Women in Police

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ASCI Journal of Management 42 (2): 38–51
Copyright © 2013 Administrative Staff College of India

GURPREET RANDHAWA* and KOMAL NARANG**

Women in Police: Employment Status and Challenges

Introduction
India is a federal, democratic and an active civil society of the world. The
Constitution of India embodies and reflects certain basic values, philosophy
and objectives. The values expressed in our Preamble are sovereignty, socialism,
secularism, democracy, republican character, justice, liberty, equality, fraternity,
human dignity, and unity and integrity of the nation (Mohapatra, 2011). In
addition to them, the Constitution promotes overall human development. The
goals of human development are closely associated with the development and
empowerment of women, who, according to the Census 2011, represent 48.46
per cent of the total population of India.1 Although, gender equality, justice and
non-discrimination to all citizens are assured by the Constitution of India, the
gender inequality index of India was 0.617 in 2011.2 Clearly, India has a long
way to go to realize the dream of gender equality (Sharma, Sharma and Kaushik,
2011).
The socio-economic development of women is very vital for the sustained
growth of a nation. The industrial revolution and the processes of liberalization
and globalization have changed the position of women in India. As a result,
women are actively participating in various economic activities, and
*

Assistant Professor, Dept. of Commerce and Business Management, Guru Nanak Dev
University, Amritsar (e-mail: [email protected]).
** Assistant Professor, Dept. of Commerce and Business Management, Khalsa College,
Amritsar (e-mail: [email protected]).
1

Provisional Population Totals, Paper 1 of 2011 India, Series 1, Data Products 2011–India,
Table 1, (New Delhi: Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, 2011). Available
online at: http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/prov_results_paper1_india.html and
http://censusindia.gov.in/2011-prov-results/data_files/india/table_1.pdf.

2

Human Development Report 2011, Human Development Statistical Annex. “Table 4: Gender
Inequality Index and Related Indicators”, p. 141. Available online at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/
media/HDR_2011_EN_Tables.pdf.

Randhawa and Narang

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39

simultaneously managing their family and work life. Their traditional role of
home-maker has been transformed into the new role of a professional woman.
In India, a number of women have successfully broken the glass ceiling and
attained top positions, like Mrs. Indira Gandhi (first female Prime Minister of
the country), Mrs. Pratibha Patil (first female President of the country), Ms.
Naina Lal Kidwai (first Indian woman to lead a foreign bank, HSBC), Ms.
Chanda Kochchar (first female MD and CEO of the country’s largest private
sector bank, ICICI), Ms. Kanchan C. Bhattachariya (first female DGP of
Uttaranchal state), Ms. Sonali Banerjee (first female merchant navy officer),
Ms. Kiran Bedi (first female IPS officer) and many more. Apart from these
examples, it is also important to remember the active role played by women
during our freedom struggle to gain Independence from British colonial rule.
Even so, women are often viewed as “the weaker sex”; and it is believed that
their characteristics are not suited to fit the requirements of certain jobs,
especially in male-dominated professions.
Policing is considered to be one of the most masculinized occupations of the
world. It has been described as one of the most “gendered” professions (Butler,
Winfree and Newbold, 2003), particularly agreeable to traditional male gender
characteristics; one where, it is believed, women have been slow to enter (Leger,
1997). Policing is a demanding job, which involves long and uncertain hours
of duty (Sahgal, 2007). However, over the past few decades, the police
workforce has grown much more diverse with regard to gender and race
(Sklansky, 2006). In India, while all the postings and ranks in the police are
common to both men and women,3 women are still under-represented in the
police force and are not assigned to field missions to the same extent as men.
Although numerous research studies have been conducted relating to different
aspects of women in the police—for instance, growth and development of
women in the police (Surender, 2010); their career aspirations, motivations
and gender discrimination (Sahgal, 2007); their job expectations and adjustments
(Pattanaik and Worley, 2011); their role in police and administration (George,
2011; Mahajan, 1982); and how they deal with domestic violence and disputes
(Natarajan, 2006)—there is hardly any study which focuses on their employment
status and the challenges faced by them in the police. Thus, the present paper is
an attempt to bridge this critical gap in research. The main objectives of the
study were as follows:
3

Available online at: www.bprd.nic.in.

40

ASCI Journal of Management 42 (2) March 2013

• To examine the employment status of women in the police.
• To study the challenges faced by women in the police.
Employment Status of Women in Police
According to a brochure on the status of women, “women do more than 67
percent of the total hours of work done in the world but they earn only 10
percent of the world’s income and own only 1 percent of the world’s property
(p.1).”4 In India, women are often referred to as the secondary earner in the
family. It is generally believed that unlike for men, a professional career is not
a must for women. Though the government claims to be doing a lot for the
upliftment and empowerment of women, data on women’s employment reveals
that there is a long way to go. Table 1 presents data pertaining to the male and
female workforce in India’s organized sector during the period 1991–2010.
Table 1: Employment Trends in the Male and Female
Workforce in India’s Organized Sector, 1991–2010
(Lakh persons as on 31 March each year)
Year

1991

Per
Cent

1995

Per
Cent

2000

Per
Cent

2005

Per
Cent

2010

Per
Cent

Men
229.52
Employed

85.86 232.97

84.64 230.37

82.39 214.42

81.04 228.49

79.59

Women
Employed

14.14

15.36

17.61

18.96

20.41

Total

37.81

42.28

49.23

50.16

267.33 100.00 275.25 100.00 279.60 100.00 264.58 100

58.59

287.08 100.00

Source: Economic Survey, 2011–12, Statistical Appendix, Table 3.1, p. A-52 (New Delhi:
Ministry of Finance, Govt. of India, 2011). Available online at: www.indiabudget.nic.in/es201112/estat1.pdf.

Table 1 shows that the share of women in the organized sector workforce has
increased from 14.14 per cent to 20.41 per cent, while the proportion of men
has decreased from 85.86 per cent to 79.59 per cent during 1991–2010.
According to the Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPRD, 2012:
13, Table 1.1), as on 1 January 2011, the actual strength of the women police
4

The Status of Women: A Reality Check; Facts on Inequality and Crimes Against Women
(Kolkata: Swayam, n.d.). Available online at: www.swayam.info/swayam_gi_leaflet_
31mar.pdf.

Randhawa and Narang

Women in Police

41

personnel in the actual total state police force was only 4.59 per cent. The ratio
of women personnel to men personnel works out to 1: 21. Table 2 presents data
pertaining to the male and female workforce in the Indian police during 1991–
2010.
Table 2: Employment Trends in Male and Female Personnel
in the Indian Police, 1991–2010
(As on 31 December each year)
Year

Men in
Police
Women in
Police
Total

1991

11,38,932
13,654

11,52,586

Per
Cent

1995

Per
Cent

98.82 12,34,996 98.72
1.18

2000

12,76,075

16,014

1.28

20,688

100 12,51,010

100

12,96,763

Per
Cent

2005

Per
Cent

2010

Per
Cent

98.40 12,99,339 96.76 15,07,659 95.40
1.60

43,519

100 13,42,858

3.24

72,652

4.59

100 15,80,311 100.00

Source: Data compiled from the relevant chapters on police strength in the annual Crime in
India Statistics reports issued by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), Ministry of
Home Affairs, Govt. of India, during 1991–2010.

Table 2 shows that the proportion of women in the Indian police has increased
from 1.18 per cent in 1991 to 4.59 per cent in 2010, which is a very insignificant
increase. Table 3 shows the growth of the Indian police force along with the
growth of the women police force during 2001–2010. It can be seen that only
in the years 2002 and 2009, the growth of women in the Indian police was
quite satisfactory, i.e., 39.22 per cent and 25.10 per cent, respectively; while
during 2005 and 2008, there was negative growth.
A number of states in India (for instance, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand,
Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Punjab) have established all-women
police stations (AWPS), which are managed and run exclusively by women
police personnel. This is because women generally feel more comfortable about
approaching police stations manned by women, rather than regular police
stations, especially for women-related problems—like dowry harassment,
sexual harassment, assault, bigamy, eve-teasing and violation of protection
orders under the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.
According to BPRD (2012: 27–35, Table 2.6), as of 1 January 2011, 442 women
police stations in the country were exclusively run and managed by women
police personnel. Table 4 indicates the increase in the number of women police

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ASCI Journal of Management 42 (2) March 2013

stations in India during 2005–2011. It shows that a total of 144 new women
police stations were opened during this period.
Table 3: Growth of Indian Police Force and Women in Indian Police, 2001–2010
Year

No. of Police Personnel

No. of Women Police
Personnel

Proportion of Women
Police Personnel
(Per Cent)

2001

13,08,010

23,889

1.83

2002

13,08,971
(0.07)

33,259
(39.22)

2.54

2003

13,11,516
(0.19)

39,387
(18.42)

3.00

2004

13,37,183
(1.95)

45,016
(14.29)

3.36

2005

13,42,858
(0.42)

43,519
(-3.32)

3.24

2006

14,06,021
(4.70)

51,464
(18.25)

3.66

2007

14,25,181
(1.34)

56,286
(9.36)

3.94

2008

14,73,595
(3.39)

52,322
(-7.04)

3.55

2009

15,57,497
(5.69)

65,456
(25.10)

4.20

2010

15,80,311
(1.46)

72,652
(10.99)

4.59

Source: Data compiled from the relevant chapters on police strength in the annual Crime in
India Statistics reports issued by the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), Ministry of
Home Affairs, Govt. of India, during 2001–2010.
Note: Figures within parentheses indicate the growth rate in per cent.

Randhawa and Narang

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43

Table 4: Women Police Stations in India
(As on 1 January each year)
Year

No. of Women Police Stations

2005

298

2006

326

2007

328

2008

330

2009

342

2010

397

2011

442

Source: Annual reports on Data on Police
Organizations in India published by BPRD,
Ministry of Home Affairs, GoI. Years consulted:
2006 to 2012.

Major Challenges Faced by Women in the Police Profession
Discussed in the sections below are the major challenges faced by women
employees in the Indian police:
Challenges Within the Police Profession
Gender Discrimination
Gender-based work differences are perceived to be much greater in maledominated professions like the police and the armed forces than in traditionally
female-dominated vocations like teaching and nursing (Sahgal, 2007).
Masculinized occupations are more valued by society, and men in such
occupations are rewarded and paid more compared to their female counterparts
(Niland, 1996). Policing is one of the most masculinized occupations in the
world, where women face a number of discriminations and hardships because
of their gender. They are generally not given important roles, nor the opportunity
to handle critical jobs, depriving them from earning recognition and sharing
power (Sahgal, 2007). Women are not positioned on mainstream police tasks.
Often, they are placed as either a telephone operator or a typist in the department,
or given the job of escorting women prisoners, or investigating minor offences

44

ASCI Journal of Management 42 (2) March 2013

against women and children; sometimes, they are even asked to cook in the
police mess. Further, women police personnel are also discriminated against
while sanctioning different incentives. However, the reality is that most women
in the police (except those who want to escape from hardships) want to be
treated at par with their male counterparts so that they get a fair opportunity to
prove their worth. Women police personnel demand the same selection criteria,
training standards, incentives and work schedules as those applicable to their
male counterparts.
Sexual Harassment and Organizational In-Civility
Sexual harassment and organizational in-civility affect the dignity and
performance of women personnel in any profession. Sexual harassment
introduces stress. The cost of stress for employees are mainly physical and
psychological illnesses, including depression and job dis-satisfaction; while
the costs for employers are mainly absenteeism, job attrition and deterioration
in productivity (Gohlipour et al., 2011). The degree of sexual harassment at the
workplace has reached alarming proportions (Steph, 2006). Even in the police
department, women employees are not safe. For example, on 14 January 2011,
a head constable in a police training school in Kohlapur sexually molested a
trainee women constable during a training session.5
Prejudices and Biases of Male Police Personnel
The capabilities and abilities of women in the police have not been recognized
by their male counterparts. Women employees are not accepted as full
professional colleagues by their male co-workers. Although policewomen are
expected to perform tasks and roles similar to those of policemen, there are
differences in terms of the women’s motivation levels as well as the negative
attitudes of their male counterparts and decision-makers (Sahgal, 2007). Male
police personnel usually fail to appreciate their counterparts because they have
a number of misconceptions about the capabilities of women in the police. It is
believed that women lack the physical strength, stamina, height and weight to
deal with thugs and brawls (Niland, 1996). Even where women are wellqualified and experienced, the predominance of males has resulted in a culture
where male behaviour patterns are perceived to be the norm, and women often
find it difficult to be accepted as equals by their male colleagues (Steph, 2006).
5

Available online at: http:://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report_sexual-harrassment-scandalrocks-kohlapur-cops_1536568.

Randhawa and Narang

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Male police personnel believe that women in the police should be given only
specific tasks relating to women and children; they should be given the task of
cooking in the police mess; they should escort only female prisoners; and they
should not be engaged in operations against militants. In short, the male
workforce still believes that there is no need to integrate women employees
into mainstream policing.
Role Ambiguity and Role Conflicts
With the increase in the number of women in the police, issues like role conflicts
or multiple roles and role ambiguity have got aggravated. Role ambiguity and
multiple roles result in increased stress (Jacobs and Schain, 2009). Most women
in the police are confused about the way they should conduct themselves. If
they behave lady-like, their acceptance amongst male colleagues is low. On
the other hand, their active participation in casual repartees carries the danger
of losing their colleagues’ respect (Suman, 2010). There is evidence of both
inter-role and intra-role conflicts occurring among women who join the police
force. Policewomen underachieve as patrol officers, often falling into cycles
of de-motivation and failure. They accept stereotypical roles, display low work
commitment and seek non-patrol assignments (Christie, 1996).
Corruption
Although corruption in the police department is not a new phenomenon, the
irony is that the issue has seldom been seized by the organization with a sense
of seriousness. It is often found that the general working environment, poor
salaries and the lack of financial incentives force public servants to adopt corrupt
practices to make both ends meet (Thomas, 2003). It is corruption that is
increasingly eating into the vitals of police professionalism (Samanta, 2003).
Thus, it is a huge challenge for women police personnel to work with full
honesty and dignity in a corrupted and compromised environment.
Inadequate Strength (Tokenism)
Policewomen emerge as tokens in a male-dominated occupation (Christie, 1996)
notwithstanding the fact that their representation in the police department is
very necessary for addressing gender-related issues on a priority basis and
ensuring support to women victims of violence as well as protecting their rights.
Rosabeth Kanter’s theory of tokenism, delineated in her seminal work Men
and Women of the Corporation (1977), argues that once tokens reach a tipping
point of 15 per cent representation in the workplace, they begin to experience

46

ASCI Journal of Management 42 (2) March 2013

fewer workplace problems; otherwise, the members of a token group are likely
to have negative experiences at the workplace as a result of their low numerical
representation (see also Stichman, Hasselland and Archbold, 2010). Krimmel
and Gormley (2003) found that female officers working in police agencies
with less than 15 per cent representation in their department reported that they
would take up a new job, were less satisfied with their job, would not recommend
a career in law enforcement to a friend, would not do the job again if given the
choice, felt tired, and felt that their jobs were less important than did female
officers working in police agencies where there was a higher proportion of
female officers (more than 15 per cent). In India, women in the police have
consistently been under-represented. In 2001, the share of women in the police
was only 1.83 per cent, increasing to merely 4.59 per cent in 2010 (see Table
3).
Problems of Co-ordination
Historically, women’s abilities have always been underestimated; they have
been confined to certain roles and responsibilities, and have been prohibited
from full participation in a host of fields (Hipp and Rizo, 2010). Although they
have been present in the law enforcement profession, they are often placed in
the women’s cell or the suvidha centre (citizen-government interface), denying
them full equality with their male counterparts. Even when women have been
given full policing powers, they have not able to completely utilize these powers.
This creates problems of co-ordination both among women personnel and
between the women police personnel and their male counterparts.
Challenges Posed by Women’s Personality Traits
Difference in Leadership Style
Most studies on leadership have found that there are differences between men
and women in the way they lead. As expected, within the police organization,
women are under-represented at the leadership level (Osterlind and Haake,
2010). Leadership is a major factor which pose a challenge to women in the
police (Steph, 2006). Women are perceived to be more people-oriented because
of their socialization; they are meant to exhibit more democratic, participative,
holistic and interactive styles of leadership, while men are thought to be more
task-oriented (Jacobs and Schain, 2009). Women tend to focus more on good
relations, open communication, dialogue and group dynamics. It is believed
that the people-oriented leadership style of women is less likely to inspire

Randhawa and Narang

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47

productivity among police personnel. Women, in all civil societies of the world,
are regarded as nurturers and peace-makers who resolve conflicts before they
become major issues. These characteristics are considered as soft and ineffective
and tagged as “feminine” style of leadership (Osterlind and Haake, 2010). In
the policing profession, situations commonly arise when an autocratic leadership
style is absolutely essential.
Low Acceptance and Poor Comfort Level
Women in the police have not been fully accepted by their male counterparts.
Many men in the police service are not comfortable with women colleagues or
subordinates; show a tendency to not recruit women as colleagues or
subordinates; and do not take women’s opinions and ideas seriously (Sahgal,
2007). Most women police personnel feel that their presence amongst their
male counterparts tends to make the environment ‘formal and stiff’. The mutual
comfort level between men and women colleagues in the police is very low
(Suman, 2010).
Lack of Job Satisfaction
A satisfied workforce is a critical component to an organization’s ability to
provide services both effectively and efficiently. There are various reasons for
women joining the police. Among them, job security, responsibility, respect
and recognition, promotion opportunities and pay are the most common factors.
However, most women in the police are not satisfied with their promotion
opportunities and working conditions (Sahgal, 2007; Grogan, 2008). Thus, it
is understandable that women police personnel who are less satisfied with their
jobs will be less motivated to perform the necessary tasks, have lower
productivity, more absences and higher turn-over intentions.
Challenges Outside the Workplace
Balancing Career and Family Life
The twin demands of career and family affect both men and women, but it is
the women who most often carry the major responsibilities within the home
(Bush and Middlewood, 1997; cited in Steph, 2006). With women playing the
“dual roles” of managing home and career, they face greater challenges in
striving for balance between their duties at home and the responsibilities at
work (Washington, 2011). Policing being a multi-faceted profession, striking a
proper balance between work and family responsibilities is one of the biggest

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ASCI Journal of Management 42 (2) March 2013

challenges for women in the police. They sometimes have to reduce their time
at the workplace. As a result, men often have an edge over their female
counterparts in advancing at the workplace (ibid.). On the other hand, if women
attain top positions in their departments, they are under more stress than men
because of their dual roles.
Technological Advancement
The rapid advances in science and technology during the last 50 years have
introduced far-reaching changes in all spheres of life, including how people
live and work, better access to the media and the latest technologies, and
significantly higher educational levels that afford greater work opportunities.
All these changes have re-defined the workplace for women in general as well
as in the police. The advances in science and technology have placed superior
tools not only in the hands of police personnel but also in the hands of criminals,
who consequently become more lethal, more precise and more difficult to catch
(Samanta, 2003). Women police personnel who have been appointed on a
priority basis and are not highly educated or qualified find it difficult to adapt
to the latest technological advancements in their field.
Conclusions and Suggestions
Women in the police are under-utilized and under-employed. In 2010, the
proportion of women in the organized sector of India was 20.41 per cent, while
the proportion of women in the total police force was only 4.59 per cent. Gender
discrimination is a major reason for this under-utilization. Gender differences
should not be used to justify negative discrimination or to discourage women
from effectively contributing to the organization (Sahgal, 2007). Moreover,
women’s lack of awareness of their genuine rights, their acquiescence in the
bullying tactics at the workplace, and conformity to the traditional roles defined
by society have kept them in a passive position (Gohlipour et al., 2011). Men
and women have different personality traits and behaviour patterns. If these
differences are managed with proper understanding and care, they are helpful
in creating an excellent work environment within the police organization.
However, both the lack of sensitivity and over-sensitivity of the government
and the male police personnel have made women in the police psychologically
weak. The government should formulate and strictly implement policies that
guarantee genuine equality between the male and female workforce in the police
departments. Various training programmes, seminars, courses and workshops
should be organized by the authorities concerned to change the attitude of the

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male police personnel and society at large. Women in the police should also
recognize their endurance, strength and capabilities to handle tough situations
in an effective way.
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