome. The Arabs and Greeks seem to have been the intermediaries in this trade. The three Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas, Seras and Pandyas were well-known to many Aryan and European authors of the millenium before Christ. The edicts of Asoka refer to these kingdoms as neighbours,' thus implying that they were not part of his empire (see Edict II) and Asoka says
' ;

We

'

;

INTRODUCTION

5

that the Dharma, i.e. the Buddhist religion, has been established among the peoples of these kingdoms (Edict XIII). The Greeks, who were the greatest intermediaries in the trade of India with Europe, borrowed many Tamil names, which have found their \vay into most of the European languages. Among these are the Greek words oryza from the Tamil arisi, rice; kdrpion from karuvd^

ziggiberos from injivSr, ginger peperi from 1 pippdliy pepper beryllos from vaidurya^ beryl and so on. In 20 B.C. the Pandyan king is said to have sent a com2 mercial mission to the Emperor Augustus and it is stated

cinnamon

;

;

;

,

that the trade between South India and Rome reached the enormous value of one million pounds a year in the early years of the Christian era. Says Vincent Smith: 'The Tamil States of the far South became wealthy and prosperous in virtue of their valuable foreign trade, and attained a high degree of material civilisation at an early
3

period.' The earliest extant

work in Tamil is the Tolkappiyam, Tamil language and literature, written by Trinadhumagni, usually called Tolkappiyanar from his book. He was a Brahman settler among the Tamils and a disciple of Agattiyanar, another Brahman who had
a

grammar

of the

grammar before him. The grammar of Agattiyanar, which was called Agattiyam, is not now extant, but the author of the Tolkappiyam quotes frequently from it, and so we can form some idea of it. The Tolkappiyam shows a language highly developed, but very different from Sanskrit, and possessing a considerable body of literature in the form of poetry. The Tolkappiyam itself is in a poetical form, and not only gives an account of the grammar of letters and words and sentences, but also of the subject-matter of Tamil literature, wr hich was very different from that of Sanskrit. The latter part of this monumental work, called Poruladigaram, gives a complete picture of the life of the Tamil people at the time of the author. They wr ere divided according to the regions
written a
1 3

V.S. p. 194.
ibid. p. 144.
cf.

*

ibid. p. 143.

also

Cambridge History of India,

vol.

I,

p. 594.

6

THE SACRED KURAL
tribes, desert dwellers, herds-

they inhabited, into hunting

men,
its

Each of these classes had peculiar poetry and social customs, and these are all graphically described. The poetry of the early Tamils had very little to do with religion and was almost entirely concerned with matters of war and love, which were called respectively puram and aham, and so the early ballads of the Tamils which are extant to-day deal mostly with these aspects of life. They give many glimpses also of the every-day occupations and habits of the men and women of the Tamil land. shall have something to say of these a little further on. The importance of the Tolkappiyam for the Kural lies in the fact that it is the first Tamil literary work for which a date can be found, and the date of the Kural depends to some extent upon the date fixed for the Tolkappiyam. It has been the custom hitherto to date the Tolkappiyam in the third or second century before Christ. Recent scholars however have brought it later to the first century before Christ and this has been the generally accepted date for some time. Sriman P. T. Srinivas lyengar in his recent brilliant work, The History of the Tamils^ gives strong reasons for fixing the first century of our present era as the date of the Tolkappiyam^ All that can be said here is that it was probably produced between 100 B.C. and A.C. 100. This fixes the anterior limit for the date of the Kural> as it is evident for many reasons that the Kural must have come after the Tolkappiyam. It is not so easy however to get a posterior limit for the date of the Kural. Dr. Pope dated it between A.C. 800-1000, but in his time there had been very little research into literary and epigraphical data and such a late date is now
fisher-folk

and

cultivators.

own

We

;

quite untenable. V. V. S. Aiyar dated it between A.C. 100 2 A.C. 300. The Kural itself contains no historical or chronological hint that would help us to date it, and the traditional life of the author has no historical foundation to help us. So we are forced to depend entirely upon quotations in other

and

1

H.T.

p. 216.

2

V.V.S. p.

ix.

INTRODUCTION

7

works and upon its general style and subject matter. The early Tamils never realised the trouble they would be giving to their successors when they left out every indication which could help to date a work. It never occurred to them that the date of a book would be regarded as of
such great importance by subsequent generations. The earliest quotation from the Kural seems to be contained in the Purananuru, a collection of ballads by many different poets of various dates, ranging from the first century before Christ to the fourth or fifth century after Christ. Most scholars have regarded the Purananuru collection as having been made about the third or fourth century A.C., but Mr. P. T. Srmivas lyengar in his disturbing book now puts the date much later. The quotation occurs in Puram 34 and reads as follows
:

Pur. 34

:

6, 7.

which may be translated The Dharma says There
' :

:

is

no escape

for those

who kill a kindness

done

'

i.e.

by means

of ingratitude.

This is certainly a reminiscence, and probably a direct 10. The colophon to this ballad quotation, of Kural 11 says that it was composed by' Alathurkilar in honour of Killivalavan, (the Chola king) who died at Kulamurram.' Unfortunately we cannot date any of these with certainty, even if the colophons themselves may be accepted as
:

historical.

The next ballad also (No. 35) seems to contain a line reminiscent of two couplets in the second chapter of the The Rain-Cloud's Excellence.' The line reads Kural
:

torA QuriutJLSgpin wrifl (geerrS^Lb

Though

the clouds deceive and the flood
(vide

fails.

Kural 2:3,

4. )

1

The

ballads of the

sixth century A.C. that if these are genuine quotations, the sixth century A.C.
1

Purananuru cannot be later than the and are probably a good deal earlier, so

vide p. 38.

8

THE SACRED RURAL
as the posterior limit for the produc-

must be regarded
tion of the Kural.

The Silappadigaram is the earliest Tamil epic poem extant. Dr. S. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar places this work in 1 the second century after Christ but Mr. P. T. Srmivas
j

lyengar, for various reasons, which space forbids us to 2 examine here, places it at the end of the fifth century. This work contains what seem to be two clear quotations from the Kural. They are as follows
:

Q)sg ((I) Q&'-Li&fc Q^trysir^fef
Qi&iiieum QfStrQfis
gsetn&e

&l.
It is

23.

sure that the quality of worshipping God belongs to her who worships her husband, though she worships no other god. (vide Kural,

6:

5.)

tSlpusp

/renir<gjpirsi-ib

QuprS

siresor

Sil. 21

:

3, 4.

See the ruinous condition which comes upon that man in the evening, who in the morning plans another's ruin, (vide Kural,
32
:

9.)

These two follow the Kural couplets so closely in form and language that they can hardly be explained, except as quotations from that work. The Manimekhalai is a sequel to the Silappadigaram and has a quotation from the Kural about which there can be no doubt whatever. It reads
:

Op
riJ

IT

(fi

r gi er Qsir(tfis/t>

Quiu<Lj(Des>

L/eueuesr

Qu
Mani. 22 59-61.
:

Study well the pithy saying of the poet who uttered nothing false, and said Who, in waking, bows before her spouse, but before no other god, may ask for rain and rain it will.' (vide Kural 6:5.)
' :

to the poet in these lines, the poet who uttered nothing false,' has stuck to him ever since, and may have also been used in common parlance before that date. Sriman S. Somasundra Bharati, in a little pamphlet on

The name given

'

Tiruvalluvar, published in 1928, has brought together a
1

A.I. pp. 373-84.

2

H.T.

pp. 602, 603.

INTRODUCTION

9

large number of apparent quotations from the Kural in various works of the so-called Sangham era. It is clear from the above that the date of the Kural is still open to considerable question, and cannot be settled until the dates of other literature of the period A.C. 1-500 have been fixed. All that we can say with certainty is that it must lie somewhere between the second and the sixth centuries A.C. The style and subject matter make it clear beyond doubt that it must have preceded the age of sectarian revival which began in the seventh century. The majority of Tamil scholars still regard it as a second century work ; but it is likely that the arguments of Mr. P. T. Srinivas lyengar will lead some of them to put it later. It is very doubtful if it should be put as late as the sixth century, as he believes, on grounds which depend largely upon subjective analysis. In spite of the very great weight to be attached to Mr. Srinivas lyengar 's opinions, in view of his wide researches into South Indian history, I am inclined to place the Kural not later than the fourth century A.C., judging by its style and the frequency of quotation in works which belong to the sixth century. Probably however, this is a matter which will never be satisfactorily settled ; and fortunately the value of the work does not depend upon whether it was composed in the second or the sixth century. It will always be one of the literary treasures of the Tamil people.

SOUTH INDIA IN THE DAYS OF TIRUVALLUVAR
The uncertainty of date will not markedly affect our conception of the conditions of the Tamil country in the days of our author, because the literature describing that period, whatever it may be, belongs to the same time as Tiruvalluvar. We may think of the period as reaching from the second to the fifth century A.C. There is an extensive literature describing the life of the people and the state of the country during these centuries. It is all written in poetical form in the somewhat archaic style of those days, and requires commentaries if the modern reader is to understand it properly.

10
It is

THE SACRED RURAL

evident that the civilization of the south was in its a Dravidian civilization, into which Aryan elements were then only slowly penetrating. The varnasrama system of caste had not been adopted by the Tamils, but the people were classified in accordance with the regions they inhabited and the occupations they followed. Says Mr. P. T. Srmivas lyengar
essentials
:

Notwithstanding the existence in their midst of Brahmanas and the attempts of Agattiyanar and Tolkappiyanar to import Aryan culture into the Tamil country, the bulk of the people continued to live as if

They lived and loved just in the same in the olden times. Their occupations, customs, and beliefs, superstitious or otherwise, did not at all alter. The simple rural life of the pre-Christian centuries continued intact and, notwithstanding its contact with Sanskrit culture, the Tamil
Aryan culture did not exist. ways as their forebears did
. . .

muse still sought inspiration from the humble scenes around, which it deserted a few centuries later when the artificial poetry of Sanskrit subjugated the Tamil mind and for all time destroyed the beautiful realistic poetry of the early Tamils. 1

One or two quotations from the poetry of the period will show the Tamil people's love of nature, their freedom from
the conventions of Sanskrit literature and their exuberant interest in the everyday things of life
:

The

dwellers of the

hill

country were loth to part from

it,

because

from bough to bough are hanging the honey -combs, large fruits are ripening in bunches, bright rivulets are running down the hill looking like garlands, on the hill-sides are being raised various kinds of grains and pulses all the year round and the mountainous country is very
fertile.
2

Nar. 93

:

1-5.

leaves of the lily growing near the rivulet caught by the long vine of the cane, which grows near the banks of the tank and has small thorns like the surface of a rasp, are moved by the fitful gusts of the north wind, and look like the bellows which are blown in the 3 Ahan. 96 3-7. smithy and grow tense and lax alternately.
:

The broad

The

and Tamil land had found a place for the harlot As when the wind grow s strong and the storm beats, the ship is upset and the terrified crew fall down and many men seize one plank, so my friend, in the street where the small, beautiful ydl* is humming
: r

following quotation illustrates their early love for interest in the sea, and incidentally shows that the

1 2

H.T.

p. 253.

s 4

ibid. p. 268.

ibid. p. 255.

An

ancient lute.

INTRODUCTION
like the fair bee, the bejewelled harlots,

11

who once had possession of your heart and are shedding hot tears because you have deserted them, catch hold of you and are pulling you in different directions. I have Nar. seen with my eyes this your distress but how can I help you ? 1
;

30.

During these centuries the Tamil land was divided into three important kingdoms, the Chola, Sera and Pandya kingdoms, to whom many petty chieftains gave nominal adherence or paid tribute. The Chola capital was at Uraiyur (now Trichinopoly), the Sera capital at Karur on the west coast, and the Pandya capital at Madura. The following ode from the Purananiiru gives a poetical description of the Tamil country :
pleasant Tamil lands possess For boundary, the ocean wide. This land Three kings with mighty hosts Divide but of the three, whose drums Sound for the battle's angry strife, Thou art the chief, O mighty one. Though the resplendent sun in diverse quarters rise, And though the silvery planet to the south decline, Thy land shall flourish, where through channels deep, Kaveri flows with bright refreshing stream Along whose banks the sweet canes' white flowers wave Like pennoned spears uprising from the plain. 2 Pur. 35.
; ;

The

The poets were usually to be found at the courts of the kings and chiefs, to whom they acted as counsellors and laudators. Kapilar, one of the earliest of the Aryan poets, thus addresses Kari, a petty chieftain
:

Where reigns one Lord, men's longing eyes From quarters four they come, in gain intent.
'Tis hard to measure worth thy gifts to fling Abroad with lavish hand is easier thing.
;

are bent;

full well the very truth I tell. Cease then to view each suppliant bard With undistinguishing regard.' 3
!

king munificent

Thou knowest

Pur. 121.

Another poet, who
as follows
1
:

is

nameless, addresses a Pandyan king

H.T.

p. 299.

a

T.A.

vol.

I,

No.

6, p. 50.

8

ibid. p. 64.

12

THE SACRED RURAL
Therefore, O Celiyan, great in war, despise this not Increase the reservoirs for water made. Who bind the water and supply to fields Their measured flow, these bind The earth to them. The fame of others passes swift
;

'

away

l

Pur.

18.

Cattle-raiding
of these ballads.

was one

braves of those days and

is

of the favourite pastimes of the picturesquely recorded in many

Youthful warrior, who bearest the wondrous three-pronged dart, forth, seize and bring home the herds of cattle with the bulls, their leaders See the foes bending their bows, as though they would cut down whole forests and set them on fire, and inspecting their arrows as they fit them to the string. Put their ranks to flight. 2

go

!

Purapporul Venba Malai.

The three great chiefs were frequently at war with one another or with their neighbours for some outlying territory, and martial heroism was highly esteemed, as the following ballad bears witness
:

heart ceases at this dame's great courage Well may she merit her ancient age. In a former war, her father it was Who, killed by an elephant, died in the field. It was" in the other day's battle, her husband
Fell
;

Our

:

And now

overpowered by numerous hosts to-day at the beat of drum, Delighted and yet how sad was she, this woman with an only son. She lovingly oiled and combed his hair, Gave him his spear and bade him seek the battlefield.3 Pur. 279.

At the same time there were great towns and ports both on the east and the west coast that did a flourishing trade with outside countries. Musiri (now Cranganore) had for centuries a large trade with the west by way of Aden and the Arabian peninsula. Puhar or Kaveripumpattinam was a great Chola port at the mouth of the Kaveri and Kanakasabhabathi Pillay in his book, The Tamils Eighteen Hundred
from the
1

Years Ago, gives a vivid description of literature of that time
:

this port

town, culled

T.A.

vol.

I,

No.

6, p. 48.

2

ibid. p. 5.

ibid. p. 34.

INTRODUCTION

13

The town was divided into two parts, one of which was called Maruvur-Pakkam and adjoined the sea coast, and the other, which was situated to the west of it, was called Pattinappakkam. Between these two portions of the city was a large area of open ground, planted with trees at regular intervals,_where the great market was held. The principal streets at Pattinappakkam were the Royal Street, the Car

Street and the Bazaar Street. The merchants, Brahmins, farmers, doctors and astrologers resided in separate streets. Surrounding the palace were the houses of the charioteers, horse and elephant riders and soldiers who formed the bodyguard of the king. Bards, minstrels and panegyrists, actors, musicians and buffoons, chank-cutters and those skilled in making flower garlands and strings of pearls, timekeepers whose duty it was to cry out the number of each ndlikai, or division of time, as it passes, and other servants of the palace, also resided within the limits of Pattinappakkam. Near the beach in

Maruvur-Pakkam were raised platforms and godowns and warehouses with windows shaped like the eyes of the deer, where the goods landed from ships were stored. Here the goods were stamped with the tiger-stamp (the emblem of the Chola kings) after payment of customs duty, and passed on to the merchants' warehouses. Close by were the settlements of the Yavana 1 merchants, where many attractive articles were always exposed for sale. Here were also the quarters of

foreign traders who had come from beyond the seas, and who spoke various tongues. Vendors of fragrant pastes and powders, of flowers and incense, tailors who worked on silk, wool or cotton, traders in
sandal, aghil, coral, pearls, gold and precious stones, grain merchants, washermen, dealers in fish and salt, butchers, blacksmiths, braziers, carpenters, coppersmiths, painters, sculptors, goldsmiths, cobblers and 2 toy-makers, had their habitation in Maruvur-Pakkam.
It is clear that the civilization of the cultured Tamils of the towns and cities was wide and tolerant and not like that of the Chinese and Japanese, restrictive and exclusive There was probably a Roman colony in in its outlook. 3 Madura, as the large discoveries of Roman coins suggest. One of the wandering bards of that day expresses this tolerance and adaptability in the following ode
:

towns are one, all men are kin, Life's good comes not from other's gift, nor ill Man's pains and pain's reliefs are from within. Death's no new thing nor do our bosoms thrill When joyous life seems like a luxurious draught.

To

us

all

;

;

When

grieved,

we

patient suffer

;

for

we deem

This much-praised life of ours a fragile raft Borne down the waters of some mountain stream,
1

Greek or Roman.

2

KS.P.

p. 25.

3

H.T.

p. 311.

14
That
o'er

THE SACRED RURAL
huge boulders roaring seeks the
plain.

Tho' storms, with lightning's flash, from darkened skies Descend, the raft goes on as fates ordain. Thus have we seen in visions of the wise. We marvel not at greatness of the great 1 Still less despise we men of low estate. Pur. 192.
;

The poems in the early anthologies bear witness to the extent of this culture, which had permeated all sections of the population. Of one hundred and ninety-two poets, said to belong to the period of the third Sangham, whose positions and occupations can be traced, fifty-seven were Vellalars or agriculturists, thirty-six were women, twentynine were Brahmans, seventeen were Nagar or hillmen, thirteen were Yeyinar or foresters, seven were Kammalar or herdsmen, seven were Vanigar or merchants, seven were Mallar or agricultural labourers, thirteen were Pandyan kings, seven were Sera kings, and one each a shepherd (Ayar), a potter and a fisherman. The fact that these various poets were considered worthy of a place in one or other of these anthologies suggests that in all these classes there must have been a fairly wide extent of education and culture. It is also clear that there was a genuine tolerance in religious matters. The indigenous Tamil religions were largely concerned with ritual dancing and singing to instrumental accompaniment, but Aryan religious influences were gradually making their way in the south. Buddhist viharas and Jain temples were to be found, together with temples to Aryan and Dravidian gods and goddesses. There is reason to believe that at this period there was a Christian community at Mayilapur, which was then a small seaside town just a few miles to the north of Mahaballipuram (one of the flourishing ports of the Chola and Pallava kingdoms, and to-day a suburb of Madras, where the Cathedral of St. Thomas stands, beneath which the saint is said to have been buried). Kafichi (Conjeevaram) was evidently an important centre of Aryan culture. This was the capital of the Pallava kingdom from about the second century until it was captured in the middle of the fourth
ol. I,

No.

6, p.

45.

THE_SHORE TEMPLE AT MAHABALLIPURAM

Photo by Rev. E. C. Dewick

DHARMA'S RATHA AT MAHABALLIPURAM (ROCK CARVED)

Photo by Rev. E. C. Dewick

INTRODUCTION

15

century A.C. by Karikala Cholan, one of the greatest of the early Chola sovereigns. Well-known Aryan scholars were living there, and it is said to have been the birthplace of Chanakya (Kautilya), the chief minister of Chandragupta and the author of the Arthasastra. From

Kanchi, Aryan ideas and customs were gradually making through the Tamil country. It is stated by Sir John Marshall that the rich decorative ideas of Dravidian architecture had already begun to influence
their influence felt

the architecture of North India. The frescoes which have been discovered at Sittanavasal hill in the Pudukottah State show a striking similarity to the Buddhist frescoes of Ajanta, revealing the same boldness of form and a similar
feeling for beauty

and colour.

THE POET TIRUVALLUVAR
such an age, rich in culture, vivid in its life It was and adventurous in its commerce, and into a people with a great literary heritage and a tradition of generous tolerance for all that was useful and noble, that the author of the Kural was born. He lived before epigraphical records begin, and beyond what can be gathered from fanciful
into

legends we know almost nothing about him or his family. No genuine historical record has yet been found concerning Dr. Pope thus greets him in his his origin or his life. memorial verses
:

Sage Valluvar, priest of the lowly clan, No tongue repeats, no speech reveals thy name Yet all things changing, dieth not thy fame, For thou art bard of universal man.

;

of
*

tells us that he was a weaver of the little town 1 the Village of the Peacock and this may Mayilapur record the truth. For this reason he is often called perhaps the Weaver of Mayilapur.' He was said to have belonged to a low caste, the caste of Valluvars, who were then, and are still, the priests of the outcaste groups, and so he has been known from time immemorial, as Tiruvalluvar or Sage

Tradition

'

'

1

'

To-day

it is

spelt

Mylapore.'

16

THE SACRED KURAL

Valluvar. Tradition makes him out to have been one of a family of seven, born of an illegitimate union between a Brahman and an outcaste woman, among the others being the poets Kapilar and Avvaiyar but there is absolutely no evidence for the truth of this tradition, nor does it appear until very late so we can discard it without regret, as well as many more fanciful tales of his life. One of the stanzas in praise of his book says that he was born in Madura and came to live in Mayilapur. Another of the laudatory stanzas says that Elelasingan (Lion of the Surf), an owner of surf -boats, which were used up to the beginning of this century for communication between ships and shore at Madras, was his patron and brought him up. His frequent references to the sea-girt world and the fearful ocean suggest that he lived by the sea and so it is possible that the tradition which connects him with Mayilapur is founded on fact. To-day in Mayilapur there is a shrine to the poet and his wife, set in the midst of a beautiful garden. It lies in the heart of the Brahman quarter and within sound of the waves that were so often in his thoughts. Every year in the month of April a festival is celebrated in his honour and he is worshipped as a divine guru. In the early centuries of the Christian era, Mayilapur may have been a busy cosmopolitan port with merchants and
; ;
* '

'

'

;

weavers, fisher-folk and agriculturists. There may also have been there a small community of Christians, if the tradition which connects St. Thomas with the neighbourhood is historical. There was certainly a shrine of St. Thomas there in the tenth century, as King Alfred is said
to have sent an

embassy to the shrine of St. Thomas in known from Tamil records that Mahaballipuram, which lies twenty miles to the south, was a flourishing Pallava and Chola port in the early centuries A.C., and its wonderful carved temples of the seventh to the
South
India.
It is

ninth centuries bear witness to
It is clear that

its importance. our poet would have plenty of opportunity of talking with people from overseas, and of getting to know something of different cultures and religions. There were Jains and Buddhists, Vedic Hindus and Agamic Hindus, as well as Dravidians, living and worshipping in

INTRODUCTION
arisen

17

peace and harmony. Sectarian bitterness had not then and the various sects lived happily together in a peaceful tolerance and mutual respect. It was not till the seventh century that the age of sectarian rivalry began in the Tamil country. Kafichi (Conjeevaram) was only a few miles away from Mayilapur. Sriman S. Somasundra Bharati of Madura has recently published a pamphlet on Tiruvalluvar, in which he maintains that the poet was a Tamil chieftain who held a position corresponding to that of Lord Chamberlain in the court of the Pandyan king at Madura. He brings forward evidence to show that the name Valluvar was used in those days as a title for a high official at the court. While Sriman Bharati has given good reasons for refusing to believe the old stories, it is hardly possible without further confirmation to accept his hypothesis, and to throw overboard the tradition that connects Tiruvalluvar with the humbler
'
'

classes.

said to have married a Vellala woman died before him. About their married life all kinds of fanciful stories are related, which however belong to a later time. Most of them illustrate her complete

Tiruvalluvar

is

named Vasuki, who

absorption in, and subordination to, her husband, and at her death the following stanza is put into his mouth
:

my daily food O full of love O wife Obedient ever to my word, chafing my feet, The last to sleep, the first to rise, O gentle one By night henceforth, what slumber to mine eyes
Sweet as
:

:

:

?

*

this verse

could by any stretch of imagination believe that was actually composed by the poet, then judging even according to the standards of that day and in the light of his own estimate of the place of women, we should be forced to think of Tiruvalluvar as a selfish and arrogant individual, rather than as the shrewd, kindly and humble soul that shines out of the pages of his book. Tradition says that Tiruvalluvar submitted his manuscript to the haughty pandits of the Madura Academy and that they refused to accept it, scorning the work of an
If
1

we

S.K.

p. xii.

18
unlearned
placed
it

THE SACRED RURAL
man of the
upon the
sat.

lower orders. Tiruvalluvar, however,

raft

which

floated in the
raft

Golden Lily
of the

shrank to such a small size that it could only provide room for this palmyra leaf manuscript, and the learned panclits were all prean incident that cipitated ignominiously into the water must have rejoiced the hearts of other poets whose manuscripts had been rejected! Realizing through this miracle the divine worth of the book, each of them sang a stanza in honour of the work and its author. These stanzas are called The Garland of Tiruvalluvar,'

Tank of Academy

the temple and

upon which the Board

Immediately the

'

(^eaeir^eaLDir^) and are usually included in editions of the as an appendix. This legend probably enshrines the fact that the poet, being unknown and of somewhat lowly origin, had difficulty in persuading the literary critics of the ancient Tamil world that his book contained anything worth while; and that in some striking fashion, perhaps through the king, the value of the work was made known. Traditions of this nature are usually valuable, not so much for the story they tell, as for the idea they convey. Sriman P. T. Srinivas lyengar suggests that Madura refused to recognize him because he came from the unknown Pallava

book

country, which was more Aryan than Tamil, and which had not produced one single Tamil poet of merit up to that time. The following are a few of the laudatory stanzas from the Tiruvalluvamdlai one of these is ascribed to the Pandyan king of that date Ugra-Peruvaludhi and runs thus
; :

Sli5$\a,&&,

QsiLs
Tirii.

Malai,

4.

The god Brahma, hiding his own true form, was born world as Valluvar, who took the three categories of the Vedas
Wealth and"Bliss
therefore let

into the

Virtue,

my

and expressed them in the form of the Rural; my head worship this book, let my mouth praise it, let mind ponder on it and let my ears listen to it.
is

To Sattanar, another poet of the day, following stanza
:

ascribed the

THE GOLDEN LILY TANK, MADURA TEMPLE

INTRODUCTION
Qfis^LS(Tfib ^ffiru&

19

Tiru. Malai, 43.
say which of the two is superior, Sanskrit or Tamil For Sanskrit has the Vedas and Tamil has the Kural of Tiruvalluvar.
It is difficult to
;

Tamil world

Idaikkadar, another of the poets, puts the opinion of the into a nutshell in the following stanza
:

The Kural is a semi-perforated mustard seed, into which the poet has poured the contents of the seven seas.
Kapilar, a

Brahman
^l&TiySJTQ/

humanity and wisdom,

poet, and pre-eminent in that day for is credited with the following stanza
:

GurjglTff

3jp:L]6Br6tf

IT

li SBBTL-

G)a/fflr3ara

^pLLu/r

eSift.

Tiru. Malai,

5.

land where tame birds fall asleep to the music of the rice-pounders The wonder of the thought contained in one of Valluvar's little verses is similar to the drop of water on the tip of the tiniest flower, which reflects the whole length of the tallest
!

O king, who rules over the

palmyra

tree.

These stanzas testify to the very high value placed the book by the Tamil people in former days.

upon

THE CHARACTER OF THE POET
The only
is

that

light we possess on the character of the poet which comes from the book itself and so it is to that
;

we must

turn in order to understand him. The Kural shows him to be a man of the people, with simple tastes, of sturdy honesty, self-reliant, god-fearing and gifted with a sense of pawky humour. He loved the simple homelife of the worker, whether weaver or tiller of the soil, and was at home w4th little children. The greatest virtues to
his mind were simple kindliness, truthfulness, sincerity and harmlessness to all life. He \vas not in any sense an ascetic, but a shrewd man of the world, and knew that many so-

20
called ascetics

THE SACRED KURAL

were imposters and rogues. He was a keen observer of nature and of the habits of birds and animals, and used simple illustrations with telling effect. To him
there
rest.
is

was only one God, the Supporter and Helper

of all

who trust Him, the
of

no Hinduism as he knew it, of Buddhism, and perhaps also of Christian ideas, and woven them together into a strand of beautiful pearls. Open-minded and open-hearted, he is ready to welcome all truth wherever found, and no mocking laugh or abusive taunt against any religion issues from his pages. All the great religions of India Saivism, Buddhism, Jainism and Christianity have claimed him as their own. The likelihood is that he belonged to no particular sect, but worked out, from his own experience, in the quiet of Mayilapur, as he wove his many coloured fabrics, a synthesis of the best he could find in all of them. His scorn is reserved only for laziness and hypocrisy an interesting combination. A dry-as-dust philosopher, who had not entered deeply into the everyday experiences of life, could not have painted these simple and beautiful pictures an essentially human soul, with vivid human interests and in daily touch with the ordinary things of life, lies behind these imperishable stanzas. We will just cull a few illustrations of the dry humour and vivid picture-making which we find in so
;

alone gives joy and all-perfect One, Idol-worship finds no place in his book, and there mention of any of the sects. He has taken the best

Who

many
'

of his stanzas.
flute is sweet, the lute
is

The

sweet say those
prattle of their little ones. (7
;

'

Who've never heard the pretty

:

6.)

Lakshmi herself the envious cannot bear She'll show him to her sister sinister and
'
' '

go. (17

:

7.)
;

Call him not man who makes display of useless words Call him but chaff of humankind.' (20 6.)
:

The show
Is like

of power of one, who has no power within, a cow in tiger-skin which quietly grazes on. (27

:

3.)

Be

like the heron when 'tis time for lying low ; But like its strike when time for action comes.

(49

:

10.)

The deeds

of

men

of shameless heart
strings, just

Like puppets are on

apeing

life.

(102

:

10.)

INTRODUCTION
When
What need
eye to eye doth speak with answering look, is there for any spoken words ? (110
will find
:

21

10.)

Those who wish for more
tions given in this
;

them

in the transla-

little book. A nameless author and a nameless book but his kindly, generous soul speaks to us from every stanza.

THE BOOK
THE
IDEALS AND TEACHING OF THE
'

KURAL

'

The Kicral aims to give a description of the duties and character of the householder, the hermit and the state officers in the Tamil country. Tradition declares that the author composed it in response to a request for a Tamil Veda, to take the same place among the Tamil people as the Sanskrit Vedas do among the Aryans. It is not, however, a religious treatise but an ethical work, dealing with the conduct and character of various orders of society as they existed in his day. The book consists of 133 chapters of ten couplets each, in the Kural Venba metre, from which it gets its name. Thus there are altogether 1330 couplets. These couplets are models of terseness and vividness, each one expressing in the briefest and most concise form the truth it seeks to convey. The Rev. P. Percival, a missionary of Jaffna, said of it Nothing in the whole compass of human language can equal the force and terseness of the couplets in which the author of the Kural conveys the lessons of * Dr. Pope applies to the book the words used by wisdom.' He abounds in short Archbishop Trench of St. Augustine and memorable, and, if I might so call them, epigrammatic sayings, concentrating with a forceful brevity the whole truth which he desires to impart into some single phrase, forging it into a polished shaft, at once pointed to pierce, and barbed that it shall not lightly drop from the mind and
' : '
:

2

memory.'

Many of the couplets are pen-and-ink sketches in words, calling up before the mind a vivid picture, such as the ass, clad in tiger's skin, cropping the grass,' or 'the crane
'

1

vide

Tamil Wisdom,

p. 29.

2

S.K

p. xv.

22

THE SACRED RURAL
*

suddenly striking to seize its prey,' or 'a withered tree blossoming in a sandy waste,' or the leaden skies and the barren earth,' and so on.

The work is divided into three main parts, dealing the first three respectively with Virtue, Wealth and Love Paddrthas or objects of life, called in Sanskrit, Dharma, Artha, and Kama, or in the Tamil language, Aram, Porul, Inbam. The fourth Padartha is Moksha (Salvation) and many reasons are given for the poet not including a fourth part on this subject. Much that he says under the heading of Virtue has indirect reference to the ideal of release or ultimate salvation. Tiruvalluvar is mainly concerned with practical things and with matters that belong to everyday life in this world, and so it is natural that he should have avoided treating of Salvation or Moksha. He is no sectarian, and it is difficult to avoid sectarianism when one enters this theological realm. So he probably decided to leave it alone, believing that if people would but follow his teaching in the first three books they would attain to Moksha. In the treatment of Dharma and Artha, i.e. Virtue and Wealth, the poet follows the general lines of Aryan ethics, and he had evidently studied many of the Sanskrit works either in the original or through a translation. He clearly borrows from both the Mdnava Dharma Sdstra of Manu and from the Artha Sdstra of Kautilya, and shows acquaintance with other Sanskrit works such as the
Panchatantra, Hitopadesa, Rdmdyana, Mahdbhdrata and the Nitisara. His obligation to Kautilya is particularly In the notes also evident, as is pointed out further on. frequent references will be found to Sanskrit works in which the thoughts of our author occur. But in all this he displays an originality of treatment and a sequence of ideas 1 entirely his own.' The first chapter is a beautiful exposition of bhakti or devotion to God. Dr. Pope rightly says that the word bhakti denotes something which is really a combination of the Greek terms pistis and agape, faith and 2 It expresses the living, trustful, adoring attitude love.
*

1

H.T.

p. 588.

*

S.K.

p. vi.

INTRODUCTION
it

23

and Hindus, Buddhists, Christians and Moslems can and do use most of these beautiful stanzas without any reservation whatever.
;

of the soul to God. of sectarianism

Our

poet's exposition has nothing in

follow three introductory chapters, dealing with called three essential factors of life in India the rain-cloud's excellence, the greatness of spiritual leaders who have renounced all worldly pleasure, and the power of Virtue or Dharma. It is a significant thing that Tiruvallavur should have singled out these three factors in life as supremely important; and this alone stamps him as a

Then

what may be

;

concerned with life as it must be lived. Anyone has lived in India knows the part that rain plays in every sphere of life. Says Tiruvalluvar, 'Without rain, neither festival nor worship, neither charity nor virtue is 8). possible' (2 Every ' Indian budget,' said a famous Finance Member of India, is a gamble in rain/ With the failure of rains in India, life goes to pieces, families are separated, virtue decays, even existence becomes impossible. Even to-day, with improved irrigation and better comrealist,

who

'

:

munications, a failure of rain means an entire dislocation of the machinery of life and government in this land of and in those days, when communications were villages bad and food could not be obtained for love or money, it meant starvation and death for hundreds of thousands. Again in his emphasis upon the saint who has renounced all, the sannyast, the ideal religious teacher, he is sounding a note that rings out of India's heart. Even the king does not occupy the position of importance that the true sannyasl or sadhu does. The sadhu brings to men in all walks of life the divine counsel and the divine power, and so is worthy of greater honour than the king. It is said that after the death of his wife Tiruvalluvar himself became a sadhu. It is not the priest but the prophet who is the supreme religious teacher in India. The Brahman sages came down from the north through the trackless forests of Central India and became the gurus and counsellors of many of the kings of the Tamil country. They were not priests, officiating at ceremonies, but men whose power rested on renunciation and moral idealism. The fourth chapter, on
;

24

THE SACRED KURAL

the greatness of virtue, is what we should have expected. This is another illustration of the idea that lies behind all Hindu ethics and politics, that there is an ethical norm or standard, independent of all circumstances, eternal and inviolate, by which the deeds of gods and men, kings and

must be tested. Following upon these introductory chapters is a section of twenty chapters devoted to virtue in domestic life, which gives a description of the ideal householder in his various relationships. Dr. Pope thus summarizes these chapters
citizens
:

ideal householder leads on earth a consecrated life, not unmindful of any duty to the living or to the departed. ... His children are his choicest treasures. Affection is the very life of his soul, of all the virtues the first and greatest. The sum and source of all is Love. His

The

house is open to every guest, whom he welcomes with smiling face and pleasant word, and with whom he shares his meal. Courteous in

speech, grateful for every kindness, just in all his dealings, master of himself in perfect self-control, strict in the performance of every duty, pure, patient and forbearing, with a heart free from envy, modest in desire, speaking no evil, refraining from useless words, dreading the touch of evil, diligent and liberal, he is one whom all unite to praise. 1

that Tiruvalluvar places on love, forgiveand forbearance is especially noteworthy. It is possible that this may be due to the teaching of the Buddha, which was well-known in South India at that time and the people of the south were peculiarly responsive to
ness, gentleness
;

The emphasis

where there

this gentle note. The same thing is true to-day in the south, is far less of the militant spirit than in the fiercer

north. It has often been asserted that Tiruvalluvar must have known something of Christ's teaching, and the possibility of contact with Christian disciples cannot be overlooked. At the same time it must be said that there is no evidence to support the suggestion that he borrowed from Christian sources. It is not impossible that the influence of Buddhism, together with his own meditations upon the problems of life, under the inspiration of God's loving Spirit, led him to the thoughts and ideals which he has worked out in these chapters. These chapters are followed by thirteen chapters on the

INTRODUCTION

25

Life of the Ascetic or Sannyasi. Indian ethics has always found a place for the sannyasi. It is rather interesting to see that Tiruvalluvar includes the quality of graciousness among the characteristics of the sannyasi. One does not always associate the two, though it is generally true that the man who is most devoted to God partakes of His character of grace. The poet has a scathing denunciation of insincerity in sannyas, giving us in this connection some of his most vivid word-sketches. The virtue of ahimsd, so distinctive of Hindu ethics, is also a characteristic of the
sannyasi, with its concomitant virtue, equability of temper or absence of anger, as Tiruvalluvar calls it. Abstinence from animal food is a characteristic of the ascetic, but not necessarily of the householder. Men who are called to this special vocation have to undergo a special discipline and are not allowed to share in all the conveniences of the householder. It is appropriate that this section should conclude with four chapters, dealing respectively with the impermanence of earthly things, the meaning of true sannyas, the realization of the truth and the eradication of desire. The chapter on the realization of the truth shows how deep and wide was our sage's love of truth, and is well

worth

special study.

a chapter which stands alone, midway between the sections on Virtue and Wealth. There is a lurking shadow in every Indian heart and home, the shadow of relentless fate, or Karma. The Tamil word (eac^) used by Tiruvalluvar for Karma or Fate means the ancient Thing/ the force which has its roots in the past. This is not a blind force working haphazard, but a force which depends absolutely upon the deeds done by the soul in this or in a former birth. Every deed, (using the word in the widest possible sense to include desires, thoughts and words, as well as acts) carries with it an energy which must work itself out in this life or in another, and which determines the
'

Then comes

conditions of the soul's existence. No Indian philosophy can get away from this idea of Karma, and here in this chapter it stands out stark and bare, as Tiruvalluvar says, forestalling every action.' It has to be remembered that this is a peculiarly Aryan idea and is not found in ancient
'

26

THE SACRED RURAL

'

literature. One remarkable thing, however, has to be noted in his philosophy. In a subsequent chapter entitled manliness he refers again to Fate under the same name, the ancient thing,' and declares in unhesitating tones

Tamil
'

'

:

Who
So even
out,
*

undismayed, unwearying, plod on Will see the back of ancient Fate itself.
'

(62

:

10.)

ancient Fate can be conquered, or rather

worked

by intense perseverance and energy.

Part II deals mainly with the State, and its functions and factors. In this section, as has been said before, there is ample proof that Tiruvalluvar was acquainted with Hindu books on politics, such as the Artha Sdstra of Chanakya. The Kural is so remarkably free from Sanskrit words that it is hardly likely he knew Sanskrit. He must therefore have somehow obtained a very thorough knowledge of the

contents of these works. The seven elements of the kingdom the king, the ministry, the country, defence, wealth, the army, and alliances all come in the same order as in these Aryan treatises. The agreement of three investigators the use of four kinds of tests to test the loyalty of servants these and many other things agree so closely with the ideas of Sanskrit polity that it is impossible to explain them except on the hypothesis of clear and definite knowledge. Some have gone so far as to say that the Kural is a Tamil version of the Artha Sdstra. This, however, is not borne out by the book itself. Two important differences must be noted between the Kurats teaching on politics and that of all other political treatises of that time. First, there is no suggestion in the Kural that in politics it is admissible to leave the path of true virtue for the sake of good ends. Even the Artha Sdstra justifies crooked politics for the sake of the kingdom but the Kural never strays into these 66 10 102 6). Machiavellian wanderings (see 55 6 Further, the Kural gives no hint of the theory that the king is in any sense divine or that he wields divine power. The king must act according to the principles of dharma, just as the humblest citizen. The king who swerves from virtue, even to the slight extent of being hard of access and
; ; ;
:

;

:

;

:

careless in judgment, will be deprived of his sovereignty

INTRODUCTION
:

27

One chapter deals especially with tyranny and (55 8). depicts the doom of the king who oppresses his subjects a god (56). The only verse in which the king is called makes it very clear that this is a name given to the just and benevolent prince because of his qualities, and not because of his office. The king who rules justly and guards his realm shall be thought of as a god to men' (39 8). These two things are very significant, and show how far ahead of his contemporaries was this simple
' ' *

:

weaver-mystic of Mayilapur.

The following is a summary of the chapters 38 to 73, dealing with the qualities and conduct of the prince and his ministers, as given by V. V. S. Aiyar in his edition of the
Kural
The
and and
:

prince should not be above the law and should be impartial

should give full liberty of speech to his subjects just (55). to his ministers to criticize him and his rule when he goes wrong 44 : 7 44 : 8). The king should not loll in luxury, but should (38.: 9 be alert and watchful and accessible to all who demand justice ; should
; ;

He

develop the resources of his kingdom and protect his subjects from and external warfare (39, 54, 60, 61, 62). He should be learned in all the arts of peace and war. He should choose his friends from among the good and great, and avoid the company of the low and vulgar (45, 46). He should examine his own mind constantly and never allow any vice to enter and obtain a foothold in it (44). He should select his officers with due care (51, 52), and supervise 55 3), as well as by means of everything personally (51 10 secret agents (59). He should look after his kindred and treat them worthily. Being almost all-powerful in the State, he should cultivate the quality that should be an automatic check on the extravagant use of his power, namely that of considerateness towards all (58). But above all, he should be firm and daring, and should never be weak or irresolute in his purposes. As to the minister, he should be a man of affairs, clever, pureminded, devoted to the prince, and skilful in reading the hearts of men. He should be a courtier in the best sense of the term, knowing when to speak and what to speak, and when to hold his tongue. When representing his master in foreign courts he should be respectful to the prince to whose court he is appointed, and polite and social with the high functionaries of that court but at the same time and above all, he should have an ever-watchful eye to the interests and honour of his prince. Lastly, he should be well-versed in all the arts of the forum
internal
: ;
:

;

1

(64-73).

1

F.KS.pp.xxiii, xxiv.

28

THE SACRED KURAL

In this section on Politics there are many stanzas which, while they refer in the first place to the king or his ministers, have also a general application to all men as for instance the chapters on learning, listening, energy, manliness and so on. At the end of the section on Politics there are thirteen chapters which form an appendix to this part of the book. These deal with general themes such as nobility, honour,
;

greatness, courtesy, agriculture, begging and vileness. In these chapters is summed up the author's ideal of conduct. His idea of the perfectly foolish man is interesting and reveals in a flash his own aversions and the antithesis of
his

own

ideals

:

Shamelessness, listlessness, lovelessness, heedlessness These are the four traits of foolish men. (84 3.)
:

Compare with this his ideal of the kingly character
Courage, charity, wit and grit these four Unfailing, the kingly nature make. (39
:

:

2.)

The chapter on Farming in this appendix again shows how closely in touch with reality our poet lives. Agriculture
the chief industry of India, about nine-tenths of the population having direct connections with it and just as in the introductory section Tiruvalluvar devotes one chapter to the 'Rain-cloud's Excellence,' so in this concluding section he gives one chapter to the importance of farming. As a village weaver he would know well how much depended upon the farmer and his work. The third part of the Kural is in direct line with the indigenous poetry of the Tamil people. It deals with what is called in Tamil aham or love between the two sexes. Mr. Drew, one of the earlier translators of the Kural, said of this third part: 'It could not be translated into any European language without exposing the translator to 1 Dr. Pope dissented entirely from this opinion infamy.' and has included a complete translation of it in his book.
is
;

He
its

I am persuaded that it tendency and in the intention of

'

says of

it,

is

its

perfectly pure in wise and high-

1

S.K.

p.

xii.

INTRODUCTION
*
'

29

The Rev. J. S. M. Hooper agrees with souled composer.' He was altogether free from Dr. Pope and says of it prudery, so much is perfectly clear; but it is probably equally true to say that there is nothing in the third part of the Kural to destroy the impression of high morality 2 and essential delicacy produced by the earlier parts.' V. V. S. Aiyar, the most recent translator of the Kural, has included a complete and careful translation of Part III in his book. This third part is divided into sections in accordance with the regular Tamil tradition. The first section concerns Kalavu or furtive love, that is the spontaneous union of man and maid without the regular ceremonies of marriage. This was one of the ordinary customs of ancient Tamil social practice, and was recognized as being the prelude to a binding union. It was the custom for the lovers to meet outside the village and when their love was discovered by the others, to proclaim their union and have it formally recognized by the village elders. Here we see the poetry of spontaneous love portrayed with a delightful delicacy of feeling and a wealth of simile very characteristic of the Tamil people. The latter section pictures the course of Karpu or married love, and portrays the joy of husband and wife, the pangs of separation and the bliss of reunion. As Mr. Hooper says, 'the whole of this Third Book 3 Like is strongly reminiscent of the Song of Songs.' the Song ot Solomon this also has been interpreted allegorically by many commentators; but there is nothing to indicate that the poet had any such allegorical idea in mind and it would ill accord with the vivid realism that he shows elsewhere. Some of the couplets in this Third Part are very charming and the reader will find a selection of them
:

in this

work.

TIRUVALLUVAR AND WOMANHOOD
It is rather an interesting problem to attempt to understand the poet's idea of womanhood. A study in Tamil on this subject by Mr. T. P. Minakshisundram has
1

S.K.

p. xii.

J.S.M.H. pp.

11, 12.

3

ibid. p. 11.

30
1

THE SACRED KURAL

The author points out that we must judge appeared. Tiruvalluvar by his time and not by ours. In those days of war and insecurity it was the custom to guard carefully the womenfolk from the fury of raiders. There is nothing
seen, there were many poetesses among them, which implies that they as well as the boys were educated. It is probable that the influence as
chattels.

however mere

to indicate that

women were

regarded and treated

As we have

Aryan ideas, which were spreading through the Tamil was helping to give woman a subordinate position, but judging from the Kural itself it cannot be said that Tiruvalluvar had a low opinion of women. In Chapter 7 on the 'Gift of Children,' he makes use of the common
of
land,

plural in seven out of the ten stanzas and only uses the son in stanzas 7, 9 and 10. In Chapter 6 on the the Helpmeet of the Home,' he wife, whom he calls

word

'

'

'

exalts her position in every possible way. She evidently had charge of the family purse and was the mistress of this side of household life (6 1). He goes on to declare that
:

nothing in the world nobler than a chaste woman (6 4) and a man's good fortune lies in the worth of his wife (6 10). It is true that this chapter contains the couplet which enjoins upon the wife the duty of worshipping her husband as a god. It is most likely that the poet obtained this idea from his study of the Sanskrit sastras and particularly of Manu's work. Tiruvalluvar regards the family life as high as the life of the sannyasi, and as bringing all the blessings that can be obtained by means of the ascetic life. Any philosopher who does this cannot think meanly of women. In his chapter on learning he uses words which apply to both sexes and so indicates the necessity of education for both men and women. It is true that he despises what he calls petticoat rule in the kingdom, but this refers to the king who, without weighing matters carefully for himself, accepts blindly the opinion of his womenfolk. Further there is nothing in the Kural to suggest that the poet ever thought of polygamy. The ideal set that of forth throughout is monogamy.
there
:

is

:

*

'

1

vide p. 114, No.

7.

INTRODUCTION

31

Monogamy always means the elevation of womanhood. Tiruvalluvar has scathing condemnation for those who frequent prostitutes, as well as for the prostitutes themselves. While we cannot expect this humble poet of the Tamil land of fourteen centuries ago to express modern ideas about women, it is clear that he gave them a very high position in life and believed that their function in society was a noble one, for which they should be fitted by suitable education. One of the most noble qualities of men graciousness is symbolized in his poems by a beautiful maiden. So while we must not expect to find in the Kural
modern
ideas
of

womanhood given

the place of womanhood, a high position.

we do

find

THE STYLE AND FORM OF THE BOOK
consists of 1330 terse and brief couplets in the as the Kural Venba^ one of the most distinctive and difficult of Tamil metres, which may be an imitation of the Sanskrit Sutra form. It is the earliest

The Kural

metric form

known

extant work in this metre, and the poet reveals a complete mastery of his form. The first line of the couplet consists of four feet, and the second of three, the last foot being a peculiar kind of incomplete foot. Indian metres are all governed by length and there is no accent. These feet may consists of two long syllables; or of one long syllable followed by two short ones or of three long syllables or of one long syllable followed by two short ones and then another long one or of two short syllables followed by a long one or of four short syllables or of two short and two long syllables or of three short and one long syllable. The rules governing the linking of these syllables are very A long syllable at the end of a spondee ( ) must strict. be followed by two short syllables at the beginning of the next foot, and a long syllable at the end of an anapaest (^ ^ -) must be followed by a long syllable at the beginning of the next foot. In addition there must be a certain amount of initial vowel alliteration, as well as second syllable rhyming between the first and fourth or first and fifth feet, as for example Ahara and Bahavan^ Malar and
;
;

;

;

;

;

32
)

THE SACRED RURAL
Kamam
two
and Ndmam.

We

reproduce in English

of these couplets so as to give readers unacquainted with Tamil some idea of the verse form of the original :
letters

Anbilar

ellam
uriyar

Yenbum
Nandri

tamakkuriyar pirarkku

anbudaiyar
(8: 2.)

Thandre

marappathu marappathu
is

nandrandru nandru
it

nandralla
(11
is
:

8.)

The Kural
that in such

a didactic poem, and
it

well-known

not always easy to preserve the poetic quality. Tiruvalluvar, however, does so, partly by the use of poetic devices of rhythm and alliteration and

poems

is

by means of artistic similes and happy illustraAgain and again the genuine love of nature, which distinguished the Tamil poetic genius before it was overlaid by the conventions of Aryan verse, is revealed in
partly
tions.

the couplets of the Kural. The lotus pool, the heron in the paddy field, the green grass, the well in the river-sand, the useless brackish soil these and many other illustrations show how the poet loved simple natural things. One of the peculiarities of the style of the author of the Kural is an exaggerated emphasis upon a particular virtue or vice, which is the subject of his comment at that particular moment. It is something like the Kathenotheism' of the Rig Veda> which selects one special god upon whom to concentrate devotion at a particular time, without Implying anything derogatory about the others. So also Tiruvalluvar selects one particular virtue or vice for special emphasis, making it for the time being the chief of virtues or vices (see 16 1 30 5 32 7 34 1 58 9
'

:

;

:

;

:

;

:

;

:

;

84:4).

THE KURAL'

IN

TAMIL LIFE AND LETTERS

From the earliest times up to the present day the Kural has been one of the most-quoted literary works of the Tamil land. The terse, vivid couplets lend themselves so aptly to memorization and quotation, and there is a charm about them that makes us want to repeat them again and again. We have already shown that it is quoted in the

INTRODUCTION
literature

33

produced in the years immediately succeeding the composition of the work, and from that time on we find it continually quoted in all great literature. The literature of subsequent periods bears ample testimony to the influence exercised by this wonderful little work during all the 1 centuries. During the past fifty years there has been a
further considerable growth of interest in the Kural on the part of all classes. It is studied in schools and colleges and forms the ethical basis of many a young man's life. In the villages many of the couplets are well-known and a quotation from the Kural never fails to win a response. all the Christians, Buddhists, Muhammadans and Hindus different religious sects make use of the work without reluctance or qualification and find in it teaching that enriches life and helps men and women to fight their moral
battles.

V. V. S. Aiyar says that the children of zemindars in the Tamil country, up to thirty years ago, were taught the Kural with a view to their instruction in the art of good
2

government.

Thus
of the

for centuries the

Tamil people.' artistry of language, the author has put into unforgettable couplets the essential principles and duties of life in all
lands, and has woven into a beautiful picture the various ideals to which India has given expression in her different
It is a book that should be studied by all who wish to know what India can contribute to the ethical thought of the ages. In its combination of idealism and

Kural has been the ethical Bible Gifted with dry humour and vivid

'

religions.

practicality,

in its insistence upon the inviolability of dharma by ascetic, king or householder, and in its emphasis upon a life of strenuous service and undaunted

was

perseverance, it is as applicable to the world to-day as it M. Ariel, a great to the India of 1500 years ago. French scholar in Tamil, says of this book
:

wonderful in the Kural is the fact that the author addresses himself without regard to castes, peoples or beliefs, to the whole community of mankind: the fact that he formulates

That which above

all is
,

1

vide Critical Studies in Kural, pp. 82-89.

2

V.V.S. p.

xliii.

4

34

THE SACRED KURAL
: ;

that he proclaims in their sovereign morality and absolute reason he presents, essence, in their eternal abstractedness, virtue and truth as it were, in one group the highest laws of domestic and social life he is equally perfect in thought, in language and in poetry, in the austere metaphysical contemplation of the great mysteries of the Divine nature, as in the easy and graceful analysis of the tenderest emotions of the heart. 1
;

This little book, in company with a few others, belongs not merely to a single people, but to the world and as long as men love virtue for its own sake and esteem goodness as more precious than rubies, it will continue to be treasured as one of the literary and ethical masterpieces of the world.
;

As we study this wonderful little book surely we can re-echo the thought of an ancient bard of the Tamil land,
Kavuniyanar The KuraVs
:

sweet to mouth and ear and mind balm for twofold deeds that birth rebind. 'Twas sung by Valluvar, the poet wise and true, That we might know the righteous path of old anew. Tiru. Mdlai, 51.
;

'Tis

eesrGieerp!
usirecfliiJ

Girtcftiu
eSeer

siriJL/Gvsnu:

<&r
1

Qa/eszr ur.

S.A-.

P

.

i.

TRANSLATIONS OF SELECTED COUPLETS

TEMPLE OF TIRUVALLUVAR AT MYLAPORE

TEMPLE TO VAgUKI AT MYLAPORE

VIRTUE
PREFACE
1. IN PRAISE OF GOD As letters all are based on A The world is based on God the First. What use is lore, if the learned will not bow Before the feet of Him the All-wise One ?
'

1.

',

2.

3.

They'll live for ever in the land above, Who cling to Him that bides in lotus-hearts.

4.

Trouble shall never come to those Who cling to the desireless One.

5.

The twain dark deeds

shall ne'er

be

theirs,

Who
6.

give the Lord His rightful praise.

Forever shall they live, In the true path of
senses
five.

who

firmly stand

Him

who's Victor o'er the

7.

Except by clinging to that Peerless One, 'Tis hard mind's sorrow to dispel.
'Tis

8.

hard to swim this world's wide sea, Unless we cling to Him, Ocean of grace and good.
that

9.

The head

bows not

to our

God Supreme

Is useless as a senseless sense.

10.

Who

then can swim this mighty sea of births ? Not they who cling not to our Sovereign's feet.
will

N.B.

Notes on the various stanzas

be found on pp. 69-107,

2.

THE

RAIN-CLOUD'S EXCELLENCE
*

1.

When

rain comes right, the 'Tis fitting then to call it

world goes on heavenly food.'
;

38
2.

THE SACRED KURAL
Rain makes good food for men Itself is food for hungry men.
;

3.

Should the clouds deceive this sea-girt world, Hunger and thirst will ramp and rage.

4.

The ploughman cannot

ply his plough Should the monsoon's abundance fail.
;

5.

'Tis lack of rain that ruins all

And
6.
If

the rain's help that

lifts

the ruined up.
fall,

from the sky rain-drops ne'er

Fresh blades of grass will ne'er be seen.
7.

E'en the wide ocean's wealth will fail, If bulging cloud-banks pour not down again.

8.

Worship and

festival will fail the gods,

9.

Should heaven's rain dry up for men. Both poor and gods will lose their gifts, Should heaven fail to pour its gifts on men.
If

10.

water fails, the world is lost E'en virtue, if rain fails, is lost for
;

all.

3.
1.

THE GREATNESS

OF ASCETICS

'Tis the

of holy scripture to reveal The greatness of those men who all have left for Virtue's sake.
tell their

aim

2.

To

Is just like
3.

greatness counting

who have

left their all

up the whole world's

dead.

Their greatness shines throughout the world, Who know both states, and Virtue here have donned. He, in the best of

4.

Who
5.

states, a seed will be, rules the senses five with firmness' goad.

Indra himself, heaven's king, is witness sure To the might of him who senses five subdues.

6.

Hard things the great will always do Hard things the mean can never do.
;

TRANSLATIONS
7.

39

He

Who knows
8.

holds the world in fief, the measure of the senses

five.

The

On
9.

greatness of the men of certain speech earth by hidden word is shown.

E'en for a moment, it is hard to check the wrath Of those who've climbed the mount of saintliness.

10.

The

For they behave as clothed
thing.
4.
1.

learned say that saints alone are Brahmans true, in grace to every living

THE MIGHT

OF VIRTUE

Than Virtue

true what greater good is there for It gives eternal bliss and temporal wealth.

men ?

2.

Than

No
3.

Virtue, greater good doth not exist greater ill than this to lose.
in every way you can, ne'er a halt, live virtuously.
in

;

By every means,
With Be pure

4.

All else
5.

is

mind, for that true Virtue merely sound and sham.

is

;

Envy, greed, anger, bitter words these four Avoiding, and then pressing on, is Virtue true.

6.

Say not
There

We'll see another day,' but practise Virtue now; 'Twill be in dying day undying help.
: ' '

'

7.

no need to say Here's Virtue's path Just see the ;W/-bearer, and its rider too.
is
;

;

8.

If

wasting ne'er a single day, a man does good, 'Twill be a stone that blocks the path of endless
births.

9.

That only which doth spring from good All else is merely pain and shame.

is

joy

;

10.

Only the good is fit to do The bad is ever fit to shun.
;

40

THE SACRED KURAL
DOMESTIC VIRTUE
5.

HOME-LIFE
stands in Virtue's path, three in their good paths.
a help the dead.

1.

He lives home-life who And helps the orders

2.

He lives true home-life who's To the lost, the poor and to

3.

Pitris, gods, kin, one's guests and self To serve these five is duty chief.

4.

Ne'er shall be lack of offspring in his house, Who fearing ill, gives ere he enjoys.
If in

5.

the

home

true love and Virtue dwell,
of grace

Home-life
6.
If

is full

and

fruit.

What good
7.

home-life's lived always in Virtue's way, is there in leaving house and home

?

He,

who

Shall
8.

first

lives home-life worthily, among all strivers be.

Home-life, that helps the saints and swerves Virtue ne'er,

from

Endures more
9.

trials

than lonely hermit-life.

Home-life

itself is

Virtue's

way

;

The
10.

other, too,

is

good,

if

men no

fault

can

find.

He, who lives home-life worthily on earth, Will win a place 'mong gods who dwell in heaven.

6.
1.

THE WORTH

OF HOME'S HELPMEET

She

is

true helpmeet of the home,

who having homely

worth,

Spendeth within her husband's means.
2. If

homely worth be lacking in the wife, Whatever worth there be, no home-life can be
she be worthy, what doth ever lack ? If she be worthless, then what else remains
?

there.

3.

If

TRANSLATIONS
4.

41

What
If

is

more precious than

the wife,
?

rugged strength of chastity be hers

5.

She who, on waking, bows before her spouse and before no other god, May ask for rain, and rain it will. She
is

6.

true wite who, guarding self and cherishing her
tireless

spouse,

With
7.

goodness their good name unsullied

holds.

What
If

is

the use of prison's

ward

for wife

?

Her ward
8.

of chastity is chief.

They
9.

wives their husbands cherish well, shall find glory in the world of gods.

They cannot walk with lion-hearted pride, Whose wives guard not their name 'fore mocking
eyes.

10.

A man's good fortune
Its

is

his wife's

own worth
are.

;

ornaments

his

good children

7.

THE GIFT

OF CHILDREN

1.

the prizes that men win, there's none so fine 'Mong As children that have knowledge surely won.
all

2.

The evils of the seven births shall ne'er touch those Who've upright children, living blameless lives.
c

3.

Here is our wealth,' the wise say of their bairns For through their deeds true wealth will surely come.
:

4.

Gruel that children's little hands have stirred Is sweeter far than nectar of the gods.

5.

To stroke the children's limbs is sweet to hand To hear their words is sweetest music to the
'

;

ear.

6.

The flute is sweet, the lute is sweet,' say those Who've never heard the pretty prattle of their
ones.

little

42
7.

THE SACRED KURAL
To make him To
first in

Is all a father for his 8.

the assembly of the wise son can do.

all upon this earth, that children wisdom win More precious is than e'en their very selves.
*

9.

The mother, who

has heard her son called great,' Gains greater joy than even at his birth.
live
'

10.

To

that men will ask, 'What penance did his father do ? This is the greatest help that son can render to his sire.

8.
1.

LOVE
it

Is there a bolt that

can avail to shut up love ? The trickling tears of loving eyes would tell
;

out.

2.

All for themselves the loveless spend The loving e'en their bones for others give.

3.

The
Is

link of soul

and body, say the wise, but the fruit of man's own link with love.
;

4.

Love doth the

trait of tenderness beget That, too, begets true friendship's priceless worth.

5.

The bliss of earth and heav'n the The learned say, is rooted in a

blessed gain, loving life.
' ;

6.

The

foolish say, Love helps the good alone But surely 'tis a help 'gainst evil too.

'

7.

As

the sun's heat burns up all boneless things, So Virtue doth burn up all loveless things.
live the home-life

8.

To

Is like a
9.

with a loveless heart withered tree flowering in barren sand.

To those who lack the inward means of love What use is there in any outward means ?
The living soul subsists in love The loveless are but skin and
;

10.

bone.

AN IMAGE OF THE GODDESS LAKSHMI MADURA TEMPLE

IN

THE

TRANSLATIONS
9.
1.

43

CARING FOR THE GUEST
joy of home-life have one aim
:

The wealth and

2.

To cherish guests and show them kindnesses. To eat oneself while stranger waits without
Makes
e'en immortal nectar undesired.

3.

Who

daily cherisheth the Shall ne'er by want or

coming guest

woe be hard

oppressed.

4.

Lakshmi with

Who
5.

joyful heart will dwell with him with a cheerful mien his guest receives.
is

What need

there that he should

sow

his field,
?

Who
6.

welcomes guests and eats but what remains

He'll be a

Who
7.

welcome guest to gods on high, speeds the parting guest, and coming guest
no measure for the fruit of kindliness own worth this is its measure true.
:

awaits.

There

is

The
'

guest's

8.

We've cherished wealth, but now are
so say

helpless

left,'

Those who've not yet begun
9.

to cherish guests.

The
Is

crass stupidity that will not cherish guests poverty in wealth 'tis only found in fools.
;

10.

As

in the very smelling fades the anicham flower, So at a changing glance the guest's heart sinks.

10.
1.

KINDLY SPEECH
guile-free speech
:

Kind speech

is love-filled,

The speech
2.

of those

who've seen the Real.

Better than giving with a willing mind Is giving with a cheery smile and kindly word.

3.

With smiling face and kindly look kind words If from the heart they come, is Virtue real.
Humility and kindly speech are jewels rare All else are baubles of no worth.
;

to say,

5.

44
6.

THE SACRED RURAL
Evil will fade and good will grow in him, Who seeking good, speaks kindly words.

8.

Kind speech, from meanness free, will bring great Both in this life and in the life beyond.

joy,

9.

Why
To

When
10.

does a man speak bitter words, he has seen the joy that kind words give

?

use harsh words

Is picking

when kind words are at hand, unripe fruit where ripe fruit hangs.
11.

GRATITUDE

1.

E'en heav'n and earth avail not to repay The good that's done spontaneously.

2.

A

Is of
4.

kind deed done in time of need, though small, more value than the world itself.

Though kindly deed be small as millet seed, The wise will think it large as palm-tree nut.

5.

A kind deed is
And

6.

not measured by the deed itself But by the worth of those to whom it's done. Those who in trouble helped you, ne'er forsake
ne'er forget the friendship of the pure.
;

;

;

8.

E'er to forget a kind deed done is bad But to forget an ill at once is good.

10.

For him who's killed all good, escape may be But none for him who's killed a kindness done.
;

12.
1.

FAIRNESS
:

Fairness to

all is

good supreme

To
3.

friends, foes, fellows, acting fair.
that's gained by unfair means, bring you good alone.
:

Give up the wealth

Though
5.

it

may

Both

loss

An

and gain must surely come to all unwarped mind the wise man's jewel

is.

TRANSLATIONS
8.

45

As

scales that,

Unbending
9.

even poised, fairness wise

do weigh aright, men's jewel is.

Fairness means freedom from all crooked speech, If the mind, too, is free from crookedness.

10.

To guard
This
is

the things of others as their own good trade for those who traders are.
13.

SELF-CONTROL

1.

Right self-control will lead a

man

to heaven

;

The
2.

lack of

it

will lead to darkest night.
;

Guard
'Tis 'Tis

self-control as treasure rare

wealth supreme to everyone.
;

5.

good for all to have humility But unto wealthy men 'tis riches
will

rare.

7.

Whatever Or you

else is uncontrolled, control the tongue ; come to grief in many a faulty word. will heal again
;

9.

The sore that's made by fire Not so the wound that by
14.

the tongue

is

made.

RIGHT CONDUCT
;

1.

Right conduct to true greatness leads It should be held more dear than life

itself.

2.

Guard well thy conduct study
;

A better help thou

as thou wilt,

canst not find.
:

6.

8.

The strong-souled men will ne'er in conduct fail They know too well the ills that failure brings. Good conduct this the seed of goodness is
;

An
10.

evil life is cause of endless

ills.

Who've not the art of noble living learnt, Though much they've learnt, are still unlearned men.
16.

1.

As

earth bears

up

the

FORBEARANCE men who pierce her

sore,
is.

To

bear with our revilers, chief of virtues

46
2.

THE SACRED KURAL
Forgive always the ills that others do ; But to forget them this is nobler still.

3.

To
If

turn away a guest

is

poorest poverty

;

But he who bears with fools shows mightiest might.
4.

you nobility would have for aye, Keep on forbearing day by day.
;

6.

The overbearing taste their joy but for a day The forbearing shall have praise till world shall
Though

end.

7.

On
8.

others ill may do, 'tis better far their behalf to suffer, to no one doing

ill.

By their own forbearance let men o'ercome those Who, in their pride, have wrought them grievous
Who,
;

ill.

10.

willingly, can hunger bear are truly great But yet less great than those who freely bear men's unkind words.

17.
5.

Envy alone is Though they escape
bring.

FREEDOM FROM ENVY ill enough to envious men

;

their foes, 'twill surely ruin

7.

Lakshmi
She'll

show him

herself the envious cannot bear to her sister sinister and go.
;

9.

The wealth

of envious-minded

men

And
10.

ruin of the righteous, should be pondered well.

Never have envious men true greatness reached,

Nor have
19.
2.

the envy-free failed greatness to attain.

FREEDOM FROM BACK-BITING
murder Virtue and do
of that sin to smile deceitfully

'Tis sin to

But greater
5.

vicious deeds and slander
;

men.

The emptiness Is shown by
back.

man's heart,

his foul slander,

who Virtue prates, made behind another's

TRANSLATIONS
9.

47

Surely for Virtue's sake alone doth earth bear up the weight Of men who foully slander fellow-men behind their back.
If

10.

each one saw his

faults, as

those of foes,
race
?

Would any
20.
6.

ill

befall the

human

REFRAINING FROM VAIN SPEECH
'

Call him not man who makes display of useless Call him but chaff of humankind.'
'

'

words

:

21.
2.
Ill

DREAD OF EVIL DEEDS
;

deeds give rise to ills alone 111 deeds then must be feared far more than

fire.

4.

Plan not another's ruin, e'en in forgetful mood ; Or Virtue will herself the planner's ruin plan.

7.

Men may
But
ill

escape scot-free from every foe

;

deeds' wrath will
22.

dog the steps and

slay at last.

BENEFICENCE
;

1.

True charity

To
2.

ne'er seeks return rain-cloud what return can

men

e'er

make ?

Wealth won by toil, 'mong worthy Is meant for doing good.

folk,

5.

The wise man's
The wealth
of

wealth,

Is like o'erflowing
7.

if he doth care for men, waters of the village tank.

generous souls

is

like the tree

That healing balm
10.

distils for

every

ill.

E'en should beneficence to ruin lead, 'Tis well worth while to sell oneself for
23.

that.

CHARITY

5.

The strong man's
stays.

strength in hunger's conquest lies ; But greater still the strength that others' hunger

48
8.

THE SACRED RURAL
The joy of charity how can the hard-eyed know ? They only hoard their wealth and lose it all.
Th' enjoyment of one's hoarded wealth alone Than begging surely is more bitter far.
'Tis said that

9.

10.

But

if

nought more bitter is than Death one cannot give, e'en Death is sweet.

;

ASCETIC VIRTUE
25.
1.

KINDLINESS
:

The wealth

of kindliness is wealth indeed

For even vicious men have worldly wealth.
2.

Walk the good way, consider and be kind Though many ways you study, this your
;

aid will be.

3.

There is no dark and dismal hell ordained For those whose heart is full of kindliness.

7.

Yon world's joy is not for those who kindness lack, As this world's joy is not for those who riches lack.
Those lacking wealth one day may prosperous be Those lacking kindness for ever will lack all.
:

8.

:

9.

Ponder the charity of those who kindness lack 'Tis like Truth's vision seen by muddled minds.
26.

ABSTINENCE FROM FLESH-EATING

1.

Howe'er can kindness rule that man,

Who
5.

eateth other flesh to

make

his

own

increase

?

To keep from

eating flesh is life's stability ; Hell ne'er will ope its mouth the flesh-eater to free.
27.

TAP AS OR AUSTERITIES
life

1.

All pains to bear and then no pain to give to any This is in Tapas that which matters most.

TRANSLATIONS
7.

49
stronger burns the

As

gold
fire,

more

brightly shines,
saints

when

So shine the

more

bright,

when worse

their

troubles grow.
28.
1.

INCONSISTENCY

The elements five within will surely laugh to scorn The evil covert walk of crafty-minded men. The show
Is like a

3.

of

power of one, who has no power within, cow in tiger-skin, which quietly grazes on.
ill,

4.

He

who, when doing
bush.

Is like a fowler snaring birds,

hideth in saintly garb, while lurking in the

6.

None

crueller are than those,

who

are in heart

no

saints, Yet live in covert guise, in

show

of saintliness.

10.

For shaven crown or matted hair there is no further need, If men will only shun what noble minds condemn.
29.

FREEDOM FROM FRAUD
'

2.

Think For

'

will by fraud another's riches steal not, e'en to think of doing ill is sinfulness indeed.

We

:

3.

As

So

riches won by fraud grow quickly more and more, will they, just like that, as swiftly come to nought.

30.
1.

TRUTHFULNESS
'
'

What

is it

that

men

truthfulness

do

call ?
fruit.

'Tis
2.

speech that's free from any taint of evil

E'en untruth
If faultless

may

in truth's
it

good

own nature share, can produce.
know
:

3.

Tell not a

lie,

Your very
4.

e'en though your heart alone does heart will burn you for that lie.

Who

in his soul doth walk from falsehood free, Will live for ever in the souls of noble-minded men.
5

50
5.

THE SACRED RURAL
Who
An
Is chief

speaketh forth the truth with all his heart, 'mong those who do both alms and tapas too.
;

8.

outward purity by water's aid is caused But inward purity by truthfulness is shown.
:

9.

10.

Not every kind of lamp is really a light The lamp of Truth alone to wise men is the Light. Of all true things that we have ever known Not one with truthfulness can e'er compare.
31.

REFRAINING FROM ANGER
it

1.

Who curbs his wrath, when
When power
or not
?

there's none,

has power, curbs it indeed what matters if he curbs
;

4.

Both smile and joy

it kills

:

What
5.

greater foe than wrath

?

Curb well your wrath, if you would guard yourself For wrath will ruin you, if you will curb it not.

;

6.

The

fire of wrath, that burns up all that's near, Will burn up, too, the pleasant bark of friendship rare.

32.
1.

AHIMSA

REFRAINING FROM HURT

'Tis the

motto of the pure to no one to give pain, E'en though great glory-giving wealth they win.
motto of the pure to make no ill return, E'en though with malice men do ill to them.

2.

'Tis the

4.

If

you would punish those who've done you

ill,

Shame them by kindness
5. If others'

in return.
feel, just as

pains you cannot

your own,
?

What good can ever come from knowledge gained
7.

Ne'er doing the least hurt to any with intent Is chief of all the virtues rare.
If

9.

ere

noonday you
e'en will
ill

ill

to others do,

At

itself

unsought come unto you.

TRANSLATIONS
34.
1.

51

IMPERMANENCE

To

think that things of time will last alway, Of follies all, the height of folly is.

8.

The

So
9.

bird forsakes its shell and flies away fleeting is the bond of soul and flesh.
:

Death

is

Birth

is

like sinking into sleep : like waking after sleep.

35.
1.

RENUNCIATION

Whate'er, whate'er a

man

gives up,
* '

6.

By that, by that he hath no further pain. He who destroys this pride of I and mine,'
'

Will gain sure entrance to the realm above the gods.
10.

Hold fast to Hold fast
hold.

Him who

that Hold,

needs no hold ; and you'll be free from other

36.
2.

UNDERSTANDING THE TRUTH

3.

Darkness departs and bliss results to those, Who, from delusion freed, have seen the vision pure. Nearer indeed is heaven than earth to those, Who, freed from doubt, have realized the Truth.
Whate'er
it be, whate'er its nature be, In that to see the Truth, is knowledge true.

4.

8.

Freed from the

To
9.

folly that leads us back to birth, realize the Good supreme, is knowledge true.

Those clinging and destroying ills shall ne'er touch him Who the real Refuge knows and from all bonds lives
free.

37.
2.
If

FREEDOM FROM DESIRE
;

That

aught you wish, then wish for birthlessness of itself will come, if wishlessness you wish.

52
3.

THE SACRED RURAL
There's here no greater wealth than wishlessness And there, too, nothing is to equal it.
;

4.

For heaven

itself is

freedom from desire

;

And
5.

that will

come from longing

for the Truth.
;

Freed from desire, then only are we free Others, though free from ills, are not entirely
38.

free.

OLD KARMA
;

4.

Twofold indeed does this world's fashion seem Each is to each unlike, the wealthy and the wise.
All good
is

5.

turned to

ill,

when winning

wealth,

10.

And ill to good, through tricks by Karma played. What then is mightier than this Karma old ? Though men contrive another thing, That steps
before.

PROPERTY
KINGSHIP
39.
2.

KINGLY EXCELLENCE

Courage, charity, wit and grit these four Unfailing, the kingly nature make.
Alertness,

3.

wisdom and decisiveness these three Should ne'er be lacking in rulers of the earth.
path ne'er swerving, adharma to remove,
to

4.

From Dharma's

With courage sure
kingship true.
6.
If

keep one's honour bright,

is

Then
7.

easy of access the king be and from all harsh words free, all the world will sing high praises of his land.

The world will praise and will obey that king, Who, speaking kindly words, is able both to give and
guard.

9.

The world will surely rest under the aegis of that Whose nature 'tis to bear with bitter words.

king,

TRANSLATIONS
40.
1.

53

LEARNING
is
;

Learn well whate'er worth learning And having learnt, live worthily.

5.

6.

As beggars 'fore the rich, the learned to their guru bow The learned are the high, unlearned are the low. The more men dig, the more the water flows from sandy
springs
flows.
;

;

The more men
7.

learn, the

more indeed

their

wisdom
;

All lands to learned

How
day

then can
?

men belong, all towns are home men remain unlearned till their dying

41.
3.

E'en ignorant
If

NEGLECT OF LEARNING men may pass for men of worth,
to hold their tongue.
;

'mong the wise they learn

6.

The ignorant are like useless brackish land They are and that is all that can be said.
42.

LISTENING

1.

True wealth of wealth
'Midst
all

is wealth gained through the ear ; our wealth that is indeed the chief.

2.

When

Then
5.

to the listening ear food is not close at hand, let a little to the hungry mouth be given.

The words

of righteous

men

are like a staff

To
6.

those

whose

feet are set in slippery

ways.
;

Listen to good words, though they be but few For e'en those few great dignity will give.

10.

What matter

if

they live or

die,

who

only

know
?

What's sweet to tongue, and not what's sweet to ear
43.
2.

WISDOM
mind from wandering where
it

Wisdom

holds back the
it

it

lists,

Guards

from

ill,

and leads

to the good.

54
3.

THE SACRED KURAL
'Tis

wisdom true for men to find the Real In whatso'er they hear, from whomsoever heard.
wise to win the friendship of the wise it without wax or wane is wisdom rare.
;

5.

'Tis

To keep
8.

'Tis folly fearful

ills

with recklessness to face

;

The wise man
be feared.
44.
3.

fears indeed those things that should

CORRECTION OF FAULTS

When men who
fruit.

fear dishonour a fault commit, though small as millet seed, They'll always think it great as palm-tree's bulky

6.

What

fault

can that king e'er commit,

Who first his own and then the faults of others checks ?
45.
3.

WINNING THE HELP OF THE GREAT

Of rare

The
4.

gifts 'tis the rarest gift of all, great to cherish and to hold them as one's kin.

'Tis chief of all the

To walk
9.

in friendship

powers that men may wield with the greater ones.
;

Without some capital, all gain's impossible Without good friends' support, no surety can there be.
46.

KEEPING AWAY FROM BAD COMPANY

2.

The

So changes knowledge with the nature
friends.
5.

water's nature changes with the nature of the soil ; of one's

True purity of thought and purity of deed Both on the purity of friendship rest.

9.

By inward
ship.

purity Heaven may be surely won That, too, will gain in power from good companion;

10.

No

greater help

is

Than bad companionship

there than good companionship there is no direr foe.

;

TRANSLATIONS
47.
6.

55

ACTING WITH FORETHOUGHT
;

Ruin may come from doing what should not be done But also from not doing that which should be done.
Think well and then decide
to

7.

do
'

;

'Tis folly to decide, then say,

Now

let

us think.'

48.
5.

KNOWLEDGE OF POWER

E'en

with peacocks' feathers the cart be piled high, The axle-tree will break, if over bulky be the load.
if

6.

Those who have climbed the branch's utmost tip, And still go pressing on, will surely lose their life.
49.

KNOWING THE OPPORTUNITY
;

1.

In clear daylight, the crow will beat the owl The king who'd beat his foe must choose the
time.
Is

fitting

3.

If

anything too hard for men to win, they with fitting means will choose the

fitting

time?
10.

Be

like the

heron when

'tis

But

like its strike,

when time

time for lying low for action comes.
:

50.
6.

KNOWING THE PLACE
;

The strong- wheeled lofty chariot rides not upon the sea The ocean-going vessel goes not upon the land. The
jackal,

10.

when

in

miry

soil,

in

which the

feet sink

deep, Will kill the fearless elephant that goreth
51.
1.

armed men.

SELECTION AND CONFIDENCE
:

4.

Choose your man well, after the fourfold test By dharma, riches, love and fear of death. Weigh well a man's good traits and then his faults And value him on seeing which prevails.

;

56
5.

THE SACRED RURAL
For each man's conduct is the touchstone sure Both to his greatness and his smallness too.
Trust no

9.

10.

man whom you have not tried When tried, then trust with fitting task. To trust an untried man, or doubt one tried
;

These both
52.
3.

will endless trouble bring.

SELECTION AND EMPLOYMENT
:

Trust one who has the four good traits Love, wisdom, clarity, a greed-free soul.
53.
10.

STEADY PURPOSE
an aim, be firmly kept in mind.

'Tis easy to achieve
If it

55.
6.

RIGHTEOUS RULE

'Tis not the spear that to the king gives victory ; But 'tis his royal sceptre, if that ne'er crooked be.

58.
1.

GRACIOUSNESS
graciousness,
in kingly souls.
? ?

The world goes smoothly on when
That beauteous maid, resides

3.

Of what use

is

a song that can't be sung

5.

What use an eye that hath no graciousness The jewel of the eye is graciousness
;

If that

be lacking, then

'tis

but a sore.

9.

To show to those who vex us sore true graciousness, And patiently to bear with them, is best of all good
traits.

60.
1.

ENERGY
;

'Tis

energy alone makes wealth worth while Who lack it own not even what they have.

5.

The

lotus' stalk is just as long as water's depth So, too, men's height on inner power depends.

;

TRANSLATIONS
10.

57
;

Firmness of soul

is

inward wealth

Who

lack

it

are not men, but trees.

61.
1.

UNSLUGGISHNESS

The

When gloomy
5.

unfailing light of dignity will flicker and will fade, slothfulness comes near at hand.

For tardiness, forgetfulness, and sloth and sleep These four are pleasure-boats of ruin grim.
62.

MANLINESS
'
'

1.

Never give up nor say 'Tis much too hard For strenuous effort strength to do will bring.
: ;

2.

The world
So take
c

leaves those who've left unfinished tasks care ne'er to leave a task undone.

;

7.

The black-browed
say;

elder Sister dwells with sloth,' they

The Lotus-maiden
9

dwells in toil of slothless men.

Though by

the very gods impossible it seem, Man's strenuous effort its due reward will win.
on,

10.

Who, undismayed, unwearyingly plod
Will see the back of ancient Fate

itself.

63.
1.

HOPE

IN

TROUBLE
;

When

trouble comes, keep ever smiling on There's nought like that to meet and conquer
flood of troubles will surely pass

it.

2.

A very

away

When they are
3.

thought out well in wise men's minds.

Those, who in trouble still untroubled are, Will themselves surely trouble trouble sore.

5.

Even though
He,

all at

once to

men

In fearless souls trouble
9.

itself will

sore troubles come, troubled be.

who in joy seeks not for joy, In grief real grief he will not find.

58

THE SACRED KURAL
THE BODY POLITIC
64.

THE MINISTER

1.

He

who can combine Means, time and mode and act supreme.
for a minister
is fit,

2.

Firmness, good rule, sound learning, manly deed These, with the five above, a minister will need.

8.

Though

Still to

the king acts foolishly, and spurns the truth, make known the right his minister should

strive.

65.
1.

POWER

IN SPEECH
:

Power of speech a great boon truly is A boon indeed apart from other boons.
Both wealth and ruin upon this depend So guard and cherish it from any lapse.
;

2.

9.

Who

are not skilled few faultless words to speak,
to speak in

Are often keen
66.
1.

many

words.

PURITY OF ACTION
;

The boon of allies brings but worldly gain The boon of pure deeds, every cherished
Wealth and security through guile
Is

thing.

10.

to seek

pouring water into pots of unburnt clay.
67.

POWER

IN ACTION
'

1.

Power in action is just power Nought else should power
For everyone
'Tis

of will in act be called
;
'

4.

'tis easy just to talk hard howe'er to act up to one's speech.
;

6.

Men

If steadfastly
7.

get just what they think and as they think, they go on thinking it.
:

Never look down on people for their size For some are like great chariot's axle-pin.

TRANSLATIONS
68.
2.

59

CONDUCT OF AFFAIRS
;

Sleep on those things that slowly may be done Sleep not on those that sleepless promptness need.
70.

CONDUCT BEFORE KINGS

1.

Like men who warm themselves before a fire, Let those who stand 'fore kings be not too near and
not too
76.
7.

far.

THE

ACQUISITION OF
is

WEALTH

The

infant, kindliness, ; 'Tis nurtured by its foster-mother, wealth.

born of love

79.
3.

FRIENDSHIP
;

A

good book's charm is felt the more 'tis read So with the friendship of the good, the more
friendship of a smiling face,

'tis

won.

6.

Not the mere
But that

of smiling hearts is friendship true.

8.

As

So
9.

hastes the hand to catch the slipping cloth, hastes true friend to soothe another's grief.
:

Friendship's real throne is in the changeless heart sure support in every time of need.

A

81.
1.

INTIMATE FRIENDSHIP
is

What then

friendship intimate

?

'Tis friendship that

no

liberty resents.

82.
4.

BAD FRIENDSHIP

'Tis better to

Who,

like

be lonely than be friends with those untrained horses, their riders throw and
84.
'

gallop

off.

FOLLY
?

1.

This thing called Folly 'what is it indeed 'Tis grasping ruin, and rejecting wealth.

60
3
.

THE SACRED RURAL
Shamelessness, listlessness, lovelessness, heedlessness These are the four traits of foolish men.

10.

The

fool's intrusion in th'

Is like

assembly of the wise one placing dirty feet upon a lovely couch.
85.

STUPIDITY
:

1.

The poverty supreme is poverty of mind The wise hold not wealth's lack as poverty.
Stupidity ah what is The pride that says,
!

4.

it ?
*

We

are the wise.'

86.
2.

ENMITY

Though
If

others quarrels seek and do you wrong, Tis best to do no ill and harbour no revenge.
ill

4.

enmity, that

of

ills,

decays,

Then
10.

will arise best joy of all the joys.
ill

All kinds of

from

ill-will

do

arise

;

From

good-will comes the wealth of righteousness.

90.
1.

DISREGARD OF THE GREAT
all

Chief care of

should be to guard

'Gainst disregarding

might of mighty ones.

91.
9.

OBEDIENCE TO

WOMEN

Those who

Have
93.
2.

act ever as the wife commands, neither virtue, wealth nor happiness.

ABSTINENCE FROM ALCOHOL
;

O

drink not liquor but if drink you will, Know that you then will lose good men's esteem.

4.

The maiden shame

Who

will turn her back on those, the despised fault of drunkenness commit.

*

'

TRANSLATIONS
MISCELLANEOUS
96.
2.

61

NOBILITY OF BIRTH
:

In three things men of noble birth ne'er fail Virtue, truth-speaking and a sense of shame.

3.

Four marks has true

A smile,
10.
If
;

nobility, they say

:

a gift, kind speech and courtesy.
of

a good name you wish, wish for a sense shame And if nobility, be humble towards all.

97
2.

HONOUR OR

IZZAT

Who

Mean deeds
3.

wish for honour and for glory too, will never do, not e'en for glory's sake.
;

4.

When prosperous, all men should humble be And noble, too, in great adversity. When from nobility men fall, they're spurned,
As
hairs that fall forgotten

from the head.
;

9.

A yak that's lost
So some

its tail cares not to live for honour's sake will give their lives.

98.
1.

GREATNESS
;
*

Glory

is his,

who

's

Disgrace
live.'

is his,

keen hard things to do who meekly says, Without

it

I

can

2.

In birth all men are quite alike In worth they differ by their deeds.
;

3.

The high-born, lacking high emprise, are base The low-born, having high emprise, are great.
;

4.

Greatness, like single-hearted wife, Belongs to him who guards himself.

8.

Greatness

is

always lowly too
just

;

Meanness
10.

plumes and boasts
;

itself.

Greatness e'er hideth others' faults Meanness just likes to shout them out.

62
99.
2.

THE SACRED KURAL
EXCELLENCE OF CHARACTER
;

Good

character for great men is the good supreme All other good is only good in name.

3.

Love, kindness, graciousness, shame, truthfulness On these five pillars doth worth's palace surely rest

5.

The strong man's
'Tis great
If

strength in lowliness is found men's weapon to subdue their foes.

;

7.

What
9.

kindness you show not to evil-doers too, value can there be e'en in your worthiness
ne'er
'

?

Who

They

shall

do change, though times may change, be called Shore of the Sea of Worth.'

100.
2.

COURTESY

Sweet kindliness and high-born dignity These two do form the path of courtesy.

7.

Though boorish men may seem as sharp as Yet truly they are only wooden blocks.
Darkness broods o'er the whole wide world

files,

9.

at

noon

For those who know not how to laugh.
10.

The

churlish person's ample wealth is spoilt, Like good milk poured into a dirty pot.

102.
1.

THE SENSE OF SHAME
;

To

blush at evil deeds is proper shame All else is like the blush of damsels fair.
of Honour those, will call The for their own and others' sins feel shame.
'

5.

Wise men

Home

'

Who
6.

The
If

noble will e'en this wide world refuse to win, they would have to overstep shame's barriers
of

10.

The deeds

men

of shameless heart
strings, just

Like puppets are on

apeing

life.

TRANSLATIONS
103.
3.

63

ADVANCING ONE'S FAMILY
' :

For God Himself will haste to help the man Who says I must advance my house's weal.'

6.

To

seek the weal of one's

own house
in

Shows noble manliness
9.

any man.
ill.

His body

Who

is a pot of trouble full, seeks to shield his house from every

104.
1.

FARMING

Roam where you
;

will, the world must go behind the plough Farming, though toilsome, is man's supreme employ.

2.

The

linch-pins of society the
toilers

ploughmen are

:

Supporting other
3.

all,

who do
live
;

not plough.

Who

plough and eat do really
rest, as followers, just

The
8.

serve and eat.

Than ploughing

e'en,

'tis

better to
is

And weeding
now.
9. If

done, to watch

manure more than watering
;

farmers quiet
'Twill sulk

sit and go not to their land, and take the huff, like sulking wife.

10.

Old Mother Earth will laugh to see Men idling, saying We have nought.'
'

:

107.
2,
If it

be true

THE FEAR OF BEGGING that men must beg to live,
!

May
5.

the Creator, also, wander and be cursed

E'en though it be but gruel and water pure, There's nought that's sweeter than the food of
108.
3.

toil.

VILENESS
;

The

vile,

They,

too, just

maybe, are like the gods do as they desire.

64
10.

THE SACRED KURAL
Are
vile

When

men fit for anything ? trouble comes they quickly sell themselves.

LOVE
FURTIVE LOVE
110.
1.

READING THE HEART BY SIGNS
:

Two

One look
3.

are the looks of this damsel with dark eyes gives pain, the other pain-balm is.
;

She looked, and looking, drooped her head And so she watered love's young shoot.
I

4.

look at her, she looketh on the ground ; I look away, she looks and shyly smiles.

10.

When

What need

eye to eye doth speak with answering look, is there for any spoken words ?

112.
4.

PRAISING

HER BEAUTY

Could lotus

see, 'twould
*

And
6.

say

:

bend and droop its head, We'll ne'er be like this jewelled maiden's

eyes.'

The

stars e'en from their course do wander far, Not knowing which is moon and which the maiden's
face.

113. LOVE'S
2.

EXCELLENCE

The love between
Is close as is

maiden and myself the bond of soul and flesh.
this
!

3.

Begone, O image in the pupil of my eye There's no room for the fair-browed damsel that
love.

I

10.

My lover

in

my

Though people say

heart e'er joyfully abides ; He's gone, and loves her not.'
' :

TRANSLATIONS
114.
1.

65

GIVING UP SECRECY

They, who've enjoyed love's bliss and now apart repine, Have nought left, save the palm-tree stalk to ride.

6.

But thinking of
I'll

my lass, my eyes refuse to sleep plan to ride the stalk in midnight hour.

;

9.

MARRIED LOVE 116. THE PANGS OF SEPARATION Love burneth when my love is far away
Will
fire

;

so burn, or only at the touch

?

129.
6.

IMPATIENCE FOR REUNION
;

When

seeing him, no faults I ever see

9.

Not seeing him, nought but his faults Love is more delicate than a flower So few attain its perfect bliss.
;

I see.

131.
2.

BOUDERIE
is
it is

Bouderie in love

Too much
133.
7.

of

just like salt : just like too

much

salt.

THE CHARM OF COYNESS
;

In lovers' quarrels, the loser always wins When re-united this is surely seen.

10.

In coyness is love's sweetness found ; Its sweetness in the close embrace consists.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

EXPLANATORY NOTES
PART
1.
I

VIRTUE
1
:

CHAPTER
This

may
As

also

be translated as follows
'

have 'A' as First, So to the world stands God, The
letters all

First.

'

The meaning
letters can only

of the translation in the text

is

that as

all

be pronounced with the help of a vowel, usually the vowel A, so the world exists because of God. It is quite likely that the poet has both meanings in mind. Compare Bhagavad dta 10 33 Aksharanam Akaro'smi Of letters I am the letter A.' See also Tayumanavar, Porul Vcuiakkam 12. J!f*^yS Q*(yfr**ff utirScea^Q As the vowel A is in all letters and different from all.' It is interesting that the term used for God in this stanza is the Sanskrit term Bhagavan the Adorable One the term used by the bhakti sects. It implies personality. 2. The phrase the feet of God or His sacred feet is commonly used in Hindu devotional poetry to signify the
: '

'

'

'

'

'

'

grace of God.'
3. Some commentators see in the phrase who comes to lotus-hearts' (u>wrzfl>.F GtuQ&ar) a reference to Arugan, the Jain deity, who is represented as standing on a lotus flower. It seems, however, to refer to the indwelling of God within
'

the hearts of those who are devoted to Him. It is the footfall of God that Says Dr. Pope
'
:

makes His

creation rejoice and put forth its flowers, as it rests on each " spirit's folded bloom." 4. This couplet contains the Buddhist idea of the desirelessness of God. He alone is free from all desires. 5. The two dark deeds refer to good and evil actions in the world, the result of self-love both deeds are born of ignorance. 'Worthy praise' in Tamil is 'the praise
' '
'

;

1

SJZ.

p. 184.

70
that
is

THE SACRED KURAL
allied

to reality/ that truly

knows God and the
*

world.
6. Some commentators think that this refers to Arugan, and some refer it to Vishnu for the name Victor over the Senses Five is used of both. 7. The phrase 'to whom none is like' indicates the impossibility of expressing Him by any symbol. 8. The sea of this world refers to the sea of births and deaths into which the soul is thrown from time to time. The word used here for God is anthanar, (vide note on
;
'

'

'

3

1

:

10).
' '

The words translated our God Supreme are literally, the one who has the eight qualities.' The commentator (Pari.) gives the eight qualities of God as follows (1) Self9.
:

existence, (2) Pure

essence, (3) Intuitive

knowledge,

(4)

Omniscience, (5) Freedom from evil, (6) Graciousness, (7) Omnipotence, (8) Infinite bliss. Saivites claim that here the author refers to Siva, who is called 'the god of eight qualities.' According to Jainism the eight qualities are (1) Infinite knowledge, (2) Infinite vision, (3) Infinite energy, (4)
:

Infinite joy, (5) Indescribability, (6) Beginninglessness, (7) Agelessness, (8) Deathlessness. Manakkudavar translates the second line Is useless as a senseless doll.' 10. 'Clinging to the Lord's feet' signifies 'receiving the
' :

Divine grace.'
It is interesting to

author for
follows
1.
:

God

in this

note the different names used by the and in other chapters. They are as
:

2.

3.

The First and the Adorable One. ^frus*, (1 1.) The One who truly knows all. /r<w^/Br (1 2.) The One who moves o'er the lotus flower (of
:

the heart),

ioeuriAee>*(SiLi8G> ear (1 : 3.) 4. Without

The One

desire Or disgUSt.

<?/*,&
:

C^a/eOTJ-j-aowaisv/rsw-

(1:4.)
5. 6.

* ins*
7.

The King or the Lord. p/r (1 5, The Destroyer of the gates of the five
(1
:

10.)

senses.

6.)

8.

The One to whom there is no likeness. 0rJeM The Gracious One, who is an ocean of virtue.
1

(1:8.)
p. 72.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
Dr. Pope paraphrases this as One.'
9.
'

71
and loving
(1
:

Virtue's sea, the fair

10.

11. 12.
13.

The One who has the eight qualities. *<&*(<*** $$ rev The One who holds to none. uf>?> $><,& (35 10.) The Supreme Reality. Q *<*><-,*&<* (36 8.) The True Refuge. (36 9.) The Creator of the world. s-^gL^-zWe*- (107 2.)
:

9.)

^^

:

:

:

With the exception of Nos. 11 and 12, all the rest are personal names. Tiruvalluvar's idea of God is that of a personal Being, transcendent and infinitely great, yet in intimate touch with the world that He has created, and full of grace and truth. He is a present Helper in a time of trouble and One to whom the soul can surely cling in its quest for the higher life.

CHAPTER

2
*

The commentator, Parimelalagar, explains the introduction of this chapter in this place as follows Rain is an ancillary cause for the existence of men and for the deve:

lopment of
Annad

virtue,

to the world.' vide Acts 14
bhavanti bhutani Yajnad bhavati parjanyo
;

wealth and bliss, which give stability 17 also Bhagavad Glta 3 14.
:

;

:

;

parjanyad anna sambhavaha yajnaha karma samudbhavaha.
;
;

From food creatures become From sacrifice rain proceeds
1.

from rain

is

the production of food

;

;

sacrifice ariseth
'

from

action.

heavenly food is the Tamilized form of the Sanskrit word amrita ambrosia, the food
for
of the gods. 2. The alliteration of this couplet is very interesting.
It

The word used

*

reads

:

Thupparkkut

thuppaya
thu-u malai.

thuppakkit

thupparkkut

Thuppaya

5. This illustrates the incurable optimism of the Indian farmer and the sudden change in his fortunes produced by plenteous rain after a season of drought. With light7. Manakkutfavar translates the second line ning flash give not back again.'
*
:

1

S.K.

p. 187.

72

THE SACRED KURAL
'
:

10. Parimelalagar gives the following rendering for the second line Without heaven's rain there is no water-flow/

CHAPTER
The
' '
'

3

the sannydsl who has renounced all worldly ties. Nowhere is the eclecticism of Tiruvalluvar more 1 conspicuous than in this chapter,' says Dr. Pope.
saint
is
'

3.

Both

'

states

refers to life in this

world and release

in the next.
4.

Ellis translates

:

the hook rules the elephant, so he In wisdom firm his sensual organs rules, Who hopes to flourish in the soil of heaven.2
5. It is hardly likely that a Jain author would have referred to a story of Indra. The story referred to is that of the curse of Gautama Rishi upon the god for violating the chastity of his wife, Ahalya. 6. The thought here is implicit, the mean, even though
'

As

they be

ascetics.'

Greatness

is

not in mere asceticism, but

in asceticism plus character. 7. The thought is that as the

mind can only know the world through the senses, so he who has a clear understanding of them, of their powers and effects, has a perfect comprehension of the world of phenomena. 8. The hidden words of the sages are their mantras^ which may be either of blessing or of cursing. in this 9. A Jain could hardly have written of wrath way, which is quite foreign to his idea of sainthood. 10. The Tamil word anthanar is used for Brahmans, and
' ' '
'

meaning

the poet here cuts at the root of caste pride. The literal of anthanar is 'those who possess gracious
kindliness.'

CHAPTER 4
The commentator begins
cause virtue (unlike wealth tion of the threefold bliss of the present
1

Bethis chapter as follows and bliss) results in the acquisi:

'

life,

of the next

S.K.

p. 192.

2

ibid. p. 194.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
life

73
its

and of

final deliverance,
'

the author declares
'

mighty

power.'

The word translated Virtue is not virtue in general but Dharma that body of ethical principles which is the law of all life according to Indian philosophy.
Sirappu (^XJL/) the Tamil word translated eternal bliss' is meant to signify 'the final release.' 'Temporal wealth refers to both earthly wealth and the passing joys of the intermediate heaven (svarga), as distinguished from final deliverance. 6. Ndladiydr a Jain collection of ethical verses of about the seventh century has a verse which bears very closely upon this, translated by Dr. Pope as follows
1.
'

'

'

'

'

'

:

Say not In

'

after time we'll virtue learn
;

;

we're young.'

do virtuous deeds. is yours, conceal it not tempests rage, not ripened fruits alone, 1 But unripe fruits' fair promise falls.

While wealth
evil

When

The 'undying help' refers to the help it will give in future births. Every deed carries forward its energy into another birth. 7. In the case of the bearer and the rider both, their present condition is determined by the deeds done in a
former
9.

birth.
'
'

refer the term good or virtue in this stanza to the virtue of domestic life or illaram, which is treated of in chapters 5-24.

The commentaries

'

'

CHAPTER

5

section of the book commences here, treating especially of Domestic Virtue, the first chapter being' on home life or the domestic state, which is explained as the excellence of living in union with a wife.' 1. The three orders referred to are the three orders

A

new

'

'

outside the order of domestic life, namely, Brahmachari, Vanaprasthan, Sannyasi. These have to be supported by the The Ndladiydr, which was householder (Grihasthan). written about three centuries later, exalts the ascetic state over against the domestic state. See also Manu 3 78.
:

1

S.K.

p. 198.

74

THE SACRED RURAL

2. Three other classes are given in this verse. The service to the dead refers to the performance of the last rites. 3. Dr. Pope points out that this is almost a translation 1 of Manu 3 72. Pitris, the word used for ancestors means the southern dwellers,' the ancient Hindu name for one's deceased ancestors.
:

'

'

*

4.

The duty
is

guests,
6.

of hospitality, of sharing with passing one of the most important Hindu duties.
distinctly declares the sufficiency If lived aright it is in no

Here the poet
'
'

and

adequacy of home-life.

way

inferior to the ascetic calling. 7. The strivers are those

who perform

austerities for

special blessings.
8.

Domestic

life,

bearing

its

own sorrows and

those of

others, is as full of endurance as a life of ascetic austerity. 9. The poet hints at the hypocrisy and evil lives of many pseudo-ascetics. V.V.S. translates the second line
*

is its ornament.' V.V.S. translates the second line 3 upon as a god among men.'

and a good name
10.

2

* :

will

be looked

CHAPTER 6
3.

This

is

rendered by Manakkudavar and V.V.S.
is

:

What What
5.

is

poverty, wealth, if

if

the wife hath worth she hath no worth ?
'

?

will

Even the gods obey such a wife.' 7. There is a play on words here by the poet. The Tamil word for prison is sirai (&VD) and that for chastity nirai (&**p>\ See also Manu 9 12. The literal render8. This couplet is a little obscure^ ing is 'If women win a husband, etc.' Parimelalagar explains it to mean: If wives really rever: : :

The commentator explains by saying

'

ence their husbands', husbands.
p. 201.

i.e.

attain to

reverence

for

their

*

V.V.S. p. 14.

3

ibid. p. 54.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
' :

75

V.V.S. translates Behold the woman who hath begotten 1 a worthy son.' Beschi has If the wife really gains her husband by being 2 his true spouse,' which Dr. Pope also accepts. 9. Ellis renders Bold as a lion these dare never walk,
' : ' :

etc.'

3

10. Vemana, the Telugu poet, quoted by Dr. Pope, has the following couplet on the same theme
:

Is

wealth to wife or husband wealth

?

of sons on earth is best. 'Tis wealth of wealth to live and side

Wealth

by

side

grow

old.

4

Dr.

Pope suggests
5

Vasuki, Tiruvalluvar's wife,
chapter.

that the various legends concerning may have arisen from this

CHAPTER
This chapter
is

7

the merits that they acquire.' ' He the assembly of the learned.' in the second line refers to the son.' 8. Some render sons wiser than themselves.' 9. Parimelalagar says that the poet uses the word hearing because the mother is incapable of judging of her son's learning but this seems mere pedantry and somewhat far-fetched. It is the way of all mothers to rejoice when others praise their children. The poet simply shows here, as elsewhere, his knowledge of human nature, which
all
'

one of the most charming in the whole book and shows the poet in his most homely mood. 1. Parimelalagar makes this refer to sons alone, as he says you can never say of daughters that they have won knowledge/ 2. The seven births refer to birth into the world in seven different ways, namely gods, men, quadrupeds, birds, reptiles, fish, and things without motion. 3. V.V.S. translates the second line For they pass to 6
*
: ' ' :

'

:

him by
7.

their own acts The assembly is
'
:

*

*

'

'

;

remains very
1

much
a 8

the

same

to-day.
3

ibid. p. 16.

S.K.

p. 204.

ibid. p. 205.

4

ibid. p. 205.

ibid. p. 205.

V.V.S.

p. 18.

76

THE SACRED KURAL

10. Good sons are supposed to be the result of special penances and austerities.

CHAPTER 8
This is one of the finest chapters in the Kural and reveals the sterling character of the poet. 2. The commentator refers to the story of Sibi Chakravarti who gave up his flesh for the sake of the dove, pursued by the hunter. 3. The commentator says that this refers to the fruit of actions done in a former birth. 5. This refers especially to a life of love in the domestic state. It may be translated
:

They say
Is

the bliss of heaven the blessed have rooted in a loving life on earth.
'
:

6.

Parimelalagar explains this by saying
it

love

is

a help

to get rid of evil.'

Manakkudavar says
evil for
7.

is

a help in the sense of 'doing

one

we

love.'

sun's heat is supposed to scorch boneless insects. There are two versions of this couplet. The generally accepted one is that given in the text, but another reads eu<asruirfr&&<sssr O n hard rock,' instead of on barren sand.' Both give a vivid picture of futility.
8.
*

The

*

refers to means such as time, place, servants, wealth, etc., or as some interpret it the different members of the body.'
9.
'

'

Outward means

'

CHAPTER

9

By the word 'guest' here is meant 'the passing stranger.' Hospitality has always been regarded as one of the most important duties of the Indian householder. Guests include
wayfarers, mendicants and ascetics. 4. Lakshmi is the goddess of prosperity. 5. Making use of a hyperbole, the poet says that the very fields of a hospitable man will blossom into grain

without any endeavour on his part.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
6.

77

The coming

of one guest

upon another does not

worry him.
7.

The word
is

yajna,
8.

used for hospitality here, since
five great sacrifices.

velvi (<?^e0), the equivalent of the Sanskrit it is regarded as

one of the

The

result

of

lack

of

hospitality

is

the loss

of
is

wealth.
10. The anicham flower is a fabled flower which supposed to fade when one smells it.

CHAPTER 11
2.

A timely

help

is

in

Merlins Wisdom

is

of infinite value. Emerson's verse an appropriate commentary on this

:

The music

And
4.

that can deepest reach, cure all ill, is cordial speech.

and the palmyra nut are respectively the smallest and the biggest of seeds. 7. 5. See 9 8. See Vemana, the Telugu poet (5 514)
millet seed
:

The

:

:

Forget the faults of others
10.

:

But Vema, ne'er on earth forget a benefit conferred. 1

This stanza seems to be quoted in Purandnuru

34.

2

CHAPTER
The
Pope
'

12
Dr.

title of this
it

chapter
*

is

not easy to translate.

translates

as

Impartiality.'

The word

itself

means

middle attitude.' The commentator defines it as acting impartially to foes, neighbours and friends.' Loss and gain come from 5. The commentator says actions in previous births, and realizing this, the wise man is not influenced in his actions by thoughts of loss and
the
' *
:

not warped by such considerations. He acts justly, disregarding the consequences to himself. always 9. The word used here for fairness is seppam
gain.'

His mind

'

'

is

*

'

'

Tightness.'
1

S.K.p.215.

z

Seep.

7.

78

THE SACRED RURAL
realizes that the

The poet

mind

is

the final cause of

fairness in both speech

and

act.

CHAPTER 13
'

Self-control
'

is

defined as
'

the guarding of mind, body
hell as the place of dark-

and speech from evil ways.' Darkest night refers to 1.
ness.
5.

who
7.

Learning and wealth often lead to pride. So for men possess these, humility is of peculiar excellence. The alliteration of the Tamil here is very pleasing Yakavar ayimim nakakka kavakkal Sokappar sollilukkuppattu.
:
;

9.

The word

'

'

translated
scar.'

wound,' signifies

a

wound

that

always leaves a

CHAPTER 14
The Tamil word translated right conduct is olukkam The commentator defines it as 'decorous life (9(Zff*ii>).
according to the rules of caste and order.' V.V.S. translates, purity of conduct,' and Dr. Pope, decorum.' The dharma of India emphasizes duty and obligation rather than rights, and each several class of men has its respective duties and obligations. Right conduct is the fulfilling of these duties.
* '
' '

'

'

CHAPTER
The
'

15

of this chapter is Not coveting another's wife,' couplets scathingly rebuke the man who runs after his neighbour's wife.
title

and

its

CHAPTER 16
In this chapter Tiruvalluvar comes very close to the teaching of the Sermon on the Mount. 1. The picture of the earth bearing up its persecutors and actually giving them flowers and grain is a very
suggestive one. 2. The phrase
'

'

'

always,'

at all times

is

meant, says the

EXPLANATORY NOTES

79

commentator, to emphasize the need of forgiveness and forbearance, even when one can punish without fear of
reprisal.

The word translated overbearing means resentful,' those who are always anxious to punish. 7. Suffering on their behalf means suffering in compassion for the sorrow that comes to them as a result of
6.
*
'

'

'

c

*

the
8.

ill

they do.'
St. Paul's injunction

See

Romans

12

:

21.

CHAPTER 17
the goddess of prosperity, and her elder the goddess of adversity. sister, Mudevi, 9. The commentator explains that in both cases these are the results of actions in former lives.
7.
is

Lakshmi

1

is

CHAPTER 18
Chapter 18
is

on Not

'

coveting.'

CHAPTER 21
Fire produces both good but evil causes only evil, and therefore must be dreaded more than fire.' There is a play on words here. The Tamil word for evil deeds is tlyavai (&*JB>eu\ and for fire tlyinum (&A&u>).
2.
is

The thought
; '

'

as follows

:

and

evil

'

'

'

CHAPTER 22
The
title for this
*

chapter
'

is

Oppuravarithal (^ut/**^*)

which means knowledge of one's duty to the world.' The commentator defines it as knowing the way of the world and acting accordingly.' Dr. Pope translates: 'the knowledge of what is befitting a man's position.' V.V.S. has 'comence.'

plaisance 'and another translator uses the word 'benevolI think on the whole beneficence is as near as we
'
'

can
1.

get.

Here the word used
1

in the
vide 9

Tamil
:

is

different

from the

4.

80
title,

THE SACRED KURAL
'

The idea is duty.' give as the rain-clouds give. Marcus Aurelius expressed the same thought ought to do good to others as simply and naturally as a horse runs, or a bee makes honey, or a vine bears grapes.' 2. The general thought of this stanza is that property should be acquired with a view to beneficence. Another translation of the last line of this verse reads Is meant for doing good to worthy souls.' 5. Such a man gives to all according to their need and,
namely kadappadu (*-uu/r) O r
that

men must

'

:

We

'

:

though constantly giving, his wealth never
7.

fails.

idea is that leaves, flowers, fruits and every part of the tree gives healing balm without fail. This reminds one of the trees whose leaves are for the healing of the
'

The

nations.'

(Revelation 22
is

:

2.)
* :

10.

The commentator says

Ruin

that

comes from

beneficence

not ruin to that man.'

CHAPTER 23
of this chapter in the Tamil is simply Giving ; that is alms, or charity in the technical sense. 5. The might of asceticism is less than this might of
title

The

'

'

charity
8.

among those in the domestic state. The hard-eyed are those who have no
'
'

kindliness,

the hard-hearted.
is that the hoarding up of wealth for ends leads to more suffering to oneself than even begging, because one must eat in solitary state and without sharing with others. 10. It is better to die than to have to live without being

9.

The meaning

selfish

able to give to the needy.

CHAPTER 24
'

This chapter has

'

Praise

as

its

Fame
in the

that

comes from doing good
state.

subject, the Praise or to others, while living

domestic

EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTER 25

81

With Chapter 24, the first section on Domestic Virtue ends. The author now goes on to speak of the qualities of the ascetic state, and he begins with the distinctive virtue of kindliness or ahimsa, which is defined as love for all living things.' It is interesting that this kindly weaver-poet should put as first of the qualities necessary for the ascetic the spirit of kindliness. The word used for kindliness is arul (<*K5pr) or grace. This is the word used for the * Grace of God.' One is reminded of the hymn
* :

For the love

And

of God is broader than the measure of man's mind, the heart of the Eternal is most wonderfully kind.

1. Any man can acquire worldly wealth, but only the noble can acquire the wealth of gracious kindliness. 2. Parimelalagar observes that consideration has to be given by careful observation, by logical study of the results of actions, and by the study of the sacred books. By aid is meant 'help for obtaining heavenly bliss' or 'a good environment in the next birth.' The thought is All therefore obtain the religions alike insist upon kindliness virtue of kindliness by practising it in various ways.'
' ' *
:

;

8. Those who lack kindliness are utterly destitute, they can never have any true prosperity. Parimelalagar observes that this stanza is intended to supplement the previous stanza, to show that riches cannot bring real joy even in this

world.
9.

10.

Both things are impossible. The ascetic must use his might with

kindliness.

CHAPTER 26
Abstinence from flesh-eating
ascetic.
is

one of the duties of the

says that as flesh-eating involves killing, it is opposed to kindliness and so will not be indulged in by the man who has that grace. It is probable that Tiruvalluvar would apply this teaching to
all

The commentator

men.
10.

The Buddhists allowed
kill,

he did not
the

a man to eat flesh provided but Tiruvalluvar pictures a fearful fate for

man who

eats flesh,

even when others

kill.

7

82

THE SACRED KURAL
CHAPTER 27

Tapas is hard to translate by one English word. It means the deliberate courting of bodily suffering with a view to the purification of the soul and the winning of the power of merit.' This is one of the characteristics of the ascetic. His body must be disciplined so as to be inured to pain and privation.
*

1. Even here the poet emphasizes the need of kindliness and ahirhsa. 6. This stanza has been supposed to have special reference to the doctrine of the Glta on the subject of Better one's own dharma though destitute of svadharma. * merit, than the dharma of another.' The idea of the Kural, however, seems to be somewhat different from that of the Glta. This stanza may be translated
'

:

perform tapas only their duty do Others all, caught in desire, their own ruin work.
;

Who

CHAPTER 28
V.V.S. translates the
title

of this chapter as 'Imposture,'
'

which clearly brings out the meaning. Hypocrisy is also a good translation. 1. The five elements of which the body is composed matter, water, fire, breath and air are silent witnesses of the man's hypocrisy. 3. This is an example of one of the poet's pen-pictures, and of his pointed irony. Real asceticism gives power, but
a hypocritical asceticism has only the appearance of power. 6. Renunciation must begin within or it is of no value. must not judge by appearances but by deeds. 9. 10. The word here used for noble minds really means Dr. Pope points out that it the learned,' the excellent.' 2 the prudent man.' corresponds to Aristotle's phronimos

'

We

'

'

'

'

'

CHAPTER 29
2.
It
is

interesting to note the similarity here to the
1

E.G. 3

:

35.

2

S.K.

p. 237.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
teaching of Jesus in the 5 21-26).
:

83

Sermon on
for riches

the

Mount (Matthew

3.

The word

used

means
is

increases,'

and so the contrast of ruin

'that which emphasized by the

irony.

CHAPTER 30
The
lust
2.

to be a true ascetic.
ced,'

must have the quality of truthfulness if he is The two greatest causes of lying are and covetousness, both of which the ascetic has renounascetic
* '

says the commentator. Says Parimelalagar If the result of lying is to save a life from evil or death then the conditions of this stanza are The meaning of 'faultless good' is 'virtue/ fulfilled.' Dr. Pope says that St. Paul bases truth-speaking upon the fact that men are members of one another, while Tiruvallu1 var bases it upon the necessity of maintaining virtue. It is possible that the poet in this stanza meant simply that falsehood cannot produce faultless good and so must never be indulged in. The commentator lived in a later age when casuistry had found means of evading the hard and simple
:

duties.
'

3.

Says Dr. Pope
is
' :

:

Lie not in regard to that of which
2

thy mind
5.

conscious.'

It is easier to afflict the body and to Says Beschi 3 give alms than to guard oneself from every falsehood 8. By outward purity is meant bodily purity.' 9. Beschi translates: Non omnis splendor proprius est
'

'

'

'

sapientis splendor; proprius ejus splendor est in oris 4 integritate splendere. C'est la lumiere (d'une bouche) qui ne M. Ariel says
'
:

ment
10.

5

pas.'

Dr. Pope translates Of
all

:

good things we've scanned with studious care, There's nought that can with truthfulness compare. 8

_'.
2

p. 239.

8

ibid. p. 239.

4

ibid. p. 239. ibid. p. 239.

5 8

ibid. p. 339. ibid. p. 41.

84

THE SACRED RURAL
CHAPTER 31

The control of anger is one of the distinctive Indian virtues, and the sage and ascetic must be especially careful in this matter, because of the power of their anger. See also Kural 2 9 for this. 1. It is most important to restrain one's anger on occasions when it can make itself felt. 4. Ascetics have no outward foes, but uncontrolled anger will be their inner foe. 6. Wrath is pictured as a burning brand flung into the ship of friendship, sailing over the sea of life. Not only does it destroy the man himself, but also those friends who
:

could help him.

CHAPTER 32
creature

or refraining from causing pain to any living another distinctive quality emphasized by Indian ethics. During recent years Mahatma Gandhi has done much to give to this ideal a modern setting. 1. By glory-giving wealth is here meant the wealth of

Ahirhsa

is

'

'

the eight
'

siddhis
'

the magic-working

powers to which

ascetics attain.

By pure

is

meant those who are

purified

from
:

lust,
'

anger and ignorance. If 4. This reminds us of the injunction of St. Paul thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him to drink for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head. Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good/ (Romans 12 20, 21.) Dr. Pope quotes the saying of Buddha Enmity never comes to an end through enmity here below; it comes to * an end through non-enmity.'
;
:

'

:

CHAPTER 33
This chapter deals with non-killing or respect for life.' It forbids the sacrifice of any living creatures.
1
'

all

S.K.

p. 241.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTER 34

85

The impermanence of material things is one of the deep-seated convictions of Indian thought. The commentator says that it is only through the knowledge of the impermanence of earthly things that the soul can rid itself of the bond of earth and attain to freedom. 8. Some translate, 'The bird forsakes its nest or cage, etc.' Parimelalagar discusses the rendering 'nest' for kudambai (@-tiu) instead of shell as follows
' '

:

there are those who would explain kudambai as nest.' But as its origin is not contemporaneous with that of the bird, and as the bird goes into it again after leaving it, the reader will see that it cannot 1 symbolize the body.
'

Now

It is related that there wr as a dispute between Parimelalagar and Nachinarkkiniyar, as to whether the meaning here is cage or egg.' During the course of the quarrel, Nachinarkkiniyar asked what difference it could make to the meaning of the couplet, Parimelalagar replied that if the bird came out of the egg it could never get back, but the cage was always there.
'
'

'

CHAPTER 35
The preceding chapters are preparatory to this, and show the conditions under which true renunciation is possible. It includes the renunciation of both external and internal bonds. 1. V.V.S. translates: 'Whatsoever thing a man hath renounced, from the grief arising from that thing hath he
liberated himself.'
6.
2

This stanza explains the ultimate renunciation of
i.e.

ahankdra and mammatd,
10.

self-centredness and selfishness.

The

alliteration of this verse is

very telling
apparrai

:

Parruka parrarran parrinai Parruka parru vidarku.
'
:

;

Beschi quotes St. Augustine Crescente caritate decres3 cit cupiditas.' When love increases, greed decreases.
1

V.V.S. p. 43.

2

ibid. p. 73.

3

S.K.

p. 246.

86

THE SACRED RURAL
CHAPTER 36

Knowledge of the truth follows upon complete renunciation. Evil is due to mental confusion.
'

Darkness refers to the darkness that belongs to the round of birth and death. Bliss refers to the bliss of complete release, moksha or salvation. The vision pure is the vision of God, God-realization. 3. Doubts refer to confusion of mind resulting from sensory knowledge. Men who have realized the truth are already near to the attainment of salvation moksha. 4. To see God in all things and to realize Him in everything is the supreme wisdom.
2.
' ' ' ' *
'

'

8.

The

folly or

ignorance that leads to birth
'
:

is

the avidya

which looks upon the material world as real. 9. V.V.S. translates Behold the man who understandeth the means of his salvation and laboureth to conquer all attachments the ills that he is yet to suffer depart from
;

him.'

1

The Real Refuge is God, who upholds all things. The original makes it clear that the soul should live and walk
in utter

*

'

freedom from

all

other attachments.

CHAPTER 37
This chapter suggests that the poet had a close acquaintance with Buddhist lore. If thou must long for anything, 2. V.V.S. translates long for freedom from reincarnation and that freedom shall come to thee if thou long to conquer longing/ 2 3. Here refers to this life, and there to the life of heaven. So in both worlds desirelessness is the supreme
*
:

;

'

'

'

'

good.
4. In this couplet the word for heaven means 'purity.' The commentator explains that because heaven is free from ignorance and other ills, it is described by this word purity.'
' '

V.V.S. translates
5.

3

it

purity.'

they are not free from desire they cannot be said to be wholly free.
1

As

V.V.S.

p. 76.

a

ibid. p. 77.

3

ibid. p. 77.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTER 38

87

The last chapter ends the section on Ascetic Virtue. The next chapter begins a new section on the Dharma of
Property and Rule.

Karma

In between is placed this chapter on or Fate, which determines a man's career in this
'

world. Beschi calls this chapter, the irrefragibility of the divine 1 decrees/ The Tamil word ul means 'the ancient Thing,' and denotes the latent force of old deeds, which determines the conditions in this present life. 'There are 4. Pandit Vadivelu Chettiar translates: through Fate two different natures in the world hence the difference observable in men in their acquisition of wealth and in their attainment of knowledge; the deeds of a previous birth determine the characteristics of this birth.' Sir S. Radhakrishnan has recently, in his Hindu View of Life, given a different connotation to Karma. He says 'It supplies man with the material in the form of the past, but allows him the freedom to use the material in the light 2 of his knowledge.' 5. This stanza deals with the acquisition of wealth and the

()

;

:

tricks of

Karma in upsetting things. The words by Karma s
'
'

'

J

not found in the Tamil, but are supplied from the chapter heading in accordance with Indian convention. 10. Compare Kural 62 10, where Old Karma is said to give way before strenuous perseverance. This would bear out the idea of Sir S. Radhakrishnan. One is also
tricks' are
:

reminded of Shakespeare

:

There's a destiny that shapes our ends,

Rough-hew them how we
*

will.

What is translates this stanza than the destined effects of former works
Ellis
:

more powerful
?

It anticipates
3
it.'

even thy thoughts while considering how to avoid

1

S.K.

p. 248.

2

H.V.L.

p. 75.

8

S.K.

p. 249.

88

THE SACRED KURAL
PART
II

PROPERTY

Chapter 39 begins a new section, which deals with the duties connected with property, wealth, authority and rule. In Sanskrit this is known as Artlia, and the Artha Sastra of Chanakya is the standard Sanskrit work on the subject. Chanakya, Kautilya or Vishnugupta, as he is variously named, the Brahman minister of Chandragupta in the third century B.C., is regarded as the author of this work on Polity. This wr ork, and the sections in the Mahdbhdrata on the Dharma Sdstra are the original authorities for
political

theory in India.

As we have

already mentioned

in the Introduction, this section of the Kural shows clearly the author's knowledge of the Artha Sdstra. shall

We

explain
stanzas.

the

similarities

in

the

notes

on the

different

The section on Property is divided into three parts: Elements of a State, namely, Kingship, chapters 39-63 chapters 64-95 Appendix, chapters 96-108. While the first two parts are mainly concerned with the subjects indicated
;

;

in the

titles,

there

is

a great deal in

them

of quite general

application.

(anga) of the kingdom are given in The king (chapters 39-63) ministers (chapters 64-73) territory (chapter 74) forts (chapter 75) the treasury (chapter 76) the army (chapters 77, 78); allies (chapters 79-83). Then follow twelve chapters concerning the principles of rule and behaviour in special cases, many of which are as important for the subjects as for the king or his ministers. The Appendix has reference to general morality in the whole body politic and to the right use of wealth.
the

The seven Elements
same order as
;

in the ArtJia Sdstra.
;

;

;

;

CHAPTER 39
2. The characteristics enumerated in this stanza are appropriate not only to a king but to any man who seeks to make the best of life. 4. Dharma is the body of ethical truth which has been revealed in the sruti and the smriti, the code of conduct The Tamil fitting to each man in his special position.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
word

89

for this is aram ( jy/wi) which is used throughout the book, thus showing that the Tamils had their own code of ethics before the Aryans came with their distinctive culture. Adharma is the opposite of Dharma. 6. During the War, one of the Sikh soldiers, who was in England with his regiment and who had an opportunity at the time of the King's inspection of his regiment to talk to the King about his troubles, remarked, 'He is a good listener.' This is the highest praise that an Indian subject can give to his sovereign. The Hindu sovereigns always regarded an open audience to all who chose to come to

see them as part of their royal duty. The late Maharaja of Travancore set aside an hour every morning when any person of whatever position could present to him a petition and state his grievances. The Moslem sovereigns of India followed the same practice. The whole of this chapter is reminiscent of Manu Smriti, chapter 7. 9. The second line refers to 'the acceptance of the minister's advice even when it is unpleasant to him.' The

Tamil word rendered 'aegis' means which has always been a royal insignia

literally

'umbrella,'

in India.

CHAPTER 40
is applicable to all men and not only to the All the words used in connection with learning are pure Tamil words. Kalvi (*a>0) is study, kelvi (<?*cfl) is oral instruction, and arivu (-*yA') is knowledge or wisdom

This chapter

king.

which comes from study and oral
5.

instruction.
'

V.V.S. translates Though thou hast to humble thyself before the teacher, even as a beggar before a man of wealth, thou yet acquirest learning it is those that refuse to learn that are the lowest among 1 men.' Reverence for the guru or teacher is a cardinal trait of Indian life, however high the position of the pupil
is

This

a

difficult stanza.

:

:

may
6.

be.

India,

In the dry and sandy nallahs or river beds of South where water flows perhaps for only a few days in the
1

K.F.S.p.85.

90
year, a

THE SACRED KURAL

little digging will always find water below the sand. Villagers often dig small holes in the sand of such watercourses and draw their supplies of water from this source. The deeper they dig, the more constant is the flow of water and the purer its quality. 7. This reminds one of the ballad of Kapilar in the Purandnuru. Kapilar in tradition is said to be the foster-

brother of Tiruvalluvar.

To

all towns are one, all men are kin, good comes not from other's gift, nor ill 1 Man's pains and pain's relief are from within

us

Life's

;

!

CHAPTER 41
Dr. Pope paraphrases the second line If they only 2 could gain the grace of modest self-effacement.' 6. Brackish lands occur in many parts of India and are
3.
: '

usually quite unfit

for cultivation.

Modern

agricultural

methods however have been able to drain such land and
bring it into cultivation. Dr. Pope says They have the measurement of living
'
:

3

beings.'

CHAPTER 42
The usual method
oral,

of instruction in ancient India
'

was

from a guru or preceptor. Says the commentator Listening discourse on the sastras.'
:

to the learned as they
is

10.

The word used here

'

for

men

'

not the usual word,

but one indicative of contempt.

CHAPTER 43
This chapter deals with the wisdom that comes through
oral instruction
2. It is

and study.

Indian simile to compare the undisa restless monkey leaping from tree to tree. 3. This stanza gives an indication of the breadth and tolerance of our poet's mind.
ciplined

a

common

mind to

1

T.A.

vol. I, 6, p. 45.

2

S.K.

p. 252.

3

ibid. p. 253.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
8.

91

Dr. Pope happily translates
Folly meets fearful
ills

:

To
1

fear
'

when cause

with fearless heart ; of fear exists is wisdom's part.'

*

Fearful

ills

includes anything which produces evil.

CHAPTER 44
V.V.S. translates
2

this

chapter-heading, 'Eschewing of

faults.'

3. The millet seed is one of the smallest of Indian seeds, while the palmyra seed is one of the largest. 6. Parimelalagar writes If the king, without first correcting his own faults, corrects those of others, he himself commits a fault thereby.'
' :

The commentator explains

CHAPTER 45 The king who wishes to rule
' :

well and wisely will obtain the help of learned and noble men as ministers and spiritual guides.' 3. The idea of this stanza is abundantly illustrated by the experience of kings in all countries. 9. Dr. Pope translates the last line Who lacks support
'
:

of friends,

knows no

3

stability.'

CHAPTER 46
While this chapter has primary reference to the king, its wider application to all is clear. The word translated
in the text really means company and acquaintances,' and not friends of a more intimate kind. 2. V.V.S. translates: 'Water altereth and taketh the
1
'

'

'

*

friends

mind taketh
consorteth.'
4

character of the soil through which it floweth even so the the colour of the company with which it
:

This illustration

is

very vivid to those

who have

seen the

rivers in flood time.

1

S.K.

p. 63.

3
4

2

V.S.S. p. 63.

S.K. p. 65. V.V.S. p. 97.

92

THE SACRED RURAL
CHAPTER 48

Says the commentator: 'This refers to the careful survey of the four kinds of power, namely, the power of his own action, of his own strength, of the strength of the enemy and of the strength of the allies, both his own and the enemy's/ The first stanza of this chapter enumerates these four. 5. This is a happy way of putting the well-known 'Tis the last straw that breaks the camel's back. proverb
:

over-eagerness, combined with ignorance of his resources, the king comes to grief.
6.

By

CHAPTERS
enemy and emphasize
time and place
if

49, 50

These chapters are concerned with action against the
the necessity of the right choice of is to be gained. The similes employed are very apt, and show the poet's keen observation of men and things. The crow was evidently as common in his day as it is to-day in India.
victory

CHAPTER 51
selection of ministers and the reposing of confidence in those selected is one of the most important aspects of kingship. king's ability is more tested in this than in

The

A

anything else. 1, This stanza
I,

is certainly reminiscent of Artha Sdstra chapter 6, where these four tests of loyalty, or upadas, as they are called in Sanskrit, are given in a similar form. The first test consists in an endeavour to shake the loyalty of the man to his sovereign by suggesting that the sovereign is not ruling according to dharma and should therefore be

The second test consists in suggesting that deposed. another sovereign will reward his servants more generously and therefore the present king should be deposed. The third test is that of endeavouring to entangle him in the charms of fair ladies. The fourth test takes the form of an insidious suggestion that the king is about to order his death and that he should therefore strike first.

EXPLANATORY NOTES

93

All the other stanzas in this chapter are closely connected with chapter 4 of the Artha Sdstra, referring to the various objections raised in the choice of ministers. Says x
'

To any dispassionate reader Dr. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar the similarity of idea is quite clear, detail for detail, so that there is no reasonable doubt left that the author of the Kural had full knowledge of the Artha Sdstra and adopted several of its conclusions. It is to the credit of Tamil scholarship of an older age that this similarity had already been pointed out by a commentator who preceded Parimelalagar in this work.'
:

CHAPTER 52
This chapter deals with the selection and employment of
ministers.
'

3.

Love

'

'

'

refers to loyalty
'

;

clarity

means
'

mind and purpose desire to profit by

;

freedom from greed

is

clearness of lack of any

his position.

CHAPTER 53
This has as its subject/ Cherishing one's kindred.' This is a very important duty in India, particularly when one attains a position of wealth and influence, and helps to explain the nepotism which is sometimes found among officials in India.

CHAPTER 54
The
(

literal translation of

this title is

Unforgetfulness.'

Dr. Pope describes it as 'the absence of that giddiness or thoughtlessness which characterizes the state of mind of 2 worldly people.' The commentator explains Never to forget the duty of guarding oneself and the necessity of keeping off enemies especially in times of peace and prosperity.'
' :

1

Some
S.K.

Contributions of South India to Indian Culture, pp. 127,
p. 77.

128.
2

94
10.

THE SACRED KURAL
Dr. Pope translates 'Tis easy what thou hast in mind to If what thou hast in mind thy mind
:

gain,
retain.
1

CHAPTER 55
The title may be translated Rectitude of Rule,' or 2 The Uprightness of the Sceptre.' translates
' : '

as Ellis

6. Ellis translates: 'It is not the lance which giveth victory to a king, but his sceptre (the symbol of justice) if 3 it never deviate from right.'

CHAPTER 56
'
'

This chapter deals with
sceptre,' as the

'

Unjust rule

or

The crooked

Tamil

literally reads.

CHAPTER 57
concerned with harshness or terrorism, the sceptre,' as it is called in one of the stanzas.
is

This

'

cruel

CHAPTER 58
This chapter naturally follows on the previous chapter against harshness, and sets forth the positive quality of graciousness. The literal meaning of the Tamil word is the running of the eyes,' and it refers to the gracious glance of the king upon those who come to him with
' * '

petitions.

While this and the following chapter have especial reference to the king's actions, they have also a much wider application to all men in responsible positions. 1. The quality of graciousness is a natural quality for a true king. The poet pictures it as a beautiful maiden. 5. Dr. Pope translates
:

Benignity

is

Without

it

eyes' adorning grace eyes are wounds disfiguring face.
:

*

The Tamil word pun and kan.
1

'

for

sore

'

'

alliterates

with eye,' namely
4

S.K.

p. 77.

2

ibid. p. 266.

*

ibid. p. 266.

ibid. p. 81.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTER 59
This deals with the employment of spies closely the lines of the Artha Sastra.

95

and follows

CHAPTER 60
This and the following chapters show the strong and manly soul of this poet-weaver of Mayilapur, a man born and brought up in low estate, but able to reach to a height of nobility by the manliness of his character and the sanity
of his outlook.
1.

Dr.
'Tis

Pope

translates

:

energy gives men o'er that they own a true control 1 They nothing own who own not energy of soul.

;

This reminds one of Jesus' Parable of the Talents and the For unto everyone hid his talent in the earth. that hath shall be given, and he shall have abundance but from him that hath not, even that which he hath shall be taken away.' (Matthew 25 29.) 5. The lotus in the tank always floats on the surface, and its stalk adjusts itself to the depth of the water. This is another of our poet's delightful pen-pictures. Dr. Pope quotes Robinson's translation

man who

'

:

:

:

The The
10.
*

water's depth's the lily's length 2 height of man's his mental strength.
;

The commentator

defines

'firmness

of

soul'

as

enduring knowledge.'

CHAPTER 61
explains the title as the absence of sloth in regard to the doing of those things intended.' 1. The Tamil word (">"*) here translated 'gloomy,' means darkness or stain.' The commentator says it refers to the tamasa quality, which is said to be dark. The word dignity refers to the dignity of noble birth.'
'
'

The commentator

'

'

'

'

'

5.

The compound word
1

'

kdmakkalan
2

'

(*/ru>**>air)

ma y

SJf.

p. 83.

ibid. p. 271.

96
'

THE SACRED KURAL
' '

mean either delightful ship or delightful ornament.' Some commentators adopt one meaning and some another. 1
*
:

Beschi adopts the translation ornament.' V.V.S. translates the second line 'Are the cosy pleasure2 Here again there is a boats that are fated to perish.' difference of interpretation as regards the word kedunlrar (QcQiffri) which may mean either pertaining to the waters of destruction,' or 'whose fate is destruction.' The translation we have adopted retains the ambiguity of the original.
*

CHAPTER 62
most sturdy common sense. explained by the commentator signifying continually exerting oneself.' 1. Vadivelu Chettiar translates: 'Yield not to the " " This is too difficult to be done feebleness which says, labour will give the greatness of mind which is necessary
This
is

a chapter

full of

The

title

(^fl&sr)
'

is

;

to

do

it.'
'

Dr. Pope translates the second line 3 gives prevailing power.'
;

:

For strenuous

effort

7. The 'black-browed elder Sister' is Mudevi, the the Lotus-maiden is Lakshmi or goddess of misfortune Padma, said to have been born in a lotus, the goddess of prosperity, and regarded as the younger sister of Mudevi.

9.

Dr. Pope translates

:

Though Fate
Effort
its

divine should make your labour vain labour's sure reward will gain.*

;

The idea is that even though the force of Karma is all working against you, persistent effort will overcome this
opposition.
10. This verse should be compared with chapter 38 10, which the poet emphasizes the irresistible force of Karma. Even Karma has to give way before steady and persistent exertion. The story of Satyavan and Savitri is a good example of this. The persistence of Savitri conquered even Fate.
:

in

1

S.K.

p. 272.

2

V.V.S. p. 127.

3

S.K.

p. 56.

4

ibid. p. 87.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
4

97
in

To

see the back of

defeat.

One

is

reminded
I I

Karma is to see it retreating of W. E. Henley's couplet
:
;

'

am the master of my fate am the captain of my soul.

CHAPTER 63
the title as signifying, Refusal to be discouraged in spite of obstacles due to gods, bodily pain or lack of means.' Drew translates Against losing
' :

The commentator explains
1

*

energy in difficulty.' 1. This has quite a modern ring and reminds one of the favourite song of the British soldier
:

Pack up your troubles

in
!

your old kit-bag

And
2.

smile

!

smile
:

!

smile

Dr. Pope explains Troubles are imaginary 2 grasp them in thought, and they vanish.'
3.

'

:

try to

The Tamil

is

interesting

and we have

tried

to

reproduce here the multiplication of similar sounds.
Idumbaik kidumbai paduppar, idumbaik Kidumbai pada athavar.

The second line shows an instance of what is called uyiralapedai (Q-uSir^sirQueni-) O r vowel-elongation for the sake of metre, a common device in ancient Tamil poetry. 5. V.V.S. translates: 'Behold the man whose heart sinketh not even at a whole host of troubles arrayed against him; the obstacles in his path have themselves met with
an
obstacle.'
9.
3

Dr. Pope translates

:

Mid joys he yields not heart to joy's control, Mid sorrows, sorrow cannot touch his soul.4
idea behind this stanza is that of the supreme value detachment of mind, which accepts joy or grief without emotion as they come.
1

The

of

S.K.

p. 274.

'
4

V.V.S. p. 131.

2

ibid. p. 274.

S.K.

p. 88.

8

98

THE SACRED RURAL
CHAPTER 64

A single wheel can never move. Hence he shall employ ministers and hear their opinion.' The Chola administration in the Tamil land in the tenth century A.c. had a regular body of ministers to advise the king. 1. The means are two-fold money and men, or wealth and the army. The mode refers to the tactics and methods to be employed to overcome difficulties with the two-fold means this makes five things to be employed, as referred to
assistance.
' ' :
* '

sub-section is commenced here entitled 'The elements of the State.' The first of these is The ministry.' It was the custom in India for the king to rule through ministers appointed by him in different departments. Says the Artha Sdstra Sovereignty is only possible with

A

new

*

'

:

;

in the next stanza.
2.

Beschi translates:

'Together with the former

five

qualities the minister should excel in firmness of mind, in love towards his subjects, in practical knowledge of right 1 and in indefatigable diligence.'

CHAPTER 65
Beschi translates the title : Speech which has the power 2 of persuasion.' ' 9. Beschi neatly translates this : Asiatice loqui affectant, 3 qui pure et laconice loqui nesciunt.'
'

CHAPTER 66
every cherished thing includes, says the commentator, 'virtue, wealth and joy in this world and bliss in the world to come.' 10. Vadivelu Chettiar translates For a minister to protect his king with wealth obtained by foul means is like preserving a vessel of unbaked clay by filling it with water.' As everyone knows, the unbaked clay will be at once
' :

The phrase

'

'

dissolved by the action of the water.
1

S.K.

p. 275.

2

ibid. p. 276.

3

ibid. p. 276.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTER 67
'

99

The commentator explains the title as meaning that strength of mind which effects one's purpose.' 1. By 'nought else' the poet refers to the various
external powers of the king the army, forts, alliances, etc. 4. Dr. Pope compares this with the Sanskrit couplet in the Hitopadesa 3 107.
:

Paropadese pandityam sarvesham sukaram nrnam

:

Dharme sveyamanushthanam
is

kasyachit tu

mahatmanah.1
;

It is easy for only the great

'

all to

show

who can

their learning in instructing others follow out their own dharma.'
:

but

it

7.

Dr. Pope translates

Despise not men of modest bearing Look not at form, but what men are For some there live, high functions sharing, Like linen-pin of the mighty car.2
;
:

CHAPTERS 68-78
These chapters take up various subjects which are of importance from the point of view of the welfare of the State. Chapter 69 gives the qualifications of the ambassador or envoy; chapter 70 deals with the minister's conduct before the king; chapter 71 has as its subject the knowledge of a king's thoughts by noting his looks chapter 72, knowledge of the council chapter 73, self -confidence in the
; ;

council chapter 76, the acquisition of wealth ; chapter 77, the excellence of the army and chapter 78, military courhave only been able to include a few stanzas from age. these chapters though they contain much shrewd observation, in addition to a good deal of material common to all
; ;

We

works on

polity.

CHAPTERS 79-83
These chapters deal with friendship or alliances. They have primary application to the alliances of kings and
ministers, but many of the stanzas are of universal application to men in general.
1

S.K.

p. 278.

2

ibid. p. 93.

100
79
:

THE SACRED RURAL
'

6.

Ellis translates
*

:

dimpleth the face with smiles
heart rejoice.'

True friendship is not that which but that which makes the
;

This refers to the cloth worn by the ordinary man Tamil country which is just gathered around the waist and tucked in and which sometimes has a way of slipping down. Chapter 80 is on testing of fitness for friendship.' The title of chapter 81 may also be translated, Old and tried
79
:

8.

in the

*

*

friendship.'

82 4. This gives a good example of the conciseness of the couplets in the Kural. The original consists only of four compound words and three simple words. It may be literally translated as follows
: :

On-battlefield throws-and-leaves untrained-horse those-like Than-in-society-of solitude best.

Chapter 83

is

on False

'

friendship.'

CHAPTERS 84-95
These chapters take up various aspects of State polity in relation to different classes. We have only selected a few of the more important stanzas. Here again the general
application of

many
is

of the ideas will
'

Chapter 87

on the glory
;

of

be noticed. chapter 88 on enmity
' ; ; ;

the necessity of estimating the quality of the foe chapter 89 on internal foes chapter 92 on prostitutes chapter 94 on gambling and chapter 95 on medical treatment. The commentator suggests that chapters 88-94 point to those whose friendship should be shunned.
;

84

:

3.^ *

stanza.

The four despicable qualities are given in this Heedlessness is speaking or acting without con' ' '

sideration.'

Chapter 91 illustrates the power of the king's harem in the rule of a state. V.V.S. uses the term petticoat government.' The intrigues of the zenana are referred to. Babar's memoirs afford a good example of the evil of
drinking

among

kings and ministers.
1

S.K.

p. 291.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
:

101

93 1. Probably the Tamil word for liquor here, while technically confined to the fermented juice of the palm, is meant to cover all kinds of alcoholic liquor.

CHAPTER 96
This chapter begins a new section which deals with various questions that are connected with ethics in general and have also a special relation to property and kingship. Tiruvalluvar thinks a great deal of noble birth, but it is not noble birth in the sense of high caste of which he is thinking, but distinguished family. Ariel translates by noblesse.
either modesty or shame.' Here it is used for that sense of shame which is hurt by any evil deed or by failing to do a good one. It
2.
'

The Tamil word

(/rwii)

may mean

'

'

is

the French
3.

amour

propre.
'
:

Four are the attributes of a gentlea smiling face, a liberal hand, sweetness of speech, * and condescension.' He uses the word condescension in its good sense of
V.V.S. translates

man
'

'

'

never despising anyone, however mean.' always the wise say.'
'

'

They say means

'

CHAPTER 97
Honour, or Izzaty as
'

it is

called in

Northern India,

is

a

most precious possession to every Indian. It accounts for many Indian traits. Death is better than dishonour. The commentator explains the thought as 'Never degrading oneself and giving one's life, if degradation comes through
divine agency.' 9. The yak, the wild buffalo of the northern hills, whose glory is its magnificent tail, is said to pine away and die if it loses its tail. The commentator says Even the loss of one hair of its tail is enough to make it seek death rather than to live on in dishonour.' It is interesting to note how this conventional simile has found its way through Sanskrit to the Tamil lands, where the yak is never seen.
'
:

1

V.V.S.

p. 197.

102

THE SACRED RURAL
CHAPTER 98
title

The

of

the chapter

means 'greatness

of

mind or

character.'

Birth 2. This verse shows the poet's attitude to caste. in a particular group means nothing in itself. * Even as chastity in a woman, 4. V.V.S. translates greatness can be maintained only by being true to one's
:

own
8.

if.

'

i

self.

V.V.S. translates:
2

and modest; but
world.'

littleness

'Greatness vaunts

is

its

ever unpretending merits before the

CHAPTER 99
This noble chapter might be illustrated Says Dr. Pope by quotations from all quarters.' He translates the title as 3
:

'

1

Fulness of Excellence.' (Greek,
2.

teleiotes.)

that inward wealth of character is the important thing and all outward wealth, whether of bodily figure or of property, is of secondary importance. 7. This reminds one of the saying of Jesus For if ye
' :

The meaning is

love them that love you, what reward have ye 5 46.)
:

'

?

(Matthew

ter,

Age (yugam) succeeds age, each changing in characbut the perfected ones will never change even if the whole constitution of the world be changed. Such people are in their character the very crown of worth because it cannot go beyond that.
9.

CHAPTER 100
ling of unaffected

This is the crown of greatness a minglkindness with consummate tact. It harmonizes all things, while it is the result of a happy and harmonious combination of good qualities/ * Says Dr. Pope
:

'

;

1 1

V.V.S. p. 201.
ibid. p. 202.

* *

S.K. p. 311.
ibid. p. 312.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
9.

103

Dr. Pope translates To him who knows not how
:

Darkness in daytime broods o'er

to smile in kindly mirth, 1 all the vast and mighty earth.

CHAPTER 101
This is on 'Unprofitable wealth,' or 'Wealth without beneficence.' It satirizes the wealthy who never give.

CHAPTER 102

we

Dr. Pope suggests that the idea of this chapter is what 2 should call Conscience/ 1. The blush of bashfulness and the blush of conscience
'

are

two very

hedge or barrier of shame,' which the great ones refuse to step over in order to win the
6.

The poet speaks
'

different things. ' of the

world's prizes.

V.V.S. translates The worthy refuse to acquire even kingdoms save by means for which they will not have to
:

blush.'
1

3

This is a long way from the doctrine of the Artha Sdstra, that the plea of public interest is quite sufficient to justify
actions.'
'

immoral
10.
'

4

The Tamil has

a play on the words

*

shame (ndnam)
in English.

'

and string (nan} which cannot be brought out

CHAPTER 103
This chapter takes us back into the heart of Indian life, to the duty of every man to do all he can for his family. Family responsibility is a fundamental principle of Indian ethics and explains many things in Indian life which Westerners fail to understand. Some observers regret that to-day the Western ideal of individualism is breaking down this sense of family responsibility.
1 a 3 S.K. p. 136. V.V.S. p. 210. ibid. p. 314. See Ghosal, Hindu Political Theories, p. 150.

*

104
3.

THE SACRED KURAL
This
is

our poet's version of the old saying
'

:

Heaven

help themselves. The literal translation of the Tamil is God will gird up his loins,' i.e. fasten his cloth so as to proceed quickly. 6. The commentator points out that the epithet 'virtuous distinguishes this kind of manliness from the manliness shown in battle. The poet pities the uncomplaining pati9. Says V.V.S. x ence with which the good man bears every burden.' Dr. Pope translates
' *

helps those

who

:

:

The breadwinner must be content The labour we delight in physicks

to

bear the burthen]:
2

pain.

CHAPTER 104
Agriculture has always been the basic industry ot India and must always remain so. At least nine-tenths of the people of India depend on the work of the farmer. This chapter, as chapter 2 on Rain, shows the poet's realism. 1. As the plough is the symbol of agriculture, the sage uses ploughing as synonymous with farming. This stanza and those that follow suggest that the poet disputes the Brahmanical theory of Manu that the farmer is one of the

lower castes.
2. The linch-pin is one of the most important pieces of the bullock cart. It was the custom of thieves to take out the linch-pins from the axle and so bring the cart to the ground. The linch-pin holds the wheel in its place on the axle. Not much esteemed, but indispensable,' says Dr.
'

3

Pope.

This is an oft-quoted couplet. Tiruvalluvar knows from experience the needs of farming. One of the great problems of the Indian farmer, on which the Agricultural Departments have bestowed a great deal of time and attention, is that of manuring. The Indian farmer has old traditions of manuring the land. 9. The farmer's life in all countries is one of daily toil, and the work demands continual attention.
3.

8.

1

V.V.S.

p. 212.

2

S.K.

p. 315.

3

ibid. p. 316.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTERS 105-108
Chapter 105

105

has as its subject 'Poverty,' that close companion of the majority of India's people. Dr. Pope suggests that this chapter shows a very bitter experience 1 of poverty in the author's mind. 106 and 107 deal with Begging and The Chapters Fear of Begging.' India is the land of beggars, more than five millions of her people being beggars by profession. Tiruvalluvar does not look upon begging as an honourable occupation. The former chapter shows a certain sympathy with the beggar, when his condition is a result of difficulties over which he has no control, but chapter 107 condemns
'
'

'

begging wholesale. The idea of 107 2
:

is

expressed by Dr. Pope as follows
never made men
2

:

It

Brahma, the Creator, cannot be a part of
'

to

be beggars.

religion.

Chapter 108 is on Vileness,' the lowest life of all, the very opposite of all that has been pictured as the ideal
character.

108

:

3.

This of course

is ironical,

and

is

a very neat

example

of the poet's cutting irony.

PART
This
of

III
'

LOVE

last book deals with Passion,' the passionate love youth and maid, man and wife, and its joys and pains, both physical and spiritual. Says Dr. Pope These chapters 3 It may be called the Tamil Song are worthy of Theocritus.' of Solomon. There are here no vulgarity nor salacious details, though there is both frankness and charm. Chapters 109 to 115 deal with the passion of a youth and maid before their marriage, or as it is called the Gdndharva form of marriage, in which the two agree to go off into the jungle and live together without any ceremony. Chapters 116 to 133 treat of the life of husband and wife, including the pain of separation, the value of coyness and the pangs of jealousy.
' :

1

S.K.

p. 317.

8

ibid. p. 319.

8

ibid. p. 322,

9

106

THE SACRED RURAL
' :

It is an Eastern romance, not fully told, says but indicated in a number of beautiful verses, which 1 leave much to the imagination of the reader.' have just selected a few of the choicest stanzas for

As Dr. Pope

We

translation.

A

great

many

of the chapters are either soliloquies

by

one or both of the lovers, or dialogues between the two.

CHAPTERS 109-112
by the beauty
Chapter 109 describes 'the mental disturbance caused of the fair lady,' and it also describes her various charms. It is supposed to be the discourse of the lover either to his beloved or to her maid. Chapter 110 pictures in a charming way the various indications by which the lover comes to know that the lady returns his love. These stanzas also are supposed to be

by the lover to her maid or to a friend. Dark-eyed means stained with henna or some other Compare Shakespeare, Venus and Adonis : composition. For looks kill love and love by looks reviveth.' 10. Kambar's Ramayana in Tamil has a delightful illustration of this in connection with the first meeting of Sri Rama andSlta:
said
' '

1.

'

renbr8W(y
arssarsscflSaCT

QsereS
^euraj

QersS^asr

G

So stood that maiden of rare loveliness, And eye caught eye and each the other ate As quiet they stood, minds into one were fused The hero looked at her and Sita looked at him.
; ;

Chapter 111 is entitled Rejoicing in the loving embrace/ and Chapter 112 The praise of her beauty.' This chapter consists of hyperbolic couplets praising the beauty of the beloved. I have just selected two as good examples of
'

'

the style.
1

SJsf. p. 322.

3

Ramayana

1

:

11

:

36.

EXPLANATORY NOTES
CHAPTERS 113-115
It

107

must be remembered

that these chapters speak of

secret passion,
village
is

when there is no actual ceremony of marriage.

as all that happens in any Indian soon known far and wide. The lovers find that if they want to see much of each other, they must make known their love and have the proper ceremonies performed. In order to do this the lover is brought into the He village in the dead of night astride a palmyra stalk. bewails the separation from his bride, proclaims the union and defies all rivals. Then follows the regular ceremony. Chapter 114 particularly refers to this custom. Chapter 115 expresses the feelings of the bride and bridegroom when the village is full of the news.

So rumour gets busy,

CHAPTERS 116-133
These chapters are concerned with various aspects of the love bet\veen husband and wife. They refer to the married state and not to any clandestine attachment. Chapters 116 to 128 are connected with the separation of the two lovers and the longings and difficulties of separation. Chapter 129 suggests that the lovers are reunited. Chapter 130 suggests that there has been some misunderstanding between them. Chapters 131 to 133 speak in a very happy way about the kittenish playfulness of love and its resultant joy. The extreme delicacy of love in its Chapter 129 9. physical and mental aspects is emphasized today by both physiologists and psychologists. It is necessary therefore that a delicate refinement should prevail between the lovers.
:

Chapter 131. Bouderie is playful pouting.' The word is taken from the French translations and seems to express the original better than any English word. Our poet was a very human soul after all and knew life as it was, as well as how it should be. He treats of this whole subject with a charming delicacy.
'

*

bouderie'

APPENDICES

BIBLIOGRAPHY
TRANSLATIONS OF THE 'KURAL' AND BOOKS ON THE KURAL
'

1.

By FATHER CONSTANTIUS JOSEPHUS BESCHIUS (CONSTANTINO
JOSEPH BESCHI). Latin
Office Library to his edition.
;

translation of

Books

first

published by Dr. G. U.
1730.

I and II in India Pope as an appendix

About

2.

By

ELLIS. Published in Dr. Pope's Edition. portion only, with copious notes.
F.

W.

A
Two

small
vols.

3.

By Rev. W. H. DREW and RAMANUJA KAVERAYAR.

Madras, 1852. Sixty-three chapters only, including The Commentary of Parimelalagar.
4. 5.

By

T. M. SCOTT.
the Bibliotheque Nationale.

A French Edition in
M. ARIEL.
1767.

Referred to by

6.

By N.
1794.

E. KTNDERSLEY, in
J.

Specimens of Hindoo Literature.

7.

The Divine Pariah, by E.

ROBINSON.

8.
9.

By P. G. de DUMAST. Nancy, 1854. French. Portions only. By Dr. GRAUL. Leipzig, 1856. German and Latin. Probably
used Beschi.
Incomplete.

10. 11.

By M. LAMAERESSE.

Pondicherry, 1867.

French.

Complete.

Folk Songs of Southern India, by C. E. GOVER. Contains translations of a few chapters.

Madras, 1871.
Contains

12.

Tamil Wisdom, by E.

J.

ROBINSON.

London, 1873.

translations of twenty-four chapters.
13. 14.

Extracts from the Kural, by Rev. P. PERCIVAL.

15.

By M. ARIEL. French. Portions only. By Dr. J. LAZARUS. Madras, 1885. Tamil
renderings.

edition with English

16.

The Sacred Kurral, by Dr. G. U. POPE.
plete translation.

London, 1886.

Com-

17.

Le Livre de V Amour de Tirouvallouva, by G. DE BARRIGUE DE FONTAINIEU. Paris, 1889. French translation of Part III
only.

112
18.
'

THE SACRED RURAL
A Chapter from the Kural,' by J. M. NALLASWAMY PILLAI,
B.L. Vol.
'

B.A.

Translation and notes on chap, xxxvi, in Tamil Antiquary II, No. 1, pp. 73-82. Trichinopoly, 1913.

19.

The

Kural,'

quary, vol.
20.

A

Gem
1915.

by Dr. J. LAZARUS. A short article in Tamil AntiII, No. 1, pp. 52-72. Trichinopoly, 1913. for Each Day, by MRS. TLRUNAVUKKARASU. Madras,
Selected stanzas with English renderings.
,

21.

The Maxims of Tiruvalluvar by V. V.
1916. Complete.

S.

AIYAR.

Madras,

22.

Rev.

J. S.

M. HOOPER, M.A.

A

paper read before the Madras

Missionary Conference and printed in the College Magazine. April, 1918.
23.

Madras
Tamil

Christian

By K. VADIVELU CHETTIAR. Madras,
English renderings.

1919.

edition with

24.

Kural Nanuru by A. MATHAVAIYAR, B.A. Madras,

1925.

Four

25.

hundred selected stanzas with English translations. Thiruvalluvar, by S. SOMASUNDRA BHARATI. Madura, 1928. little pamphlet on the legends about the poet.
Critical Studies in the

A

26.

Kural, by PROF. M.

S.

PURNALINGAM

PILLAI, B.A. L.T. Bibliotheca, Munnirpallam, 1929.

TAMIL EDITIONS OF THE 'KURAL'
1.

ARUMTJGAM NAVALAR'S
mentary.

Nine

Edition, with editions to 1919.

PARIMELALAGAR'S Com-

2.

DR.
V.

J. LAZARUS' Edition. With PARIMELALAGAR'S tary and English rendering. Madras, 1885 and 1903.

Commen-

3.

SUNDARA MUTHALIYAR'S
phrase of each couplet.

Edition.

Text with short para-

Madras, 1893.

4.

K. VADIVELU
2 Vols.

CHETTIAR'S Edition, with PARIMELALAGAR'S Commentary and additional notes, and English rendering.
3rd edition.

Madras, 1919.
Edited

5.

MANAKKUDAVAR'S Commentary. NATTAR. Madras, 1925.
1924.

by K. PONNUSWAMI

6.

Saiva Siddhanta Publishing Company.

Text only. Tinnevelly.

7.

Tirukkural
corin.
I

Kumares a

In monthly parts, 1926-30. an illustration in the Venba metre.

Venba, by JAGAVIRAPANDYAN. TutiTo each couplet is attached

With copious

notes.

Parts

and

II

complete in 1931.

8.

Tirukkural Tlpalangaram, by K. S. V. LUTCHMIAMMANI. Marungapuri, 1928. A prose commentary on the whole book.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
"irukkural
<tpeu<yib

113

Mulamum

Teliporul

Vachanamum

(&*<SP

by M. R. ARUNACHALA KAVTRAYAR, VIDVAN, Madura Tamil Sangam. Tirupparankundram, 1930. Complete edition with prose version of each couplet.
Q0efluQur($er
evfsarfpib)

10.

Tirukkural Vachanam

($<SP* <*^) by TIRU GURUSARANALAYAM. Diamond Press, Madras, 1922. A prose version of the whole Kural in simple and elegant Tamil.
with Tamil meaning and English translation.

11.

Kural Ndnuru (<SP fir&r^) A. MATHAVAIYAR, B.A. Panchamitham Press, Madras, 1925. Four hundred selected stanzas

TAMIL COMMENTARIES ON THE 'KURAL'
Tradition has it that there were ten commentaries on the Kural in mediaeval times. Of these only two have hitherto been brought to light, those by Manakkudavar and Parimelalagar. The latter lived and taught at Kanchi, or Conjeeveram as it is now called, about 600 years ago. He was a Brahman scholar and his commentary has been the authoritative commentary on the Kural for the past six centuries. His style is almost as terse and vigorous as the original, and students of the Kural are greatly indebted to him for his clear and convincing exposition of the couplets. His criticisms of the various readings and meanings current in his day are incisive and dignified. The commentary of Manakkudavar has only recently come to light through the industry and research of Sriman K. Ponnuswami attar, and was published by him in 1925. In a number of places his text differs from that of Parimelalagar and he often adopts a different rendering of the same text. Some of these differences have been referred to in the notes. The edition of Manakkudavar often alters the order of the stanzas in the chapter. In this book the order of the edition of Parimelalagar

N

has been adopted throughout. The remaining commentaries are lost to us, though possibly some of them may be discovered one day, as that of Manakkudavar has been.

114

THE SACRED RURAL TAMIL BOOKS ON THE 'KURAL' AND AUTHOR
Tirukkural
Vlttinpal

ITS

1.

Essay on Tiruvalluvar, by T. CHELVAKESAVARAYA MUDALIAR, M.A. Thomson and Co., Madras, 1904.

2.

(#GT*P^
Madras, 1923.

Mi>.frur&)

by
S.

J.

M.

NALLASWAMI PILLAY.
3.

Tirukkural Vilakkam (%.*<* eSar&su) MANYA AIYAR. Alliance Co., Madras.
Tirukkural RASANAR.

by M.
S.

SUBRA-

4.

Nadagam

(#cy*<5p* *ru.io) Mylapore, 1923.

by M.

GOVINDA-

5.

Tiruvalluvar Nayanar (#GJ-*<S MURTHI PILLAY. 1926.

*<uf) by

N. KAPALA-

6.

Tiruvalluvar Nulnayam (#<y*-* ^so*^) by R. P. SETHUPILLAY, B.A., B.L. South India Saiva Siddhanta Publishing
Society, Tinnevelly, 1927.

7.

Valluvarum Mahalirum (suortsya/-^ &*&<$&) or Valluvar's Conception of Women, by T. P. MINAKSHISUNDRAM M.A., B.L.
Madras, 1930.

BOOKS ON THE HISTORY OF THE PERIOD AND DATE OF THE KURAL'
'

1.

The Commerce of India with Babylon.' By J. KENNEDY. Journal
.

2.

of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1898. pp. 241 ff The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago. By V. KANAKASABHABATHI PILLAY. Madras, 1904. An account of the life and
culture of the Tamil lands, culled from the literature of that age.

3.

Tamil

Account
4.

Literature. By SESHAGIRI SASTRI. Madras, 1904. of the history of Tamil literature to the twelfth century.

Tamilian Antiquary.
of

By

the

TAMILIAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL

5.

Articles on the early history by various authors. Ancient India. By DR. S. KRISHNASWAMY AIYANGAR, M.A. London, 1911. Essays on the early history of Southern India.

SOCIETY. Trichinopoly, 1911-14.
the Tamils,

6.

Tamil

By M. SRINTVASA AIYANGAR, M.A. Madras, Essays on the history of the Tamil people, and their language, religion and literature.
Studies.
1914. 1915.

7.

Tamil Ilakkiyam.

A

By

G. S.

DURAISWAMY PILLAY.

Calcutta,

history (in Tamil) of the literature of the

Sangham

period.
8.

Oxford History of India. By VINCENT A. SMITH,
1924.

C.I.E. Oxford,

BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.

115

Dravidian India. By T. R. SESHA IYENGAR, M.A. Madras, 1925. An account of the Tamils of the early ages drawn from literature and epigraphy.

10.

The Kaveri,

ARAVAMUDAN. Madras,
11. 12.

the Mankharis, and the 1925.

Sangham Age.

By

T. G.

Cambridge History of India. Vol. I. Cambridge, 1928. The Commerce between the Roman Empire and India. By E. H.

13.

WARMINGTON. Cambridge, 1928. Primer of Tamil Literature. Revised. By M.
PH.I.AY, B.A., L.T.

S.

PURNALINGAM

Tinnevelly, 1928.

14.

The Pandyan Kingdom.
London, 1929.
century.

By K. A. NELAKANTA SASTRI, M.A.
till

History from the earliest times

the sixteenth

15.

History of the Tamils. By P. T. SRINIVAS IYENGAR, M.A. Madras, 1929. From the earliest times to A.D. 600.

N.B.

The list of Tamil editions and books on the Kural is not claimed to be complete, but simply contains those which the writer has come across.

116

APPENDIX

SYSTEM OF TRANSLITERATION AND PRONUNCIATION OF TAMIL LETTERS
VOWELS
Tamil

TRANSLITERATION AND PRONUNCIATION

117

Tamil

118

THE SACRED KURAL
SANSKRIT WORDS

Sanskrit words, unless they have beome modified by long Tamil usage, are transliterated according to Sanskrit pronunciation, on the system used in other books in this series, the Sanskrit alphabet being represented as follows
:

3>

k
ch
t

^ kh
^ chh
3"

*T

g
j

3 gh
If

^".

^

5T

jh

of
&I

n n
n

th

eft q"p
q
JJ

qth ^ph

y
ri

Tr
.

^d ^b
:

^

d

$h

*rdh

^

n

fbh

Pfm

5Ts

^sh
rh

o?l ^fs
h

^"v

fh

INDEX
AGATT1YAM, "
Ahalya,
72.
5.

1

17 ARMING, 28, 104.
Fate, 25, 26, 57, 87. Flesh-eating, 25, 48, 81.

25, 50, 81, 82, 84. Aiyar, V.V.S., ix, x, 6, 27, 29. Alfred, King, 16. Anicham flower, 43, 77.

Ahimsa,

Ariel, M., 33. Artha, 22, 88.

QANDHARVA marriage, 105. Garland of Tiruvalluvar
18.

,

Artha Sastra,

God, names

15, 22, 26, 88, 92, 93, 95, 98, 103. Arugan, 69. Aryans, 4, 10, 14, 22, 25, 30, 32.

of, 70, 71. God, idea of, 70, 71. Golden Lily Tank, 18.

Greece and Greeks,

4, 5, 22.

Ascetic and Asceticism, 19, 25, 81,
82.

ASoka,

4.
St., 85.

HITOPADE$A, 1 L Hooper, Rev.
112.

22, 99.
J. S.

M,

29,

Augustine,

Awaiyar,

16.

Householder, picture
111.

of,

21

BESCHI, Bhagavad
Bhagavan,

FR. C.J.,

Glta, 69, 71, 82.

JDAIKKADAR, 19. Influence in Tamil
33.

country, 32,

69. Bhakti, 22, 69. Brahmans, 14, 72.

Brahui language, 4. Buddhists and Buddhism, 20,24,33,81,84,86.

J
4, 14, 16,

TAINISM and
69, 70, 72.

Jains, 14, 16, 20,

KAMA, 22. Kanakasabhabathi Pillay,12,
114.
15, 22,

pATTLE-RAIDING, ^ Chanakya, Kautilya,
26,' 88.

12.

Kanchi,

14, 15, 17.

Cholas, 4, 7, 11, 12, 14, 16. Christian ideas in the Kural, 20,
24, 71, 78, 84, 95. Culture in Tamil country, 12-15.

Kapilar, 11, 19, 90. Kari, 11.

Karikala Cholan, 15.
Karma,-.25, 52, 87.

Kaveripumpattinam, Puhar, 12. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar, Dr. S.,
3, 8, 93.

P\HARMA, *^ 23, 73, 82, Virtue, 88.
Dravidians, 3, 4, 10. Drew.W. H.,28, 111.

5,

7,

22

Kural,

date of, metre, 31, 32.

3

ff

;

Venba

*-

I

AKSHMI,
107.

43, 46, 76, 79.

'LELASINGAN,
1

16.

Love, furtive, 29, 64, 106, 107; married, 29, 65, 105,

Ellis,

F. W., 111.

120
1V1

THE SACRED RURAL
n,
Mahaballipuram,
is, is, 17. 14.

MADURA, 4,

CANGHAM, u Sannyasi,
73.

4, 17.

Sadhu,

23, 24, 72,

Mahabharata,

4, 22, 88.

Mahatma Gandhi,
Manakkudavar,

84. 112, 113.

Manava Dharma
73, 74, 89.

Sastra, 22.
22, 30,

Manimekhalai, 8. Manu and Manu Smriti,
Marcus Aurelius,
80.
16, 27.

Satranar, 18. Sera, 4, 11, 14. Sermon on the Mount, 78, 83. S*ibi Chakravarti, 76.
ilapt>ad_igaram, 8. Sittanavasal frescoes, 15.

Marshall, Sir John, 15.

Somas_undara Bharati
9, 10, 18, 115.

S., 8, 17.
6, 7,

Srinivas Aiyengar, P. T., 3,
Style of the

Mayilapur, 14, 15,

Moksha, 22, 86. Mus"iri, Cranganore, Mudevi, 79.

Kural,

20, 31, 32.

12.

'TAMILS, 1

4-6, 9-14, 32.
10, 11 ; Aca4, 17 ; litera;

MACHINARKKINAYAR, 85. 1 ^
Naladiyar, Nltisara, 22.
73.

Tamil poetry, demy, Sangham,

PADARTHAS, 1 PaUavas, 14, 16, 18.
22.

ture, 3, 5, 6, 11, 12, 14 in Greek, 5. Tapas, 48.

words

Thomas,
33.

St., 14, 16.

Tiruvalluvar,

Life,

15-20,

29,

Pandyas,

4, 11, 14, 17, 18.

Parimelalagar, 111, 112, 113. Paul, St. ,"79, 83, 84. Percival, Rev. P., 21, 111. Poets in Sangham era, 14. Politics in the Rural, 26, 27, 88,
92,98. Pope, Dr. G. U.,
23, 28, 111.
ix, 6, 15, 21, 22,
5, 6.

Tolkappiyam, 5, 6. Trade of_ South India, Trinadhumagni, 5.

4, 5.

JJ PADAS,

92.

Poruladigaram,
Prince, duties

CHETTIAR,
Valluyar, 15, 17. Varnas'rama, 10. VaSuki, 17, 75.

of, 27.

Puhar,

12.
7, 11, 14, 77, 90.

Purananuru,

** 87. Ramayana,
16.

DADHAKRISHNAN, SIR
4, 22,

Vemana,
S.,

75, 77.
5.

Vincent Smith,

106

;

Kambar's

(Tamfl) 106. Religion in Tamil country, 4, 14,

WOMANHOOD, Teaching on, **
29, 30.

Rome and Romans,

AK,
4, 5, 13.

61, 101.

Oa! LO;

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